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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:56:34 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:56:34 -0700 |
| commit | 8135cfd78a66eba97ba8bf449c0c9f75f6f2a2af (patch) | |
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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 6 + "Cockaigne" to "Columbus, Christopher" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 1, 2010 [EBook #31855] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 6 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VI SLICE VI<br /><br /> +Cockaigne to Columbus, Christopher</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 180%;">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">COCKAIGNE, LAND OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">COLEPEPER, JOHN COLEPEPER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">COCKATOO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">COLERAINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">COCKATRICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">COLERIDGE, HARTLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">COCKBURN, ALICIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">COLERIDGE, SARA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">COCKER, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">COLET, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">COLET, LOUISE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">COCKERILL, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">COLEUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">COCKERMOUTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">COLFAX, SCHUYLER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">COCK-FIGHTING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">COLIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">COCK LANE GHOST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">COLIGNY, GASPARD DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">COCKLE, SIR JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">COLIMA</a> (coast state of Mexico)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">COCKLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">COLIMA</a> (city of Mexico)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">COCKNEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">COLIN, ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">COCK-OF-THE-ROCK</a> (bird)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">COLL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">COCK-OF-THE-ROCK</a> (enclosed place)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">COLLAERT, HANS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">COCKROACH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">COLLAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">COCK’S-COMB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">COLLATERAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">COCKTON, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">COLLATIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">COCKX, HIERONYMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">COLLATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">COCOA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">COLLÉ, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">COCO DE MER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">COLLECTIVISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">COCOMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">COLLECTOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">COCO-NUT PALM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">COLLE DI VAL D’ ELSA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">COCYTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">COLLEGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">COD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CODA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">COLLETER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CODE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">COLLETTA, PIETRO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CODE NAPOLÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">COLLEY, SIR GEORGE POMEROY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CODIAEUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">COLLIER, ARTHUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CODICIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">COLLIER, JEREMY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CODILLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CODINUS, GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">COD-LIVER OIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">COLLIN D’HARLEVILLE, JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">COLLING, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CODRUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">COLLINGWOOD</a> (city of Australia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">COLLINGWOOD</a> (town of Canada)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CO-EDUCATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">COLLINS, ANTHONY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">COEFFETEAU, NICOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">COEHOORN, MENNO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">COLLINS, MORTIMER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">COELENTERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">COLLINS, WILLIAM</a> (English poet)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">COELLO, ALONSO SANCHEZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">COLLINS, WILLIAM</a> (English painter)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">COELLO, ANTONIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">COLLODION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">COEN, JAN PIETERSZOON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">COLLOT D’HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">COENACULUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">COLLUSION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CŒNWULF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">COLLYER, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">COERCION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">COLMAN, SAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CŒUR, JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">COLMAN, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CŒUR D’ALÊNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">COLMAN, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">COFFEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">COLMAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">COFFER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">COLNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">COFFERDAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">COLOCYNTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">COFFEYVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">COLOGNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">COFFIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">COLOMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">COG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">COGERS HALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">COLOMBES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">COGHLAN, CHARLES FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">COLOMBEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">COGNAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">COLOMBIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">COGNITION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">COLOMBIER, PIERRE BERTRAND DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">COGNIZANCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">COLOMBO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">COHEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">COLON</a> (city of Panama)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">COLON</a> (town of Cuba)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">COHN, GUSTAV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">COLON</a> (intestine)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">COHOES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">COLONEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">COHORT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">COLONIAL OFFICE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">COIF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">COLONNA</a> (Roman family)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">COIMBATORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">COIMBRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">COLONNA, VITTORIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">COÍN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">COLONNADE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">COIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">COLONSAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">COINAGE OFFENCES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">COLONY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">COIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">COLOPHON</a> (ancient city of Ionia)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">COIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">COLOPHON</a> (paragraph in manuscripts)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">COKE, SIR EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">COLORADO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">COKE, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">COLORADO RIVER</a> (stream of Argentine)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">COKE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">COLORADO RIVER</a> (stream of U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">COKE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">COLORADO SPRINGS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">COL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">COLOSSAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">COLOSSAL CAVERN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">COLBERT DE CROISSY, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">COLBURN, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">COLOSSUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">COLBURN, ZERAH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">COLOUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">COLBY, THOMAS FREDERICK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">COLOURS, MILITARY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">COLCHAGUA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">COLOUR-SERGEANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">COLOURS OF ANIMALS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">COLCHESTER</a> (town of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">COLSTON, EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">COLCHESTER</a> (township of Vermont)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">COLT, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">COLCHICUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">COLT’S-FOOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">COLCHIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">COLUGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">COLCOTHAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">COLUMBA, SAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">COLD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">COLUMBAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">COLDEN, CADWALLADER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">COLUMBANI, PLACIDO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">COLD HARBOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">COLUMBARIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">COLDSTREAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">COLUMBIA</a> (city of Missouri)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">COLDWATER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">COLUMBIA</a> (borough of Pennsylvania)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">COLE, SIR HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">COLUMBIA</a> (city of South Carolina)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">COLE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">COLUMBIA</a> (city of Tennessee)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">COLE, TIMOTHY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">COLUMBIA RIVER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">COLE, VICAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">COLUMBINE</a> (dancer)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">COLEMANITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">COLUMBINE</a> (plant)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">COLUMBITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">COLENSO</a> (village of Natal)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">COLUMBIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">COLEOPTERA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER</a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">COCKAIGNE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Cockayne</span>), <span class="bold">LAND OF</span> (O. Fr. <i>Coquaigne</i>, mod. +Fr. <i>cocagne</i>, “abundance,” from Ital. <i>Cocagna</i>; “as we say +‘Lubberland,’ the epicure’s or glutton’s home, the land of all +delights, so taken in mockerie”: Florio), an imaginary country, +a medieval Utopia where life was a continual round of luxurious +idleness. The origin of the Italian word has been much disputed. +It seems safest to connect it, as do Grimm and Littré, ultimately +with Lat. <i>coquere</i>, through a word meaning “cake,” the literal +sense thus being “The Land of Cakes.” In Cockaigne the +rivers were of wine, the houses were built of cake and barley-sugar, +the streets were paved with pastry, and the shops supplied +goods for nothing. Roast geese and fowls wandered about +inviting folks to eat them, and buttered larks fell from the skies +like manna. There is a 13th-century French <i>fabliau</i>, <i>Cocaigne</i>, +which was possibly intended to ridicule the fable of the mythical +Avalon, “the island of the Blest.” The 13th-century English +poem, <i>The Land of Cockaygne</i>, is a satire on monastic life. The +term has been humorously applied to London, and by Boileau +to the Paris of the rich. The word has been frequently confused +with Cockney (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See D. M. Méon, <i>Fabliaux et contes</i> (4 vols., 1808), and F. J. +Furnivall, <i>Early English Poems</i> (Berlin, 1862).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKATOO<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (<i>Cacatuidae</i>), a family of parrots characterized +among Old World forms by their usually greater size, by the crest +of feathers on the head, which can be raised or depressed at will, +and by the absence of green in their coloration. They inhabit +the Indian Archipelago, New Guinea and Australia, and are +gregarious, frequenting woods and feeding on seeds, fruits and +the larvae of insects. Their note is generally harsh and unmusical, +and although they are readily tamed when taken young, +becoming familiar, and in some species showing remarkable +intelligence, their powers of vocal imitation are usually limited. +Of the true cockatoos (<i>Cacatua</i>) the best known is the sulphur-crested +cockatoo (<i>Cacatua galerita</i>), of a pure white plumage with +the exception of the crest, which is deep sulphur yellow, and of +the ear and tail coverts, which are slightly tinged with yellow. +The crest when erect stands 5 in. high. These birds are found +in Australia in flocks varying from 100 to 1000 in number, and +do great damage to newly-sown grain, for which reason they are +mercilessly destroyed by farmers. They deposit their eggs—two +in number, and of a pure white colour—in the hollows of decayed +trees or in the fissures of rocks, according to the nature of the +locality in which they reside. This is one of the species most +usually kept in Europe as a cage bird. Leadbeater’s Cockatoo +(<i>Cacatua Leadbeateri</i>), an inhabitant of South Australia, excels +all others in the beauty of its plumage, which consists in great +part of white, tinged with rose colour, becoming a deep salmon +colour under the wings, while the crest is bright crimson at the +base, with a yellow spot in the centre and white at the tip. +It is exceedingly shy and difficult of approach, and its note is +more plaintive while less harsh than that of the preceding species. +In the cockatoos belonging to the genus <i>Calyptorhynchus</i> the +general plumage is black or dark brown, usually with a large spot +or band of red or yellow on the tail. The largest of these is known +as the funereal cockatoo (<i>Calyptorhynchus funereus</i>), from the +lugubrious note or call which it utters, resembling the two +syllables Wy—la—, the native name of the species. It deposits +its eggs in the hollows of the large gum-trees of Australia, +and feeds largely on the larvae of insects, in search of which it +peels off the bark of trees, and when thus employed it may +be approached closely. The cockateel (<i>Calopsittacus novaehollandiae</i>), +the only species in the family smaller than a pigeon, +and with a long pointed tail, is a common aviary bird, and breeds +freely in captivity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKATRICE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span>, a fabulous monster, the existence of which +was firmly believed in throughout ancient and medieval times,—descriptions +and figures of it appearing in the natural history +works of such writers as Pliny and Aldrovandus, those of the +latter published so late as the beginning of the 17th century. +Produced from a cock’s egg hatched by a serpent, it was believed +to possess the most deadly powers, plants withering at its touch, +and men and animals dying poisoned by its look. It stood in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span> +awe, however, of the cock, the sound of whose crowing killed +it, and consequently travelers were wont to take this bird with +them in travelling over regions supposed to abound in cockatrices. +The weasel alone among mammals was unaffected by the glance +of its evil eye, and attacked it at all times successfully; for when +wounded by the monster’s teeth it found a ready remedy in rue—the +only plant which the cockatrice could not wither. This myth +reminds one of the real contests between the weasel-like mungoos +of India and the deadly cobra, in which the latter is generally +killed. The term “cockatrice” is employed on four occasions +in the English translation of the Bible, in all of which it denotes +nothing more than an exceedingly venomous reptile; it seems +also to be synonymous with “basilisk,” the mythical king of +serpents.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span>, 10th +Bart. (1802-1880), lord chief justice of England, was born on +the 24th of December 1802, of ancient Scottish stock. He was +the son of Alexander, fourth son of Sir James Cockburn, 6th +baronet, his three uncles, who had successively held the title, +dying without heirs. His father was British envoy extraordinary +and minister plenipotentiary to the state of Columbia, and +married Yolande, daughter of the vicomte de Vignier. Young +Alexander was at one time intended for the diplomatic service, +and frequently during the legal career which he ultimately +adopted he was able to make considerable use of the knowledge +of foreign languages, especially French, with which birth and +early education had equipped him. He was educated at Trinity +Hall, Cambridge, of which he was elected a fellow, and afterwards +an honorary fellow. He entered at the Middle Temple in +1825, and was called to the bar in 1829. He joined the western +circuit, and for some time such practice as he was able to obtain +lay at the Devon sessions, quarter sessions at that time affording +an opening and a school of advocacy to young counsel not to be +found anywhere fifty years later. In London he had so little +to do that only the persuasion of friends induced him to keep +his London chambers open. Three years after his call to the +bar, however, the Reform Bill was passed, and the petitions +which followed the ensuing general election gave rise to a large +number of new questions for the decision of election committees, +and afforded an opening of which he promptly availed himself. +The decisions of the committees had not been reported since +1821, and with M. C. Rowe, another member of the western circuit, +Cockburn undertook a new series of reports. They only published +one volume, but the work was well done, and in 1833 Cockburn +had his first parliamentary brief.</p> + +<p>In 1834 Cockburn was well enough thought of to be made a +member of the commission to inquire into the state of the corporations +of England and Wales. Other parliamentary work +followed; but he had ambition to be more than a parliamentary +counsel, and attended diligently on his circuit, besides appearing +before committees. In 1841 he was made a Q.C., and in that +year a charge of simony, brought against his uncle, William, +dean of York, enabled him to appear conspicuously in a case +which attracted considerable public attention, the proceedings +taking the form of a motion for prohibition duly obtained against +the ecclesiastical court, which had deprived Dr Cockburn of his +office. Not long after this, Sir Robert Peel’s secretary, Edward +Drummond, was shot by the crazy Scotsman, Daniel M’Naughten, +and Cockburn, briefed on behalf of the assassin, not only made a +very brilliant speech, which established the defence of insanity, +but also secured the full publicity of a long report in the <i>Morning +Chronicle</i> of the 6th of March 1843. Another well-known trial +in which he appeared a year later was that of <i>Wood</i> v. <i>Peel</i> (<i>The +Times</i>, 2nd and 3rd of July 1844), the issue being in form to +determine the winner of a bet (the Gaming Act was passed in the +following year) as to the age of the Derby winner Running Rein—in +substance to determine, if possible, the vexed question +whether Running Rein was a four-year-old or a three-year-old +when he was racing as the latter. Running Rein could not be +produced by Mr Wood, and Baron Alderson took a strong view +of this circumstance, so that Cockburn found himself on the +losing side, while his strenuous advocacy of his client’s cause had +led him into making, in his opening speech, strictures on Lord +George Bentinck’s conduct in the case which had better have +been reserved to a later stage. He was, however, a hard fighter, +but not an unfair one—a little irritable at times, but on the +whole a courteous gentleman, and his practice went on increasing.</p> + +<p>In 1847 he decided to stand for parliament, and was elected +without a contest Liberal M.P. for Southampton. His speech +in the House of Commons on behalf of the government in the +Don Pacifico dispute with Greece commended him to Lord John +Russell, who appointed him solicitor-general in 1850 and +attorney-general in 1851, a post which he held till the resignation +of the ministry in February 1852. During the short administration +of Lord Derby which followed, Sir Frederic Thesiger was +attorney-general, and Cockburn was engaged against him in the +case of <i>R.</i> v. <i>Newman</i>, on the prosecution of Achilli. This was the +trial of a criminal information for libel filed against John Henry +Newman, who had denounced a scandalous and profligate friar +named Achilli, then lecturing on Roman Catholicism in England. +Newman pleaded justification; but the jury who heard the case +in the Queen’s Bench, with Lord Campbell presiding, found that +the justification was not proved except in one particular: a +verdict which, together with the methods of the judge and the +conduct of the audience, attracted considerable comment. The +verdict was set aside, and a new trial ordered, but none ever took +place. In December 1852, under Lord Aberdeen’s ministry, +Cockburn became again attorney-general, and so remained until +1856, taking part in many celebrated trials, such as the Hopwood +Will Case in 1855, and the Swynfen Will Case, but notably +leading for the crown in the trial of William Palmer of Rugeley +in Staffordshire—an ex-medical man who had taken to the turf, +and who had poisoned a friend of similar pursuits named Cook +with strychnine, in order to obtain money from his estate by +forgery and otherwise. Cockburn made an exhaustive study +of the medical aspects of the case, and the prisoner’s comment +when convicted after a twelve days’ trial was, alluding to the +attorney-general’s advocacy, “It was the riding that did it.” +In 1854 Cockburn was made recorder of Bristol. In 1856 he +became chief justice of the common pleas. He inherited the +baronetcy in 1858. In 1859 Lord Campbell became chancellor, +and Cockburn became chief justice of the Queen’s Bench, continuing +as a judge for twenty-four years and dying in harness. +On Friday, the 19th of November 1880, he tried causes with +special juries at Westminster; on Saturday, the 20th, he presided +over a court for the consideration of crown cases reserved; +he walked home, and on that night he died of <i>angina pectoris</i> at +his house in Hertford Street.</p> + +<p>Sir Alexander Cockburn earned and deserved a high reputation +as a judge. He was a man of brilliant cleverness and rapid +intuition rather than of profound and laboriously cultivated +intellect. He had been a great advocate at the bar, with a +charm of voice and manner, fluent and persuasive rather than +learned; but before he died he was considered a good lawyer, +some assigning his unquestioned improvement in this respect +to his frequent association on the bench with Blackburn. He +had notoriously little sympathy with the Judicature Acts. +Many were of opinion that he was inclined to take an advocate’s +view of the cases before him, making up his mind as to their +merits prematurely and, in consequence, wrongly, as well as +giving undue prominence to the views which he so formed; but +he was beyond doubt always in intention, and generally in fact, +scrupulously fair. It is not necessary to enumerate the many +<i>causes célèbres</i> at which Sir Alexander Cockburn presided as a +judge. It was thought that he went out of his way to arrange +that they should come before him, and his successor, Lord +Coleridge, writing in 1881 to Lord Bramwell, to make the offer +that he should try the murderer Lefroy as a last judicial act +before retiring, added, “Poor dear Cockburn would hardly have +given you such a chance.” Be this as it may, Cockburn tried +all cases which came before him, whether great or small, with +the same thoroughness, courtesy and dignity, so that no counsel +or suitor could complain that he had not been fully heard in a +matter in which the issues were seemingly trivial; while he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span> +certainly gave great attention to the elaboration of his judgments +and charges to juries. He presided at the Tichborne trial at +Bar, lasting 188 days, of which his summing-up occupied +eighteen.</p> + +<p>The greatest public occasion on which Sir Alexander Cockburn +acted, outside his usual judicial functions, was that of the +“Alabama” arbitration, held at Geneva in 1872, in which he +represented the British government, and dissented from the view +taken by the majority of the arbitrators, without being able to +convince them. He prepared, with Mr C. F. Adams, the representative +of the United States, the English translation of the +award of the arbitrators, and published his reasons for dissenting +in a vigorously worded document which did not meet with +universal commendation. He admitted in substance the liability +of England for the acts of the “Alabama,” but not on the +grounds on which the decision of the majority was based, and +he held England not liable in respect of the “Florida” and the +“Shenandoah.”</p> + +<p>In personal appearance Sir Alexander Cockburn was of small +stature, but great dignity of deportment. He was fond of +yachting and of sport, and was engaged in writing a series of +articles on the “History of the Chase in the Nineteenth Century” +at the time of his death. He was fond, too, of society, and was +also throughout his life addicted to frivolities not altogether +consistent with advancement in a learned profession, or with +the positions of dignity which he successively occupied. At the +same time he had a high sense of what was due to and expected +from his profession; and his utterance upon the limitations of +advocacy, in his speech at the banquet given in the Middle +Temple Hall to M. Berryer, the celebrated French advocate, +may be called the classical authority on the subject. Lord +Brougham, replying for the guests other than Berryer, had +spoken of “the first great duty of an advocate to reckon everything +subordinate to the interests of his client.” The lord chief +justice, replying to the toast of “the judges of England,” +dissented from this sweeping statement, saying, amid loud cheers +from a distinguished assembly of lawyers, “The arms which an +advocate wields he ought to use as a warrior, not as an assassin. +He ought to uphold the interests of his clients <i>per fas</i>, not <i>per +nefas</i>. He ought to know how to reconcile the interests of his +clients with the eternal interests of truth and justice” (<i>The +Times</i>, 9th of November 1864). Sir Alexander Cockburn was +never married, and the baronetcy became extinct at his death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>The Times</i>, 22nd of November 1880; <i>Law Journal</i>; +<i>Law Times</i>; <i>Solicitors’ Journal</i>, 27th of November 1880; <i>Law Magazine</i>, +new series, vol. xv. p. 193, 1851; Ashley’s <i>Life of Lord Palmerston</i>; +Nash’s <i>Life of Lord Westbury</i>; “Reminiscences of Lord Chief +Justice Coleridge,” by Lord Russell of Killowen, in the <i>North +American Review</i>, September 1894; <i>The Greville Memoirs</i>; Croker’s +<i>Correspondence and Diaries</i>; Justin M’Carthy’s <i>History of Our Own +Times</i>; Serjeant Ballantine’s <i>Experiences; Bench and Bar</i>, by +Serjeant Robinson; Fairchild’s <i>Life of Lord Bramwell</i>; Manson’s +<i>Builders of Our Law</i>; Burke’s <i>Peerage</i>, ed. 1879; Foster’s <i>Peerage</i>, +1880.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKBURN, ALICIA,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Alison</span> (1713-1794), Scottish poet, +authoress of one of the most exquisite of Scottish ballads, the +“Flowers of the Forest,” was the daughter of Robert Rutherfurd +of Fairnalee, Selkirkshire, and was born on the 8th of October +1713. There are two versions of this song,—the one by Mrs +Cockburn, the other by Jean Elliot (1727-1805) of Minto. Both +were founded on the remains of an ancient Border ballad. Mrs +Cockburn’s—that beginning “I’ve seen the smiling of Fortune +beguiling”—is said to have been written before her marriage +in 1731, though not published till 1765. Anyhow, it was composed +many years before Jean Elliot’s sister verses, written in +1756, beginning, “I’ve heard them liltin’ at our ewe-milkin’.” +Robert Chambers states that the ballad was written on the +occasion of a great <span class="correction" title="amended from commerical">commercial</span> disaster which ruined the fortunes +of some Selkirkshire lairds. Later biographers, however, think +it probable that it was written on the departure to London of a +certain John Aikman, between whom and Alison there appears +to have been an early attachment. In 1731 Alison Rutherfurd +was married to Patrick Cockburn of Ormiston. After her +marriage she knew all the intellectual and aristocratic celebrities +of her day. In the memorable year 1745 she vented her Whiggism +in a squib upon Prince Charlie, and narrowly escaped being taken +by the Highland guard as she was driving through Edinburgh +in the family coach of the Keiths of Ravelston, with the parody +in her pocket. Mrs Cockburn was an indefatigable letter-writer +and a composer of parodies, squibs, toasts and “character-sketches”—then +a favourite form of composition—like other +wits of her day; but the “Flowers of the Forest” is the only +thing she wrote that possesses great literary merit. At her house +on Castle-hill, and afterwards in Crichton Street, she received +many illustrious friends, among whom were Mackenzie, Robertson, +Hume, Home, Monboddo, the Keiths of Ravelston, the +Balcarres family and Lady Anne Barnard, the authoress of +“Auld Robin Gray.” As a Rutherfurd she was a connexion of +Sir Walter Scott’s mother, and was her intimate friend. Lockhart +quotes a letter written by Mrs Cockburn in 1777, describing the +conduct of little Walter Scott, then scarcely six years old, during +a visit which she paid to his mother, when the child gave as a +reason for his liking for Mrs Cockburn that she was a “virtuoso +like himself.” Mrs Cockburn died on the 22nd of November +1794.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See her <i>Letters and Memorials</i>..., with notes by T. Craig Brown +(1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>, Bart. (1772-1853), British +admiral, second son of Sir James Cockburn, Bart., and uncle of +Lord Chief Justice Cockburn, was born in London. He entered +the navy in his ninth year. After serving on the home station, +and in the East Indies and the Mediterranean, he assisted, as +captain of the “Minerve” (38) at the blockade of Leghorn in +1796, and fought a gallant action with the Spanish frigate +“Sabina” (40) which he took. He was present at the battle of +Cape St Vincent. In 1809, in command of the naval force on +shore, he contributed greatly to the reduction of Martinique, +and signed the capitulation by which that island was handed +over to the English; for his services on this occasion he received +the thanks of the House of Commons. After service in the +Scheldt and at the defence of Cadiz he was sent in 1811 on an +unsuccessful mission for the reconciliation of Spain and her +American colonies. He was made rear-admiral in 1812, and in +1813-14, as second in command to Warren, he took a prominent +part in the American War, especially in the capture of Washington. +Early in 1815 he received the order of the Bath, and in the +autumn of the same year he carried out, in the “Northumberland” +(74), the sentence of deportation to St Helena which had +been passed upon Bonaparte. In 1818 he received the Grand +Cross of his order, and was made a lord of the admiralty; and +the same year he was returned to parliament for Portsmouth. +He was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral in 1819, and to +that of admiral in 1837; he became senior naval lord in 1841, +and held office in that capacity till 1846. From 1827 he was a +privy councillor. In 1851 he was made admiral of the fleet, and +in 1852, a year before his death, inherited the family baronetcy +from his elder brother, being himself succeeded by his brother +William, dean of York, who died in 1858.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See O’Byrne, <i>Naval Biography</i>; W. James, <i>Naval History</i>; +<i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i> for 1853.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1779-1854), Scottish judge, +with the style of Lord Cockburn, was born in Edinburgh on the +26th of October 1779. His father, a keen Tory, was a baron of +the Scottish court of exchequer, and his mother was connected +by marriage with Lord Melville. He was educated at the high +school and the university of Edinburgh; and he was a member +of the famous Speculative Society, to which Sir Walter Scott, +Brougham and Jeffrey belonged. He entered the faculty of +advocates in 1800, and attached himself, not to the party of +his relatives, who could have afforded him most valuable patronage, +but to the Whig or Liberal party, and that at a time when it +held out few inducements to men ambitious of success in life. +On the accession of Earl Grey’s ministry in 1830 he became +solicitor-general for Scotland. In 1834 he was raised to the +bench, and on taking his seat as a judge in the court of session he +adopted the title of Lord Cockburn. Cockburn’s forensic style +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span> +was remarkable for its clearness, pathos and simplicity; and +his conversational powers were unrivalled among his contemporaries. +The extent of his literary ability only became known +after he had passed his seventieth year, on the publication of his +biography of Lord Jeffrey in 1852, and from the <i>Memorials of his +Time</i>, which appeared posthumously in 1856. He died on the +26th of April 1854, at his mansion of Bonaly, near Edinburgh.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKER, EDWARD<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1631-1675), the reputed author of the +famous <i>Arithmetick</i>, the popularity of which has added a phrase +(“according to Cocker”) to the list of English proverbialisms, +was an English engraver, who also taught writing and arithmetic. +He is credited with the authorship and execution of some fourteen +sets of copy slips, one of which, <i>Daniel’s Copy-Book, ingraven +by Edward Cocker, Philomath</i> (1664), is preserved in the British +Museum. Pepys, in his <i>Diary</i>, makes very favourable mention +of Cocker, who appears to have displayed great skill in his art. +<i>Cocker’s Arithmetick</i>, the fifty-second edition of which appeared +in 1748, and which has passed through about 112 editions in all, +was not published during the lifetime of its reputed author, the +first impression bearing date of 1678. Augustus de Morgan in +his <i>Arithmetical Books</i> (1847) adduces proofs, which may be +held to be conclusive, that the work was a forgery of the editor +and publisher, John Hawkins; and there appears to be no +doubt that the <i>Decimal Arithmetic</i> (1684), and the <i>English +Dictionary</i> (second edition, 1715), issued by Hawkins under +Cocker’s name, are forgeries also. De Morgan condemns the +<i>Arithmetick</i> as a diffuse compilation from older and better works, +and dates “a very great deterioration in elementary works on +arithmetic” from the appearance of the book, which owed its +celebrity far more to persistent puffing than to its merits. He +pertinently adds,—“This same Edward Cocker must have had +great reputation, since a bad book under his name pushed out +the good ones.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1788-1863), British +architect, was born in London on the 28th of April 1788. After +a preliminary training in his profession, he went abroad in 1810 +and studied the great architectural remains of Greece, Italy and +Asia Minor. At Aegina, Phigalia and other places of interest, +he conducted excavations on a large scale, enriching the British +Museum with many fine fragments, and adding several valuable +monographs to the literature of archaeology. Elected in 1829 +an associate of the Royal Academy, he became a full member +in 1836, and in 1839 he was appointed professor of architecture. +On Sir John Soane’s death in 1837 Cockerell was appointed +architect of the Bank of England, and carried out the alterations +that were judged to be necessary in that building. In addition +to branch banks at Liverpool and Manchester he erected in 1840 +the new library at Cambridge, and in 1845 the university galleries +at Oxford, as well as the Sun and the Westminster Fire Offices +in Bartholomew Lane and in the Strand; and he was joint +architect of the London & Westminster Bank, Lothbury, with +Sir W. Tite. On the death of Henry Lonsdale Elmes in 1847, +Cockerell was selected to finish the St George’s Hall, Liverpool. +Cockerell’s best conceptions were those inspired by classic +models; his essays in the Gothic—the college at Lampeter, for +instance, and the chapel at Harrow—are by no means so +successful. His thorough knowledge of Gothic art, however, +can be seen from his writings, <i>On the Iconography of Wells +Cathedral</i>, and <i>On the Sculptures of Lincoln and Exeter Cathedrals</i>. +In his <i>Tribute to the Memory of Sir Christopher Wren</i> (1838) he +published an interesting collection of the whole of Wren’s works +drawn to one scale.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKERILL, WILLIAM<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1759-1832), Anglo-French inventor +and machinist, was born in England in 1759. He went to Belgium +as a simple mechanic, and in 1799 constructed at Verviers the +first wool-carding and wool-spinning machines on the continent. +In 1807 he established a large machine workshop at Liége. +Orders soon poured in on him from all over Europe, and he +amassed a large fortune. In 1810 he was granted the rights of +naturalization by Napoleon I., and in 1812 handed over the +management of his business to his youngest son, <span class="sc">John Cockerill</span> +(1790-1840).</p> + +<p>Thanks to his own energy and ability, aided by the influence +of King William I. of the Netherlands, John Cockerill largely +extended his father’s business. King William secured him a site +at Seraing, where he built large works, including an iron-foundry +and blast furnace. The construction of the Belgian railways +in 1834 gave a great impetus to these works, branches of which +had already been opened in France, Germany and Poland. In +1838 Cockerill met with a carriage accident which nearly proved +fatal, and the prospect of his loss resulted in the credit of the firm +being so badly shaken that in 1839 it was compelled to go into +liquidation, the liabilities being estimated at 26 millions of +francs, the assets at 18 millions. This reverse, however, was only +temporary. John Cockerill had practically concluded negotiations +to construct the Russian government railways, when his +constitution, undermined by overwork, broke down. He died +at Warsaw on the 19th of June 1840. The iron works, among +the largest in Europe, are still carried on under the name of La +Société Cockerill at Seraing (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKERMOUTH<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span>, a market town in the Cockermouth parliamentary +division of Cumberland, England, 27 m. S.W. of Carlisle, +on the Cockermouth, Keswick & Penrith, the London & North +Western, and the Maryport & Carlisle railways. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 5355. It is pleasantly situated on the river +Derwent, at the junction of the Cocker, outlying hills of the Lake +District sheltering it on the north, east and south. The castle +has remains of Norman work in the keep, and other ancient +portions (including the gateway) of later date, but is in part +modernized as a residence. The grammar school was founded +in 1676. The county industrial school is established in the +town. The industries include the manufacture of woollens and +confectionery, tanning and engineering, and there is a considerable +agricultural trade. There are coal mines in the neighbourhood. +A statue was erected in 1875 to the sixth earl of Mayo, +who represented the borough (abolished in 1885) from 1857 to +1868. There is a Roman fort a mile west of the town, at +Papcastle.</p> + +<p>Cockermouth (<i>Cokermuth</i>, <i>Cokermue</i>) was made the head of the +honour or barony of Allerdale when that barony was created +and granted to Waltheof in the early part of the 12th century. +At a later date the honour of Allerdale was frequently called the +honour of Cockermouth. Waltheof probably built the castle, +under the shelter of which the town grew up. Although it never +received any royal charter, the earliest records relating to +Cockermouth mention it as a borough. In 1295 it returned two +members to parliament and then not again until 1640. By the +Representation of the People Act of 1867 the representation was +reduced to one member, and by the Redistribution Act of 1885 +it was disfranchised. In 1221 William de Fortibus, earl of +Albemarle, was granted a Saturday market, which later in the +year was transferred to Monday, the day on which it has continued +to be held ever since. The Michaelmas Fair existed in +1343, and an inquisition dated 1374 mentions two horse-fairs on +Whit-Monday and at Michaelmas. In 1638 Algernon Percy, earl +of Northumberland, obtained a grant of a fair every Wednesday +from the first week in May till Michaelmas. The chief sources +of revenue in Norman times were the valuable fisheries and +numerous mills.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCK-FIGHTING<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cocking</span>, the sport of pitting game-cocks +to fight, and breeding and training them for the purpose. The +game-fowl is now probably the nearest to the Indian jungle-fowl +(<i>Gallus ferrugineus</i>), from which all domestic fowls are believed +to be descended. The sport was popular in ancient times in +India, China, Persia and other eastern countries, and was introduced +into Greece in the time of Themistocles. The latter, while +moving with his army against the Persians, observed two cocks +fighting desperately, and, stopping his troops, inspired them by +calling their attention to the valour and obstinacy of the feathered +warriors. In honour of the ensuing victory of the Greeks cock-fights +were thenceforth held annually at Athens, at first in a +patriotic and religious spirit, but afterwards purely for the love +of the sport. Lucian makes Solon speak of quail-fighting and +cocking, but he is evidently referring to a time later than that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span> +of Themistocles. From Athens the sport spread throughout +Greece, Asia Minor and Sicily, the best cocks being bred in +Alexandria, Delos, Rhodes and Tanagra. For a long time the +Romans affected to despise this “Greek diversion,” but ended +by adopting it so enthusiastically that Columella (1st century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span>) complained that its devotees often spent their whole +patrimony in betting at the pit-side. The cocks were provided +with iron spurs (<i>tela</i>), as in the East, and were often dosed with +stimulants to make them fight more savagely.</p> + +<p>From Rome cocking spread northwards, and, although +opposed by the Christian church, nevertheless became popular in +Great Britain, the Low Countries, Italy, Germany, Spain and +her colonies. On account of adverse legislation cocking has +practically died out everywhere excepting in Spain, countries of +Spanish origin and the Orient, where it is still legal and extremely +popular. It was probably introduced into England by the +Romans before Caesar’s time. William Fitz-Stephen first speaks +of it in the time of Henry II. as a sport for school-boys on +holidays, and particularly on Shrove Tuesday, the masters themselves +directing the fights, or mains, from which they derived a +material advantage, as the dead birds fell to them. It became +very popular throughout England and Wales, as well as in +Scotland, where it was introduced in 1681. Occasionally the +authorities tried to repress it, especially Cromwell, who put an +almost complete stop to it for a brief period, but the Restoration +re-established it among the national-pastimes. Contemporary +apologists do not, in the 17th century, consider its cruelty at all, +but concern themselves solely with its justification as a source of +pleasure. “If Leviathan took his sport in the waters, how much +more may Man take his sport upon the land?” From the time +of Henry VIII., who added the famous Royal Cock-pit to his +palace of Whitehall, cocking was called the “royal diversion,” +and the Stuarts, particularly James I. and Charles II., were +among its most enthusiastic devotees, their example being +followed by the gentry down to the 19th century. Gervase +Markham in his <i>Pleasures of Princes</i> (1614) wrote “Of the +Choyce, Ordring, Breeding and Dyeting of the fighting-Cocke +for Battell,” his quaint directions being of the most explicit +nature. When a cock is to be trained for the pit he must be fed +“three or foure daies only with old Maunchet (fine white bread) +and spring water.” He is then set to spar with another cock, +“putting a payre of hots upon each of their heeles, which Hots +are soft, bumbasted roules of Leather, covering their spurs, so +that they cannot hurt each other.... Let them fight and buffet +one another a good space.” After exercise the bird must be put +into a basket, covered with hay and set near the fire. “Then let +him sweate, for the nature of this scowring is to bring away his +grease, and to breed breath, and strength.” If not killed in the +fight, “the first thing you doe, you shall search his wounds, and +as many as you can find you shall with your mouth sucke the +blood out of them, then wash them with warm salt water,... give +him a roule or two, and so stove him up as hot as you can.”</p> + +<p>Cocking-mains usually consisted of fights between an agreed +number of pairs of birds, the majority of victories deciding the +main; but there were two other varieties that aroused the +particular ire of moralists. These were the “battle royal,” in +which a number of birds were “set,” <i>i.e.</i> placed in the pit, at the +same time, and allowed to remain until all but one, the victor, +were killed or disabled; and the “Welsh main,” in which eight +pairs were matched, the eight victors being again paired, then +four, and finally the last surviving pair. Among London cock-pits +were those at Westminster, in Drury Lane, Jewin Street +and Birdcage Walk (depicted by Hogarth). Over the royal pit +at Whitehall presided the king’s cockmaster. The pits were +circular in shape with a matted stage about 20 ft. in diameter +and surrounded by a barrier to keep the birds from falling off. +Upon this barrier the first row of the audience leaned. Hardly a +town in the kingdom was without its cockpit, which offered the +sporting classes opportunities for betting not as yet sufficiently +supplied by horse-racing. With the growth of the latter sport +and the increased facilities for reaching the racing centres, +cocking gradually declined, especially after parliament passed +laws against it, so that gentlemen risked arrest by attending a +main.</p> + +<p>Among the best-known devotees of the sport was a Colonel +Mordaunt, who, about 1780, took a number of the best English +game-cocks to India. There he found the sport in high favour +with the native rulers and his birds were beaten. Perhaps the +most famous main in England took place at Lincoln in 1830 +between the birds of Joseph Gilliver, the most celebrated breeder, +or “feeder,” of his day, and those of the earl of Derby. The +conditions called for seven birds a side, and the stakes were +5000 guineas the main and 1000 guineas each match. The main +was won by Gilliver by five matches to two. His grandson was +also a breeder, and the blood of his cocks still runs in the best +breeds of Great Britain and America. Another famous breeder +was Dr Bellyse of Audlem, the principal figure in the great +mains fought at Chester during race-week at the beginning of the +19th century. His favourite breed was the white pile, and +“Cheshire piles” are still much-fancied birds. Others were +Irish brown-reds, Lancashire black-reds and Staffordshire duns.</p> + +<p>In Wales, as well as some parts of England, cocking-mains took +place regularly in churchyards, and in many instances even +inside the churches themselves. Sundays, wakes and church +festivals were favourite occasions for them. The habit of holding +mains in schools was common from the 12th to about the middle +of the 19th century. When cocking was at its height, the pupils +of many schools were made a special allowance for purchasing +fighting-cocks, and parents were expected to contribute to the +expenses of the annual main on Shrove Tuesday, this money +being called “cockpence.” Cock-fighting was prohibited by law +in Great Britain in 1849.</p> + +<p>Cocking was early introduced into America, though it was +always frowned upon in New England. Some of the older states, +as Massachusetts, forbade it by passing laws against cruelty as +early as 1836, and it is now expressly prohibited in Canada and +in most states of the Union, or is repressed by general laws for +the prevention of cruelty to animals.</p> + +<p>Cocks are fought at an age of from one to two years. “Heeling,” +or the proper fastening of the spurs, and “cutting out,” +trimming the wings at a slope, and cutting the tail down by one-third +of its length and shortening the hackle and rump feathers, +are arts acquired by experience. The comb is cut down close, +so as to offer the least possible mark for the hostile bird’s bill. +The cock is then provided with either “short heels,” spurs 1½ in. +or less in length, or with “long heels,” from 2 to 2½ in. in length. +The training of a cock for the pit lasts from ten days to a month +or more, during which time the bird is subjected to a rigid diet +and exercise in running and sparring. The birds may not be +touched after being set down in the pit, unless to extricate +them from the matting. Whenever a bird refuses to fight longer +he is set breast to breast with his adversary in the middle of the +pit, and if he then still refuses to fight he is regarded as defeated. +Among the favourite breeds may be mentioned the “Irish +gilders,” “Irish Grays,” “Shawlnecks,” “Gordons,” “Eslin +Red-Quills,” “Baltimore Topknots,” “Dominiques,” “War-horses” +and “Claibornes.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Cock-fighting possesses an extensive literature of its own. See +Gervase Markham, <i>Pleasures of Princes</i> (London, 1614); Blain, +<i>Rural Sports</i> (London, 1853); “Game Cocks and Cock-Fighting,” +<i>Outing</i>, vol. 39; “A Modest Commendation of Cock-Fighting,” +<i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i>, vol. 22; “Cock-Fighting in Schools,” +<i>Chambers’ Magazine</i>, vol. 65.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCK LANE GHOST<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>, a supposed apparition, the vagaries +of which attracted extraordinary public attention in London +during 1762. At a house in Cock Lane, Smithfield, tenanted +by one Parsons, knockings and other noises were said to occur +at night varied by the appearance of a luminous figure, alleged +to be the ghost of a Mrs Kent who had died in the house some +two years before. A thorough investigation revealed that +Parsons’ daughter, a child of eleven, was the source of the +disturbance. The object of the Parsons family seems to have +been to accuse the husband of the deceased woman of murdering +her, with a view to blackmail. Parsons was prosecuted and +condemned to the pillory. Among the crowds who visited the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span> +house was Dr Johnson, who was in consequence made the +object of a scurrilous attack by the poet Charles Churchill in +“The Ghost.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Lang, <i>Cock Lane and Common Sense</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKLE, SIR JAMES<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1819-1895), English lawyer and +mathematician, was born on the 14th of January 1819. He was +the second son of James Cockle, a surgeon, of Great Oakley, +Essex. Educated at Charterhouse and Trinity College, Cambridge, +he entered the Middle Temple in 1838, practising as a +special pleader in 1845 and being called in 1846. Joining the +midland circuit, he acquired a good practice, and on the recommendation +of Chief Justice Sir William Erle he was appointed +chief justice of Queensland in 1863. He received the honour +of knighthood in 1869, retired from the bench, and returned +to England in 1879.</p> + +<p>Cockle is more remembered for his mathematical and scientific +investigations than as a lawyer. Like many young mathematicians +he attacked the problem of resolving the higher +algebraic equations, notwithstanding Abel’s proof that a solution +by radicles was impossible. In this field Cockle achieved some +notable results, amongst which is his reproduction of Sir William +R. Hamilton’s modification of Abel’s theorem. Algebraic forms +were a favourite object of his studies, and he discovered and +developed the theory of criticoids, or differential invariants; he +also made contributions to the theory of differential equations. +He displayed a keen interest in scientific societies. From 1863 +to 1879 he was president of the Queensland Philosophical Society +(now incorporated in the Royal Society of Queensland); on his +return to England he became associated with the London +Mathematical Society, of which he was president from 1886 +to 1888, and the Royal Astronomical Society, serving as a +member of the council from 1888 to 1892. He died in London +on the 27th of January 1895.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A volume containing his scientific and mathematical researches +made during the years 1864-1877 was presented to the British +Museum in 1897 by his widow. See the obituary notice by the +Rev. R. Harley in <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. 59.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKLE<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span>, in zoology, a mollusc (<i>Cardium</i>) of the class Lamellibranchia +(<i>q.v.</i>). A very large number of species of <i>Cardium</i> have +been distinguished by conchologists. Besides the common +species <i>Cardium edule</i>, two others occur in Britain, but are not +sufficiently common to be of commercial importance. One of +these is <i>C. echinatum</i>, which is larger than the common species, +reaching 3 in. in diameter, and distinguished by the presence +of spines along the ribs of the shell. The other is <i>C. norvegicum</i>, +which is also somewhat larger than <i>C. edule</i>, is longer dorso-ventrally +than broad, and is only faintly ribbed.</p> + +<p>The two valves of the shell of the common cockle are similar +to each other, and somewhat circular in outline. The beak or +umbo of each valve is prominent and rounded, and a number of +sharp ridges and furrows radiate from the apex to the free edge +of the shell, which is crenated. The ligament is external, and the +hinge carries cardinal teeth in each valve. The interior of the +shell is remarkable for the absence of pearly lustre on its interior +surface. The colour externally is reddish or yellowish. The +pallial line, which is the line of attachment of the mantle parallel +to the edge of the shell, is not indented by a sinus at the posterior +end. In the entire animal the posterior end projects slightly +more than the anterior from the region of the umbones.</p> + +<p>The animal possesses two nearly equal adductor muscles. +The edges of the mantle are united posteriorly except at the anal +and branchial apertures, which are placed at the ends of two +very short siphons or tubular prolongations of the mantle; the +siphons bear a number of short tentacles, and many of these are +furnished with eye-spots. The foot is very large and powerful; +it can be protruded from the anterior aperture between the mantle +edges, and its outer part is bent sharply forwards and terminates +in a point. By means of this muscular foot the cockle burrows +rapidly in the muddy sand of the sea-shore, and it can also when +it is not buried perform considerable leaps by suddenly bending +the foot. The foot has a byssus gland on its posterior surface.</p> + +<p>On either side of the body between the mantle and the foot +are two flat gills each composed of two lamellae. <i>Cardium</i> +belongs to the order of Lamellibranchia in which the gills present +the maximum of complexity, the original vertical filaments of +which they are composed being united by interfilamentar and +interlamellar junctions. In other respects the anatomy of the +cockle presents no important differences from that of a typical +Lamellibranch. The sexes are distinct, and the generative +opening is on the side of the body above the edge of the inner +lamella of the inner gill. The eggs are minute, and pass out +into the sea-water through the dorsal or exhalent siphon. The +breeding season is April, May and June. The larva for a time +swims freely in the sea-water, having a circlet of cilia round the +body in front of the mouth, forming the velum. The shell is +developed on the dorsal surface behind the velum, the foot on the +opposite or ventral surface behind the mouth. After a few days, +when the mantle bearing the shell valves has developed so much +as to enclose the whole body, the young cockle sinks to the bottom +and commences to follow the habits of the adult. The usual +size of the cockle in its shell is from 1 to 2 in. in breadth.</p> + +<p>The common cockle is regularly used as food by the poorer +classes. It occurs in abundance on sandy shores in all estuaries. +At the mouth of the Thames the gathering of cockles forms a +considerable industry, especially at Leigh. On the coast of +Lancashire also the fishery, if it may be so called, is of considerable +importance. The cockles are gathered by the simple process +of raking them from the sand, and they are usually boiled and +extracted from their shells before being sent to market. The +cockle is liable to the same suspicion as the oyster of conveying +the contamination of typhoid fever where the shores are polluted, +but as it is boiled before being eaten it is probably less +dangerous.</p> +<div class="author">(J. T. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKNEY<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span>, a colloquial name applied to Londoners generally, +but more properly confined to those born in London, or more +strictly still to those born within the sound of the bells of St +Mary-le-Bow church. The origin of the word has been the +subject of many guesses, from that in John Minsheu’s lexicon, +<i>Ductor in linguas</i> (1617), which gives the tale of the town-bred +child who, on hearing a horse neigh, asked whether a “cock +neighed” too, to the confusion of the word with the name of the +Utopia, the land of Cockaigne (<i>q.v.</i>). The historical examination +of the various uses of “Cockney,” by Sir James Murray (see +<i>Academy</i>, 10th of May 1890, and the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, s.v.) +clearly shows the true derivation. The earliest form of the word +is <i>cokenay</i> or <i>cokeney</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the <i>ey</i> or egg, and <i>coken</i>, genitive plural +of “cock,” “cocks’ eggs” being the name given to the small +and malformed eggs sometimes laid by young hens, known in +German as <i>Hahneneier</i>. An early quotation, in Langland’s <i>Piers +Plowman</i>, A. vii. 272, gives the combination of “cokeneyes” +and bacon to make a “collop,” or dish of eggs and bacon. The +word then applied to a child overlong nursed by its mother, +hence to a simpleton or milksop. Thus in Chaucer, <i>Reeve’s Tale</i>, +the word is used with <i>daf</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a fool. The particular application +of the name as a term of contempt given by country folk to +town-bred people, with their dandified airs and ignorance of +country ways and country objects, is easy. Thus Robert +Whittington or Whitinton (<i>fl.</i> 1520), speaks of the “cokneys” in +such “great cytees as London, York, Perusy” (Perugia), showing +the general use of the word. It was not till the beginning +of the 17th century that “cockney” appears to be confined to +the inhabitants of London.</p> + +<p>The so-called “Cockney” accent or pronunciation has varied +in type. In the first part of the 19th century, it was chiefly +characterized by the substitution of a <i>v</i> for a <i>w</i>, or vice versa. +This has almost entirely disappeared, and the chief consonantal +variation which exists is perhaps the change of <i>th</i> to <i>f</i> or <i>v</i>, as in +“fing” for thing, or “favver” for father. This and the vowel-sound +change from <i>ou</i> to <i>ah</i>, as in “abaht” for “about,” are +only heard among the uneducated classes, and, together with +other characteristic pronunciations, phrases and words, have +been well illustrated in the so-called “coster” songs of Albert +Chevalier. The most marked and widely-prevalent change of +vowel sound is that of <i>ei</i> for <i>ai</i>, so that “daily” becomes “dyly” +and “may” becomes “my.” This is sometimes so marked +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span> +that it almost amounts to incapacity to distinguish the vowels +<i>a</i> and <i>i</i>, and is almost universal in large classes of the population +of London. The name of the “Cockney School of Poetry” was +applied in 1817 to the literary circle of which Leigh Hunt was +the principal representative, though Keats also was aimed at. +The articles in <i>Blackwood’s Magazine</i>, in which the name appeared, +have generally, but probably wrongly, been attributed to +John Gibson Lockhart.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCK-OF-THE-ROCK<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span>, the familiar name of the birds of the +genus Rupicola (subfamily Rupicolinae) of the Cotingas (allied +to the Manakins, <i>q.v.</i>), found in the Amazon valley. They +are about the size of a pigeon, with orange-coloured plumage, +a pronounced crest, and orange-red flesh, and build their +nests on rock. The skins and feathers are highly valued for +decoration.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCK-OF-THE-ROCK<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span>, the term originally for an enclosed place in which +the sport of cock-fighting (<i>q.v.</i>) was carried on. On the site of +an old cockpit opposite Whitehall in London was a block of +buildings used from the 17th century as offices by the treasury +and the privy council, for which the old name survived till the +early 19th century. The name was given also to a theatre in +London, built in the early part of the 17th century on the site +of Drury Lane theatre. As the place where the wounded in +battle were tended, or where the junior officers consorted, the +term was also formerly applied to a cabin used for these purposes +on the lower deck of a man-of-war.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKROACH<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span><a name="FnAnchor_1a" id="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<i>Blattidae</i>), a family of orthopterous insects, +distinguished by their flattened bodies, long thread-like antennae, +and shining leathery integuments. Cockroaches are nocturnal +creatures, secreting themselves in chinks and crevices about +houses, issuing from their retreats when the lights are extinguished, +and moving about with extraordinary rapidity in +search of food. They are voracious and omnivorous, devouring, +or at least damaging, whatever comes in their way, for all the +species emit a disagreeable odour, which they communicate to +whatever article of food or clothing they may touch.</p> + +<p>The common cockroach (<i>Stilopyga orientalis</i>) is not indigenous +to Europe, but is believed to have been introduced from the +Levant in the cargoes of trading vessels. The wings in the male +are shorter than the body; in the female they are rudimentary. +The eggs, which are 16 in number, are deposited in a leathery +capsule fixed by a gum-like substance to the abdomen of the +female, and thus carried about till the young are ready to escape, +when the capsule becomes softened by the emission of a fluid +substance. The larvae are perfectly white at first and wingless, +although in other respects not unlike their parents, but they are +not mature insects until after the sixth casting of the skin.</p> + +<p>The American cockroach (<i>Periplaneta americana</i>) is larger +than the former, and is not uncommon in European seaports +trading with America, being conveyed in cargoes of grain and +other food produce. It is very abundant in the Zoological +Gardens in London, where it occurs in conjunction with a much +smaller imported species <i>Phyllodromia germanica</i>, which may +also be seen in some of the cheaper restaurants.</p> + +<p>In both of these species the females, as well as the males, +are winged.</p> + +<p>In addition to these noxious and obtrusive forms, England +has a few indigenous species belonging to the genus <i>Ectobia</i>, +which live under stones or fallen trees in fields and woods. The +largest known species is the drummer of the West Indies (<i>Blabera +gigantea</i>), so called from the tapping noise it makes on wood, +sufficient, when joined in by several individuals, as usually +happens, to break the slumbers of a household. It is about +2 in. long, with wings 3 in. in expanse, and forms one of the +most noisome and injurious of insect pests. Wingless females +of many tropical species present a close superficial resemblance +to woodlice; and one interesting apterous form known +as <i>Pseudoglomeris</i>, from the East Indies, is able to roll up like +a millipede.</p> + +<p>The best mode of destroying cockroaches is, when the fire and +lights are extinguished at night, to lay some treacle on a piece +of wood afloat on a broad basin of water. This proves a temptation +to the vermin too great to be resisted. The chinks and holes +from which they issue should also be filled up with unslaked +lime, or painted with a mixture of borax and heated turpentine.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See generally Miall and Denny, <i>The Structure and Life History of +the Cockroach</i> (1887); G. H. Carpenter, <i>Insects: their Structure and +Life</i> (1899); Charles Lester Marlatt, <i>Household Insects</i> (U.S. Department +of Agriculture, revised edition, 1902); Leland Ossian Howard, +<i>The Insect Book</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1a" id="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word is a corruption of Sp. <i>cucaracha</i>. In America it is +commonly abbreviated to “roach.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCK’S-COMB<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span>, in botany, a cultivated form of <i>Celosia cristata</i> +(natural order Amarantaceae), in which the inflorescence is +monstrous, forming a flat “fasciated” axis bearing numerous +small flowers. The plant is a low-growing herbaceous annual, +bearing a large, comb-like, dark red, scarlet or purplish mass of +flowers. Seeds are sown in March or April in pans of rich, well-drained +sandy soil, which are placed in a hot-bed at 65° to 70° +in a moist atmosphere. The seedlings require plenty of light, +and when large enough to handle are potted off and placed close +to the glass in a frame under similar conditions. When the heads +show they are shifted into 5-in. pots, which are plunged to +their rims in ashes or coco-nut fibre refuse, in a hot-bed, as before, +close to the glass; they are sparingly watered and more air +admitted. The soil recommended is a half-rich sandy loam and +half-rotten cow and stable manure mixed with a dash of silver +sand. The other species of <i>Celosia</i> cultivated are <i>C. pyramidalis</i>, +with a pyramidal inflorescence, varying in colour in the great +number of varieties, and <i>C. argentea</i>, with a dense white inflorescence. +They require a similar cultural treatment to that +given for <i>C. cristata</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKTON, HENRY<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1807-1853), English humorous novelist, +was born in London on the 7th of December 1807. He published +a number of volumes, but is best known as the author of <i>Valentine +Vox, the Ventriloquist</i> (1840) and <i>Sylvester Sound, the Somnambulist</i> +(1844). He died at Bury St Edmunds on the 26th of June +1853.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCKX<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Cock</span>), <span class="bold">HIERONYMUS</span> [<span class="sc">Jerome</span>] (1510-1570), +Flemish painter and engraver, was born at Antwerp, and in +1545 was admitted to the Gild of St Luke as a painter. It is as +an engraver, however, that he is famous, a number of portraits +and subject-pictures by him, and reproductions of Flemish +masters, being well known. His brother Matthys (1505-1552) +was also a painter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCOA<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span>,<a name="FnAnchor_1b" id="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> more properly <span class="sc">Cacao</span>, a valuable dietary substance +yielded by the seeds of several small trees belonging to the genus +<i>Theobroma</i>, of the natural order Sterculiaceae. The whole genus, +which comprises twelve species, belongs to the tropical parts of +the American continent; and although the cocoa of commerce +is probably the produce of more than one species, by far the +greatest and most valuable portion is obtained from <i>Theobroma +Cacao</i>. The generic name is derived from <span class="grk" title="theos">θεός</span> (god) and <span class="grk" title="broma">βρῶμα</span> +(food), and was bestowed by Linnaeus as an indication of the +high appreciation in which he held the beverage prepared from +the seeds, which he considered to be a food fit for the gods.</p> + +<p>The common cacao tree is of low stature, seldom exceeding +25 ft. in height, but it is taller in its native forests than it is in +cultivated plantations. The leaves are large, smooth, and glossy, +elliptic-oblong and tapering in form, growing principally at the +ends of branches, but sometimes springing directly from the +main trunk. The flowers are small, and occur in numerous +clusters on the main branches and the trunk, a very marked +peculiarity which gives the matured fruit the appearance of being +artificially attached to the tree. Generally only a single fruit is +matured from each cluster of flowers. When ripe the fruit or +“pod” is elliptical-ovoid in form, from 7 to 10 in. in length +and from 3 to 4½ in. in diameter. It has a hard, thick, leathery +rind of a rich purplish-yellow colour, externally rough and marked +with ten very distinct longitudinal ribs or elevations. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span> +interior of the fruit has five cells, in each of which is a row of +from 5 to 12 seeds embedded in a soft delicately pink acid pulp. +Each fruit thus contains from 20 to 50 or more seeds, which +constitute the raw cacao or “cacao beans” of commerce.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:311px; height:456px" src="images/img629.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Branch of Cocoa Tree, with Fruit in +section, much reduced.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The tree appears to have been originally a native of the coast +lands of the Gulf of Mexico and tropical South America as far +south as the basin of +the Amazon; but it +can be cultivated in +suitable situations +within the 25th parallels +of latitude. It +flourishes best within +the 15th parallels, at +elevations ranging +from near the sea-level +up to about 2000 +ft. in height. It is now +cultivated in Mexico, +Honduras, Guatemala, +Nicaragua, +Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, +New Granada, Venezuela, +Surinam, Guiana, +and in many of the +West Indian islands, +particularly in Trinidad, +San Domingo, +Grenada, Cuba, Porto +Rico and Jamaica. +Away from America +it has been introduced, +and is cultivated on a large scale in West Africa, Ceylon and +the Dutch East Indies.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The value of cacao was appreciated in its native +country before the discovery of America by Europeans. The +Spaniards found in use in Mexico a beverage known by the Aztec +name of <i>chocolath</i>, from <i>choco</i> (cacao) and <i>lath</i> (water). W. H. +Prescott records that the emperor Montezuma of Mexico was +“exceedingly fond of it ... no less than 50 jars or pitchers +being prepared for his own daily consumption; 2000 more were +allowed for that of his household.” Bags of cacao containing a +specified number of beans were also a recognized form of currency +in the country. The product was early introduced into Spain, +and thence to other parts of Europe. The <i>Public Advertiser</i> +(London) of June 16, 1657, contains an announcement that +“In Bishopgate St., in Queen’s Head Alley, at a Frenchman’s +house, is an excellent West India drink, called chocolate, to be +sold, where you may have it ready at any time, and also unmade +at reasonable rates.” Chocolate was a very fashionable beverage +in the early part of the 18th century.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivated Varieties.</i>—Numerous varieties of the cacao, <i>i.e.</i> of +<i>Theobroma Cacao</i>, are recognized in cultivation. According to +Dr P. Preuss, who has travelled extensively in the cacao producing +countries of the world studying this crop, it is impossible +to embody in a single table the characteristics of the world’s +varieties. A separate classification is needed for almost each +country. In 1882 the Trinidad forms were classified by Sir D. +Morris. This table was later revised by Mr J. H. Hart, and more +recently Mr R. H. Lock studied the Ceylon varieties. As the +Ceylon cacaos were obtained mainly from Trinidad, and as Mr +Lock’s results agree substantially with those of Sir D. Morris, they +serve to illustrate the distinguishing characteristics of the West +Indian and Ceylon forms. The main divisions are as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. <i>Criollo.</i>—Pods relatively thin-walled and soft, rough, pointed +at apex. The seeds or beans are plump and of pale colour. The +ripe pods may be either red (colorado) or yellow (amarillo).</p> + +<p>2. <i>Forastero.</i>—Pods relatively thick-walled and hard. The seeds +vary in colour from pale to deep purple. Various varieties are +recognized, such as cundeamor, amelonado, liso, calabacillo, differing +in shape, colour and character of beans, &c., and of each of these again +there may be a colorado and amarillo sub-variety. Of special +interest is calabacillo, a variety with a smooth, small pod, and deep +purple beans. It is considered by some to be sufficiently distinct +to form a third type equivalent to criollo or forastero. Others again +would raise amelonado to the rank of a distinct type. Of the above +calabacillo is the hardiest and yields the least valuable beans; +criollo is the most delicate and yields beans of the highest value, +whilst forastero is intermediate in both respects. In general pale +coloured beans are less bitter and more valuable than purple beans. +Both, however, may occur in the same pod.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Alligator</i>, or <i>lagarto cacao</i>, is the common name of a variety +cultivated in Nicaragua, Guatemala, &c. Its pods are distinctly +five-angled and beset with irregular, warty protuberances. Some +regard it as a distinct species, <i>T. pentagona</i>, but others only +as a variety of <i>T. Cacao</i>. Its produce is of high value.</p> + +<p><i>T. bicolor</i>, indigenous to Central America, is another species +of some interest. It bears small, hard woody pods about 6 in. +long and 3 in. in diameter, with curious surface markings. The +beans possess a fetid odour and a bitter flavour and are known +as “tiger cacao.” It is not likely to become of great commercial +importance, although consumed locally where found. “<i>Cacao +bianco</i>” and “<i>pataste</i>” are other names for this species.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivation and Preparation.</i>—Cacao requires for its successful +cultivation a deep, well-watered and yet well-drained soil, +shelter from strong winds, and a thoroughly tropical climate, +with a mean annual temperature of about 80° F., a rainfall +of from 50 to 100 or more in., and freedom from long droughts. +Young plants are grown from seed, which may either be sown +directly in the positions the future trees are to occupy, varying +according to local circumstances from 6 to 25 ft. apart in all +directions, or raised in nurseries and transplanted later. The +latter course is desirable when it is necessary to water and otherwise +tend the seedlings. However raised, the young plants +require to be shaded, and this is usually done by planting bananas, +cassava or other useful crops between the rows of cacao. In some +countries, but not in all, permanent shade trees are planted +amongst the cacao. Various leguminous trees are commonly +used, <i>e.g.</i> the coral tree (<i>Erythrina</i> spp.) sometimes known as +<i>bois immortel</i> and <i>madre del cacao</i> or mother of cocoa, <i>Albizzia +Lebbek</i>, <i>Pithecolobium Saman</i>, &c. The various rubber trees +have been employed with success. Wind belts are also necessary +in exposed situations.</p> + +<p>Cacao comes into bearing when about five years old, the small +pink flowers and the succeeding large pods being borne directly +on the trunk and main branches. The pods are carefully picked +when ripe, broken open, and the slimy mass of contained seeds +and their enveloping mucilaginous pulp extracted. The “beans” +are next fermented or “sweated,” often in special houses constructed +for the purpose, or by placing them in heaps and +covering with leaves or earth, or in baskets, barrels, &c., lined +with banana leaves. During fermentation the beans should be +stirred once daily or oftener. The time of fermentation varies +from one to twelve or even more days. Pale-coloured beans +usually require less time than the deep purple and bitter kinds. +The method adopted also considerably modifies the time required. +The process of fermenting destroys the mucilage; the seeds +lose to some degree their bitter flavour and their colour also +changes: the pale criollo seeds, for example, developing a +cinnamon-brown colour. The “fracture” of the beans also +characteristically alters. Fermentation is not universally +practised; the purple colour and bitter taste of unfermented +cacao being wanted in some markets.</p> + +<p>After the fermentation is completed the beans may or may +not be washed, opinion as to the desirability of this process +varying in different countries. In any case, however, they have +to be dried and cured. When climatic conditions are favourable +this is commonly done by spreading the beans in thin layers on +barbecues, or stone drying floors, or otherwise exposing them +to the sun. Sliding roofs or other means of rapidly affording +shelter are desirable in case of showers, excessive heat, and also +for protection at night. Artificial drying is now often resorted +to and various patterns of drying houses are in use.</p> + +<p>The appearance of the beans may often be improved by +“claying,” a very slight coating of red earth or clay being added. +Polishing the beans also gives them a brighter appearance, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span> +removes mildew, and remnants of dried mucilage, &c. This may +be done by “dancing the cacao,” <i>i.e.</i> treading a heap with the +bare feet, or by the use of special polishing machines. The cacao +is now ready for shipment, and is usually packed in bags. Hamburg +is the chief port in the world for cacao. Until quite recently, +however, this position was held by Havre, which is now second +in Europe. New York imports about the same amount as Havre. +London follows next in importance.</p> + +<p><i>Cacao-producing Countries.</i>—In the following table the production +in tons (of 1000 kilos = 2205 ℔) of the principal +producing countries, arranged under continents, is given for 1905 +and 1901. During this period the total world’s production +has increased by about 40%, as indicated in the summary below. +Study of the table will show where the increase has taken place, +but attention is directed especially to the rapid development +in West Africa.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>America.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">1905 (tons).</td> <td class="tcc">1901 (tons).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ecuador</td> <td class="tcr">21,128</td> <td class="tcr">22,896</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Brazil</td> <td class="tcr">21,091</td> <td class="tcr">18,324</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Trinidad</td> <td class="tcr">20,018</td> <td class="tcr">11,943</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">San Domingo</td> <td class="tcr">12,785</td> <td class="tcr">6,850</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Venezuela</td> <td class="tcr">11,700</td> <td class="tcr">7,860</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Grenada</td> <td class="tcr">5,456</td> <td class="tcr">4,865</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cuba and Porto Rico</td> <td class="tcr">3,000</td> <td class="tcr">1,750</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Haiti</td> <td class="tcr">2,343</td> <td class="tcr">1,950</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Surinam</td> <td class="tcr">1,612</td> <td class="tcr">3,163</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Jamaica</td> <td class="tcr">1,484</td> <td class="tcr">1,350</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">French West Indies</td> <td class="tcr">1,200</td> <td class="tcr">825</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">St. Lucia</td> <td class="tcr">700</td> <td class="tcr">765</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dominica</td> <td class="tcr">597</td> <td class="tcr">.. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total, America</td> <td class="tcr">103,114</td> <td class="tcr">82,541</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Africa.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">1905 (tons).</td> <td class="tcc">1901 (tons).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">San Thomé</td> <td class="tcr">25,379</td> <td class="tcr">16,983</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Gold Coast and Lagos</td> <td class="tcr">5,666</td> <td class="tcr">997</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cameroons</td> <td class="tcr">1,185</td> <td class="tcr">528</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Congo Free State</td> <td class="tcr">195</td> <td class="tcr">.. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total, Africa</td> <td class="tcr">32,425</td> <td class="tcr">18,508</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Asia.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">1905 (tons).</td> <td class="tcc">1901 (tons).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ceylon</td> <td class="tcr">3543</td> <td class="tcr">2697</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dutch East Indies</td> <td class="tcr">1492</td> <td class="tcr">1277</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td> <td class="tcr">——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total, Asia</td> <td class="tcr">5035</td> <td class="tcr">3974</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr">800</td> <td class="tcr">700</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>World’s Production.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">1905 (tons).</td> <td class="tcc">1901 (tons).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tropical America and West Indies</td> <td class="tcr">103,114</td> <td class="tcr">82,541</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">West Africa</td> <td class="tcr">32,425</td> <td class="tcr">18,508</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Asia</td> <td class="tcr">5,035</td> <td class="tcr">3,974</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr">800</td> <td class="tcr">700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">141,374</td> <td class="tcr">105,723</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Composition.</i>—The relative weights of the various parts of +a whole cacao pod are given thus by Prof. J. B. Harrison for +British Guiana specimens:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Calabacillo.</td> <td class="tcc">Forastero.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Husk</td> <td class="tcr">80.59</td> <td class="tcr">89.87</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pulp</td> <td class="tcr">7.61</td> <td class="tcr">4.23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cuticles of the beans</td> <td class="tcr">1.77</td> <td class="tcr">0.50</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Kernels of the beans</td> <td class="tcr">10.03</td> <td class="tcr">5.40</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The husk is composed mainly of water and cellulose woody tissue, +with their usual mineral constituents, and has a low manurial +value. The pulp contains sugars which become converted into +alcohol during fermentation. Fibrous elements and water +compose about six-tenths of the cuticles, which also contain +approximately: albuminoids (6%), alkaloids (2%), fat (2%), +sugars (6%), starch (7%), colouring matter (4%), tartaric +acid (3%) and small quantities of various mineral constituents. +The average composition of the kernels, according +to Payen, is:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fat (cacao butter)</td> <td class="tcr">50 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Starch</td> <td class="tcr">10 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Albuminoids</td> <td class="tcr">20 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Water</td> <td class="tcr">12 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cellulose</td> <td class="tcr">2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mineral matter</td> <td class="tcr">4 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Theobromine</td> <td class="tcr">2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Colouring matter (cacao-red) trace </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate.</i>—The beans are cleaned +and sorted to remove foreign bodies of all kinds and also graded +into sizes to secure uniformity in roasting. The latter process +is carried out in rotating iron drums in which the beans are heated +to a temperature of about 260° to 280° F., and results in developing +the aroma, partially converting the starch into dextrin, and +eliminating bitter constituents. The beans also dry and their +shells become crisp. In the next process the beans are gently +crushed and winnowed, whereby the light shells are removed, +and after removal by sifting of the “germs” the beans are left +in the form of the irregular cocoa-nibs occasionally seen in shops. +Cocoa-nibs may be infused with water and drunk, but for most +people the beverage is too rich, containing the whole of the cacao-fat +or cacao-butter. This fat is extracted from the carefully +ground nibs by employing great hydraulic pressure in heated +presses. The fat exudes and solidifies. When fresh it is yellowish-white, +but becomes quite white on keeping. It is very valuable +for pharmaceutical purposes and is a constituent of many +pomades. With care it can be kept for a long time without +going rancid.</p> + +<p>After the extraction of the fat the resulting mass is ground +to a fine powder when it is ready for use in the ordinary way. +Many preparations on the market are of course not pure cocoa +but contain admixtures of various starchy and other bodies.</p> + +<p>The shells of the beans separated by the winnowing process +contain theobromine, and their infusion with water is sometimes +used as a substitute for coffee, under the name “miserabile.” +More recently they have been put to good account as a cattle food.</p> + +<p>In the preparation of chocolate the preliminary processes +of cleaning, sorting, roasting and removing the shells, and +grinding the nibs, are followed as for cocoa. The fat, however, +is not extracted, but sugar, and sometimes other materials also, +are added to the ground pasty mass, together with suitable +flavouring materials, as for example vanilla. The greatest care is +taken in the process and elaborate grinding and mixing machinery +employed. The final result is a semi-liquid mass which is +moulded into the familiar tablets or other forms in which chocolate +comes on the market.</p> + +<p>Cocoa as a beverage has a similar action to tea and coffee, +inasmuch as the physiological properties of all three are due to +the alkaloids and volatile oils they contain. Tea and coffee +both contain the alkaloid caffeine, whilst cocoa contains theobromine. +In tea and coffee, however, we only drink an infusion +of the leaves or seeds, whilst in cocoa the whole material is taken +in a state of very fine suspension, and as the preceding analysis +indicates, the cocoa bean, even with the fat extracted, is of high +nutritive value.</p> + +<p><i>Cacao-consuming Countries.</i>—The principal cacao-consuming +countries are indicated below, which gives the imports into the +countries named for 1905. These figures, as also those on +production, are taken from <i>Der Gordian</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Tons (1000 kilos).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">United States of America</td> <td class="tcr">34,958</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Germany</td> <td class="tcr">29,663</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">France</td> <td class="tcr">21,748</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr">21,106</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Holland</td> <td class="tcr">19,295</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Spain</td> <td class="tcr">6,102</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr">5,218</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr">3,019</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Austria Hungary</td> <td class="tcr">2,668</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Russia</td> <td class="tcr">2,230</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr">1,125<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Italy</td> <td class="tcr">971</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr">900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Canada</td> <td class="tcr">700</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Australia</td> <td class="tcr">600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Norway, Portugal and Finland</td> <td class="tcr">692</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">———</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Total  150,995</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>During recent years the use of cocoa has increased rapidly +in some countries. The following table gives the increase per +cent in consumption in 1905 over that in 1901 for the five chief +consumers:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">United States</td> <td class="tcr">70 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Germany</td> <td class="tcr">61 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">France</td> <td class="tcr">21 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr">11 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Holland</td> <td class="tcr">34 </td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="author">(A. B. R.; W. G. F.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1b" id="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> As a matter of nomenclature it is unfortunate that the corrupt +form “cocoa,” from a confusion with the coco-nut (<i>q.v.</i>), has become +stereotyped. When introduced early in the 18th century it was as a +trisyllable <i>co-co-a</i>, a mispronunciation of <i>cacao</i> or <i>cocoa</i>, the Spanish +adaptation from the Mexican <i>cacauatl</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCO DE MER<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Double Coco-nut</span>, a palm, <i>Lodoicea +Sechellarum</i>, which is a native of the Seychelles Islands. The +flowers are borne in enormous fleshy spadices, the male and +female on distinct plants. The fruits, which are among the +largest known, take ten years to ripen; they have a fleshy and +fibrous envelope surrounding a hard nut-like portion which is +generally two-lobed, suggesting a large double coco-nut. The +contents of the nut are edible as in the coco-nut. The empty +fruits (after germination of the seed) are found floating in the +Indian Ocean, and were known long before the palm was +discovered, giving rise to various stories as to their origin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCOMA<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cucamas</span>, a tribe of South American Indians +living on the Marañon and lower Huallaga rivers, Peru. In 1681, +at the time of the Jesuit missionaries’ first visit, they had the +custom of eating their dead and grinding the bones to a powder, +which was mixed with a fermented liquor and drunk. When expostulated +with by the Jesuits they said “it was better to be +inside a friend than to be swallowed up by the cold earth.” +They are a provident, hard-working people, partly Christianized, +and bolder than most of the civilized Indians. Their languages +show affinity to the Tupi-Guarani stock.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCO-NUT</span><a name="FnAnchor_1c" id="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">PALM<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (<i>Cocos nucifera</i>), a very beautiful and lofty +palm-tree, growing to a height of from 60 to 100 ft., with a +cylindrical stem which attains a thickness of 2 ft. The tree +terminates in a crown of graceful waving pinnate leaves. The +leaf, which may attain to 20 ft. in length, consists of a strong +mid-rib, whence numerous long acute leaflets spring, giving the +whole the appearance of a gigantic feather. The flowers are +arranged in branching spikes 5 or 6 ft. long, enclosed in a tough +spathe, and the fruits mature in bunches of from 10 to 20. The +fruits when mature are oblong, and triangular in cross section, +measuring from 12 to 18 in. in length and 6 to 8 in. in diameter. +The fruit consists of a thick external husk or rind of a fibrous +structure, within which is the ordinary coco-nut of commerce. +The nut has a very hard, woody shell, enclosing the nucleus or +kernel, the true seed, within which again is a milky liquid called +coco-nut milk. The palm is so widely disseminated throughout +tropical countries that it is impossible to distinguish its original +habitat. It flourishes with equal vigour on the coast of the +East Indies, throughout the tropical islands of the Pacific, and in +the West Indies and tropical America. It, however, attains its +greatest luxuriance and vigour on the sea shore, and it is most +at home in the innumerable small islands of the Pacific seas, +of the vegetation of which it is eminently characteristic. Its +wide distribution, and its existence in even the smallest coral +islets of the Pacific, are due to the character of the fruit, which is +eminently adapted for distribution by sea. The fibrous husk +renders the fruit light and the leathery skin prevents water-logging. +The seed will germinate readily on the sea-shore, the +seedling growing out through the soft germ-pore on the upper +end of the hard nut. The fruits dropping into the sea from trees +growing on any shores would be carried by tides and currents +to be cast up and to vegetate on distant coasts.</p> + +<p>The coco-nut palm, being the most useful of its entire tribe +to the natives of the regions in which it grows, and furnishing +many valuable and important commercial products, is the subject +of careful cultivation in many countries. On the Malabar and +Coromandel coasts of India the trees grow in vast numbers; +and in Ceylon, which is peculiarly well suited for their cultivation, +it is estimated that twenty millions of the trees flourish. The +wealth of a native in Ceylon is estimated by his property in +coco-nut trees, and Sir J. Emerson Tennent noted a law case in a +district court in which the subject in dispute was a claim to the +2520th part of ten of the precious palms. The cultivation of +coco-nut plantations in Ceylon was thus described by Sir J. E. +Tennent. “The first operation in coco-nut planting is the formation +of a nursery, for which purpose the ripe nuts are placed in +squares containing about 400 each; these are covered an inch +deep with sand and seaweed or soft mud from the beach, and +watered daily till they germinate. The nuts put down in April +are sufficiently grown to be planted out before the rains of +September, and they are then set out in holes 3 ft. deep and +20 to 30 ft. apart.... Before putting in the young plant it is +customary to bed the roots with soft mud and seaweed, and for +the first two years they must be watered and protected from +the glare of the sun under shades made of the plaited fronds of +the coco-nut palm, or the fan-like leaves of the palmyra.” The +palm begins to bear fruit from the fifth to the seventh year of its +age, each stock carrying from 5 to 30 nuts, the tree maturing +on an average 60 nuts yearly.</p> + +<p>The uses to which the various parts of the coco-nut palm are +applied in the regions of their growth are almost endless. The +nuts supply no inconsiderable proportion of the food of the +natives, and the milky juice enclosed within them forms a pleasant +and refreshing drink. The juice drawn from the unexpanded +flower spathes forms “toddy,” which may be boiled down to +sugar, or it is allowed to ferment and is distilled, when it yields +a spirit which, in common with a like product from other sources, +is known as “arrack.” As in other palms, the young bud cut +out of the top of the tree forms an esculent vegetable, “palm +cabbage.” The trunk yields a timber (known in European +commerce as porcupine wood) which is used for building, furniture, +firewood, &c.; the leaves are plaited into cajan fans and +baskets, and used for thatching the roofs of houses; the shell of +the nut is employed as a water-vessel; and the external husk or +rind yields the coir fibre, with which are fabricated ropes, cordage, +brushes, &c. The coco-nut palm also furnishes very important +articles of external commerce, of which the principal is coco-nut +oil. It is obtained by pressure or boiling from the kernels, which +are first broken up into small pieces and dried in the sun, when +they are known as copperah or <i>copra</i>. It is estimated that 1000 +full-sized nuts will yield upwards of 500 ℔. of copra, from which +25 gallons of oil should be obtained. The oil is a white solid +substance at ordinary temperatures, with a peculiar, rather disagreeable +odour, from the volatile fatty acids it contains, and a +mild taste. Under pressure it separates into a liquid and a +solid portion, the latter, coco-stearin, being extensively used in +the manufacture of candles. Coco-nut oil is also used in the manufacture +of marine soap, which forms a lather with sea-water. +Coir is also an important article of commerce, being in large +demand for the manufacture of coarse brushes, door mats and +woven coir-matting for lobbies and passages. A considerable +quantity of fresh nuts is imported, chiefly from the West Indies, +into Britain and other countries; they are familiar as the +reward of the popular English amusement of “throwing at the +coco-nuts”; and the contents are either eaten raw or used as +material for cakes, &c., or sweetmeats (“coker-nut”).</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1c" id="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The spelling “cocoa-nut,” which introduces a confusion with +cocoa (<i>q.v.</i>) or cacao, is a corruption of the original Portuguese form, +dating from (and largely due to) Johnson’s <i>Dictionary</i>. The spelling +“coker-nut,” introduced to avoid the same ambiguity, is common +in England.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COCYTUS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (mod. <i>Vuvo</i>), a tributary of the Acheron, a river of +Thesprotia (mod. <i>pashalik</i> of Iannina), which flows into the +Ionian Sea about 20 m. N. of the Gulf of Arta. The name is also +applied in Greek mythology to a tributary of the Acheron or of +the Styx, a river in Hades. The etymology suggested is from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span> +<span class="grk" title="kôkuein">κωκύειν</span>, to wail, in allusion to the cries of the dead. Virgil +describes it as the river which surrounds the underworld (<i>Aen.</i> +vi. 132).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COD<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>, the name given to the typical fish of the family <i>Gadidae</i>, +of the Teleostean suborder Anacanthini, the position of which has +much varied in our classifications. Having no spines to their fins, +the Gadids used, in Cuvierian days, to be associated with the +herrings, Salmonids, pike, &c., in the artificially-conceived order +of Malacopterygians, or soft-finned bony fishes. But, on the +ground of their air-bladder being closed, or deprived of a pneumatic +duct communicating with the digestive canal, such as is +characteristic of the Malacopterygians, they were removed from +them and placed with the flat-fishes, or <i>Pleuronectidae</i>, in a +suborder Anacanthini, regarded as intermediate in position +between the Acanthopterygians, or spiny-finned fishes, and the +Malacopterygians. It has, however, been shown that the flat-fishes +bear no relationship to the Gadids, but are most nearly +akin to the John Dories (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dory</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The suborder Anacanthini is, nevertheless, maintained for the +<i>Muraenolepididae</i> Gadids and two related families, <i>Macruridae</i> +and <i>Muraenolepididae</i>, and may be thus defined:—Air-bladder +without open duct. Parietal bones separated by the supra-occipital; +prootic and exoccipital separated by the enlarged +opisthotic. Pectoral arch suspended from the skull: no mesocoracoid +arch. Ventral fins below or in front of the pectorals, +the pelvic bones posterior to the clavicular symphysis and only +loosely attached to it by ligament. Fins without spines; caudal +fin, if present, without expanded hypural, perfectly symmetrical, +and supported by the neural and haemal spines of the posterior +vertebrae, and by basal bones similar to those supporting the +dorsal and anal rays. This type of caudal fin must be regarded as +secondary, the <i>Gadidae</i> being, no doubt, derived from fishes in +which the homocercal fin of the typical Teleostean had been lost.</p> + +<p>About 120 species of Gadids are distinguished, mostly marine, +many being adapted to life at great depths; all are carnivorous. +They inhabit chiefly the northern seas, but many abyssal forms +occur between the tropics and in the southern parts of the Atlantic +and Pacific. They are represented in British waters by eight +genera, and about twenty species, only one of which, the burbot +(<i>Lota vulgaris</i>), is an inhabitant of fresh waters. Several of the +marine species are of first-rate economic importance. The genus +<i>Gadus</i> is characterized by having three dorsal and two anal fins, +and a truncated or notched caudal fin. In the cod and haddock +the base of the first anal fin is not, or but slightly, longer than +that of the second dorsal fin; in the whiting, pout, coal-fish, +pollack, hake, ling and burbot, the former is considerably longer +than the latter.</p> + +<p>The cod, <i>Gadus morrhua</i>, possesses, in common with the other +members of the genus, three dorsal and two anal fins, and a single +barbel, at least half as long as the eye, at the chin. It is a widely-distributed +species, being found throughout the northern and +temperate seas of Europe, Asia and America, extending as far +south as Gibraltar, but not entering the Mediterranean, and +inhabits water from 25 to 50 fathoms deep, where it always feeds +close to the bottom. It is exceedingly voracious, feeding on the +smaller denizens of the ocean—fish, crustaceans, worms and +molluscs, and greedily taking almost any bait the fisherman +chooses to employ. The cod spawns in February, and is exceedingly +prolific, the roe of a single female having been known to +contain upwards of eight millions of ova, and to form more than +half the weight of the entire fish. Only a small proportion of +these get fertilized, and still fewer ever emerge from the egg. +The number of cod is still further reduced by the trade carried +on in roe, large quantities of which are used in France as ground-bait +in the sardine fishery, while it also forms an article of human +food. The young are about an inch in length by the end of spring, +but are not fit for the market till the second year, and it has +been stated that they do not reach maturity, as shown by the +power of reproduction, till the end of their third year. They +usually measure about 3 ft. in length, and weigh from 12 to 20 ℔, +but specimens have been taken from 50 to 70 ℔ in weight.</p> + +<p>As an article of food the cod-fish is in greatest perfection during +the three months preceding Christmas. It is caught on all parts +of the British and Irish coasts, but the Dogger Bank, and Rockall, +off the Outer Hebrides, have been specially noted for their cod-fisheries. +The fishery is also carried on along the coast of Norfolk +and Suffolk, where great quantities of the fish are caught with +hook and line, and conveyed to market alive in “well-boats” +specially built for this traffic. Such boats have been in use since +the beginning of the 18th century. The most important cod-fishery +in the world is that which has been prosecuted for centuries +on the Newfoundland banks, where it is not uncommon for a +single fisherman to take over 500 of these fish in ten or eleven +hours. These, salted and dried, are exported to all parts of the +world, and form, when taken in connexion with the enormous +quantity of fresh cod consumed, a valuable addition to the food +resources of the human race.</p> + +<p>The air-bladder of this fish furnishes isinglass, little, if at all, +inferior to that obtained from the sturgeon, while from the liver is +obtained cod-liver oil, largely used in medicine as a remedy in +scrofulous complaints and pulmonary consumption (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar36">Cod-liver +Oil</a></span>). “The Norwegians,” says Cuvier, “give cod-heads +with marine plants to their cows for the purpose of producing a +greater proportion of milk. The vertebrae, the ribs, and the bones +in general, are given to their cattle by the Icelanders, and by the +Kamtchatdales to their dogs. These same parts, properly dried, +are also employed as fuel in the desolate steppes of the Icy Sea.”</p> + +<p>At Port Logan in Wigtonshire cod-fish are kept in a large +reservoir, scooped out of the solid rock by the action of the sea, +egress from which is prevented by a barrier of stones, which does +not prevent the free access of the water. These cod are fed +chiefly on mussels, and when the keeper approaches to feed them +they may be seen rising to the surface in hundreds and eagerly +seeking the edge. They have become comparatively tame and +familiar. Frank Buckland, who visited the place, states that +after a little while they allowed him to take hold of them, scratch +them on the back, and play with them in various ways. Their +flavour is considered superior to that of the cod taken in the open +sea.</p> +<div class="author">(G. A. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CODA<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (Ital. for “tail”; from the Lat. <i>cauda</i>), in music, a +term for a passage which brings a movement or a separate piece +to a conclusion. This developed from the simple chords of a +cadence into an elaborate and independent form. In a series +of variations on a theme or in a composition with a fixed order +of subjects, the “coda” is a passage sufficiently contrasted with +the conclusions of the separate variations or subjects, added to +form a complete conclusion to the whole. Beethoven raised the +“coda” to a feature of the highest importance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CODE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (Lat. <i>codex</i>), the term for a complete and systematic +body of law, or a complete and exclusive statement of some +portion of the law; and so by analogy for any system of rules +or doctrine; also for an arrangement in telegraphy, signalling, +&c., by which communications may be made according to rules +adopted for brevity or secrecy.</p> + +<p>In jurisprudence the question of the reduction of laws to +written codes, representing a complete and readily accessible +system, is a matter of great historical and practical interest. +Many collections of laws, however, which are commonly known +as codes,<a name="FnAnchor_1d" id="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> would not correspond to the definition given above. +The Code of Justinian (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Justinian I.</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>), the +most celebrated of all, is not in itself a complete and exclusive +system of law. It is a collection of imperial constitutions, just +as the Pandects are a collection of the opinions of jurisconsults. +The Code and the Pandects together being, as Austin says, +“digests of Roman law in force at the time of their conception,” +would, if properly arranged, constitute a code. Codification in +this sense is merely a question of the <i>form</i> of the laws, and has +nothing to do with their goodness or badness from an ethical or +political point of view. Sometimes codification only means the +changing of unwritten into written law; in the stricter sense +it means the changing of unwritten or badly-written law into +law well written.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span></p> + +<p>The same causes which made collections of laws necessary +in the time of Justinian have led to similar undertakings among +modern peoples. The actual condition of laws until the period +when they are consciously remodelled is one of confusion, +contradiction, repetition and disorder; and to these evils the +progress of society adds the burden of perpetually increasing +legislation. Some attempt must be made to simplify the task +of learning the laws by improving their expression and arrangement. +This is by no means an easy task in any country, but in +England it is surrounded with peculiar difficulties. The independent +character of English law has prevented an attempt to +do what has already been done for other systems which have the +basis of the Roman law to fall back upon.</p> + +<p>The most celebrated modern code is the French. The necessity +of a code in France was mainly caused by the immense number +of separate systems of jurisprudence existing in that country +before 1789, justifying Voltaire’s sarcasm that a traveller in +France had to change laws about as often as he changed horses. +At first published under the title of <i>Code Civil des Français</i>, it +was afterwards entitled the <i>Code Napoléon</i> (<i>q.v.</i>)—the emperor +Napoleon wishing to attach his name to a work which he regarded +as the greatest glory of his reign. The code, it has been said, +is the product of Roman and customary law, together with the +ordinances of the kings and the laws of the Revolution. In form +it has passed through several changes caused by the political +vicissitudes of the country, and it has of course suffered from +time to time important alterations in substance, but it still +remains virtually the same in principle as it left the hands of +its framers. The code has produced a vast number of commentaries, +among which may be named those of A. Duranton, +R. T. Troplong and J. C. F. Demolombe. The remaining French +codes are the <i>Code de procédure civile</i>, the <i>Code de commerce</i>, the +<i>Code d’instruction criminelle</i> and the <i>Code pénal</i>. The merits of +the French code have entered into the discussion on the general +question of codification. Austin agrees with Savigny in condemning +the ignorance and haste with which it was compiled. +“It contains,” says Austin, “no definitions of technical terms +(even the most leading), no exposition of the <i>rationale</i> of distinctions +(even the most leading), no exposition of the broad +principles and rules to which the narrower provisions expressed +in the code are subordinate; hence its fallacious brevity.” +Codes modelled on the French code have, however, taken firm +root in most of the countries of continental Europe and in other +parts of the world as well, such as Latin America and several +of the British colonies.</p> + +<p>The Prussian code (<i>Code Frédéric</i>) was published by Frederick +the Great in 1751. It was intended to take the place of “Roman, +common Saxon and other foreign subsidiary laws and statutes,” +the provincial laws remaining in force as before. One of the +objects of the king was to destroy the power of the advocates, +whom he hoped to render useless. This, with other systems of +law existing in Germany, has been replaced by the Civil Code +of 1900 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The object of all these codes has been to frame a common +system to take the place of several systems of law, rather than +to restate in an exact and exhaustive form the whole laws of +a nation, which is the problem of English codification. The +French and Prussian codes, although they have been of great +service in simplifying the law, have failed to prevent outside +themselves that accumulation of judiciary and statute law +which in England has been the chief motive for codification. +A more exact parallel to the English problem may be found in +the <i>Code of the State of New York</i>. The revised constitution of +the state, as adopted in 1846, “ordered the appointment of two +commissions, one to reduce into a written and a systematic +code the whole body of the law of the state, and the other to +revise, reform, simplify and abridge the rules and practice, +pleadings, &c., of the courts of record.” By an act of 1847, +the state legislature declared that the body of substantive law +should be contained in three codes—the Political, the Civil +and the Penal. The works of both commissions, completed in +1865, filled six volumes, containing the Code of Civil Procedure +(including the law of evidence), the Book of Forms, the Code of +Criminal Procedure, the Political Code, the Penal Code and the +Civil Code. In the introduction to the Civil Code it was claimed +that in many departments of the law the codes “provided for +every possible case, so that when a new case arises it is better +that it should be provided for by new legislation.” The New +York code was defective in the important points of definition +and arrangement. It formed the basis, however, of the present +codes of civil and criminal procedure in the state of New York. +Much interest has attached to the Penal Code drawn up by +Edward Livingston (<i>q.v.</i>) for the state of Louisiana. The +system consists of a Code of Crime and Punishments, a Code of +Procedure, a Code of Evidence, a Code of Reform and Prison +Discipline, and a Book of Definitions. “Though the state for +which the codes were prepared,” said Chief Justice Chase, +“neglected to avail itself of the labours assigned and solicited +by itself, they have proved, together with their introductions, +a treasure of suggestions to which many states are indebted for +useful legislation.” Most of the other states in the United +States have codes stating the law of pleading in civil actions, +and such states are often described as code states to distinguish +them from those adhering to the older forms of action, divided +between those at law and those at equity. A few states have +general codes of political and civil rights. The general drift +of legislation and of public sentiment in the United States is +towards the extension of the principle of codification, but the +contrary view has been ably maintained (see J. C. Carter, +<i>Provinces of the Written and the Unwritten Law</i>, New York, 1889).</p> + +<p>Since the time of Bentham, the codification of the law of +England has been the dream of the most enlightened jurists +and statesmen. In the interval between Bentham and our +own time there has been an immense advance in the scientific +study of law, but it may be doubted whether the problem of +codification is at all nearer solution. Interest has mainly been +directed to the historical side of legal science, to the phenomena +of the evolution of laws as part of the development of society, +and from this point of view the question of remodelling the +law is one of minor interest. To Bentham the problem presented +itself in the simplest and most direct form possible. What he +proposed to do was to set forth a body of laws, clearly expressed, +arranged in the order of their logical connexion, exhibiting their +own <i>rationale</i> and excluding all other law. On the other hand +the problem has in some respects become easier since the time +of Bentham. With the Benthamite codification the conception +of reform in the substantive law is more or less mixed up. If +codification had been possible in his day, it would, unless it had +been accompanied by the searching reforms which have been +effected since, and mainly through his influence, perhaps have +been more of an evil than a good. The mere dread that, under +the guise of codification or improvement in form, some change +in substance may secretly be effected has long been a practical +obstacle in the way of legal reform. But the law has now been +brought into a state of which it may be said that, if it is not the +best in all respects that might be desired, it is at least in most +respects as good as the conditions of legislation will permit it +to be. Codification, in fact, may now be treated purely as a +question of form. What is proposed is that the law, being, as +we assume, in substance what the nation wishes it to be, should +be made as accessible as possible, and as intelligible as possible. +These two essential conditions of a sound system of law are, +we need hardly say, far from being fulfilled in England. The +law of the land is embodied in thousands of statutes and tens of +thousands of reports. It is expressed in language which has +never been fixed by a controlling authority, and which has +swayed about with every change of time, place and circumstance. +It has no definitions, no rational distinctions, no connexion of +parts. Until the passing of the Judicature Act of 1873 it was +pervaded throughout its entire sphere by the flagrant antinomy +of law and equity, and that act has only ordered, not executed, +its consolidation. No lawyer pretends to know more than a +fragment of it. Few practical questions can be answered by a +lawyer without a search into numberless acts of parliament and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span> +reported cases. To laymen, of course, the whole law is a sealed +book. As there are no authoritative general principles, it +happens that the few legal maxims known to the public, being +apprehended out of relation to their authorities, are as often +likely to be wrong as to be right. It is hopeless to think of +making it possible for every man to be his own lawyer, but we +can at least try to make it possible for a lawyer to know the +whole law. The earlier advocates of codification founded their +case mainly on the evils of judiciary law, <i>i.e.</i> the law contained +in the reported decisions of the judges. Bentham’s bitter +antipathy to judicial legislation is well known. Austin’s thirty-ninth +lecture (<i>Lectures</i>, ed. 1869) contains an exhaustive criticism +of the tenable objections to judiciary law. All such law is +embedded in decisions on particular cases, from which it must +be extracted by a tedious and difficult process of induction. +Being created for particular cases it is necessarily uncomprehensive, +imperfect, uncertain and bulky. These are evils which +are incident to the nature of judiciary laws. The defective +form of the existing statute law, moreover, has also given rise +to loud complaints. Year by year the mass of legislation grows +larger, and as long as the basis of a system is judiciary law, it is +impossible that the new statutes can be completely integrated +therewith. The mode of framing acts of parliament, and +especially the practice of legislating by reference to previous +acts, likewise produce much uncertainty and disorder. Some +progress has, however, been made by the passing from time to +time of various acts codifying branches of law, such as the Bills +of Exchange Act 1882, the Partnership Act 1890, the Trusts +Act 1893, and the Interpretation Act 1889.</p> + +<p>The Statute Law Revision Committee also perform a useful +work in excising dead law from the statute-book, partly by repeal +of obsolete and spent acts and parts of acts, and partly by +pruning redundant preambles and words. The construction of +a section of an act may depend on the preamble and the context, +and the repeal of the preamble and certain parts of the act may +therefore affect the construction of what is left. This is provided +for by a clause which is said to have been settled by Lord Westbury. +It provides (in effect) that the repeal of any words or +expressions of enactment shall not affect the construction of any +statute or part of a statute. The lawyer, therefore, cannot rely +on the revised edition of the statutes alone, and it is still necessary +for him to consult the complete act as it was originally enacted.</p> + +<p>The process of gradual codification adopted in India has been +recommended for imitation in England by those who have had +some experience of its working. The first of the Indian codes +was the Penal Code (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminal Law</a></span>), and there are also codes +of civil and criminal procedure.</p> + +<p>Whether any attempt will ever be made to supersede this vast +and unarranged mass by a complete code seems very doubtful. +Writers on codification have for the most part insisted that the +work should be undertaken as a whole, and that the parts should +have relation to some general scheme of the law which should +be settled first. The practical difficulties in the way of an +undertaking so stupendous as the codification <i>uno coëtu</i> of the +whole mass of the law hardly require to be stated.</p> + +<p>In discussions on codification two difficulties are insisted on +by its opponents, which have some practical interest—(1) What +is to be done in those cases for which the code has not provided? +and (2) How is new law to be incorporated with the code? The +objection that a code will hamper the opinions of the court, +destroy the flexibility and elasticity of the common law, &c., +disappears when it is stated in the form of a proposition, that law +codified will cover a smaller number of cases, or will be less easily +adapted to new cases, than law uncodified. The French system +ordered the judges, under a penalty, to give a decision on all cases, +whether contemplated or not by the code, and referred them +generally to the following sources:—(1) Équité naturelle, loi +naturelle; (2) loi romain; (3) loi coutumier; (4) usages, +exemples, jugements, jurisprudence; (5) droit commun; (6) +principes généraux, maximes, doctrine, science. The Prussian +code, on the other hand, required the judges to report new cases +to the head of the judicial department, and they were decided by +the legislative commission. No provision was made in either case +for incorporating the new law with the code, an omission which +Austin justly considers fatal to the usefulness of codification. +It is absurd to suppose that any code can remain long without +requiring substantial alteration. Cases will arise when its meaning +must be extended and modified by judges, and every year +will produce its quota of new legislation by the state. The courts +should be left to interpret a code as they now interpret statutes, +and provision should be made for the continual revision of +the code, so that the new law created by judges or directly by the +state may from time to time be worked into the code.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1d" id="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The most ancient code known, that of Khammurabi, is dealt +with in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonian Law</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CODE NAPOLÉON,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> the first code of the French civil law, +known at first as the <i>Code civil des Français</i>, was promulgated +in its entirety by a law of the 30th Ventose in the year XII. +(31st of March 1804). On the 3rd of September 1807 it received +the official name of Code Napoléon, although the part that +Napoleon took in framing it was not very important. A law of +1818 restored to it its former name, but a decree of the 27th of +March 1852 re-established the title of Code Napoléon. Since +the 4th of September 1870 the laws have quoted it only under +the name of the Code Civil.</p> + +<p>Never has a work of legislation been more national in the +exact sense of the word. Desired for centuries by the France of +the <i>ancien régime</i>, and demanded by the <i>cahiers</i> of 1789, this +“code of civil laws common to the whole realm” was promised +by the constitution of 1791. However, the two first assemblies +of the Revolution were able to prepare only a few fragments +of it. The preparation of a coherent plan began with the Convention. +The <i>ancien régime</i> had collected and adjusted some of +the material. There was, on the one hand, a vast juridical +literature which by eliminating differences of detail, had disengaged +from the various French “customs” the essential part +which they had in common, under the name of “common +customary law”; on the other hand, the Roman law current in +France had in like manner undergone a process of simplification +in numerous works, the chief of which was that of Domat; +while certain parts had already been codified in the <i>Grandes +Ordonnances</i>, which were the work of d’Aguesseau. This legacy +from the past, which it was desired to preserve within reason, +had to be combined and blended with the laws of the Revolution, +which had wrought radical reforms in the conditions affecting +the individual, the tenure of real property, the order of inheritance +and the system of mortgages. Cambacérès, as the representative +of a commission of the Convention, brought forward +two successive schemes for the Code Civil. As a member of one +of the councils, he drew up a third under the Directory, and +these projected forms came in turn nearer and nearer to what +was to be the ultimate form of the code. So great was the +interest centred in this work, that the law of the 19th Brumaire, +year VIII., which, in ratification of the previous day’s <i>coup +d’état</i> nominated provisional consuls and two legislative commissions, +gave injunctions to the latter to draw up a scheme for +the Code Civil. This was done in part by one of the members, +Jacqueminot, and finally under the constitution of the year +VIII., the completion of the work was taken in hand. The +legislative machinery established by this constitution, defective +as it was in other respects, was eminently suited for this task. +Indeed, all projected laws emanated from the government and +were prepared by the newly established council of state, which +was so well recruited that it easily furnished qualified men, +mostly veterans of the revolution, to prepare the final scheme. +The council of state naturally possessed in its legislative section +and its general assembly bodies both competent and sufficiently +limited to discuss the texts efficiently. The <i>corps législatif</i> had +not the right of amendment, so could not disturb the harmony +of the scheme. It was in the discussions of the general assembly +of the council of state that Napoleon took part, in 97 cases out of +102 in the capacity of chairman, but, interesting as his observations +occasionally are, he cannot be considered as a serious +collaborator in this great work.</p> + +<p>Those responsible for the scheme have in the main been very +successful in their work; they have generally succeeded in fusing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span> +the two elements which they had to deal with, namely ancient +French law, and that of the Revolution. The point in which +their work is comparatively weak is the system of hypothec (<i>q.v.</i>), +because they did not succeed in steering a middle course between +two opposite systems, and the law of the 23rd of March 1855 +(<i>sur la transcription en matière hypothécaire</i>) was necessary to +make good the deficiency. A fault frequently found with the +Code Civil is that its general divisions show a lack of logic and +method, but the division is practically that of the Institutes +of Justinian, and is about as good as any other: persons, things, +inheritance, contracts and obligations, and finally, in place of +actions, which have no importance for French law except from +the point of view of procedure, privileges and hypothecs, as in +the ancient <i>coutumes</i> of France, and prescription. It is, <i>mutatis +mutandis</i>, practically the same division as that of Blackstone’s +Commentaries.</p> + +<p>Of late years other objections have been expressed; serious +omissions have been pointed out in the Code; it has not given +to personal property the importance which it has acquired in +the course of the 19th century; it makes no provision for +dealing with the legal relations between employers and employed +which modern complex undertakings involve; it does not treat +of life insurance, &c. But this only proves that it could not foretell +the future, for most of these questions are concerned with +economic phenomena and social relations which did not exist at +the time when it was framed. The Code needed revising and +completing, and this was carried out by degrees by means of +numerous important laws. In 1904, after the celebration of the +centenary of the Code Civil, an extra-parliamentary commission +was nominated to prepare a revision of it, and at once began the +work.</p> + +<p>The influence of the Code Civil has been very great, not only +in France but also abroad. Belgium has preserved it, and the +Rhine provinces only ceased to be subject to it on the promulgation +of the civil code of the German empire. Its ascendancy has +been due chiefly to the clearness of its provisions, and to the +spirit of equity and equality which inspires them. Numerous +more recent codes have also taken it as a model: the Dutch code, +the Italian, and the code of Portugal; and, more remotely, the +Spanish code, and those of the Central and South American +republics. In the present day it is rivalled by the German civil +code, which, having been drawn up at the end of the 19th +century, naturally does not show the same lacunae or omissions. +It is inspired, however, by a very different spirit, and the French +code does not suffer altogether by comparison with it either in +substance or in form.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Le Code Civil, livre du centenaire</i> (Paris, 1904), a collection of +essays by French and foreign lawyers.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. P. E.)</div> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CODIAEUM,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a small genus of plants belonging to the natural +order Euphorbiaceae. One species, <i>C. variegatum</i>, a native of +Polynesia, is cultivated in greenhouses, under the name of +croton, for the sake of its leaves, which are generally variegated +with yellow, and are often twisted or have the blades separated +into distinct portions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CODICIL<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (Lat. <i>codicillus</i>, a little book or tablet, diminutive +of <i>codex</i>), a supplement to a will (<i>q.v.</i>), containing anything which +a testator desires to add, or which he wishes to retract, to explain +or to alter. In English law a codicil requires to be executed with +the same formalities as a will under the Wills Act 1837.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CODILLA,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> the name given to the broken fibres which are +separated from the flax during the scutching process. On this +account it is sometimes termed scutching tow. Quantities of this +material are used along with heckled tow in the production of +tow yarns.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CODINUS, GEORGE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Georgios Kodinos</span>], the reputed author +of three extant works in Byzantine literature. Their attribution +to him is merely a matter of convenience, two of them being +anonymous in the MSS. Of Codinus himself nothing is known; +it is supposed that he lived towards the end of the 15th century. +The works referred to are the following:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>Patria</i> (<span class="grk" title="Ta Patria tês Kônstantinoupoleôs">Τὰ Πάτρια τῆς Κωνσταντινουπόλεως</span>), treating +of the history, topography, and monuments of Constantinople. +It is divided into five sections: (<i>a</i>) the foundation of the city; +(<i>b</i>) its situation, limits and topography; (<i>c</i>) its statues, works +of art, and other notable sights; (<i>d</i>) its buildings; (<i>e</i>) the construction +of the church of St Sophia. It was written in the reign +of Basil II. (976-1025), revised and rearranged under Alexius I. +Comnenus (1081-1118), and perhaps copied by Codinus, whose +name it bears in some (later) MSS. The chief sources are: the +<i>Patria</i> of Hesychius Illustrius of Miletus, an anonymous (<i>c.</i> 750) +brief chronological record (<span class="grk" title="Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai">Παραστάσεις σύντομοι χρονικαί</span>), +and an anonymous account (<span class="grk" title="diêgêsis">διήγησις</span>) of St Sophia (ed. T. +Preger in <i>Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum</i>, fasc. i., +1901, to be followed by the <i>Patria</i> of Codinus). Procopius, +<i>De Aedificiis</i> and the poem of Paulus Silentiarius on the dedication +of St Sophia should be read in connexion with this subject.</p> + +<p>2. <i>De Officiis</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tôn Ophphikiôn">Περὶ τῶν Όφφικίων</span>), a sketch, written in an +unattractive style, of court and higher ecclesiastical dignities +and of the ceremonies proper to different occasions. It should +be compared with the <i>De Cerimoniis</i> of Constantine Porphyrogenitus.</p> + +<p>3. A chronological outline of events from the beginning of +the world to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (called +Agarenes in the MS. title). It is of little value.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Complete editions are (by I. Bekker) in the Bonn <i>Corpus scriptorum +Hist. Byz.</i> (1839-1843, where, however, some sections of the +<i>Patria</i> are omitted), and in J. P. Migne, <i>Patrologia graeca</i>, clvii.; see +also C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COD-LIVER OIL<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (<i>Oleum Morrhuae</i>, or <i>Oleum Jecoris Aselli</i>), +the oil obtained from the liver of the common cod (<i>Gadus +morrhua</i>). In the early process for extracting the oil the livers +were allowed to putrefy in wooden tubs, when oils of two qualities, +one called “pale oil,” and the other “light brown oil,” successively +rose to the surface and were drawn off. A third oil was +obtained by heating the liver-residues to above the boiling-point +of water, whereupon a black product, technically called “brown +oil,” separated. The modern practice consists in heating the +perfectly fresh, cleaned livers by steam to a temperature above +that of boiling water, or, in more recent practice, to a lower +temperature, the livers being kept as far as possible from contact +with air. The oils so obtained are termed “steamed-liver oils.” +The “pale” and “light brown” oils are used in pharmacy; +the “brown” oil, the cod oil of commerce, being obtained from +putrid and decomposing livers, has an objectionable taste and +odour and is largely employed by tanners. By boiling the livers +at a somewhat high temperature, “unracked” cod oil is obtained, +containing a considerable quantity of “stearine”; this fat, +which separates on cooling, is sold as “fish stearine” for soap-making, +or as “fish-tallow” for currying. The oil when freed +from the stearine is known as “racked oil.” “Coast cod oil” +is the commercial name for the oil obtained from the livers of +various kinds of fish, <i>e.g.</i> hake, ling, haddock, &c. The most +important centres of the cod-liver oil industry are Lofoten and +Romsdal in Norway; the oil is also prepared in the United +States, Canada, Newfoundland, Iceland and Russia; and at +one time a considerable quantity was prepared in the Shetland +Islands and along the east coast of Scotland.</p> + +<p>Cod-liver oil contains palmitin, stearin and other more complex +glycerides; the “stearine” mentioned above, however, contains +very little palmitin and stearin. Several other acids have been +identified: P. M. Meyerdahl obtained 4% of palmitic acid, +20% of jecoleic acid, C<span class="su">19</span>H<span class="su">36</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, and 20% of therapic acid, +C<span class="su">17</span>H<span class="su">26</span>O<span class="su">2</span>; other investigators have recognized jecoric acid, +C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">30</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, asellic acid, C<span class="su">17</span>H<span class="su">32</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, and physetoleic acid, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">30</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, +but some uncertainty attends these last three acids. Therapic +and jecoleic acids apparently do not occur elsewhere in the +animal kingdom, and it is probable that the therapeutic +properties of the oil are associated with the presence of these +acids, and not with the small amount of iodine present as was at +one time supposed. Other constituents are cholesterol (0.46-1.32%), +traces of calcium, magnesium, sodium, chlorine and +bromine, and various aliphatic amines which are really secondary +products, being formed by the decomposition of the cellular tissue.</p> + +<p>Cod-liver oil is used externally in medicine when its internal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span> +administration is rendered impossible by idiosyncrasy or the +state of the patient’s digestion. The oil is very readily absorbed +from the skin and exerts all its therapeutic actions when thus +exhibited. This method is often resorted to in the case of infants +or young children suffering from abdominal or other forms of +tuberculosis. Its only objection is the odour which the patient +exhales. When taken by the mouth, cod-liver oil shares with +other liver-oils the property of ready absorption. It often causes +unpleasant symptoms, which must always be dealt with and not +disregarded, more harm than good being done if this course is +not followed. Fortunately a tolerance is soon established in +the majority of cases. It has been experimentally proved that +this is more readily absorbed than any other oil—including other +liver-oils. Much attention has been paid to the explanation of +this fact, since knowledge on this point might enable an artificial +product, without the disadvantages of this oil, to be substituted +for it. Very good results have been obtained from a preparation +named “lipanin,” which consists of six parts of oleic acid and +ninety-four of pure olein. Cod-liver oil has the further peculiarity +of being more readily oxidizable than any other oil; an obviously +valuable property when it is remembered that the entire food-value +of oils depends on their oxidation.</p> + +<p>Cod-liver oil may be given in all wasting diseases, and is +occasionally valuable in cases of chronic rheumatoid arthritis; +but its great therapeutic value is in cases of tuberculosis of +whatever kind, and notably in pulmonary tuberculosis or +consumption. Its reputation in this is quite inexpugnable. It +is essential to remember that “in phthisis the key of the situation +is the state of the alimentary tract,” and the utmost care must +be taken to obviate the nausea, loss of appetite and diarrhoea, +only too easily induced by this oil. It is best to begin with only +one dose in the twenty-four hours, to be taken just before going +to sleep, so that the patient is saved its unpleasant “repetition” +from an unaccustomed stomach. In general, it is therefore wise +to order a double dose at bedtime. The oil may be given in +capsules, or in the form of an emulsion, with or without malt-extract, +or success may be obtained by adding, to every two +drachms of the oil, ten minims of pure ether and a drop of +peppermint oil. The usual dose, at starting, is one or two +drachms, but the oil should be given eventually in the largest +quantities that the patient can tolerate.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1668-1710), British soldier +and colonial governor, whose father was captain-general of the +Leeward Isles, was born in the island of Barbados, West Indies, +in 1668. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he was elected a +fellow of All Souls, and subsequently served with the British +forces in Flanders, being rewarded in 1695 with a captaincy +in the Guards. In the same year he attended King William III. +on his visit to Oxford, and, in the absence of the public orator, +was chosen to deliver the University oration. In 1697, on the +death of his father, he was appointed captain-general and commander-in-chief +of the Leeward Isles. In 1703 he commanded the +unsuccessful British expedition against Guadeloupe. After this +he resigned his governorship, and spent the rest of his life in +retirement and study on his Barbados estates. He died on the +7th of April 1710, bequeathing these estates to the Society for the +Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts for the foundation +of a college in Barbados. This college, known as the Codrington +college, was built in 1714-1742. To All Souls College, Oxford, +he bequeathed books worth £6000 and £10,000 in money, out +of which was built and endowed the Codrington library there.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1770-1851), British admiral, +belonged to a family long settled at Dodington in Gloucestershire. +He was the youngest of three brothers, who were left +orphans at an early age, and were educated by an uncle, Mr +Bethell. Edward Codrington was sent for a short time to Harrow, +and entered the navy in July 1783. He served on the American +station, in the Mediterranean and at home, till he was promoted +lieutenant on the 28th of May 1783. Lord Howe selected him +to be signal lieutenant on the flagship of the Channel fleet at +the beginning of the revolutionary war with France. In that +capacity he served in the “Queen Charlotte” (100) during the +operations which culminated in the battle of the 1st of June 1794. +The notes he wrote on Barrow’s account of the battle in his <i>Life +of Howe</i>, and the reminiscences he dictated to his daughter, +which are to be found in her memoir of him, are of great value for +the history of the action. On the 7th of October 1794 he was +promoted commander, and on the 6th of April 1795 attained the +rank of post-captain and the command of the “Babet” (22). +He continued to serve in the Channel, and was present at the +action off L’Orient on the 23rd of June 1795. Codrington wrote +notes on this encounter also, which are to be found in the memoir. +They are able and valuable, but, like all his correspondence +throughout his life, show that he was of a somewhat censorious +disposition, was apt to take the worst view of the conduct of +others, and was liable to be querulous. He next commanded the +“Druid” (32) in the Channel and on the coast of Portugal, till +she was paid off in 1797. Codrington now remained on shore and +on half-pay for some years. In December 1802 he married Jane, +daughter of Jasper Hall of Kingston, Jamaica.</p> + +<p>On the renewal of the war after the breach of the peace of +Amiens he was appointed (May 1805) to the command of the +“Orion” (74) and was attached to the fleet on the coast of +Spain, then blockading Villeneuve in Cadiz. The “Orion” +took a conspicuous part in the battle of Trafalgar. Codrington’s +correspondence contains much illuminative evidence as to the +preliminaries and the events of the victory. From 1805 till 1813 +he continued to serve first in the “Orion” and then (1808) in +the “Blake” (74) in European waters. He was present on +the Walcheren expedition, and was very actively employed on +the Mediterranean coast of Spain in co-operating with the +Spaniards against the French. In 1814 he was promoted rear-admiral, +at which time he was serving on the coast of North +America as captain of the fleet to Sir Alexander Cochrane during +the operations against Washington, Baltimore and New Orleans. +In 1815 he was made K.C.B., and was promoted vice-admiral on +the 10th of July 1821. In December 1826 he was appointed to +the Mediterranean command, and sailed on the 1st of February +1827. From that date until his recall on the 21st of June 1828 he +was engaged in the arduous duties imposed on him by the Greek +War of Independence, which had led to anarchy and much +piracy in the Levant. On the 20th of October 1827 he destroyed +the Turkish and Egyptian naval forces at Navarino (<i>q.v.</i>), while +in command of a combined British, French and Russian fleet. As +the battle had been unforeseen in England, and its result was unwelcome +to the ministry of the day, Codrington was entangled in a +correspondence to prove that he had not gone beyond his instructions, +and he was recalled by a despatch, dated the 4th of June.</p> + +<p>After the battle Codrington went to Malta to refit his ships. +He remained there till May 1828, when he sailed to join his French +and Russian colleagues on the coast of the Morea. They endeavoured +to enforce the evacuation of the peninsula by Ibrahim +peacefully. The Pasha made diplomatic difficulties, and on the +25th of July the three admirals agreed that Codrington should +go to Alexandria to obtain Ibrahim’s recall by his father Mehemet +Ali. Codrington had heard on the 22nd of June of his own +supersession, but, as his successor had not arrived, he carried out +the arrangement made on the 25th of July, and his presence at +Alexandria led to the treaty of the 6th of August 1828, by which +the evacuation of the Morea was settled. His services were +recognized by the grant of the grand cross of the Bath, but there +is no doubt that he was treated as a scape-goat at least to some +extent. After his return home he was occupied for a time in +defending himself, and then in leisure abroad. He commanded a +training squadron in the Channel in 1831 and became admiral +on the 10th of January 1837. From November 1839 to December +1842 he was commander-in-chief at Portsmouth. He died on the +28th of April 1851.</p> + +<p>Sir Edward Codrington left two sons, Sir William (1804-1884), +a soldier who commanded in the Crimea, and Sir John Henry +(1808-1877), a naval officer, who died an admiral of the fleet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memoir of the Life of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington</i>, by his +daughter Jane, Lady Bourchier, wife of Sir T. Bourchier, R.N. +(London, 1873).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CODRUS,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> in Greek legend, the last king of Athens. According +to the story, it was prophesied at the time of the Dorian invasion +of Peloponnesus (<i>c.</i> 1068 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) that only the death of their king at +the enemy’s hands could ensure victory to the Athenians. Devoting +himself to his country, Codrus, in the disguise of a peasant, +made his way into the enemy’s camp, and provoked a quarrel with +some Dorian soldiers. He fell, and the Dorians, on discovering that +Codrus had been slain, retreated homeward, despairing of success. +No one being thought worthy to succeed Codrus, the title of king +was abolished, and that of archon (<i>q.v.</i>) substituted for it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lycurgus, <i>Leocr.</i> xx. [=84-87]; Justin ii. 6; Vell. Pat. i. 2; +Grote, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, pt. i. ch. 18; Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1846-  ), American scout +and showman, known under the name of “Buffalo Bill,” was born +in 1846 in Scott county, Iowa. He first became known as one of +the riders of the “Pony Express,” a mail service established in +the spring of 1860 by the Central Overland California and Pike’s +Peak Express Company to carry the mails overland from Saint +Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, a distance of 1950 m., +by means of relays of ponies, each rider being expected to cover +about 75 m. daily. Owing to the wildness of the country and the +hostility of the Indians, both the riders and the station-keepers +led lives of great hardship and danger. The “Pony Express” +was discontinued in 1861 upon the completion of the Pacific +Telegraph company’s line, and young Cody became a scout and +guide for the United States army. In 1863 he formally enlisted +in the 7th regiment of Kansas cavalry, in which he served until +the close of the Civil War. In 1867 he made a contract with the +Kansas Pacific railway to furnish its employees with buffalo +meat while the line was being extended through the wilderness, +and his name of “Buffalo Bill” was given him from this circumstance. +In 1868-1872 he was again an army scout and guide, +serving against the Sioux and Cheyennes; and in 1872 was a +member of the Nebraska house of representatives. During the +Sioux-Cheyenne War of 1876 he served in the 5th United States +Cavalry, and at the battle of Indian Creek killed the Cheyenne +chief Yellow Hand in single combat. In 1883 he organized his +“Wild West Show,” a spectacular performance on a large scale, +his first European tour taking place in 1887. In the Nebraska +national guard he again served against the Sioux in 1890-1891.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CO-EDUCATION,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> the term applied to the instruction and +training of boys and girls, or of young people of both sexes, in +the same school or institution, in the same classes and through +the same courses of study. Examples of the thoroughgoing +application of this principle can be found in every grade of +education from the elementary school to the university. But +the term “Co-education” is sometimes used in a wider sense, +in order to include cases in which boys and girls, or young men +and young women of university age, are admitted to membership +of the same school or college but receive instruction wholly or in +part in separate classes and in different subjects. Other variable +factors in co-educational systems are the extent to which men +and women are mixed on the teaching staff, and the freedom of +intercourse permitted between pupils of the two sexes in class, +in games and in other activities of school life. In another form +of combined education (preferred by Comte, <i>Système de politique +positive</i>, iv. 266), pupils of the two sexes are taught successively +by the same teacher. By the English Board of Education, a +distinction is drawn between mixed schools and dual schools. +“Mixed schools” are those in which, for most subjects of the +curriculum, boys and girls are taught together by the same +teachers: in “dual schools” there are separate boys’ and girls’ +departments under a single principal, but with separate entrances, +classrooms and playgrounds for the two sexes.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Co-education in early times was occasional and +sporadic. For example, women were admitted by Plato to the +inner circle of the Academy on terms of equality with men. +The educational endowments of Teos provided that the professors +of literature should teach both boys and girls. It is uncertain +whether the Roman schools in classical times were attended by +both sexes. A tombstone found at Capua represents a schoolmaster +with a boy on one side and a girl on the other. Probably +co-education was practised in country districts for economical +reasons; and also in the home schools organized by wealthier +families (Wilkins, <i>Roman Education</i>, pp. 42-43). At Charles the +Great’s Palace School at Aachen (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 782 onwards), Alcuin +taught together the young princes and their sisters, as well as +grown men and women. The Humanists of the Renaissance +made the full development of personality a chief aim of education, +and held up literary accomplishment as a desirable mark of +personal distinction both for men and women. This led to the +scholarly education of girls along with boys in the home schools +of some great families. Thus, at Mantua (1423 onwards), +Vittorino da Feltre taught Cecilia Gonzaga with her brothers +and the other boy pupils at his boarding-school; but there is no +evidence that the latter was otherwise co-educational. Luther +and other Reformers urged that girls as well as boys should be +taught to read the Bible. Hence came the tendency to co-education +of boys and girls in some elementary schools in Protestant +lands. This tendency can be traced both in Scotland and in the +northern parts of England. It is believed that, in the early days +of New England, district schools in smaller American towns were +open to boys and girls alike, but that few girls advanced beyond +reading and writing (Martin, <i>Massachusetts Public School System</i>, +p. 130). At Dorchester, Mass., it was left to the discretion +of the elders and schoolmen whether maids should be taught with +the boys or not; but in practice the girls seem to have been +educated apart. In 1602 the council of Ayr, Scotland, ordained +that the girls who were learning to read and write at the Grammar +School should be sent to the master of the Song School, “because +it is not seemly that sic lasses should be among the lads” (Grant, +<i>History of the Burgh and Parish Schools of Scotland</i>, p. 526 ff.). +Meriden, Connecticut, seems to have made common provision +for the elementary education of boys and girls in 1678. Northampton, +Mass., did the same in 1680. Deerfield, Mass., in 1698 +voted that “all families having children either male or female +between the ages of six and ten years shall pay by the poll for +their schooling”—presumably in the common school.</p> + +<p>Thus the beginnings of co-education in its modern organized +form may be traced back partly to Scotland and partly to the +United States. The co-education of boys and girls, carried +through in varying degrees of completeness, was not uncommon +in the old Endowed Schools of Scotland, and became more +frequent as increasing attention was given to the education of +girls. At the Dollar Institution, founded by John McNabb for +the benefit of the poor of the parish of Dollar and shire of Clackmannan +(date of will, 1800), boys and girls have been educated +together in certain classes since the beginning of the school in +1818. In the eastern parts of the United States, where the Puritan +tradition also prevailed, co-education struck firm root, and spread +chiefly for reasons of convenience and economy (Dexter, <i>History +of Education in United States</i>, p. 430). But throughout the west, +co-education was strongly preferred in elementary and secondary +schools and in universities on the further ground that it was +believed to be more in accordance with the democratic principle +of equal educational opportunity for the two sexes.</p> + +<p>It should be added, however, that the leaven of Pestalozzi’s +thought has worked powerfully both in Europe and America in +favour of the idea of co-education. His view was that all +educational institutions should, as far as possible, be modelled +upon the analogy of the family and of the home. At Stanz +(1798-1799) he educated together in one household boys and +girls ranging in age from five to fifteen. At Burgdorf (1799-1804) +his work was in part co-educational. At Yverdun (1804-1825) +Pestalozzi established a school for girls close to his school +for boys. The girls received instruction from some of the +masters of the boys’ school, and girls and boys met at evening +worship, in short excursions and at other times.</p> + +<p>In England, the Society of Friends have been the pioneers of +co-education in boarding schools, both for younger children +and for pupils up to fifteen or sixteen years of age. The practice +of the society, though not exclusively co-educational, has long +been favourable to co-education, either in its complete or +restricted form, as being more in harmony with the conditions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span> +of family life. Ackworth school was established by the London +Yearly Meeting in 1779 for the education of boys and girls; +but the school has never been fully co-educational, the boys and +girls being taught separately except in a few classes. At Sidcot +school, which was founded in 1808 by the Associated Quarterly +Meetings in the west of England for the education of children of +Friends, boys and girls are taught together, except in certain +handicraft subjects. Several other co-educational schools were +founded by the Society of Friends during the first half of the 19th +century.</p> + +<p>Since that time the movement towards co-education in +secondary schools and universities has steadily gained strength +in England. It has been furthered by the diffusion of Pestalozzian +ideas and also by the influence of American example. +In England, private schools have made some of the most valuable +co-educational experiments. A private boarding and day +secondary school on co-educational lines was instituted by Mr +W. A. Case in Hampstead in 1865. A co-educational boarding-school +was founded in 1869 by Miss Lushington at Kingsley near +Alton, Hants. In 1873 Mr W. H. Herford began the Ladybarn +school for boys and girls at Withington in the suburbs of Manchester. +The passing of the Welsh Intermediate Education Act +1889 led to the establishment of a considerable number of new +mixed or dual secondary day-schools in Wales. Many English +teachers gained experience in these schools and subsequently +influenced English education. The work and writings of Mr +J. H. Badley at Bedales, Petersfield, a co-educational boarding-school +of the first grade, gave greatly increased weight to the +principle of co-education. Important additions have also been +made to the fund of co-educational experience by the King +Alfred’s school (Hampstead), Keswick school, and West Heath +school (Hampstead). In 1907 a Public Co-educational Boarding +School was opened at Harpenden.</p> + +<p>Since the Education Act 1902 became law, there has been a +rapid increase of co-educational secondary day-schools of the +lower grade, under county or borough education authorities, +in all parts of England. This increase is due to two chief causes, +viz. (1) The co-educational tradition of some of the higher +grade board schools, many of which have become secondary +schools; and (2) the economy effected by establishing one co-educational +secondary school, in place of two smaller schools for +boys and girls separately.</p> + +<p>The idea of co-education in secondary schools has spread in +several other European countries, especially in Holland, Norway, +Sweden and Denmark. In Scandinavia, the new practice +appears to have begun with the establishment of a private higher +secondary school, the Palmgremska Samskolan, in Stockholm, +in 1876. A similar school, Nya Svenska Läroverket, was founded +upon the same model in Helsingfors, Finland, in 1880. In +Norway, the law of 1896 introduced co-education in all state +schools. In Denmark, as in Norway, co-education was begun in +private schools; on its proving a success there, it was introduced +into the state schools, with two exceptions; and it is now +obligatory in most state schools but optional in private schools +(J. S. Thornton, <i>Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe</i>, +1907, p. 97). In Holland, there is now a good deal of co-education +in lower secondary schools of the modern type. For example, +at Utrecht, the state higher burgher school provides the same +course of instruction, except in gymnastics, for boys and girls. +At Almeloo, the municipal higher burgher school, though co-educational, +differentiates the classes in several subjects. In +Belgium, France, Germany and Austria, co-education, though +frequent in elementary schools, is regarded as undesirable in +secondary; but the movement in its favour in many parts of +Germany seems to be gathering strength. All over Europe +the Roman Catholic populations prefer the older ideal of separate +schools for boys and girls.</p> + +<p>Co-education in colleges and universities, which began at +Oberlin, Ohio, in 1833, was adopted almost without exception +by the state universities throughout the west of America from +1862 onwards. Since that time the idea has spread rapidly +throughout Europe, and the presence of women students at +universities originally confined to men is one of the most striking +educational facts of the age.</p> + +<p><i>Co-education in the United Kingdom, (a) England and Wales.</i>—The +Board of Education does not possess any summary showing +the number of pupils in mixed public elementary schools or in +mixed departments of such schools. In 1901, out of 31,502 +departments of public elementary schools in England and Wales, +nearly half (15,504) were mixed departments, in which boys and +girls were educated together. But as the departments were of +unequal size, it must not be inferred from this that half the +children in public elementary schools in that year (5,883,762) +were receiving co-education. Of the total number of departments +in public elementary schools in England and Wales, the percentage +of mixed schools fell from 51.6 in 1881 to 49.4 in 1891 +and 49.2 in 1901. But these percentages must not be taken to +prove an absolute decline in the number of children in mixed +departments.</p> + +<p>In England, out of 492 public secondary schools which were +recognized by the Board of Education for the receipt of government +grant for the school year ending July 31, 1905, and which +contained 85,358 pupils, 108 schools, with 21,720 pupils, were +mixed; and 20 schools, with 8980 pupils, were dual schools.</p> + +<p>Thus, of the total number of pupils in the secondary schools +referred to above, a little over 25% were in mixed schools, and +about 10% were in dual schools. It is not safe to assume, +however, that all the mixed schools were completely co-educational +in their work, or that the dual schools were not co-educational +in respect of certain subjects or parts of the course. +It should also be remembered that, besides the secondary +schools recognized by the Board of Education for the receipt +of government grant, there is a considerable number of great +endowed secondary boarding-schools (“public schools” in the +English use of that expression) which are for boys only. There +are also at least 5000 private secondary schools, of which, in +1897 (since when no comprehensive statistical inquiry has been +made), 970, with 26,027 pupils, were mixed schools. But the great +majority of the children in these mixed schools were under +twelve years of age. The number of boys and girls over +twelve years of age, in the mixed private secondary schools +which were included in the 1897 return, was only 5488.</p> + +<p>In Wales, for the school year ending July 31, 1905, out of +84 state-aided public secondary schools, 11 were mixed and 44 +were dual schools. The number of scholars in the Welsh schools +referred to above was 9340. Of these, 1457, or 15%, were in +mixed schools, and 5085, or 54%, were in dual schools. The +managers of dual schools in Wales have the power to arrange +that boys and girls shall be taught together in any or all the +classes; and, as a matter of fact, nearly all the dual schools +are worked as mixed schools, though they appear in these +figures under dual.</p> + +<p><i>(b) Scotland.</i>—In the public elementary schools, including +the higher grade schools of Scotland, co-education is the almost +universal rule. The exceptions, which for the most part are +Roman Catholic or Episcopal Church schools, tend to diminish +year by year. In 1905, out of 3843 departments in the Scotch +public elementary and higher grade schools, 3783 were mixed. +These include the infant departments. Out of the total number of +children in the public elementary and higher grade schools, including +infants’ departments, 98.43% were receiving co-education.</p> + +<p>In the secondary schools of Scotland there has been in recent +years little perceptible movement either towards co-education +or away from it. What movement there is, favours the establishment +of separate secondary schools for girls in the large centres +of population. Out of 109 public secondary schools in Scotland +in 1905-1906, 29 schools were for boys only and 40 schools for +girls only. One school had boys and girls in separate departments. +In the remaining 39 schools, boys and girls were taken +together to an extent which varied with the subjects taken; +but there was nothing of the nature of a strict separation of the +sexes as regards the ordinary work of the school.</p> + +<p><i>(c) Ireland.</i>—In Ireland, the percentage of pupils on the +rolls of mixed national schools (<i>i.e.</i> schools attended by boys and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span> +girls), to the total number of pupils on the rolls of all national +schools, has slowly increased. In 1880 the percentage was +57.5; in 1898, 59.4; in 1905, 60.9.</p> + +<p>The Commissioners of Intermediate Education in Ireland had +on their list in 1906, 38 secondary schools which were classified +by them as mixed schools. These schools were attended by +640 boys and 413 girls between 13 and 19 years of age. The +commissioners do not know to what extent the boys and girls +in these schools received instruction in the same classes. As, +however, the schools are small, they believe that in the great +majority of cases the boys and girls were taught together. In +one large school not classified as mixed, the boys (117) and girls +(60) were taught in the same classes.</p> + +<p><i>Universities and University Colleges in the United Kingdom.</i>—Women +are admitted as members of the universities of London, +Durham, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, +Wales, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, St Andrews, Glasgow, Dublin +and the Royal University of Ireland. At Oxford and Cambridge +women are not admitted as members of the university, but by +courtesy enjoy entrance to practically all university lectures and +examinations. The social life of the men and women students +is more separate in the old than in the new universities. In no +grade of education in the United Kingdom has the principle of +co-education made more rapid advance than in the universities. +The university education of women began in London (Queen’s +College 1848, Bedford College 1849, both being preceded by +classes in earlier years). The University of London in 1878 +decided to accept from the crown a supplemental charter +making every degree, honour and prize awarded by the university +accessible to students of both sexes on perfectly equal terms. +By charter in 1880, the Victoria University (now broken up into +the universities of Manchester, Liverpool and Leeds) received +power to grant degrees to women as well as to men. The charter +of the university of Wales (1893) provides that “Women shall +be eligible equally with men for admittance to any degree which +our university is authorized to confer; every office created in +the university, and the membership of every authority constituted +by the charter shall be open to women equally with men.” +In 1889 the Universities (Scotland) Act empowered the commissioners +to make ordinances, enabling each university to admit +women in graduation in one or more faculties and to provide +for their instruction. At all the university colleges in the United +Kingdom women are educated as well as men.</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—Co-education is a characteristic feature of the +educational system of the different states of the American Union. +Of elementary school pupils at least 96%, and of secondary +school pupils 95%, are in mixed schools. In 1903, out of a total +enrolment of 15,990,803 pupils in public elementary and secondary +schools and training colleges, 15,387,734 were in schools +attended by pupils of both sexes. Out of 550,600 pupils on the +rolls of public secondary schools (high schools) in 1902, 523,300 +were in co-educational schools. The same was true of 43% +of the pupils (numbering over 100,000) in private secondary +schools. In colleges and universities 62% of all undergraduates +were in co-educational institutions, to which category thirty-four +American universities belong (U.S. Commissioner of Education, +<i>Report for 1903</i>, p. 2454). In America opinion is thus predominantly +in favour of co-education, but there is a current of +adverse criticism, especially among some who have had experience +of school conditions in large cities.</p> + +<p><i>General Review of the Question.</i>—In schools for infants and +younger children co-education is approved by all authorities. +It is increasingly favoured on educational grounds in smaller +schools for children up to 12 or 13 years of age or thereabouts. +But where elementary schools have to be large, separate departments +for boys and girls are generally preferable, though mixed +schools are often established for reasons of economy. At +the other end of the educational scale, viz. in the universities, +the co-education of men and women in the same institution is +fast becoming the rule. This is due partly to the prohibitive cost +of duplicating teaching staff, laboratories, libraries and other +equipment, partly to the desire of women to qualify themselves +for professional life by passing through the same courses of +training as are prescribed for men. The degree, however, to +which social intercourse is carried on between men and women +students differs widely in the different co-educational universities. +There are occasional signs, <i>e.g.</i> at Chicago, of a reaction +against the fullest form of academic co-education. And it is +probable that the universities will provide, among many courses +common to men and women, some (like engineering) suitable +for men only, and others (like advanced instruction in home-science, +or certain courses of professional preparation for teachers +of young children) which will rarely be attended by any but +women. Common use of the same university institutions is +compatible with much differentiation in courses of study and +with separately organized forms of collegiate life. It is with +regard to the part of education which lies between the elementary +schools and the universities that the sharpest division of opinion +upon the principle of co-education now exists. In Europe, +with the exception of Scandinavia, those who advocate co-education +of the sexes in secondary schools up to 18 or 19 years +of age are at present in a distinct minority, even as regards day +schools, and still more when they propose to apply the same +principle to boarding schools. But the application of the co-educational +principle to all schools alike is favoured by an +apparently increasing number of men and women. This movement +in opinion is connected with the increase in the number +of girls desiring access to secondary schools, a demand which +can most easily and economically be met by granting to girls +access to some of the existing schools for boys. The co-educational +movement is also connected with a strong view of sex +equality. It is furthered by the rapidly increasing number of +women teachers who are available for higher educational work. +Mixed secondary schools with mixed staffs are spreading for +reasons of economy in smaller towns and rural districts. In +large towns separate schools are usually recommended in preference, +but much depends upon the social tradition of the +neighbourhood. Those who advocate co-education for boys +and girls in secondary schools urge it mainly on the ground of +its naturalness and closer conformity to the conditions of healthy, +unselfconscious home life. They believe it to be a protective +against uncleanness of talk and school immorality. They point +to its convenience and economy. They welcome co-education +as likely to bring with it a healthy radicalism in regard to the +older tradition of studies in boys’ secondary schools. They +approve it as leading to mixed staffs of men and women teachers, +and as the most effectual way of putting girls in a position of +reasonable equality with boys in respect of intellectual and civic +opportunity. On the other hand, those who oppose co-education +in secondary schools rest their case upon the danger of the +intellectual or physical overstrain of girls during adolescence; +and upon the unequal rate of development of boys and girls +during the secondary school period, the girls being more forward +than the boys at first, but as a rule less able to work as hard +at a somewhat later stage. The critics further complain that +co-education is generally so organized that the girls’ course of +study is more or less assimilated to that of the boys, with the +result that it cannot have the artistic and domestic character +which is suitable for the majority of girls. Complaint is also +made that the head of a co-educational school for pupils over +the age of 10 is usually a man, though the health and character +of girls need the care and control of a woman vested with complete +authority and responsibility. While demurring to the view that +co-education of the sexes would be a moral panacea, the critics +of the system admit that the presence of the girls would exert +a refining influence, but they believe that on the whole the boys +are likely to gain less from co-education than the girls are likely +to lose by it. In all these matters carefully recorded observation +and experiment are needed, and it may well be found that co-education +is best for some boys and for some girls, though not +for all. Temperaments and dispositions differ. Some boys seem +by nature more fitted for the kind of training generally given +to girls; some girls are by nature fitted for the kind of training +generally given to boys. The sex division does not mark off +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span> +temperaments into two sharply contrasted groups. The introduction +of girls into boys’ secondary schools may remove or +mitigate coarse traditions of speech and conduct where such +persist. But it would be unfortunate if stiff and pedantic +traditions of secondary education were now fixed upon girls +instead of being reconsidered and modified in the interests of +boys also. In any case, if co-education in secondary schools is +to yield the benefits which some anticipate from it, great vigilance, +careful selection of pupils and very liberal staffing will be +necessary. Without these securities the results of co-education +in secondary schools might be disappointing, disquieting or +even disastrous.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Plato in the <i>Republic</i> (v. 452-456) and <i>Laws</i> (vii. +804-805) argues that women should share as far as possible in education +with men. Mary Wollstonecraft, <i>A Vindication of the Rights of +Women</i> (1792), contends that “both sexes ought, not only in private +families but in public schools, to be educated together.” J. G. +Spurzheim, <i>Principles of Education</i>, pp. 272-288 (Edinburgh, 1821), +replies to this argument. In the Board of Education <i>Special Reports +on Educational Subjects</i>, vol. vi. (Wyman & Sons, 1900), J. H. Badley, +writing on <i>The Possibility of Co-education in English Preparatory +and other Secondary Schools</i>, is strongly in favour. “In co-education +... half-heartedness means failure. The more completely both +sexes can be brought together upon an equal and natural footing the +less the difficulties grow.” In the Board of Education <i>Special +Reports</i>, vol. xi. (Wyman & Sons, 1902), Rev. Cecil Grant, writing on +<i>Can American Education be grafted upon the English Public School +System?</i> answers strongly in the affirmative; co-education is +recommended on eight grounds:—(1) Vast economy of expenditure; +(2) return to the natural system; (3) discipline made easier; (4) +intellectual stimulus; (5) a better balance in instruction; (6) improved +manners; (7) prevention of extremes of masculinity or +femininity; (8) a safeguard against the moral danger.</p> + +<p><i>Co-education: a series of Essays</i> (London, 1903), edited by Alice +Woods, is in favour of co-education, nine practical workers recording +their experience; this is one of the best books on the subject. +J. H. Badley’s <i>Co-education after Fifteen: its Value and Difficulties</i>. +<i>Child Life</i> (London, January, 1906), is candid, judicious and practical. +M. E. Sadler in <i>Reports on Secondary Education in Hampshire, Derbyshire +and Essex</i> (1904, 1905 and 1906 respectively) gives details +of the curriculum of many co-educational secondary schools. In +the U.S. Commissioner of Education <i>Report for 1903</i>, vol. i. pp. 1047-1078, +Anna Tolman Smith, writing on <i>Co-education in the Schools +and Colleges of the United States</i>, gives an historical review of the +subject with bibliography (compare bibliography in <i>Report of U.S. +Commissioner of Education for 1900-1901</i>, pp. 1310-1325). G. Stanley +Hall on <i>Adolescence, its Psychology and its Relations to Physiology, +Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education</i>, vol. ii. +chap. xvii., on Adolescent Girls and their education (New York, D. +Appleton & Co., 1904), is strongly against co-education during adolescence. +In W. Rein’s <i>Encyklopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik</i> (Langensalza, +Beyer), art. “Gemeinsame Erziehung für Knaben und +Mädchen,” K. E. Palmgren is in favour of co-education (vol. iii. of +2nd ed. 1905). See also W. Rein, <i>Über gemeinsame Erziehung von +Knaben und Mädchen</i> (Freiburg, 1903), and <i>Bericht über den I. +Internationalen Kongress für Schulhygiene</i> (Nürnberg, 1904), vol. ii. +pp. 140 ff., “Co-education in der höheren Schulen.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. E. S.)</div> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COEFFETEAU, NICOLAS<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1574-1623), French theologian, +poet and historian, was born at Saint-Calais. He entered the +Dominican order and lectured on philosophy at Paris, being also +“ordinary preacher” to Henry IV., and afterwards ambassador +at Rome. In 1606 he was vicar-general of the congregation of +France, and received from Marie de’ Medici the revenues of the +sees of Lombez and Saintes. He also administered the diocese of +Metz, and was nominated to that of Marseilles in 1621, but ill-health +obliged him here to take a coadjutor. Coeffeteau won +considerable distinction in the controversy against the Protestant +reformers and also wrote a <i>History of Rome from Augustus to +Constantine</i>. Many of his theological writings were collected in +one volume (Paris, 1622), and at the time of his death in 1623 he +was engaged on a translation of the New Testament which is +still in manuscript.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COEHOORN, MENNO,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron van</span> (1641-1704), Dutch +soldier and military engineer, of Swedish extraction, was born at +Leeuwarden in Friesland. He received an excellent military +and general education, and at the age of sixteen became a captain +in the Dutch army. He took part in the defence of Maastricht +in 1673 and in the siege of Grave in the same year, where the small +mortars (called coehorns) invented by him caused the French +garrison considerable trouble (Seydel, <i>Nachrichten über Festungskriege</i>, +Leipzig, 1818). He was made a colonel for his gallant +conduct at the battle of Seneff (1674), and was present also at +the battles of Cassel (1677) and Saint Denis (1678).</p> + +<p>The circumstances of the time and the country turned +Coehoorn’s attention to the art of fortification, and the events of +the late war showed him that existing methods could no longer +be relied upon. His first published work, <i>Versterckinge de +Vijfhoeks met alle syne Buytenwerken</i> (Leeuwarden, 1682), at once +aroused attention, and involved the author in a lively controversy +with a rival engineer, Louys Paan (Leeuwarden, 1682, 1683; +copies are in the library of the Dutch ministry of war). The +military authorities were much interested in this, and entrusted +Coehoorn with the reconstruction of several fortresses in the +Netherlands. This task he continued throughout his career; +and his experience in the work made him the worthy rival of his +great contemporary Vauban. He formulated his ideas a little +later in his chief work, <i>Nieuwe Vestingbouw op en natte of lage +horizont</i>, &c. (Leeuwarden, 1685), in which he laid down three +“systems,” the characteristic feature of which was the multiplicity +and great saliency of the works, which were calculated and +in principle are still eminently suited for flat and almost marshy +sites such as those of the Low Countries. He borrowed many +of the details from the works of his Dutch predecessor Freytag, of +Albrecht Dürer, and of the German engineer Speckle, and in +general he aimed rather at the adaptation of his principles to the +requirements of individual sites than at producing a geometrically +and theoretically perfect fortress; and throughout his career he +never hesitated to depart from his own rules in dealing with +exceptional cases, such as that of Groningen. Subsequent +editions of <i>Nieuwe Vestingbouw</i> appeared in Dutch (1702, and +frequently afterwards), English (London, 1705), French (Wesel, +1705), and German (Düsseldorf, 1709).</p> + +<p>From 1688 to the treaty of Ryswick Coehoorn served as a +brigadier. At the battle of Fleurus he greatly distinguished +himself, and in 1692 he defended Namur, a fortress of his own +creation. Namur was taken by Vauban; but the Dutch engineer +had his revenge three years later, when the place, on which in the +meantime Vauban had lavished his skill, fell to his attack. +Coehoorn became lieutenant-general and inspector-general of +the Netherlands fortresses, and the high-German peoples as well +as his own countrymen honoured him. He commanded a corps +in the army of the duke of Marlborough from 1701 to 1703, and +in the constant siege warfare of these campaigns in the Low +Countries his technical skill was of the highest value. The swift +reduction of the fortress of Bonn and the siege of Huy in 1703 +were his crowning successes. At the opening of his following +campaign he was on his way to confer with Marlborough when +he died of apoplexy at Wijkel on the 17th of March 1704.</p> + +<p>His “first system” was applied to numerous places in Holland, +notably Nijmwegen, Breda and Bergen-op-Zoom. Mannheim in +Germany was also fortified in this way, while the “secondsystem” +was applied to Belgrade and Temesvár in eastern Europe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His son, Gosewijn Theodor van Coehoorn, wrote his life (re-edited +Syperstein, Leeuwarden, 1860). See also v. Zastrow, <i>Geschichte der +beständigen Befestigung</i> (Leipzig, 1828); von Brese-Winiari, <i>Über +Entstehen und Wesen der neueren Befestigungsmethode</i> (1844); +Cosseran de Villenoisy, <i>Essai historique sur la fortification</i> (1869); +Mandar, <i>Architecture des forteresses</i> (1801); Krayenhoff, <i>Verhandeling +over de erste versterkingsmanier van Coehoorn</i> (Hague, 1823); +Bosscha, <i>Nederlandsche heldend te Land</i> (Amsterdam, 1838); Dewez, +<i>Histoire de Belgique</i> (Brussels, 1823); Ypey, <i>Narratio de rebus gestis +Mennonis Cohorni</i> (1771); Hennert, <i>Dissertation sur la fortification +permanente</i> (1795); Böhms, <i>Gründliche Anleitung zur Kriegsbaukunst</i> +(1776); <i>Axiomatas of allgemeene bekentnisse over de Vestinghbouw +door Menno Baron van Coehoorn, Uytgewerkt door E. W. Berg</i> +(MS. in Dutch Ministry of War); Bousmard, <i>Essai général de fortification</i> +(1797); also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification and Siegecraft</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COELENTERA,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a group or grade of the animal kingdom, the +zoological importance of which has risen considerably since the +time (1887) of the publication of the first article under that +heading in the <i>Ency. Brit.</i> (9th edit.), even though their numbers +have been reduced by the elevation of the Sponges or Porifera to +the rank of an independent Phylum under the title Parazoa +(W. J. Sollas, 1884). For the Coelentera thus restricted, the +term Enterocoela, in contrast to Coelomocoela (the old Coelomata), +was suggested by E. R. Lankester (1900).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span></p> + +<p>From the more complex colonial Protozoa the Coelentera are +readily separated by their possession of two distinct sets of cells, +with diverse functions, arranged in two definite layers,—a +condition found in no Protozoan. The old criterion by which +they and other Metazoa were once distinguished from Protozoa, +namely, the differentiation of large and small sexual cells from +each other and from the remaining cells of the body, has been +broken down by the discovery of numerous cases of such +differentiation among Protozoa. The Coelentera, as contrasted +with other Metazoa (but not Parazoa), consist of two layers +of cells only, an outer layer or ectoderm, an inner layer or +endoderm. They have hence been described as Diploblastica. +In the remaining Metazoa certain cells are budded off at an +early stage of development from one or both of the two original +layers, to form later a third layer, the mesoderm, which lies +between the ectoderm and endoderm; such forms have therefore +received the name Triploblastica. At the same time it is necessary +to observe that it is by no means certain that the mesoderm found +in various groups of Metazoa is a similar or homologous formation +in all cases. A second essential difference between Coelentera +and other Metazoa (except Parazoa) is that in the former all +spaces in the interior of the body are referable to a single cavity +of endodermal origin, the “gastro-vascular cavity,” often termed +the coelenteron: the spaces are always originally continuous +with one another, and are in almost every case permanently so. +This single cavity and its lining serve apparently for all those +functions (digestion, excretion, circulation and often reproduction) +which in more complex organisms are distributed +among various cavities of independent and often very diverse +origin.</p> + +<p>In the Coelentera the ectoderm and endoderm are set apart +from one another at a very early period in the life-history; +generally either by delamination or invagination, processes +described in the article <span class="sc">Embryology</span>. Between these two cell-layers +a mesogloea (G. C. Bourne, 1887) is always intercalated +as a secretion by one or both of them; this is a gelatinoid, primitively +structureless lamella, which in the first instance serves +merely as a basal support for the cells. In many cases, as, for +example, in the Medusae or jelly-fish, the mesogloea may be so +thick as to constitute the chief part of the body in bulk and +weight. The ectoderm rarely consists of more than one layer +of cells: these are divisible by structure and function into +nervous, muscular and secretory cells, supported by interstitial +cells. The endoderm is generally also an epithelium one cell in +thickness, the cells being digestive, secretory and sometimes +muscular. Reproductive sexual cells may be found in either of +these two layers, according to the class and sub-class in question. +The mesogloea is in itself an inert non-cellular secretion, but the +immigration of muscular and other cells into its substance, +from both ectoderm and endoderm, gives it in many cases a +strong resemblance to the mesoderm of Triploblastica,—a +resemblance which, while probably superficial, may yet serve to +indicate the path of evolution of the mesoderm.</p> + +<p>The Coelentera may thus be briefly defined as Metazoa which +exhibit two embryonic cell-layers only,—the ectoderm and +endoderm,—their body-cavities being referable to a single cavity +or coelenteron in the endoderm. Their position in the animal +kingdom and their main subdivisions may be expressed in the +following table:—</p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:525px; height:253px" + src="images/img641.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>In the above-given classification, the Scyphomedusae, formerly +included with the Hydromedusae as Hydrozoa, are placed +nearer the Anthozoa. The reasons for this may be stated +briefly.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Hydromedusae</span> are distinguished from the Scyphozoa +chiefly by negative characters; they have no stomodaeum, +that is, no ingrowth of ectoderm at the mouth to form an oesophagus; +they have no mesenteries (radiating partitions) which +incompletely subdivide the coelenteron; and they have no +concentration of digestive cells into special organs. Their +ectodermal muscles are mainly longitudinal, their endodermal +muscles are circularly arranged on the body-wall. Their sexual +cells are (probably in all cases) produced from the ectoderm, +and lie in those radii which are first accentuated in development. +They typically present two structural forms, the non-sexual +hydroid and the sexual medusoid; in such a case there is an +alternation of generations (metagenesis), the hydroid giving rise +to the medusoid by a sexual gemmation, the medusoid bearing +sexual cells which develop into a hydroid. In some other cases +medusoid develops directly from medusoid (hypogenesis), +whether by sexual cells or by gemmation. The medusoids have +a muscular velum of ectoderm and mesogloea only.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Scyphozoa</span> have the following features in common:—They +typically exhibit an ectodermal stomodaeum; partitions +or mesenteries project into their coelenteron from the body-wall, +and on these are generally concentrated digestive cells (to form +mesenterial filaments, phacellae or gastric filaments, &c.); the +external musculature of the body-wall is circular (except in +<i>Cerianthus</i>); the internal, longitudinal; and the sexual cells +probably always arise in the endoderm.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Scyphomedusae</span>, like the Hydromedusae, typically +present a metagenesis, the non-sexual scyphistomoid (corresponding +to the hydroid) alternating with the sexual medusoid. +In other cases the medusoid is hypogenetic, medusoid producing +medusoid. The sexual cells of the medusoid lie in the endoderm +on interradii, that is, on the second set of radii accentuated in +the course of development. The medusoids have no true velum; +in some cases a structure more or less resembling this organ, +termed a velarium, is present, permeated by endodermal canals.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Anthozoa</span> differ from the Scyphomedusae in having +no medusoid form; they all more or less resemble a sea-anemone, +and may be termed actinioid. They are (with rare exceptions, +probably secondarily acquired) hypogenetic, the offspring +resembling the parent, and both being sexual. The sexual cells +are borne on the mesenteries in positions irrespective of obvious +developmental radii.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">Ctenophora</span> are so aberrant in structure that it has been +proposed to separate them from the Coelentera altogether: +they are, however, theoretically deducible from an ancestor +common to other Coelentera, but their extreme specialization +precludes the idea of any close relationship with the rest.</p> + +<p>As regards the other three groups, however, it is easy to +conceive of them as derived from an ancestor, represented to-day +to some extent by the planula-larva, which was Coelenterate in +so far as it was composed of an ectoderm and endoderm, and +had an internal digestive cavity (I. of the table).</p> + +<p>At the point of divergence between Scyphozoa and Hydromedusae +(II. of the table of hypothetical descent), we may +conceive of its descendant as tentaculate, capable of either +floating (swimming) or fixation at will like Lucernaria to-day; +and exhibiting incipient differentiation of myoepithelial cells +(formerly termed neuro-muscular cells). At the parting of the +ways which led, on the one hand, to modern Scyphomedusae, on +the other to Anthozoa (III.), it is probable that the common +ancestor was marked by incipient mesenteries and by the limitation +of the sexual cells to endoderm. The lines of descent—II. +to Hydromedusae, and III. to Scyphomedusae—represent periods +during which the hypothetical ancestors II. and III., capable of +either locomotion or fixation at will, were either differentiated +into alternating generations of fixed sterile nutritive hydroids +(scyphistomoids) and locomotor sexual medusoids, or abandoned +the power of fixation in hypogenetic cases. During the period +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span> +represented by the line of descent—III. to Anthozoa—this group +abandoned its power of adult locomotion by swimming. During +these periods were also attained those less important structural +characters which these three groups present to-day. </p> +<div class="author">(G. H. Fo.)</div> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:480px; height:376px" + src="images/img642a.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COELLO, ALONSO SANCHEZ<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1515-1590), Spanish painter, +according to some authorities a native of Portugal, was born, +according to others, at Benifacio, near the city of Valencia. +He studied many years in Italy; and returning to Spain in 1541 +he settled at Madrid, and worked on religious themes for most +of the palaces and larger churches. He was a follower of Titian, +and, like him, excelled in portraits and single figures, elaborating +the textures of his armours, draperies, and such accessories in a +manner so masterly as strongly to influence Velazquez in his +treatment of like objects. Many of his pictures were destroyed +in the fires that consumed the Madrid and Prado palaces, but +many good examples are yet extant, among which may be noted +the portraits of the infantes Carlos and Isabella, now in the +Madrid gallery, and the St Sebastian painted in the church of +San Gerónimo, also in Madrid. Coello left a daughter, Isabella +Sanchez, who studied under him, and painted excellent portraits.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COELLO, ANTONIO<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1610?-1652), Spanish dramatist and +poet, was born at Madrid about the beginning of the 17th century. +He entered the household of the duke de Albuquerque, and after +some years of service in the army received the order of Santiago +in 1648. He was a favourite of Philip IV., who is reported to +have collaborated with him; this rumour is not confirmed, but +there is ample proof of Coello’s collaboration with Calderón, +Rojas Zorrilla, Solís and Velez de Guevara, the most distinguished +dramatists of the age. The best of his original +plays, <i>Los Empeños de seis horas</i>, has been wrongly ascribed +to Calderón; it was adapted by Samuel Tuke, under the title of +<i>The Adventures of five Hours</i>, and was described by Pepys as +superior to <i>Othello</i>. It is an excellent example of stagecraft +and animated dialogue. Coello died on the 20th of October +1652, shortly after his nomination to a post in the household +of Philip IV.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES.<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> In human anatomy +the body-cavity or coelom (Gr. <span class="grk" title="koilos">κοῖλος</span>, hollow) is divided into the +<i>pericardium</i>, the two <i>pleurae</i>, the <i>peritoneum</i> and the two <i>tunicae +vaginales</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>pericardium</i> is a closed sac which occupies the central +part of the thorax and contains the heart. Like all the serous +membranes it has a visceral and a parietal layer, the former of +which is closely applied to the heart and consists of endothelial +cells with a slight fibrous backing: to it is due the glossy appearance +of a freshly removed heart. The parietal layer is double; +externally there is a strong fibrous protective coat which is continuous +with the other fibrous structures in the neighbourhood, +especially with the sheaths of the great vessels at the root of the +heart, with prolongations of the fascia of the neck, and with the +central tendon of the diaphragm, while internally is the serous +layer which is reflected from the surface of the heart, where the +great vessels enter, so that everywhere the two layers of the +serous membrane are in contact, and the only thing within the +cavity is a drop or two of the fluid secreted by the serous walls. +When the parietal layer is laid open and the heart removed by +cutting through the great vessels, it will be seen that there are +two lines of reflection of the serous layer, one common to the aorta +and pulmonary artery, the other to all the pulmonary veins and +the two venae cavae.</p> + +<p>The <i>pleurae</i> very closely resemble the pericardium except that +the fibrous outer coat of the parietal layer is not nearly as strong; +it is closely attached to the inner surface of the chest walls and +mesially to the outer layer of the pericardium; above it is +thickened by a fibrous contribution from the scalene muscles, +and this forms the <i>dome of the pleura</i> which fits into the concavity +of the first rib and contains the apex of the lung. The reflection +of the serous layer of the pleura, from the parietal to the visceral +part, takes place at the root of the lung, where the great vessels +enter, and continues for some distance below this as the <i>ligamentum +latum pulmonis</i>. The upper limit of the pleural cavity +reaches about half an inch above the inner third of the clavicle, +while, below, it may be marked out by a line drawn from the +twelfth thoracic spine to the tenth rib in the mid axillary line, +the eighth rib in the nipple line, and the sixth rib at its junction +with the sternum. There is probably very little difference in +the lower level of the pleurae on the two sides.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:250px; height:465px" src="images/img642b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Diagram of vertical +median section of Abdomen.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> A, Aorta.</td> <td class="tcl f90">D, Duodenum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> P, Pancreas.</td> <td class="tcl f90">B, Bladder.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> I, Intestine.</td> <td class="tcl f90">St, Stomach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> R, Rectum.</td> <td class="tcl f90">C, Colon.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"> L, Liver.</td> <td class="tcl f90">V, Vagina.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2">(The fine dots represent the +great sac of the peritoneum, the +coarse dots the lesser sac.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>peritoneum</i> is a more extensive and complicated membrane +than either the pericardium or pleura; it surrounds the abdominal +and pelvic viscera, and, like the other sacs, has a parietal and +visceral layer. The line of reflection of these, though a continuous +one, is very tortuous. The peritoneum consists of a +<i>greater</i> and <i>lesser sac</i> which communicate through an opening +known as the <i>foramen of Winslow</i>, and the most satisfactory way +of understanding these is to follow the reflections first in a vertical +median (sagittal) section and then +in a horizontal one, the body +being supposed to be in the upright +position. If a median +sagittal section be studied first, +and a start be made at the +umbilicus (see fig. 1), the parietal +peritoneum is seen to run upward, +lining the anterior abdominal +wall, and then to pass along the +under surface of the diaphragm +till its posterior third is reached; +here there is a reflection on to +the liver (L), forming the anterior +layer of the <i>coronary ligament</i> +of that viscus, while the membrane +now becomes visceral and +envelops the front of the liver +as far back as the transverse +fissure on its lower surface; here +it is reflected on to the stomach +(St) forming the anterior layer +of the <i>gastro-hepatic</i> or <i>lesser +omentum</i>. It now covers the +front of the stomach, and at the +lower border runs down as the +anterior layer of an apron-like +fold, the <i>great omentum</i>, which +in some cases reaches as low as +the pubes; then it turns up again +as the posterior or fourth layer of +the great omentum until the transverse +colon (C) is reached, the posterior surface of which it covers +and is reflected, as the posterior layer of the <i>transverse meso-colon</i>, +to the lower part of the pancreas (P); after this it turns down and +covers the anterior surface of the third part of the duodenum +(D) till the posterior wall of the abdomen is reached, from +which it is reflected on to the small intestine (I) as the anterior +layer of the <i>mesentery</i>, a fold varying from 5 to 8 in. between its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span> +attachments. After surrounding the small intestine it becomes +the posterior layer of the mesentery and so again reaches the +posterior abdominal wall, down which it runs until the rectum +(R) is reached. The anterior surface of this tube is covered by +peritoneum to a point about 3 in. from the anus, where it is +reflected on to the uterus and vagina (V) in the female and then +on to the bladder (B); in the male, on the other hand, the +reflection is directly from the rectum to the bladder. At the apex +of the bladder, after covering the upper surface of that organ, +it is lifted off by the urachus and runs up the anterior abdominal +wall to the umbilicus, from which the start was made. All this +is the greater sac. The tracing of the lesser sac may be conveniently +started at the transverse fissure of the liver, whence +the membrane runs down to the stomach (St) as the posterior +layer of the lesser omentum, lines the posterior surface of the +stomach, passes down as the second layer of the great omentum +and up again as the third layer, covers the anterior surface of the +transverse colon (C) and then reaches the pancreas (P) as the +anterior layer of the transverse mesocolon. After this it covers +the front of the pancreas and in the middle line of the body +runs up below the diaphragm to within an inch of the anterior +layer of the coronary ligament of the liver; here it is reflected +on to the top of the Spigelian lobe of the liver to form the posterior +layer of the coronary ligament, +covers the whole +Spigelian lobe, and so +reaches the transverse +fissure, the starting-point.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1" colspan="2"><img style="width:281px; height:261px" src="images/img643a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Diagram of Horizontal +Section through upper part of 1st +Lumbar Vertebra.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90">A, Aorta.</td> <td class="tcl f90">H.A, Hepatic Artery.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">Sp, Spleen.</td> <td class="tcl f90">K, Kidney.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">B.D, Bile duct.</td> <td class="tcl f90">L, Liver.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">V.C, Vena Cava.</td> <td class="tcl f90">St, Stomach.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">P, Pancreas.</td> <td class="tcl f90">P.V, Portal Vein.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2">The dotting of the peritoneum is as in fig. 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p>This section, therefore, +shows two completely +closed sacs without any +visible communication. In +the female, however, the +great sac is not absolutely +closed, for the Fallopian +tubes open into it by their +minute <i>ostia abdominalia</i>, +while at the other ends +they communicate with +the cavity of the uterus +and so with the vagina +and exterior.</p> + +<p>A horizontal section +through the upper part of +the first lumbar vertebra +will, if a fortunate one (see fig. 2), pass through the foramen +of Winslow and show the communication of the two sacs. +A starting-point may be made from the mid-ventral line and the +parietal peritoneum traced round the left side of the body wall +until the outer edge of the left kidney (K) is reached; here it +passes in front of the kidney and is soon reflected off on to the +spleen, which it nearly surrounds; just before it reaches the +hilum of that organ, where the vessels enter, it is reflected on to +the front of the stomach (St), forming the anterior layer of the +<i>gastro-splenic omentum</i>; it soon reaches the lesser curvature of +the stomach and then becomes the anterior layer of the lesser +omentum, which continues until the bile duct (B.D) and portal +vein (P.V) are reached at its right free extremity; here it turns +completely round these structures and runs to the left again, as +the posterior layer of the lesser omentum, behind the stomach +(St) and then to the spleen (Sp) as the posterior layer of the +gastro-splenic omentum. From the spleen it runs to the right +once more, in front of the pancreas (P), until the inferior vena +cava (V.C) is reached, and this point is just behind the portal vein +and is the place where the lesser and greater sacs communicate, +known as the foramen of Winslow. From this opening the lesser +sac runs to the left, while all the rest of the peritoneal cavity in the +section is greater sac. From the front of the vena cava the +parietal peritoneum passes in front of the right kidney (K) and +round the right abdominal wall to the mid-ventral line. The right +part of this section is filled by the liver (L), which is completely +surrounded by a visceral layer of peritoneum, and no reflection +is usually seen at this level between it and the parietal layer. +Some of the viscera, such as the kidneys and pancreas, are +retro-peritoneal; others, such as the small intestines and transverse +colon, are surrounded, except at one point where they are +attached to the dorsal wall by a <i>mesentery</i> or <i>mesocolon</i> as the +reflections are called; others again are completely surrounded, +and of these the caecum is an example; while some, like the liver +and bladder, have large uncovered areas, and the reflections of the +membrane form ligaments which allow considerable freedom of +movement.</p> + +<p>The <i>tunica vaginalis</i> is the remains of a process of the peritoneum +(<i>processus vaginalis</i>) which descends into the scrotum during +foetal life some little time before the testis itself descends. +After the descent of the testis the upper part usually becomes +obliterated, while the lower part forms a serous sac which nearly +surrounds the testis, but does not quite do so. Posteriorly the +epididymis is in close contact with the testis, and here the visceral +layer is not in contact; there is, however, a pocket called the +<i>digital fossa</i> which squeezes in from the outer side between the +testis and epididymis. The parietal layer lines the inner wall +of its own side of the scrotum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a full description of the topography of the serous membranes +see any of the standard text-books of anatomy, by Gray, Quain, +Cunningham or Macalister. Special details will be found in Sir F. +Treves’ <i>Anatomy of the Intestinal Canal and Peritoneum</i> (London, +1885); C. B. Lockwood, <i>Hunterian Lectures on Hernia</i> (London, +1889); C. Addison, “Topographical Anatomy of the Abdominal +Viscera in Man,” <i>Jour. Anat.</i>, vols. 34, 35; F. Dixon and A. Birmingham, +“Peritoneum of the Pelvic Cavity,” <i>Jour. Anat.</i> vol. 34, p. 127; +W. Waldeyer, “Das Becken” (1899), and “Topographical Sketch +of the Lateral Wall of the Pelvic Cavity,” <i>Jour. Anat.</i> vol. 32; +B. Moynihan, <i>Retroperitoneal Hernia</i> (London, 1899). A complete +bibliography of the subject up to 1895 will be found in <i>Quain’s +Anatomy</i>, vol. 3, part 4, p. 69.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:401px; height:120px" src="images/img643b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="3">After Young and Robinson, Cunningham’s <i>Text-Book of Anatomy</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1 pt2" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Diagram of Longitudinal Section, showing the different +areas of the Blastodermic Vesicle.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>a</i>, Pericardium.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>c</i>, Ectoderm.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>d</i>, Entoderm.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>b</i>, Bucco-pharyngeal area.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>e</i>, Placental area.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2"> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:416px; height:207px" src="images/img643c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After Young and Robinson, Cunningham’s <i>Text-Book of Anatomy</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1 pt2" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Diagram of a Developing Ovum, seen in Longitudinal Section.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>f</i>, Spinal cord.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>i</i>, Brain.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>g</i>, Notochord.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>k</i>, Extra embryonic coelom.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>h</i>, Dorsal wall of alimentary canal.</td> <td class="tcl"> Other numbers as in fig. 3.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><i>Embryology.</i>—As the mesoderm is gradually spreading over +the embryo it splits into two layers, the outer of which is known +as the <i>somatopleure</i> and lines the parietal or ectodermal wall, +while the inner lines the entoderm and is called the <i>splanchnopleure</i>; +between the two is the coelom. The pericardial area +is early differentiated from the rest of the coelom and at first +lies in front of the neural and bucco-pharyngeal area; here the +mesoderm stretches right across the mid-line, which it does not +in front and behind. As the head fold of the embryo is formed +the pericardium is gradually turned right over, so that the dorsal +side becomes the ventral and the anterior limit the posterior; +this will be evident on referring to the two accompanying +diagrams.</p> + +<p>The two primitive aortae lie at first in the ventral wall of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span> +pericardium, but with the folding over they come to lie in +the dorsal wall and gradually bulge into the cavity as they +coalesce to form the heart, so that the heart drops into the dorsal +side of the pericardium and draws down a fold of the membrane +called the <i>dorsal mesocardium</i>. In mammals A. Robinson +(<i>Jour. Anat. and Phys.</i>, xxxvii. 1) has shown that no ventral +mesocardium exists, though in more lowly vertebrates it is +present. Laterally the pericardial cavity communicates with +the general cavity of the coelom, but with the growth of the +Cuvierian ducts (see development of veins) these communications +disappear. Originally the mesocardium runs the whole +length of the pericardium from before backward, but later on +the middle part becomes obliterated, and so the two separate +reflections from the parietal to the visceral layer, already noticed, +are accounted for.</p> + +<p>Just behind the pericardium and in front of the umbilicus, +which at first are close together, the mesoderm forms a mass +which is called the <i>septum transversum</i>, and into this the developing +lungs push bag-like protrusions of the coelom, consisting of +visceral and parietal layers, and these eventually lose their +connexion with the rest of the coelom, as the diaphragm develops, +and become the pleural cavities. After the pericardium and +pleurae have been separated off the remainder of the coelom +becomes the peritoneum. At first the stomach and intestine +form a straight tube, which is connected to the dorsum of the +embryo by a <i>dorsal mesentery</i> and to the mid-ventral wall in +front of the umbilicus by a <i>ventral mesentery</i>. Into the ventral +mesentery the liver grows as diverticula from the duodenum, +so that some of the mesentery remains as the <i>falciform ligament</i> +of the liver and some as the lesser omentum. Into the dorsal +mesentery the pancreas grows, also as diverticula, from the +duodenum, while the spleen is developed from the mesoderm +contained in the same fold. As the stomach turns over so that +its left side becomes ventral, the dorsal mesentery attached to +it becomes pulled out, in such a way that part of it forms the +great omentum and part the gastro-splenic omentum. After +the caecum is formed as a diverticulum from the intestine it is +situated close to the liver and gradually travels down into the +right iliac fossa. This passage to the right is accompanied by a +throwing over of the duodenal loop to the right, so that the right +side of its mesentery becomes pressed against the dorsal wall of +the abdomen and obliterated. This accounts for the fact that +the pancreas and duodenum are only covered by peritoneum +on their anterior surfaces in man. The formation of the lesser +sac is due to the turning over of the stomach to the right, with +the result that a cave, known sometimes as the <i>bursa omentalis</i>, +is formed behind it. Originally, of course, the whole colon had a +<i>dorsal mesocolon</i> continuous with the mesentery, but in the +region of the ascending and descending colon this usually disappears +and these parts of the gut are uncovered by peritoneum +posteriorly. The transverse mesocolon persists and at first +is quite free from the great omentum, but later, in man, the two +structures fuse<a name="FnAnchor_1e" id="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and the fourth layer of the great omentum +becomes continuous with the posterior layer of the transverse +mesocolon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details see Quain’s <i>Anatomy</i> (London, 1908).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Comparative Anatomy.</i>—In the Amphioxus the coelom is +developed in the embryo as a series of bilateral pouches, called +<i>enterocoeles</i>, from the sides of the alimentary canal; these are +therefore entodermal in their origin, as in Sagitta and the Echinodermata +among the invertebrates. In the adult the development +of the atrium causes a considerable reduction of the coelom, +represented by two dorsal coelomic canals communicating with +a ventral canal by means of branchial canals which run down +the outer side of the primary gill bars. Into the dorsal canals +the nephridia open. In the intestinal region the coelom is only +present on the left side.</p> + +<p>In the higher vertebrates (<i>Craniata</i>) the coelom is developed +by a splitting of the mesoderm into two layers, and a pericardium +is constricted off from the general cavity. In all cases +the ova burst into the coelom before making their way to the +exterior, and in some cases, <i>e.g.</i> amphioxus, lamprey (Cyclostomata), +eels and mud-fish (Dipnoi), the sperm cells do so too. +The Cyclostomata have a pair of <i>genital pores</i> which lead +from the coelom into the urino-genital sinus, and so to the +exterior.</p> + +<p>In the Elasmobranch fish there is a <i>pericardio-peritoneal canal</i> +forming a communication between these two parts of the coelom; +also a large common opening for the two oviducts in the region +of the liver, and two openings, called <i>abdominal pores</i>, on to the +surface close to the cloacal aperture. In the Teleostomi (Teleostean +and Ganoid fish) abdominal pores are rare, but in most +Teleostei (bony fish) the ova pass directly down oviducts, as +they do in Arthropods, without entering the peritoneal cavity; +there is little doubt, however, that these oviducts are originally +coelomic in origin. In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) abdominal pores +are found, and probably serve as a passage for the sperm cells, +since there are no vasa deferentia. In fishes a complete dorsal +mesentery is seldom found in the adult; in many cases it only +remains as a tube surrounding the vessels passing to the alimentary +canal.</p> + +<p>In the Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves, one cavity acts as pleura +and peritoneum, though in the latter the lungs are not completely +surrounded by a serous membrane. In many lizards +the comparatively straight intestine, with its continuous dorsal +mesentery and ventral mesentery in the anterior part of the +abdomen, is very like a stage in the development of the human +and other mammalian embryos. In the mammalia the diaphragm +is complete (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diaphragm</a></span>) and divides the pleuro-peritoneal +cavity into its two constituent parts. In the +lower mammals the derivatives of the original dorsal mesentery +do not undergo as much fusion and obliteration as they do in +adult man; the ascending and descending mesocolon is retained, +and the transverse mesocolon contracts no adhesion to the great +omentum. It is a common thing, however, to find a fenestrated +arrangement of the great omentum which shows that its layers +have been completely obliterated in many places.</p> + +<p>In those animals, such as the rabbit, in which the tests are +sometimes in the scrotum and sometimes in the abdomen, the +communication between the peritoneum and the tunica vaginalis +remains throughout life.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details and literature up to 1902, see R. Wiedersheim’s +<i>Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbeltiere</i> (Jena, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1e" id="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Some authorities hold that this alteration is not brought about +by fusion, but by a dragging away of the posterior layer of the great +omentum from the dorsal wall of the abdomen.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COEN, JAN PIETERSZOON<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1587-1630), fourth governor-general +of the Dutch East Indies, was born at Hoorn, and spent +his youth at Rome in the house of the famous merchants the +Piscatori. In 1607 he sailed from Amsterdam to the Indies as +second commercial agent, and remained away four years. He had +proved so capable that in 1612 he was sent out a second time at +the head of a trading expedition. In the following year he was +made a councillor and director-general of the East Indian trade. +Afterwards he became president at Bantam, and on the 31st of +October 1617 he was promoted in succession to Laurens Reaal +to the post of governor-general. To his vigour and intrepidity +the Dutch in no small measure owed the preservation and establishment +of their empire in the East. He took and destroyed +Jacatra, and founded on its ruins the capital of the Dutch East +Indies, to which he gave the name of Batavia. In 1622 Coen +obtained leave to resign his post and return to Holland, but in his +absence great difficulties had arisen with the English at Amboina +(the so-called massacre of Amboina), and in 1627 under pressure +from the directors of the East India Company he again returned +as governor-general to Batavia. In 1629 he was able to beat off +a formidable attack of the sultan of Mataram, sometimes styled +emperor of Java, upon Batavia. He died the following year.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COENACULUM,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> the term applied to the eating-room of a +Roman house in which the supper (<i>coena</i>) or latest meal was +taken. It was sometimes placed in an upper storey and reached +by an external staircase. The Last Supper in the New Testament +was taken in the Coenaculum, the “large upper room” cited in +St Mark (xiv. 15) and St Luke (xxii. 12).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CŒNWULF<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (d. 821), king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne +in 796, on the death of Ecgfrith, son of Offa. His succession is +somewhat remarkable, as his direct ancestors do not seem to have +held the throne for six generations. In 798 he invaded Kent, +deposed and imprisoned Eadberht Præn, and made his own +brother Cuthred king. Cuthred reigned in Kent from 798 to 807, +when he died, and Cœnwulf seems to have taken Kent into his +own hands. It was during this reign that the archbishopric of +Lichfield was abolished, probably before 803, as the Hygeberht +who signed as an abbot at the council of Cloveshoe in that year +was presumably the former archbishop. Cœnwulf appears from +the charters to have quarrelled with Wulfred of Canterbury, who +was consecrated in 806, and the dispute continued for several +years. It was probably only settled at Cloveshoe in 825, when the +lawsuit of Cwœnthryth, daughter and heiress of Cœnwulf, with +Wulfred was terminated. Cœnwulf may have instigated the +raid of Æthelmund, earl of the Hwicce, upon the accession of +Ecgberht. He died in 821, and was succeeded by his brother +Ceolwulf I.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Earle and Plummer’s edition of the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, +796, 819 (Oxford, 1892); W. de G. Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>, +378 (London, 1885-1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COERCION<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>coercere</i>, to restrain), an application of +moral or physical compulsion by which a person is forced to do or +refrain from doing some act or set of acts apart from his own +voluntary motion. Where the coercion is direct or positive, <i>i.e.</i> +where the person is compelled by physical force to do an act +contrary to his will,—for example, when a man is compelled to +join a rebel army, and to serve as a soldier under threats of +death,—his act is not legally a crime. Where the coercion is +implied, as when a person is legally under subjection to another, +the person coerced, having no will on the subject, is not responsible. +But this principle is applied only within narrow limits, and +does not extend to the command of a superior to an inferior; +of a parent to a child; of a master to his servant or a principal +to his agent. Where, however, a married woman commits a +crime in the presence of her husband, she is generally presumed +to have acted by his coercion, and to be entitled to acquittal, +but this presumption does not extend to grave crimes, nor to +those in which the principal part may be supposed to be taken by +the woman, such as keeping a brothel. In civil matters, such as +the making of a contract, where the law requires the free assent +of the person who undertakes the obligation, coercion is a ground +for invalidating the instrument.</p> + +<p>The term “coercion” is inevitably somewhat ambiguous, and +depends on the circumstances of the case. In a political sense, +the application of the Crimes Act of 1887 to Ireland was called +“coercion” by those opposed to the English Unionist party and +government, as being special legislation differing from the +ordinary law applicable in the United Kingdom.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CŒUR, JACQUES<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1395-1456), founder of the trade between +France and the Levant, was born at Bourges, in which city his +father, Pierre Cœur, was a rich merchant. Jacques is first heard +of about 1418, when he married Macée de Léodepart, daughter +of Lambert de Léodepart, an influential citizen, provost of +Bourges, and a former valet of John, duke of Berry. About 1429 +he formed a commercial partnership with two brothers named +Godard; and in 1432 he was at Damascus, buying and bartering, +and transporting the wares of the Levant—gall-nuts, wools and +silks, goats’ hair, brocades and carpets—to the interior of France +by way of Narbonne. In the same year he established himself +at Montpellier, and there began those gigantic operations which +have made him illustrious among financiers. Details are wanting; +but it is certain that in a few years he placed his country in a +position to contend not unsuccessfully with the great trading +republics of Italy, and acquired such reputation as to be able, +mere trader as he was, to render material assistance to the +knights of Rhodes and to Venice herself.</p> + +<p>In 1436 Cœur was summoned to Paris by Charles VII., and +made master of the mint that had been established in that city. +The post was of vast importance, and the duties onerous. The +country was deluged with the base moneys of three reigns, charged +with superscriptions both French and English, and Charles had +determined on a sweeping reform. In this design he was ably +seconded by the merchant, who, in fact, inspired or prepared +all the ordinances concerning the coinage of France issued +between 1435 and 1451. In 1438 he was made steward of the +royal expenditure; in 1441 he and his family were ennobled by +letters patent. In 1444 he was sent as one of the royal commissioners +to preside over the new parlement of Languedoc, +a dignity he bore till the day of his disgrace. In 1445 his agents +in the East negotiated a treaty between the sultan of Egypt and +the knights of Rhodes; and in 1447, at his instance, Jean de +Village, his nephew by marriage, was charged with a mission +to Egypt. The results were most important; concessions were +obtained which greatly improved the position of the French +consuls in the Levant, and that influence in the East was thereby +founded which, though often interrupted, was for several +centuries a chief commercial glory of France. In the same year +Cœur assisted in an embassy to Amadeus VIII., former duke of +Savoy, who had been chosen pope as Felix V. by the council of +Basel; and in 1448 he represented the French king at the court +of Pope Nicholas V., and was able to arrange an agreement +between Nicholas and Amadeus, and so to end the papal schism. +Nicholas treated him with the utmost distinction, lodged him in +the papal palace, and gave him a special licence to traffic with the +infidels. From about this time he made large advances to Charles +for carrying on his wars; and in 1449, after fighting at the +king’s side through the campaign, he entered Rouen in his train.</p> + +<p>At this moment the great trader’s glory was at its height. +He had represented France in three embassies, and had supplied +the sinews of that war which had ousted the English from +Normandy. He was invested with various offices of dignity, +and possessed the most colossal fortune that had ever been +amassed by a private Frenchman. The sea was covered with his +ships; he had 300 factors in his employ, and houses of business +in all the chief cities of France. He had built houses and chapels, +and had founded colleges in Paris, at Montpellier and at Bourges. +The house at Bourges (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">House</a></span>, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8) was of +exceptional magnificence, and remains to-day one of the finest +monuments of the middle ages in France. He also built there +the sacristy of the cathedral and a sepulchral chapel for his +family. His brother Nicholas was made bishop of Luçon, his +sister married Jean Bochetel, the king’s secretary, his daughter +married the son of the viscount of Bourges, and his son Jean +became archbishop of Bourges. But Cœur’s gigantic monopoly +caused his ruin. Dealing in everything, money and arms, +peltry and jewels, brocades and woollens—a broker, a banker, +a farmer—he had absorbed the trade of the country, and +merchants complained they could make no gains on account of +“that Jacquet.” He had lent money to needy courtiers, to +members of the royal family, and to the king himself, and his +debtors, jealous of his wealth, were eager for a chance to cause +his overthrow.</p> + +<p>In February 1450 Agnes Sorel, the king’s mistress, suddenly +died. Eighteen months later it was rumoured that she had been +poisoned, and a lady of the court who owed money to Jacques +Cœur, Jeanne de Vendôme, wife of François de Montberon, and +an Italian, Jacques Colonna, formally accused him of having +poisoned her. There was not even a pretext for such a charge, +but for this and other alleged crimes the king, on the 31st of July +1451, gave orders for his arrest and for the seizure of his goods, +reserving to himself a large sum of money for the war in Guienne. +Commissioners extraordinary, the merchant’s declared enemies, +were chosen to conduct the trial, and an inquiry began, the judges +in which were either the prisoner’s debtors or the holders of his +forfeited estates. He was accused of having paid French gold +and ingots to the infidels, of coining light money, of kidnapping +oarsmen for his galleys, of sending back a Christian slave who +had taken sanctuary on board one of his ships, and of committing +frauds and exactions in Languedoc to the king’s prejudice. He +defended himself with all the energy of his nature. His innocence +was manifest; but a conviction was necessary, and in spite of +strenuous efforts on the part of his friends, after twenty-two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span> +months of confinement in five prisons, he was condemned to +do public penance for his fault, to pay the king a sum equal to +about £1,000,000 of modern money, and to remain a prisoner till +full satisfaction had been obtained; his sentence also embraced +confiscation of all his property, and exile during royal pleasure. +On the 5th of June 1453 the sentence took effect; at Poitiers +the shameful form of making honourable amends was gone +through; and for nearly three years nothing is known of him. +It is probable that he remained in prison; it is certain that his +vast possessions were distributed among the intimates of Charles.</p> + +<p>In 1455 Jacques Cœur, wherever confined, contrived to escape +into Provence. He was pursued; but a party, headed by Jean +de Village and two of his old factors, carried him off to Tarascon, +whence, by way of Marseilles, Nice and Pisa, he managed to reach +Rome. He was honourably and joyfully received by Nicholas V., +who was fitting out an expedition against the Turks. On the +death of Nicholas, Calixtus III. continued his work, and named +his guest captain of a fleet of sixteen galleys sent to the relief +of Rhodes. Cœur set out on this expedition, but was taken +ill at Chios, and died there on the 25th of November 1456. +After his death Charles VII. showed himself well disposed to the +family, and allowed Jacques Cœur’s sons to come into possession +of whatever was left of their father’s wealth.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the admirable monograph of Pierre Clément, <i>Jacques Cœur +et Charles VII</i> (1858, 2nd ed. 1874); A. Valet de Viriville, <i>Charles +Sept et son époque</i> (3 vols., 1862-1865); and Louisa Costello, <i>Jacques +Cœur, the French Argonaut</i> (London, 1847).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CŒUR D’ALÊNE<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (“awl-heart,” the French translation of +the native name <i>skitswish</i>), a tribe of North American Indians +of Salishan stock. The name is said to have been originally that +of a chief noted for his cruelty. The tribe has given its name +to a lake, river and range of mountains in Idaho, where on a +reservation the survivors, some 400, are settled.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COFFEE<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (Fr: <i>café</i>, Ger. <i>Kaffee</i>). This important and valuable +article of food is the produce chiefly of <i>Coffea arabica</i>, +a Rubiaceous plant indigenous +to Abyssinia, which, however, +as cultivated originally, spread +outwards from the southern +parts of Arabia. The name is +probably derived from the Arabic +K’hāwah, although by some it +has been traced to Kaffa, a +province in Abyssinia, in which +the tree grows wild.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:238px; height:508px" src="images/img646.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Branch of <i>Coffea +arabica</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The genus <i>Coffea</i>, to which +the common coffee tree belongs, +contains about 25 species in the +tropics of the Old World, mainly +African. Besides being found +wild in Abyssinia, the common +coffee plant appears to be widely +disseminated in Africa, occurring +wild in the Mozambique district, +on the shores of the Victoria +Nyanza, and in Angola on the +west coast. The coffee leaf +disease in Ceylon brought into +prominence Liberian coffee (<i>C. +liberica</i>), a native of the west +coast of Africa, now extensively +grown in several parts of the +world. Other species of economic +importance are Sierra Leone +coffee (<i>C. stenophylla</i>) and Congo coffee (<i>C. robusta</i>), both of +which have been introduced into and are cultivated on a small +scale in various parts of the tropics. <i>C. excelsa</i> is another species +of considerable promise.</p> + +<p>The common Arabian coffee shrub is an evergreen plant, +which under natural conditions grows to a height of from 18 to +20 ft., with oblong-ovate, acuminate, smooth and shining leaves, +measuring about 6 in. in length by 2½ wide. Its flowers, which +are produced in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves, have a +five-toothed calyx, a tubular five-parted corolla, five stamens +and a single bifid style. The flowers are pure white in colour, +with a rich fragrant odour, and the plants in blossom have a +lovely and attractive appearance, but the bloom is very evanescent. +The fruit is a fleshy berry, having the appearance and +size of a small cherry, and as it ripens it assumes a dark red +colour. Each fruit contains two seeds embedded in a yellowish +pulp, and the seeds are enclosed in a thin membranous endocarp +(the “parchment”). Between each seed and the parchment +is a delicate covering called the “silver skin.” The seeds which +constitute the raw coffee “beans” of commerce are plano-convex +in form, the flat surfaces which are laid against each other +within the berry having a longitudinal furrow or groove. When +only one seed is developed in a fruit it is not flattened on one side, +but circular in cross section. Such seeds form “pea-berry” +coffee.</p> + +<p>The seeds are of a soft, semi-translucent, bluish or greenish +colour, hard and tough in texture. The regions best adapted +for the cultivation of coffee are well-watered mountain slopes +at an elevation ranging from 1000 to 4000 ft. above sea-level, +within the tropics, and possessing a mean annual temperature +of about 65° to 70° F.</p> + +<p>The Liberian coffee plant (<i>C. liberica</i>) has larger leaves, flowers +and fruits, and is of a more robust and hardy constitution, than +Arabian coffee. The seeds yield a highly aromatic and well-flavoured +coffee (but by no means equal to Arabian), and the +plant is very prolific and yields heavy crops. Liberian coffee +grows, moreover, at low altitudes, and flourishes in many situations +unsuitable to the Arabian coffee. It grows wild in great +abundance along the whole of the Guinea coast.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The early history of coffee as an economic product +is involved in considerable obscurity, the absence of fact being +compensated for by a profusion of conjectural statements and +mythical stories. The use of coffee (<i>C. arabica</i>) in Abyssinia was +recorded in the 15th century, and was then stated to have been +practised from time immemorial. Neighbouring countries, however, +appear to have been quite ignorant of its value. Various +legendary accounts are given of the discovery of the beneficial +properties of the plant, one ascribing it to a flock of sheep +accidentally browsing on the wild shrubs, with the result that +they became elated and sleepless at night! Its physiological +action in dissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken +advantage of in connexion with the prolonged religious service +of the Mahommedans, and its use as a devotional antisoporific +stirred up fierce opposition on the part of the strictly orthodox +and conservative section of the priests. Coffee by them was +held to be an intoxicating beverage, and therefore prohibited +by the Koran, and severe penalties were threatened to those +addicted to its use. Notwithstanding threats of divine retribution +and other devices, the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly +among the Arabian Mahommedans, and the growth of coffee and +its use as a national beverage became as inseparably connected +with Arabia as tea is with China.</p> + +<p>Towards the close of the 16th century the use of coffee was +recorded by a European resident in Egypt, and about this epoch +it came into general use in the near East. The appreciation of +coffee as a beverage in Europe dates from the 17th century. +“Coffee-houses” were soon instituted, the first being opened +in Constantinople and Venice. In London coffee-houses date +from 1652, when one was opened in St Michael’s Alley, Cornhill. +They soon became popular, and the role played by them in the +social life of the 17th and 18th centuries is well known. Germany, +France, Sweden and other countries adopted them at about the +same time as Great Britain. In Europe, as in Arabia, coffee at +first made its way into favour in the face of various adverse and +even prohibitive restrictions. Thus at one time in Germany +it was necessary to obtain a licence to roast coffee. In England +Charles II. endeavoured to suppress coffee-houses on the ground +that they were centres of political agitation, his royal proclamation +stating that they were the resort of disaffected persons +“who devised and spread abroad divers false, malicious and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span> +scandalous reports, to the defamation of His Majesty’s government, +and to the disturbance of the peace and quiet of the +nation.”</p> + +<p>Up to the close of the 17th century the world’s entire, although +limited, supply of coffee was obtained from the province of Yemen +in south Arabia, where the true celebrated Mocha or Mokka +coffee is still produced. At this time, however, plants were +successfully introduced from Arabia to Java, where the cultivation +was immediately taken up. The government of Java +distributed plants to various places, including the botanic garden +of Amsterdam. The Portuguese introduced coffee into Ceylon. +From Amsterdam the Dutch sent the plant to Surinam in 1718, +and in the same year Jamaica received it through the governor +Sir Nicholas Lawes. Within a few years coffee reached the other +West Indian islands, and spread generally through the tropics +of the New World, which now produce by far the greater portion +of the world’s supply.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivation and Preparation for Market.</i>—Coffee plants are +grown from seeds, which, as in the case of other crops, should be +obtained from selected trees of desirable characteristics. The +seeds may be sown “at stake,” <i>i.e.</i> in the actual positions the +mature plants are to occupy, or raised in a nursery and afterwards +transplanted. The choice of methods is usually determined +by various local considerations. Nurseries are desirable where +there is risk of drought killing seedlings in the open. Whilst +young the plants usually require to be shaded, and this may be +done by growing castor oil plants, cassava (<i>Manihot</i>), maize or +Indian corn, bananas, or various other useful crops between +the coffee, until the latter develop and occupy the ground. +Sometimes, but by no means always, permanent shading is +afforded by special shade trees, such as species of the coral tree +(<i>Erythrina</i>) and other leguminous trees. Opinions as to the +necessity of shade trees varies in different countries; <i>e.g.</i> in +Brazil and at high elevations in Jamaica they are not employed, +whereas in Porto Rico many look on them as absolutely essential. +It is probable that in many cases where shade trees are of advantage +their beneficial action may be indirect, in affording +protection from wind, drought or soil erosion, and, when +leguminous plants are employed, in enriching the soil in nitrogen. +The plants begin to come into bearing in their second or third +year, but on the average the fifth is the first year of considerable +yield. There may be two, three, or even more “flushes” of +blossom in one year, and flowers and fruits in all stages may +thus be seen on one plant. The fruits are fully ripe about seven +months after the flowers open; the ripe fruits are fleshy, and of +a deep red colour, whence the name of “cherry.” When mature +the fruits are picked by hand, or allowed to fall of their own +accord or by shaking the plant. The subsequent preparation +may be according to (1) the dry or (2) the wet method.</p> + +<p>In the dry method the cherries are spread in a thin layer, often +on a stone drying floor, or barbecue, and exposed to the sun. +Protection is necessary against heavy dew or rain. The dried +cherries can be stored for any length of time, and later the dried +pulp and the parchment are removed, setting free the two beans +contained in each cherry. This primitive and simple method is +employed in Arabia, in Brazil and other countries. In Brazil +it is giving place to the more modern method described below.</p> + +<p>In the wet, or as it is sometimes called, West Indian method, +the cherries are put in a tank of water. On large estates galvanized +spouting is often employed to convey the beans by the help +of running water from the fields to the tank. The mature cherries +sink, and are drawn off from the tank through pipes to the pulping +machines. Here they are subjected to the action of a roughened +cylinder revolving closely against a curved iron plate. The +fleshy portion is reduced to a pulp, and the mixture of pulp and +liberated seeds (each still enclosed in its parchment) is carried +away to a second tank of water and stirred. The light pulp is +removed by a stream of water and the seeds allowed to settle. +Slight fermentation and subsequent washings, accompanied +by trampling with bare feet and stirring by rakes or special +machinery, result in the parchment coverings being left quite +clean. The beans are now dried on barbecues, in trays, &c., +or by artificial heat if climatic conditions render this necessary. +Recent experiments in Porto Rico tend to show that if the +weather is unfavourable during the crop period the pulped coffee +can be allowed to remain moist and even to malt or sprout +without injury to the final value of the product when dried +later. The product is now in the state known as parchment +coffee, and may be exported. Before use, however, the parchment +must be removed. This may be done on the estate, at the +port of shipment, or in the country where imported. The coffee +is thoroughly dried, the parchment broken by a roller, and removed +by winnowing. Further rubbing and winnowing removes +the silver skin, and the beans are left in the condition of ordinary +unroasted coffee. Grading into large, medium and small beans, +to secure the uniformity desirable in roasting, is effected by +the use of a cylindrical or other pattern sieve, along which the +beans are made to travel, encountering first small, then medium, +and finally large apertures or meshes. Damaged beans and +foreign matter are removed by hand picking. An average yield +of cleaned coffee is from 1½ to 2 ℔ per tree, but much greater +crops are obtained on new rich lands, and under special conditions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Production.</i>—The centre of production has shifted greatly since +coffee first came into use in Europe. Arabia formerly supplied the +world; later the West Indies and then Java took the lead, to be +supplanted in turn by Brazil, which now produces about three-quarters +of the world’s supply and controls the market.</p> + +<p><i>Brazil.</i>—Coffee planting is the chief industry of Brazil, and coffee +the principal export. The states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas +Geraes and Santos, contain the chief coffee-producing lands. The annual +output ranges from about 10,000,000 to 16,000,000 bags (of 120 ℔ +each), whilst the world’s annual consumption is more or less stationary +at about 16,000,000 bags. The overwhelming importance of the +Brazilian output is thus evident. Recently efforts have been made +to restrict production to maintain prices, and the Coffee Convention +scheme came into force in São Paulo on December 1, 1906, and in Rio +de Janeiro and Minas Geraes on January 1, 1907. The cultivation +in general is very primitive in character, periodical weeding being +almost all the attention the plants receive. Manuring is commonly +confined to mulches of the cut weeds and addition of the coffee husks. +New lands in São Paulo yield from 80 cwt. to 100 cwt. of cleaned +coffee per 1000 trees (700 go to the acre); the average yield, however, +is not more than 15 cwt. The plants are at their best when from +10 to 15 years old, but continue yielding for 30 years or even more.</p> + +<p><i>Other South American Countries.</i>—Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, +Peru, and to a much less degree Bolivia and Paraguay, produce +coffee, the annual crops of the two former countries being each of +about £1,500,000 in value.</p> + +<p><i>Central America.</i>—Guatemala produces the most in this region; +the coffee estates are mainly controlled by Germans, who have +brought them to a high pitch of perfection. The crop ranges in +value from about £1,000,000 to £1,500,000 per annum. Costa Rica +and San Salvador produce about half this amount. In Nicaragua, +Honduras and Panama, coffee is extensively cultivated, and all +export the product.</p> + +<p><i>West Indies.</i>—Coffee is grown in most of the islands, often only +for local use. Haiti produces the largest amount, the annual value +of the crop being about £500,000. Porto Rico formerly had a +flourishing industry, but it has declined owing to various causes. +The interior is still expected to be devoted largely to coffee, and +the U.S. Department of Agriculture has carried out experiments +to improve methods and ensure the cultivation of better varieties. +Jamaica produces the famous Blue Mountain Coffee, which compares +favourably with the best coffees of the world, and also ordinary +or “plain grown”; the Blue Mountain is cultivated at elevations +of from 3000 to 4500 ft. Coffee usually ranks third or fourth in value +amongst the exports of the island.</p> + +<p><i>Africa</i>, the native country of the coffees, does not now contribute +any important amount to the world’s output. In Liberia, the Gold +Coast and elsewhere on the West Coast are many plantations, but +the low prices ruling of recent years have caused coffee to be neglected +for more remunerative crops. Coffee is, however, still the principal +export of Nyasaland (British Central Africa), where it was introduced +as recently as 1894. The area under coffee has been greatly +reduced, owing partly to more attention being paid to cotton, +partly to droughts and other causes. In Somaliland and Abyssinia +coffee cultivation is of very ancient date. Two kinds are exported, +Harrari and Habashi. The former compares favourably with Mocha +coffee. The industry could be very considerably extended. In +Natal, Rhodesia, &c., coffee is grown, but not in sufficient quantity +to supply the local demand.</p> + +<p><i>Arabia.</i>—The name “Mocha” is applied generally to coffee +produced in Arabia. Turkey and Egypt obtain the best grades. +Traders from these countries go to Arabia, buy the crops on the +trees, and supervise its picking and preparation themselves. The +coffee is prepared by the “dry method.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span></p> + +<p><i>India</i> is the principal coffee-growing region in the British empire, +and produces about one-fifth of the total supply of the United +Kingdom. There are some 213,000 acres under coffee, mostly in +southern India. The official report states that the production of +coffee is restricted for the most part to a limited area in the elevated +region above the south-western coast, the coffee lands of Mysore, +Coorg, and the Madras districts of Malabar and the Nilgiris, comprising +86% of the whole area under the plant in India. About one-half of +the whole coffee-producing area is in Mysore. In Burma, Assam +and Bombay, coffee is of minor importance. During 1904-1906 +there was a reduction of the area under coffee in India by 21,554 +acres.</p> + +<p><i>Ceylon.</i>—The history of coffee in Ceylon is practically that of the +coffee-leaf disease (see below). The Dutch introduced Arabian +coffee in 1720, but abandoned its cultivation later. It was revived +by the British, and developed very rapidly between 1836 and 1845, +when there was a temporary collapse owing to financial crisis in the +United Kingdom. In 1880 the exports of coffee were of the value +of about £2,784,163. Ten years later they had fallen to £430,633, +owing to the ravages of the coffee-leaf disease. The output continued +to decrease, and the value of the crop in 1906 was only £17,258. +Liberian coffee, which is hardier and more resistant to disease, was +introduced, but met with only partial success.</p> + +<p><i>Dutch East Indies.</i>—Coffee from this source passes under the +general name of “Java,” that island producing the greatest amount; +Sumatra, Borneo and the Celebes, &c., however, also contribute. +The Java plantations are largely owned by the government. Much +of the coffee from these islands is of a high quality.</p> + +<p><i>Australasia.</i>—Coffee can be cultivated in the northern territories +of Australia, but comparatively little is done with this crop; Queensland +produces the largest amount.</p> + +<p><i>Hawaii</i>, &c.—In all the islands of the Hawaiian group coffee is +grown, but nine-tenths or more is raised in Hawaii itself, the Kona +district being the chief seat of production. The exports go mostly +to the United States, and there is also a large local consumption.</p> + +<p>Coffee thrives well also in the Philippines and Guam.</p> + +<p><i>The World’s Trade.</i>—The following figures, from the <i>Year-book</i> of +the U.S. Department of Agriculture, indicate the relative importance +of the coffee-exporting countries.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm">Country.</td> + <td class="tccm">1904.<br />Exports coffee<br />in ℔.</td> + <td class="tccm">1905.<br />Exports coffee<br />in ℔.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl pt2" colspan="3"><i>America</i>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Brazil</td> <td class="tcr">1,326,027,795</td> <td class="tcr">1,431,328,038</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Colombia</td> <td class="tcr">130,000,000</td> <td class="tcr">(est.)  70,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Venezuela</td> <td class="tcr">128,000,000</td> <td class="tcr">(est.)  94,370,090</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Haiti</td> <td class="tcr">81,407,346</td> <td class="tcr">45,244,232</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Salvador</td> <td class="tcr">75,314,003</td> <td class="tcr">61,822,223</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Guatemala</td> <td class="tcr">71,653,700</td> <td class="tcr">81,081,600</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Mexico</td> <td class="tcr">41,855,368</td> <td class="tcr">42,456,491</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Costa Rica</td> <td class="tcr">27,730,672</td> <td class="tcr">39,788,002</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Nicaragua</td> <td class="tcr">21,661,621</td> <td class="tcr">18,171,515</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Porto Rico</td> <td class="tcr">15,330,590</td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Jamaica</td> <td class="tcr">5,781,440</td> <td class="tcr">9,046,464</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl pt2" colspan="3"><i>Asia</i>—</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Dutch East Indies</td> <td class="tcr">77,168,254</td> <td class="tcr">72,864,649</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> British India</td> <td class="tcr">36,920,464</td> <td class="tcr">40,340,384</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Singapore (port of export)</td> <td class="tcr">12,367,156</td> <td class="tcr">11,935,034</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl pt2"><i>Other countries</i></td> <td class="tcr">216,891,567</td> <td class="tcr">220,132,690</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—————</td> <td class="tcr">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">   Total</td> <td class="tcr">2,268,109,976</td> <td class="tcr">2,238,581,412</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In 1906 there was an increased total of 2,680,855,878 ℔, due to +the Brazil export rising to 1,847,367,771 ℔. The aggregate value of +the coffee annually entering the world’s markets is about £40,000,000.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Coffee Consumption.</i>—The United States of America consume +nearly one half of all the coffee exported from the producing +countries of the world. This might of course be due merely to +the States containing more coffee-drinkers than other countries, +but the average consumption per head in the country is about +11 to 12 ℔ per annum, an amount equalled or excelled only in +Norway, Sweden and Holland. Whilst one great branch of the +Anglo-Saxon stock is near the head of the list, it is interesting +to note that the United Kingdom and also Canada and Australia +are almost at the foot, using only about 1 ℔ of coffee per head +each year. Germany, with a consumption of about 6 to 7 ℔ per +person per annum uses considerably less than a quarter of the +world’s commercial crop. France, about 5 ℔ per head, takes +about one eighth; and Austria-Hungary, about 2 ℔, uses some +one-sixteenth. Holland consumes approximately as much, but +with a much smaller population, the Dutch using more per head +than any other people—14 ℔ to 15 ℔ per annum. Their taste +is seen also in the relatively high consumption in South Africa. +Sweden, Belgium and the United Kingdom, follow next in order +of total amount used.</p> + +<p>In many tropical countries much coffee is drunk, but as it is +often produced locally exact figures are not available. The +average consumption in the United Kingdom is about 50,000,000 +lb per annum; about one-fifth only is produced in the British +empire, and of this about nineteen-twentieths come from India +and one-twentieth from the British West Indies.</p> + +<p><i>Coffee-leaf Disease.</i>—The coffee industry in Ceylon was ruined +by the attack of a fungoid disease (<i>Hemileia vastatrix</i>) known as +the Ceylon coffee-leaf disease. This has since extended its ravages +into every coffee-producing country in the Old World, and added +greatly to the difficulties of successful cultivation. The fungus +is a microscopic one, the minute spores of which, carried by the +wind, settle and germinate upon the leaves of the plant. The +fungal growth spreads through the substance to the leaf, robbing +the leaf of its nourishment and causing it to wither and fall. +An infected plantation may be cleansed, and the fungus in its +nascent state destroyed, by powdering the trees with a mixture +of lime and sulphur, but, unless the access of fresh spores brought +by the wind can be arrested, the plantations may be readily +reinfected when the lime and sulphur are washed off by rain. +The separation of plantations by belts of trees to windward is +suggested as a check to the spread of the disease.</p> + +<div class="f90"> +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:505px; height:626px" src="images/img648.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Coffee-leaf Disease, <i>Hemileia vastatrix</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" style="width: 40%;"><p>1, Part of leaf showing diseased patches.</p> + +<p>2, Cluster of uredospores.</p> + +<p>3, Transverse section of a diseased patch in the leaf showing the hyphae of the fungus pushing between the +leaf-cells and tapping them for nourishment. The hyphae have broken through in the upper face and +are forming a cluster of spores.</p></td> + +<td class="tcl"><p>6, A uredospore germinating, the germ-tube is penetrating the leaf.</p> +<p>5, A teleutospore.</p> +<p>4, Ripe uredospores.</p> +<p>7, Uredospore germinating.</p> +<p>u, Uredospore.</p> +<p>t, Teleutospore.</p> +<p>2-7, Highly magnified.</p> </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><i>Microscopic Structure.</i>—Raw coffee seeds are tough and horny +in structure, and are devoid of the peculiar aroma and taste which +are so characteristic of the roasted seeds. The minute structure +of coffee allows it to be readily recognized by means of the +microscope, and as roasting does not destroy its distinguishing +peculiarities, microscopic examination forms the readiest means +of determining the genuineness of any sample. The substance +of the seed, according to Dr Hassall, consists “of an assemblage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span> +of vesicles or cells of an angular form, which adhere so firmly together +that they break up into pieces rather than separate into +distinct and perfect cells. The cavities of the cells include, in the +form of little drops, a considerable quantity of aromatic volatile +oil, on the presence of +which the fragrance and +many of the active principles +of the berry depend” +(see fig. 3).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:291px; height:313px" src="images/img649.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Microscopic structure of +Coffee.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Physiological Action.</i>—Coffee +belongs to the medicinal +or auxiliary class of +food substances, being +solely valuable for its +stimulant effect upon the +nervous and vascular system. +It produces a feeling +of buoyancy and exhilaration +comparable to a +certain stage of alcoholic +intoxication, but which +does not end in depression +or collapse. It increases the frequency of the pulse, lightens the +sensation of fatigue, and it sustains the strength under prolonged +and severe muscular exertion. The value of its hot infusion under +the rigours of Arctic cold has been demonstrated in the experience +of all Arctic explorers, and it is scarcely less useful in tropical +regions, where it beneficially stimulates the action of the skin.</p> + +<p>The physiological action of coffee mainly depends on the presence +of the alkaloid caffeine, which occurs also in tea, Paraguay +tea, and cola nuts, and is very similar to theobromine, the active +principle in cocoa. The percentage of caffeine present varies +in the different species of <i>Coffea</i>. In Arabian coffee it ranges +from about 0.7 to 1.6%; in Liberian coffee from 1.0 to 1.5%. +Sierra Leone coffee (<i>C. stenophylla</i>) contains from 1.52 to 1.70%; +in <i>C. excelsa</i> 1.89% is recorded, and as much as 1.97% in <i>C. +canephora</i>. Four species have been shown by M. G. Bertrand +to contain no caffeine at all, but instead a considerable quantity +of a bitter principle. All these four species are found only in +Madagascar or the neighbouring islands. Other coffees grown +there contain caffeine as usual. Coffee, with the caffeine extracted, +has also been recently prepared for the market. The +commercial value of coffee is determined by the amount of the +aromatic oil, caffeone, which develops in it by the process of +roasting. By prolonged keeping it is found that the richness of +any seeds in this peculiar oil is increased, and with increased +aroma the coffee also yields a blander and more mellow beverage. +Stored coffee loses weight at first with great rapidity, as much as +8% having been found to dissipate in the first year of keeping, +5% in the second, and 2% in the third; but such loss of weight +is more than compensated by improvement in quality and consequent +enhancement of value.</p> + +<p><i>Roasting.</i>—In the process of roasting, coffee seeds swell up by +the liberation of gases within their substance,—their weight +decreasing in proportion to the extent to which the operation +is carried. Roasting also develops with the aromatic caffeone +above alluded to a bitter soluble principle, and it liberates a +portion of the caffeine from its combination with the caffetannic +acid. Roasting is an operation of the greatest nicety, and one, +moreover, of a crucial nature, for equally by insufficient and by +excessive roasting much of the aroma of the coffee is lost; and +its infusion is neither agreeable to the palate nor exhilarating +in its influence. The roaster must judge of the amount of heat +required for the adequate roasting of different qualities, and while +that is variable, the range of roasting temperature proper for +individual kinds is only narrow. In continental countries it is +the practice to roast in small quantities, and thus the whole +charge is well under the control of the roaster; but in Britain +large roasts are the rule, in dealing with which much difficulty +is experienced in producing uniform torrefaction, and in stopping +the process at the proper moment. The coffee-roasting apparatus +is usually a malleable iron cylinder mounted to revolve over the +fire on a hollow axle which allows the escape of gases generated +during torrefaction. The roasting of coffee should be done as short +a time as practicable before the grinding for use, and as ground +coffee especially parts rapidly with its aroma, the grinding should +only be done when coffee is about to be prepared.</p> + +<p><i>Adulteration.</i>—Although by microscopic, physical and chemical +tests the purity of coffee can be determined with perfect certainty, +yet ground coffee is subjected to many and extensive adulterations +(see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>). Chief among the adulterant +substances, if it can be so called, is chicory; but it occupies a +peculiar position, since very many people on the European +continent as well as in Great Britain deliberately prefer a mixture +of chicory with coffee to pure coffee. Chicory is indeed destitute +of the stimulant alkaloid and essential oil for which coffee is +valued; but the facts that it has stood the test of prolonged and +extended use, and that its infusion is, in some localities, used +alone, indicate that it performs some useful function in connexion +with coffee, as used at least by Western communities. For one +thing, it yields a copious amount of soluble matter in infusion +with hot water, and thus gives a specious appearance of strength +and substance to what may be really only a very weak preparation +of coffee. The mixture of chicory with coffee is easily detected +by the microscope, the structure of both, which they retain +after torrefaction, being very characteristic and distinct. The +granules of coffee, moreover, remain hard and angular when mixed +with water, to which they communicate but little colour; chicory, +on the other hand, swelling up and softening, yields a deep brown +colour to water in which it is thrown. The specific gravity of +an infusion of chicory is also much higher than that of coffee. +Among the numerous other substances used to adulterate coffee +are roasted and ground roots of the dandelion, carrot, parsnip +and beet; beans, lupins and other leguminous seeds; wheat, +rice and various cereal grains; the seeds of the broom, fenugreek +and iris; acorns; “negro coffee,” the seeds of <i>Cassia occidentalis</i>, +the seeds of the ochro (<i>Hibiscus esculentus</i>), and also the soja +or soy bean (<i>Glycine Soya</i>). Not only have these with many +more similar substances been used as adulterants, but under +various high-sounding names several of them have been introduced +as substitutes for coffee; but they have neither merited nor +obtained any success, and their sole effect has been to bring +coffee into undeserved disrepute with the public.</p> + +<p>Not only is ground coffee adulterated, but such mixtures as +flour, chicory and coffee, or even bran and molasses, have been +made up to simulate coffee beans and sold as such.</p> + +<p>The leaves of the coffee tree contain caffeine in larger proportion +than the seeds themselves, and their use as a substitute for +tea has frequently been suggested. The leaves are actually so +used in Sumatra, but being destitute of any attractive aroma +such as is possessed by both tea and coffee, the infusion is not +palatable. It is, moreover, not practicable to obtain both seeds +and leaves from the same plant, and as the commercial demand +is for the seed alone, no consideration either of profit or of any +dietetic or economic advantage is likely to lead to the growth of +coffee trees on account of their leaves.</p> +<div class="author">(A. B. R.; W. G. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COFFER<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (Fr. <i>coffre</i>, O. Fr. <i>cofre</i> or <i>cofne</i>, Lat. <i>cophinus</i>, cf. +“coffin”), in architecture, a sunk panel in a ceiling or vault; +also a casket or chest in which jewels or precious goods were kept, +and, if of large dimensions, clothes. The marriage coffers in Italy +were of exceptional richness in their carving and gilding and +were sometimes painted by great artists.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COFFERDAM<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span>, in engineering. To enable foundations (<i>q.v.</i>) +to be laid in a site which is under water, the engineer sometimes +surrounds it with an embankment or dam, known as a cofferdam, +to form an enclosure from which the water is excluded. Where +the depth of water is small and the current slight, simple clay +dams may be used, but in general cofferdams consist of two rows +of piles, the space between which is packed with clay puddle. +The dam must be sufficiently strong to withstand the exterior +pressure to which it is exposed when the enclosed space is +pumped dry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COFFEYVILLE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span>, a city of Montgomery county, Kansas, U.S.A., +on the Verdigris river, about 150 m. S. of Topeka and near the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span> +southern boundary of the state. Pop. (1890) 2282; (1900) +4953, of whom 803 were negroes; (1905) 13,196; (1910) 12,687. +Coffeyville is served by the Missouri Pacific, the Atchison, +Topeka & Santa Fé, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the +Saint Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways, and by inter-urban +electric railway to Independence. It is in the Kansas +natural-gas field, ships large quantities of grain, and has a large +zinc oxide smelter and a large oil refinery, and various manufactures, +including vitrified brick and tile, flour, lumber, +chemicals, window glass, bottles, pottery and straw boards. +The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric +lighting plant. Coffeyville, named in honour of A. M. Coffey, +who was a member of the first legislature of the territory of +Kansas, was founded in 1869, but in 1871 it was removed about +1 m. from its original site, now known as “old town.” It was +incorporated as a city of the third class in 1872 and received +a new charter in 1887. Coffeyville became a station on the +Leavenworth, Lawrence & Galveston railway (now part of the +Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé), and for several years large +numbers of cattle were driven here from Indian Territory and +Texas for shipment; in fact, the city’s chief importance was +as a trade centre for the north part of Indian Territory until +natural gas was found here in large quantities in 1892.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COFFIN<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>cophinus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kophinos">κόφινος</span>, a coffer, chest or +basket, but never meaning “coffin” in its present sense), the +receptacle in which a corpse is confined. The Greeks and Romans +disposed of their dead both by burial and by cremation. Greek +coffins varied in shape, being in the form of an urn, or like the +modern coffins, or triangular, the body being in a sitting posture. +The material used was generally burnt clay, and in some cases +this had obviously been first moulded round the body, and so +baked. Cremation was the commonest method of disposing of +the dead among the Romans, until the Christian era, when stone +coffins came into use. Examples of these have been frequently +dug up in England. In 1853, during excavations for the foundations +of some warehouses in Hayden Square, Minories, London, +a Roman stone coffin was found within which was a leaden +shell. Others have been found at Whitechapel, Stratford-le-Bow, +Old Kent Road and Battersea Fields, and in great numbers at +Colchester, York, Southfleet and Kingsholme near Gloucester. +In early England stone coffins were only used by the nobles and +the wealthy. Those of the Romans who were rich enough had +their coffins made of a limestone brought from Assos in Troas, +which it was commonly believed “ate the body”; hence arose +the name sarcophagus (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The coffins of the Chaldaeans were generally clay urns with the +top left open, resembling immense jars. These, too, must have +been moulded round the body, as the size of the mouth would not +admit of its introduction after the clay was baked. The Egyptian +coffins, or sarcophagi, as they have been improperly called, are +the largest stone coffins known and are generally highly polished +and covered with hieroglyphics, usually a history of the deceased. +Mummy chests shaped to the form of the body were also used. +These were made of hard wood or <i>papier mâché</i> painted, and like +the stone coffins bore hieroglyphics. The Persians, Parthians, +Medes and peoples of the Caspian are not known to have had any +coffins, their usual custom being to expose the body to be devoured +by beasts and birds of prey. Unhewn flat stones were sometimes +used by the ancient European peoples to line the grave. One +was placed at the bottom, others stood on their edges to form +the sides, and a large slab was put on top, thus forming a rude +cist. In England after the Roman invasion these rude cists +gave place to the stone coffin, and this, though varying much in +shape, continued in use until the 16th century.</p> + +<p>The most primitive wooden coffin was formed of a tree-trunk +split down the centre, and hollowed out. The earliest specimen +of this type is in the Copenhagen museum, the implements found +in it proving that it belonged to the Bronze Age. This type of +coffin, more or less modified by planing, was used in medieval +Britain by those of the better classes who could not afford stone, +but the poor were buried without coffins, wrapped simply in +cloth or even covered only with hay and flowers. Towards the +end of the 17th century, coffins became usual for all classes. It +is worth noting that in the Burial Service in the Book of Common +Prayer the word “coffin” is not used.</p> + +<p>Among the American Indians some tribes, <i>e.g.</i> the Sacs, Foxes +and Sioux, used rough hewn wooden coffins; others, such as the +Seris, sometimes enclosed the corpse between the carapace and +plastron of a turtle. The Seminoles of Florida used no coffins, +while at Santa Barbara, California, canoes containing corpses +have been found buried though they may have been intended +for the dead warrior’s use in the next world. Rough stone cists, +too, have been found, especially in Illinois and Kentucky. In +their tree and scaffold burial the Indians sometimes used wooden +coffins, but oftener the bodies were simply wrapped in blankets. +Canoes mounted on a scaffold near a river were used as coffins +by some tribes, while others placed the corpse in a canoe or +wicker basket and floated them out into the stream or lake +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Funeral Rites</a></span>). The aborigines of Australia generally +used coffins of bark, but some tribes employed baskets of wicker-work.</p> + +<p>Lead coffins were used in Europe in the middle ages, shaped +like the mummy chests of ancient Egypt. Iron coffins were +more rare, but they were certainly used in England and Scotland +as late as the 17th century, when an order was made that upon +bodies so buried a heavier burial fee should be levied. The +coffins used in England to-day are generally of elm or oak lined +with lead, or with a leaden shell so as to delay as far as possible +the process of disintegration and decomposition. In America +glass is sometimes used for the lids, and the inside is lined with +copper or zinc. The coffins of France and Germany and the +continent generally, usually differ from those of England in not +being of the ordinary hexagonal shape but having sides and ends +parallel. Coffins used in cremation throughout the civilized +world are of some light material easily consumed and yielding +little ash. Ordinary thin deal and <i>papier mâché</i> are the favourite +materials. Coffins for what is known as Earth to Earth Burial +are made of wicker-work covered with a thin layer of <i>papier +mâché</i> over cloth.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Funeral Rites</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cremation</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burial and Burial +Acts</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embalming</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mummy</a></span>, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Dr H. C. Yarrow, “Study of the Mortuary +Customs of the North American Indians,” <i>Report of Bureau of +Amer. Ethnol.</i> vol. i. (Washington, U.S.A., 1881); Rev. Thomas Hugo, +“On the Hayden Square Sarcophagus,” <i>Journ. of Archaeol. Soc.</i> +vol. ix. (London, 1854); C. V. Creagh, “On Unusual Forms of Burial +by People of the East Coast of Borneo,” <i>J.A.I.</i>, vol. xxvi. (London, +1896-1897); Rev. J. Edward Vaux, <i>Church Folk-lore</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COG<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span>. (1) (From an older <i>cogge</i>, a word which appears in +various forms in Teutonic languages, as in O. Ger. <i>kogge</i> or +<i>kocke</i>, and also in Romanic, as in O. Fr. <i>cogue</i>, or <i>coque</i>, from +which the Eng. “cock-boat” is derived; the connexion between +the Teutonic and the Romanic forms is obscure), a broadly built, +round-shaped ship, used as a trader and also as a ship of war +till the 15th century. (2) (A word of obscure origin, possibly +connected with Fr. <i>coche</i>, and Ital. <i>cocca</i>, a notch; the Celtic +forms <i>cog</i> and <i>cocas</i> come from the English), a tooth in a series +of teeth, morticed on to, or cut out of the circumference of a +wheel, which works with the tooth in a corresponding series +on another wheel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>). (3) (Also of quite obscure +origin), a slang term for a form of cheating at dice. The early +uses of the word show that this was done not by “loading” +the dice, as the modern use of the expression of “cogged dice” +seems to imply, but by sleight of hand in directing the fall or in +changing the dice.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COGERS HALL<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>, a London tavern debating society. It was +instituted in 1755 at the White Bear Inn (now St Bride’s Tavern), +Fleet Street, moved about 1850 to Discussion Hall, Shoe Lane, +and in 1871 finally migrated to the Barley Mow Inn, Salisbury +Square, E.C., its present quarters. The name is often wrongly +spelt Codgers and Coggers; the “o” is really long, the accepted +derivation being from Descartes’ <i>Cogito, ergo sum</i>, and thus +meaning “The society of thinkers.” The aims of the Cogers +were “the promotion of the liberty of the subject and the +freedom of the Press, the maintenance of loyalty to the laws, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span> +the rights and claims of humanity and the practice of public +and private virtue.” Among its early members Cogers Hall +reckoned John Wilkes, one of its first presidents, and Curran, who +in 1773 writes to a friend that he spent a couple of hours every +night at the Hall. Later Dickens was a prominent member.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Peter Rayleigh, <i>History of Ye Antient Society of Cogers</i> +(London, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COGHLAN, CHARLES FRANCIS<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1841-1899), Irish actor, +was born in Paris, and was educated for the law. He made his +first London appearance in 1860, and became the leading actor +at the Prince of Wales’s. He went to America in 1876, where +he remained for the rest of his life, playing first in Augustin +Daly’s company and then in the Union Square stock company, +during the long run of <i>The Celebrated Case</i>. He also played with +his sister, and in support of Mrs Langtry and Mrs Fiske, and in +1898 produced a version of Dumas’ <i>Kean</i>, called <i>The Royal Box</i>, +in which he successfully starred during the last years of his life. +He died in Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of November 1899.</p> + +<p>His sister, the actress <span class="sc">Rose Coghlan</span> (1853-  ), went to +America in 1871, was again in England from 1873 to 1877, +playing with Barry Sullivan, and then returned to America, +where she became prominent as Countess Zicka in <i>Diplomacy</i>, +and Stephanie in <i>Forget-me-not</i>. She was at Wallack’s almost +continuously until 1888, and subsequently appeared in melodrama +in parts like the title-rôle of <i>The Sporting Duchess</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COGNAC<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span>, a town of south-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Charente, on the left +bank of the river Charente, 32 m. W. of Angoulême on the +Ouest-État railway, between Angoulême and Saintes. Pop. (1906) +18,389. The streets of the old town—which borders the river—are +narrow and tortuous, but the newer parts are well provided +with open spaces. The chief of these is the beautiful Parc +François 1er overlooking the Charente. In one of the squares +there is a statue of Francis I., who was born here. The chief +building is a church of the 12th century dedicated to St Leger, +which preserves a fine Romanesque façade and a tower of the +15th century. A castle of the 15th and 16th centuries, once the +residence of the counts of Angoulême, now a storehouse for +brandy, and a medieval gate stand in the older part of the +town. Cognac is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of +first instance and of commerce, a council of trade arbitrators, +a chamber of commerce, and consulates of the United States, +Spain and Portugal. Its most important industry is the distillation +of the brandy (<i>q.v.</i>) to which the town gives its name. +Large quantities are carried, by way of the river, to the neighbouring +port of Tonnay-Charente. The industries subsidiary +to the brandy trade, such as the making of cases and bottles, +occupy many hands. Ironware is also manufactured, and a +considerable trade is maintained in grain and cattle. In 1526 +Cognac gave its name to a treaty concluded against Charles V. +by Francis I., the pope, Venice and Milan. Its possession was +contested during the wars of religion, and in 1570 it became one +of the Huguenot strongholds. In 1651 it successfully sustained +a siege against Louis II., prince of Condé, leader of the Fronde.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Le Pays du Cognac</i>, by L. Ravaz, for a description of the +district and its viticulture.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COGNITION<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (Latin <i>cognitio</i>, from <i>cognoscere</i>, to become +acquainted with), in psychology, a term used in its most general +sense for all modes of being conscious or aware of an object, +whether material or intellectual. It is an ultimate mode of +consciousness, strictly the presentation (through sensation or +otherwise) of an object to consciousness; in its complete form, +however, it seems to involve a judgment, <i>i.e.</i> the separation +from other objects of the object presented. The psychological +theory of cognition takes for granted the dualism of the mind +that knows and the object known; it takes no account of the +metaphysical problem as to the possibility of a relation between +the ego and the non-ego, but assumes that such a relation does +exist. Cognition is therefore distinct from emotion and conation; +it has no psychological connexion with feelings of pleasure and +pain, nor does it tend as such to issue in action.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the analysis of cognition-reactions see O. Külpe, <i>Outlines of +Psychology</i> (Eng. trans., 1895), pp. 411 foll.; E. B. Titchener, +<i>Experimental Psychology</i> (1905), ii. 187 foll. On cognition generally, +G. F. Stout’s <i>Analytic Psychology and Manual of Psychology</i>; +W. James’s <i>Principles of Psychology</i> (1890), i. 216 foll.; also article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COGNIZANCE<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cognoscere</i>, to know), knowledge, notice, +especially judicial notice, the right of trying or considering a +case judicially, the exercise of jurisdiction by a court of law. +In heraldry a “cognizance” is an emblem, badge or device, +used as a distinguishing mark by the body of retainers of a +royal or noble house.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COHEN<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (Hebrew for “priest”), a Jewish family name, +implying descent from the ancient Hebrew priests. Many +families claiming such descent are, however, not named Cohen. +Other forms of the name are Cohn, Cowen, Kahn.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Jacobs, <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, iv. 144.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1828-1898), German botanist, +was born on the 24th of January 1828 at Breslau. He was +educated at Breslau and Berlin, and in 1859 became extraordinary, +and in 1871 ordinary, professor of botany at Breslau +University. He had a remarkable career, owing to his Jewish +origin. He was contemporary with N. Pringsheim, and worked +with H. R. Goeppert, C. G. Nees von Esenbeck, C. G. Ehrenberg +and Johannes Müller. At an early date he exhibited astonishing +ability with the microscope, which he did much to improve, and +his researches on cell-walls and the growth and contents of +plant-cells soon attracted attention, especially as he made +remarkable advances in the establishment of an improved cell-theory, +discovered the cilia in, and analysed the movements of, +zoospores, and pointed out that the protoplasm of the plant-cell +and the sarcode of the zoologists were one and the same physical +vehicle of life. Although these early researches were especially +on the Algae, in which group he instituted marked reforms of the +rigid system due to F. T. Kützing, Cohn had already displayed +that activity in various departments which made him so famous +as an all-round naturalist, his attention at various times being +turned to such varied subjects as <i>Aldorovanda</i>, torsion in trees, +the nature of waterspouts, the effects of lightning, physiology +of seeds, the proteid crystals in the potato, which he discovered, +the formation of travertin, the rotatoria, luminous worms, &c.</p> + +<p>It is, however, in the introduction of the strict biological and +philosophical analysis of the life-histories of the lower and most +minute forms of life that Cohn’s greatest achievements consist, +for he applied to these organisms the principle that we can only +know the phases of growth of microscopic plants by watching +every stage of development under the microscope, just as we +learn how different are the youthful and adult appearances of +an oak or a fern by direct observation. The success with which +he attempted and carried out the application of cultural and +developmental methods on the Algae, Fungi and Bacteria can +only be fully appreciated by those familiar with the minute size +and elusive evolutions of these organisms, and with the limited +appliances at Cohn’s command. Nevertheless his account of +the life-histories of <i>Protococcus</i> (1850), <i>Stephanosphaera</i> (1852), +<i>Volvox</i> (1856 and 1875), <i>Hydrodictyon</i> (1861), and <i>Sphaeroplea</i> +(1855-1857) among the Algae have never been put aside. The +first is a model of what a study in development should be; the +last shares with G. Thuret’s studies on <i>Fucus</i> and Pringsheim’s +on <i>Vaucheria</i> the merit of establishing the existence of a sexual +process in Algae. Among the Fungi Cohn contributed important +researches on <i>Pilobolus</i> (1851), <i>Empusa</i> (1855), <i>Tarichium</i> (1869), +as well as valuable work on the nature of parasitism of Algae +and Fungi.</p> + +<p>It is as the founder of bacteriology that Cohn’s most striking +claims to recognition will be established. He seems to have +been always attracted particularly by curious problems of +fermentation and coloration due to the most minute forms of +life, as evinced by his papers on <i>Monas prodigiosa</i> (1850) and +“Über blutähnliche Färbungen” (1850), on infusoria (1851 +and 1852), on organisms in drinking-water (1853), “Die Wunder +des Blutes” (1854), and had already published several works on +insect epidemics (1869-1870) and on plant diseases, when his +first specially bacteriological memoir (<i>Crenothrix</i>) appeared in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span> +the journal, <i>Beiträge zur Biologie</i>, which he then started (1870-1871), +and which has since become so renowned. Investigations +on other branches of bacteriology soon followed, among which +“Organismen der Pockenlymphe” (1872) and “Untersuchungen +über Bacterien” (1872-1875) are most important, and laid the +foundations of the new department of science which has now +its own laboratories, literature and workers specially devoted +to its extension in all directions. When it is remembered that +Cohn brought out and helped R. Koch in publishing his celebrated +paper on <i>Anthrax</i> (1876), the first clearly worked out case of a +bacterial disease, the significance of his influence on bacteriology +becomes apparent.</p> + +<p>Among his most striking discoveries during his studies of the +forms and movements of the Bacteria may be mentioned the +nature of Zoogloea, the formation and germination of true spores—which +he observed for the first time, and which he himself +discovered in <i>Bacillus subtilis</i>—and their resistance to high +temperatures, and the bearing of this on the fallacious experiments +supposed to support abiogenesis; as well as works on +the bacteria of air and water, the significance of the bright +sulphur granules in sulphur bacteria, and of the iron oxide +deposited in the walls of <i>Crenothrix</i>. His discoveries in these and +in other departments all stand forth as mementoes of his acute +observation and reasoning powers, and the thoughtful (in every +sense of the word) consideration of the work of others, and +suggestive ideas attached to his principal papers, bear the same +characteristics. If we overcome the always difficult task of +bridging in imagination the interval between our present platform +of knowledge and that on which bacteriologists stood in, +say, 1870, we shall not undervalue the important contributions +of Cohn to the overthrow of the then formidable bugbear known +as the doctrine of “spontaneous generation,” a dogma of despair +calculated to impede progress as much in its day as that of +“vitalism” did in other periods. Cohn had also clear perceptions +of the important bearings of Mycology and Bacteriology +in infective diseases, as shown by his studies in insect-killing +fungi, microscopic analysis of water, &c. He was a foreign +member of the Royal Society and of the Linnean Society, and +received the gold medal of the latter in 1895. He died at Breslau +on the 25th of June 1898.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Lists of his papers will be found in the <i>Catalogue of Scientific +Papers of the Royal Society</i>, and in <i>Ber. d. d. bot. Gesellsch.</i>, 1899, +vol. xvii. p. (196). The latter also contains (p. (172)) a full memoir by +F. Rosen.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. M. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COHN, GUSTAV<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1840-  ), German economist, was born +on the 12th of December 1840 at Marienwerder, in West Prussia. +He was educated at Berlin and Jena universities. In 1869 he +obtained a post at the polytechnic in Riga, and in 1875 was +elected a professor at the polytechnic at Zürich. In 1873 he +went to England for a period of study, and as a result published +his <i>Untersuchungen über die englische Eisenbahnpolitik</i> (Leipzig, +1874-1875). In 1884 he was appointed professor of political +science at Göttingen. Cohn’s best-known works are <i>System der +Nationalökonomie</i> (Stuttgart, 1885); <i>Finanzwissenschaft</i> (1889); +<i>Nationalökonomische Studien</i> (1886), and <i>Zur Geschichte und +Politik des Verkehrswesens</i> (1900).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COHOES<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span>, a city of Albany county, New York, U.S.A., about +9 m. N. of Albany, at the confluence of the Mohawk and Hudson +rivers. Pop. (1890) 22,509; (1900) 23,910, of whom 7303 +were foreign-born; (1910) 24,709. It is served by the New +York Central & Hudson River and the Delaware & Hudson +railways, by electric lines to Troy and Albany, and by the Erie +and Champlain canals. It is primarily a manufacturing city. +Hosiery and knit goods, cotton cloth, cotton batting, shoddy, +underwear and shirts and collars are the principal products, +but there are also extensive valve works and manufactories of +pulp, paper and paper boxes, beer, pins and needles, tools and +machinery, and sash, doors and blinds. The value of the factory +products in 1905 was $10,289,822, of which $4,126,873, or 40.1%, +was the value of hosiery and knit goods, Cohoes ranking fifth +among the cities of the United States (of 20,000 inhabitants or +more) in this industry, and showing a higher degree of specialization +in it than any other city in the United States except Little +Falls, N.Y. The Falls of the Mohawk, which furnish power for +the majority of the manufacturing establishments, are 75 ft. +high and 900 ft. broad, a large dam above the falls storing the +water, which is conveyed through canals to the mills. Below the +falls the river is crossed by two fine iron bridges. The city has +a public library, a normal training school and the St Bernard’s +(Roman Catholic) Academy. Cohoes was a part of the extensive +manorial grant made to Killian Van Rensselaer in 1629 and it +was probably settled very soon afterwards. It was incorporated +as a village in 1848 and was chartered as a city in 1870.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COHORT<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cohors</i>), originally a place enclosed: in the +Roman army, the name of a unit of infantry. The troops of +the first grade, the legions, were divided into cohorts, of which +there were ten in each legion: the cohort thus contained 600 +men. Among the troops of the second grade (the <i>auxilia</i>) the +cohorts were independent foot regiments 500 or 1000 strong, +corresponding to the <i>alae</i>, which were similar regiments of +cavalry; they were generally posted on the frontiers of the +Empire in small forts of four to eight acres, each holding one +cohort or <i>ala</i>. The special troops of Rome itself, the Praetorian +Guard, the Urbanae Cohortes, and the Vigiles (fire brigade), +were divided into cohorts (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Army</a></span>). The +phrase <i>cohors praetoria</i> or <i>cohors amicorum</i> was sometimes used, +especially during the Roman republic, to denote the suite of the +governor of a province; hence developed the Praetorian cohorts +which formed the emperor’s bodyguard.</p> + +<p>In biology, “cohort” is a term for a group of allied orders or +families of plants or animals.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COIF<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>coiffe</i>, Ital. <i>cuffia</i>, a cap), a close-fitting covering +for the head. Originally it was the name given to a head-covering +worn in the middle ages, tied like a night-cap under the chin, +and worn out of doors by both sexes; this was later worn by +men as a kind of night-cap or skull-cap. The coif was also a +close-fitting cap of white lawn or silk, worn by English serjeants-at-law +as a distinguishing mark of their profession. It became +the fashion to wear on the top of the white coif a small skull-cap +of black silk or velvet; and on the introduction of wigs at the +end of the 17th century a round space was left on the top of the +wig for the display of the coif, which was afterwards covered +by a small patch of black silk edged with white (see A. Pulling, +<i>Order of the Coif</i>, 1897). The random conjecture of Sir H. +Spelman (<i>Glossarium archaiologicum</i>) that the coif was originally +designed to conceal the ecclesiastical tonsure has unfortunately +been quoted by annotators of Blackstone’s <i>Commentaries</i> as +well as by Lord Campbell in his <i>Lives of the Chief Justices</i>. It +may be classed with the curious conceit, recorded in Brand’s +<i>Popular Antiquities</i>, that the coif was derived from the child’s +caul, and was worn on the advocate’s head for luck.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COIMBATORE<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span>, a city and district of British India, in the +Madras presidency. The city is situated on the left bank of the +Noyil river, 305 m. from Madras by the Madras railway. In +1901 it had a population of 53,080, showing an increase of 14% +in the decade. The city stands 1437 ft. above sea-level, is well +laid out and healthy, and is rendered additionally attractive +to European residents by its picturesque position on the slopes +of the Nilgiri hills. It is an important industrial centre, carrying +on cotton weaving and spinning, tanning, distilling, and the +manufacture of coffee, sugar, manure and saltpetre. It has +two second-grade colleges, a college of agriculture, and a school +of forestry.</p> + +<p>The <span class="sc">District of Coimbatore</span> has an area of 7860 sq. m. It +may be described as a flat, open country, hemmed in by mountains +on the north, west and south, but opening eastwards on +to the great plain of the Carnatic; the average height of the plain +above sea-level is about 900 ft. The principal mountains are the +Anamalai Hills, in the south of the district, rising at places to a +height of between 8000 and 9000 ft. In the west the Palghat +and Vallagiri Hills form a connecting link between the Anamalai +range and the Nilgiris, with the exception of a remarkable gap +known as the Palghat Pass. This gap, which completely intersects +the Ghats, is about 20 m. wide. In the north is a range +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span> +of primitive trap-hills known as the Cauvery chain, extending +eastwards from the Nilgiris, and rising in places to a height of +4000 ft. The principal rivers are the Cauvery, Bhavani, Noyil, +and Amravati. Numerous canals are cut from the rivers for +the purpose of affording artificial irrigation, which has proved +of immense benefit to the country. Well and tank water is also +largely used for irrigation purposes. Coimbatore district was +acquired by the British in 1799 at the close of the war which +ended with the death of Tippoo. In 1901 the population was +2,201,782, showing an increase of 10% in the preceding decade. +The principal crops are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, +oilseeds, cotton and tobacco, with a little coffee. Forests cover +nearly 1½ million acres, yielding valuable timber (teak, sandalwood, +&c.), and affording grazing-ground for cattle. There are +several factories for pressing cotton, and for cleaning coffee, oil-cake +presses, tanneries and saltpetre refineries. Cereals, cotton, +forest products, cattle and hides, and brass and copper vessels +are the chief exports from the district. The south-west line of +the Madras railway runs through the district, and the South +Indian railway (of metre gauge) joins this at Erode.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COIMBRA<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span>, the capital of an administrative district formerly +included in the province of Beira, Portugal; on the north bank +of the river Mondego, 115 m. N.N.E. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-Oporto +railway. Pop. (1900) 18,144. Coimbra is built for the +most part on rising ground, and presents from the other side +of the river a picturesque and imposing appearance; though in +reality its houses have individually but little pretension, and its +streets are, almost without exception, narrow and mean. It +derives its present importance from being the seat of the +only university in the kingdom—an institution which was +originally established at Lisbon in 1291, was transferred to +Coimbra in 1306, was again removed to Lisbon, and was finally +fixed at Coimbra in 1527. There are five faculties—theology, +law, medicine, mathematics and philosophy—with more than +1300 students. The library contains about 150,000 volumes, +and the museums and laboratories are on an extensive scale. +In connexion with the medical faculty there are regular hospitals; +the mathematical faculty maintains an observatory from which +an excellent view can be obtained of the whole valley of the +Mondego; and outside the town there is a botanic garden +(especially rich in the flora of Brazil), which also serves as a +public promenade. Among the other educational establishments +are a military college, a royal college of arts, a scientific and +literary institute, and an episcopal seminary.</p> + +<p>The city is the seat of a bishop, suffragan to the archbishop +of Braga; its new cathedral, founded in 1580, is of little interest; +but the old is a fine specimen of 12th-century Romanesque, and +retains portions of the mosque which it replaced. The principal +churches are Santa Cruz, of the 16th century, and San Salvador, +founded in 1169. On the north bank of the Mondego stand the +ruins of the once splendid monastery of Santa Clara, established +in 1286; and on the south bank is the celebrated <i>Quinta das +lagrimas</i>, or Villa of Tears, where Inez de Castro (<i>q.v.</i>) is believed +to have been murdered in 1355. The town is supplied with +water by means of an aqueduct of 20 arches. The Mondego +is only navigable in flood, and the port of Figueira da Foz is +20 m. W. by S., so that the trade of Coimbra is mainly local; +but there are important lamprey fisheries and manufactures of +pottery, leather and hats.</p> + +<p>A Latin inscription of the 4th century identifies Coimbra +with the ancient Aeminium; while Condeixa (3623), 8 m. S.S.W., +represents the ancient Conimbriga or Conembrica,. In the 9th +century, however, when the bishopric of Conimbriga was removed +hither, its old title was transferred to the new see, and +hence arose the modern name Coimbra. The city was for a +long time a Moorish stronghold, but in 1064 it was captured by +Ferdinand I. of Castile and the Cid. Until 1260 it was the capital +of the country, and no fewer than six kings—Sancho I. and II., +Alphonso II. and III., Pedro and Ferdinand—were born within +its walls. It was also the birthplace of the poet Francisco Sá +de Miranda (1495-1558), and, according to one tradition, of the +more famous Luiz de Camoens (1524-1580), who was a student +at the university between 1537 and 1542. In 1755 Coimbra +suffered considerably from the earthquake. In 1810 it was +sacked by the French under Marshal Masséna. In 1834 Dom +Miguel made the city his headquarters; and in 1846 it was the +scene of a Miguelist insurrection.</p> + +<p>The administrative district of Coimbra coincides with the +south-western part of Beira; pop. (1900) 332,168; area 1508 +sq. m.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COÍN<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span>, a town of southern Spain in the province of Málaga; +18 m. W.S.W. of the city of Málaga. Pop. (1900) 12,326. Coín +is finely situated on the northern slope of the Sierra de Mijas, +overlooking the small river Séco and surrounded by vineyards +and plantations of oranges and lemons. There are marble +quarries in the neighbourhood, and, despite the lack of a railway, +Coín has a thriving agricultural trade. The population increased +by more than half between 1880 and 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COIN<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (older forms of the word are <i>coyne</i>, <i>quoin</i> and <i>coign</i>, +all derived through the O. Fr. <i>coing</i>, and <i>cuigne</i> from Lat. <i>cuneus</i>, +a wedge), properly the term for a wedge-shaped die used for +stamping money, and so transferred to the money so stamped; +hence a piece of money. The form “quoin” is used for the +external angle of a building (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quoins</a></span>), and “coign,” also a +projecting angle, survives in the Shakespearean phrase “a coign +of vantage.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COINAGE OFFENCES<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>. The coinage of money is in all states +a prerogative of the sovereign power; consequently any infringement +of that prerogative is always severely punished, as +being an offence likely to interfere with the well-being of the +state.</p> + +<p>In the United Kingdom the statute law against offences relating +to the coin was codified by an act of 1861. The statute +provides that whoever falsely makes or counterfeits any coin +resembling or apparently intended to resemble or pass for any +current gold or silver coin of the realm (s. 2), or gilds, silvers, +washes, cases over or colours with materials capable of producing +the appearance of gold or silver a coin or a piece of any metal or +mixture of metals, or files or alters it, with intent to make it +resemble or pass for any current gold or silver coin (s. 3), or who +buys, sells, receives or pays a false gold or silver coin at a lower +rate than its denomination imports, or who receives into the +United Kingdom any false coin knowing it to be counterfeit +(ss. 6, 7), or who, without lawful authority or excuse, knowingly +makes or mends, buys or sells, or has in his custody or possession, +or conveys out of the Royal Mint any coining moulds, machines +or tools, is guilty of felony (ss. 24, 25). The punishment for +such offences is either penal servitude for life or for not less than +three years, or imprisonment for not more than two years, with +or without hard labour. Whoever impairs, diminishes or +lightens current gold or silver coin, with intent to pass same, is +liable to penal servitude for from three to fourteen years (s. 4), +and whoever has in his possession filings or clippings obtained +by impairing or lightening current coin is liable to the same +punishment, or to penal servitude for from three to seven years. +The statute also makes provision against tendering or uttering +false gold or silver coin, which is a misdemeanour, punishable by +imprisonment with or without hard labour. Provision is also +made with respect to falsely making, counterfeiting, tendering +or uttering copper coin, exporting false coin, or defacing current +coin by stamping names or words on it, and counterfeiting, +tendering or uttering coin resembling or meant to pass as that +of some foreign state. The act of 1861 applies to offences +with respect to colonial coins as well as to those of the United +Kingdom.</p> + +<p>By the constitution of the United States, Congress has the +power of coining money, regulating the value thereof and of +foreign coin (Art. i. s. viii.), and the states are prohibited from +coining money, or making anything but gold and silver money +a tender in payment of debts (Art. i. s. x.). The counterfeiting +coin or money, uttering the same, or mutilating or defacing it, +is an offence against the United States, and is punishable by fine +and imprisonment with hard labour for from two to ten years. +It has also been made punishable by state legislation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">COIR<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (from Malay <i>Kāyar</i>, cord, <i>Kāyaru</i>, to be twisted), a +rough, strong, fibrous substance obtained from the outer husk +of the coco-nut. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#ar26">Coco-nut Palm</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COIRE<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Chur</i> or <i>Cur</i>, Ital. <i>Coira</i>, Lat. <i>Curia Raetorum</i>, +Romonsch <i>Cuera</i>), the capital of the Swiss canton of the Grisons. +It is built, at a height of 1949 ft. above the sea-level, on the right +bank of the Plessur torrent, just as it issues from the Schanfigg +valley, and about a mile above its junction with the Rhine. It +is overshadowed by the Mittenberg (east) and Pizokel (south), +hills that guard the entrance to the deep-cut Schanfigg valley. +In 1900 it contained 11,532 inhabitants, of whom 9288 were +German-speaking, 1466 Romonsch-speaking, and 677 Italian-speaking; +while 7561 were Protestants, 3962 Romanists and +one a Jew. The modern part of the city is to the west, but the +old portion, with all the historical buildings, is to the east. Here +is the cathedral church of St Lucius (who is the patron of Coire, +and is supposed to be a 2nd-century British king, though really +the name has probably arisen from a confusion between Lucius +of Cyrene—miswritten “<i>curiensis</i>”—with the Roman general +Lucius Munatius Plancus, who conquered Raetia). Built between +1178 and 1282, on the site of an older church, it contains many +curious medieval antiquities (especially in the sacristy), as well +as a picture by Angelica Kaufmann, and the tomb of the great +Grisons political leader (d. 1637) Jenatsch (<i>q.v.</i>). Opposite is +the Bishop’s Palace, and not far off is the Episcopal Seminary +(built on the ruins of a 6th-century monastic foundation). Not +far from these ancient monuments is the new Raetian Museum, +which contains a great collection of objects relating to Raetia +(including the geological collections of the Benedictine monk of +Disentis, Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833), who explored the high +snowy regions around the sources of the Rhine). One of the +hospitals was founded by the famous Capuchin philanthropist, +Father Theodosius Florentini (1808-1865), who was long the +Romanist curé of Coire, and whose remains were in 1906 transferred +from the cathedral here to Ingenbohl (near Schwyz), his +chief foundation. Coire is 74 m. by rail from Zürich, and is the +meeting-point of the routes from Italy over many Alpine passes +(the Lukmanier, the Splügen, the San Bernardino) as well as +from the Engadine (Albula, Julier), so that it is the centre of an +active trade (particularly in wine from the Valtelline), though +it possesses also a few local factories.</p> + +<p>The episcopal see is first mentioned in 452, but probably +existed a century earlier. The bishop soon acquired great +temporal powers, especially after his dominions were made, in +831, dependent on the Empire alone, of which he became a prince +in 1170. In 1392 he became head of the league of God’s House +(originally formed against him in 1367), one of the three Raetian +leagues, but, in 1526, after the Reformation, lost his temporal +powers, having fulfilled his historical mission (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grisons</a></span>). +The bishopric still exists, with jurisdiction over the Cantons of +the Grisons, Glarus, Zürich, and the three Forest Cantons, as well +as the Austrian principality of Liechtenstein. The gild constitution +of the city of Chur lasted from 1465 to 1839, while in +1874 the <i>Burgergemeinde</i> was replaced by an <i>Einwohnergemeinde</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—A. Eichhorn, <i>Episcopatus Curiensis</i> (St Blasien, +1797); W. von Juvalt, <i>Forschungen über die Feudalzeit im Curischen +Raetien</i>, 2 parts (Zürich, 1871); C. Kind, <i>Die Reformation in den +Bisthümern Chur und Como</i> (Coire, 1858); Conradin von Moor, +Geschichte von Curraetien (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874); P. C. von +Planta, <i>Das alte Raetien</i> (Berlin, 1872); <i>Idem, Die Curraetischen +Herrschaften in der Feudalzeit</i> (Bern, 1881); <i>Idem, Verfassungsgeschichte +der Stadt Cur im Mittelalter</i> (Coire, 1879); <i>Idem, Geschichte +von Graubünden</i> (Bern, 1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COKE, SIR EDWARD<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1552-1634), English lawyer, was born +at Mileham, in Norfolk, on the 1st of February 1552. From the +grammar school of Norwich he passed to Trinity College, Cambridge; +and in 1572 he entered Lincoln’s Inn. In 1578 he was +called to the bar, and in the next year he was chosen reader at +Lyon’s Inn. His extensive and exact legal erudition, and the +skill with which he argued the intricate libel case of Lord Cromwell +(4 Rep. 13), and the celebrated real property case of Shelley +(1 Rep. 94, 104), soon brought him a practice never before +equalled, and caused him to be universally recognized as the +greatest lawyer of his day. In 1586 he was made recorder of +Norwich, and in 1592 recorder of London, solicitor-general, and +reader in the Inner Temple. In 1593 he was returned as member +of parliament for his native county, and also chosen speaker +of the House of Commons. In 1594 he was promoted to the +office of attorney-general, despite the claims of Bacon, who was +warmly supported by the earl of Essex. As crown lawyer his +treatment of the accused was marked by more than the harshness +and violence common in his time; and the fame of the victim +has caused his behaviour in the trial of Raleigh to be lastingly +remembered against him. While the prisoner defended himself +with the calmest dignity and self-possession, Coke burst into the +bitterest invective, brutally addressing the great courtier as +if he had been a servant, in the phrase, long remembered for its +insolence and its utter injustice—“Thou hast an English face, +but a Spanish heart!”</p> + +<p>In 1582 Coke married the daughter of John Paston, a gentleman +of Suffolk, receiving with her a fortune of £30,000; but in +six months he was left a widower. Shortly after he sought the +hand of Lady Elizabeth Hatton, daughter of Thomas, second +Lord Burghley, and granddaughter of the great Cecil. Bacon +was again his rival, and again unsuccessfully; the wealthy young +widow became—not, it is said, to his future comfort—Coke’s +second wife.</p> + +<p>In 1606 Coke was made chief justice of the common pleas, +but in 1613 he was removed to the office of chief justice of the +king’s bench, which gave him less opportunity of interfering +with the court. The change, though it brought promotion in +dignity, caused a diminution of income as well as of power; +but Coke received some compensation in being appointed a +member of the privy council. The independence of his conduct +as a judge, though not unmixed with the baser elements of +prejudice and vulgar love of authority, has partly earned forgiveness +for the harshness which was so prominent in his sturdy +character. Full of an extreme reverence for the common law +which he knew so well, he defended it alike against the court +of chancery, the ecclesiastical courts, and the royal prerogative. +In a narrow spirit, and strongly influenced, no doubt, by his +enmity to the chancellor, Thomas Egerton (Lord Brackley), he +sought to prevent the interference of the court of chancery with +even the unjust decisions of the other courts. In the case of an +appeal from a sentence given in the king’s bench, he advised the +victorious, but guilty, party to bring an action of praemunire +against all those who had been concerned in the appeal, and his +authority was stretched to the utmost to obtain the verdict he +desired. On the other hand, Coke has the credit of having +repeatedly braved the anger of the king. He freely gave his +opinion that the royal proclamation cannot make that an offence +which was not an offence before. An equally famous but less +satisfactory instance occurred during the trial of Edmund +Peacham, a divine in whose study a sermon had been found +containing libellous accusations against the king and the government. +There was nothing to give colour to the charge of high +treason with which he was charged, and the sermon had never +been preached or published; yet Peacham was put to the +torture, and Bacon was ordered to confer with the judges +individually concerning the matter. Coke declared such conference +to be illegal, and refused to give an opinion, except in +writing, and even then he seems to have said nothing decided. +But the most remarkable case of all occurred in the next year +(1616). A trial was held before Coke in which one of the counsel +denied the validity of a grant made by the king to the bishop of +Lichfield of a benefice to be held <i>in commendam</i>. James, through +Bacon, who was then attorney-general, commanded the chief +justice to delay judgment till he himself should discuss the +question with the judges. At Coke’s request Bacon sent a letter +containing the same command to each of the judges, and Coke +then obtained their signatures to a paper declaring that the +attorney-general’s instructions were illegal, and that they were +bound to proceed with the case. His Majesty expressed his +displeasure, and summoned them before him in the council-chamber, +where he insisted on his supreme prerogative, which, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span> +he said, ought not to be discussed in ordinary argument. Upon +this all the judges fell on their knees, seeking pardon for the form +of their letter; but Coke ventured to declare his continued belief +in the loyalty of its substance, and when asked if he would in the +future delay a case at the king’s order, the only reply he would +vouchsafe was that he would do what became him as a judge. +Soon after he was dismissed from all his offices on the following +charges,—the concealment, as attorney-general, of a bond +belonging to the king, a charge which could not be proved, +illegal interference with the court of chancery and disrespect +to the king in the case of commendams. He was also ordered +by the council to revise his book of reports, which was said to +contain many extravagant opinions (June 1616).</p> + +<p>Coke did not suffer these losses with patience. He offered +his daughter Frances, then little more than a child, in marriage +to Sir John Villiers, brother of the favourite Buckingham. Her +mother, supported at first by her husband’s great rival and her +own former suitor, Bacon, objected to the match, and placed her +in concealment. But Coke discovered her hiding-place; and +she was forced to wed the man whom she declared that of all +others she abhorred. The result was the desertion of the husband +and the fall of the wife. It is said, however, that after his +daughter’s public penance in the Savoy church, Coke had heart +enough to receive her back to the home which he had forced her +to leave. Almost all that he gained by his heartless diplomacy +was a seat in the council and in the star-chamber.</p> + +<p>In 1620 a new and more honourable career opened for him. +He was elected member of parliament for Liskeard; and henceforth +he was one of the most prominent of the constitutional +party. It was he who proposed a remonstrance against the +growth of popery and the marriage of Prince Charles to the +infanta of Spain, and who led the Commons in the decisive step +of entering on the journal of the House the famous petition of +the 18th of December 1621, insisting on the freedom of parliamentary +discussion, and the liberty of speech of every individual +member. In consequence, together with Pym and Sir Robert +Philips, he was thrown into confinement; and, when in the +August of the next year he was released, he was commanded to +remain in his house at Stoke Poges during his Majesty’s pleasure. +Of the first and second parliaments of Charles I. Coke was again +a member. From the second he was excluded by being appointed +sheriff of Buckinghamshire. In 1628 he was at once returned +for both Buckinghamshire and Suffolk, and he took his seat for +the former county. After rendering other valuable support to +the popular cause, he took a most important part in drawing +up the great Petition of Right. The last act of his public career +was to bewail with tears the ruin which he declared the duke +of Buckingham was bringing upon the country. At the close of +the session he retired into private life; and the six years that +remained to him were spent in revising and improving the works +upon which, at least as much as upon his public career, his fame +now rests. He died at Stoke Poges on the 3rd of September 1634.</p> + +<p>Coke published <i>Institutes</i> (1628), of which the first is also +known as <i>Coke upon Littleton</i>; <i>Reports</i> (1600-1615), in thirteen +parts; <i>A Treatise of Bail and Mainprize</i> (1635); <i>The Complete +Copyholder</i> (1630); <i>A Reading on Fines and Recoveries</i> (1684).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Johnson, <i>Life of Sir Edward Coke</i> (1837); H. W. Woolrych, +<i>The Life of Sir Edward Coke</i> (1826); Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>; +Campbell, <i>Lives of the Chief Justices</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English Law</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COKE, SIR JOHN<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1563-1644), English politician, was born +on the 5th of March 1563, and was educated at Trinity College, +Cambridge. After leaving the university he entered public life +as a servant of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, afterwards +becoming deputy-treasurer of the navy and then a commissioner +of the navy, and being specially commended for his labours on +behalf of naval administration. He became member of parliament +for Warwick in 1621 and was knighted in 1624, afterwards +representing the university of Cambridge. In the parliament +of 1625 Coke acted as a secretary of state; in this and later +parliaments he introduced the royal requests for money, and +defended the foreign policy of Charles I. and Buckingham, and +afterwards the actions of the king. His actual appointment as +secretary dates from September 1625. Disliked by the leaders +of the popular party, his speeches in the House of Commons did +not improve the king’s position, but when Charles ruled without +a parliament he found Coke’s industry very useful to him. The +secretary retained his post until 1639, when a scapegoat was +required to expiate the humiliating treaty of Berwick with the +Scots, and the scapegoat was Coke. Dismissed from office, he +retired to his estate at Melbourne in Derbyshire, and then resided +in London, dying at Tottenham on the 8th of September 1644. +Coke’s son, Sir John Coke, sided with the parliament in its +struggle with the king, and it is possible that in later life Coke’s +own sympathies were with this party, although in his earlier +years he had been a defender of absolute monarchy. Coke, who +greatly disliked the papacy, is described by Clarendon as “a +man of very narrow education and a narrower mind”; and +again he says, “his cardinal perfection was industry and his +most eminent infirmity covetousness.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COKE, THOMAS<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1747-1814), English divine, the first +Methodist bishop, was born at Brecon, where his father was +a well-to-do apothecary. He was educated at Jesus College, +Oxford, taking the degree of M.A. in 1770 and that of D.C.L. in +1775. From 1772 to 1776 he was curate at South Petherton in +Somerset, whence his rector dismissed him for adopting the +open-air and cottage services introduced by John Wesley, with +whom he had become acquainted. After serving on the London +Wesleyan circuit he was in 1782 appointed president of the conference +in Ireland, a position which he frequently held, in the +intervals of his many voyages to America. He first visited that +country in 1784, going to Baltimore as “superintendent” of the +Methodist societies in the new world and, in 1787 the American +conference changed his title to “bishop,” a nomenclature which +he tried in vain to introduce into the English conference, of +which he was president in 1797 and 1805. Failing this, he asked +Lord Liverpool to make him a bishop in India, and he was +voyaging to Ceylon when he died on the 3rd of May 1814. Coke +had always been a missionary enthusiast, and was the pioneer +of such enterprise in his connexion. He was an ardent opponent +of slavery, and endeavoured also to heal the breach between the +Methodist and Anglican communions. He published a <i>History +of the West Indies</i> (3 vols., 1808-1811), several volumes of sermons, +and, with Henry Moore, a <i>Life of Wesley</i> (1792).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COKE<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (a northern English word, possibly connected with +“colk,” core), the product obtained by strongly heating coal +out of contact with the air until the volatile constituents are +driven off; it consists essentially of carbon, the so-called “fixed +carbon,” together with the incombustible matters or ash contained +in the coal from which it is derived. In addition to these +it almost invariably contains small quantities of hydrogen, +oxygen and nitrogen, the whole, however, not exceeding 2 or +3%. It also contains water, the amount of which may vary +considerably according to the method of manufacture. When +produced rapidly and at a low heat, as in gas-making, it is of a +dull black colour, and a loose spongy or pumice-like texture, +and ignites with comparative ease, though less readily than +bituminous coal, so that it may be burnt in open fire-places; +but when a long-continued heat is used, as in the preparation of +coke for iron and steel melting, the product is hard and dense, +is often prismatic in structure, has a brilliant semi-metallic lustre +and silvery-grey colour, is a conductor of heat and electricity, +and can only be burnt in furnaces provided with a strong chimney +draught or an artificial blast. The strength and cohesive +properties are also intimately related to the nature and composition +of the coals employed, which are said to be caking or +non-caking according to the compact or fragmentary character +of the coke produced.</p> + +<p>Formerly coke was made from large coal piled in heaps with +central chimneys like those of the charcoal burner, or in open +rectangular clamps or kilns with air flues in the enclosing walls; +but these methods are now practically obsolete, closed chambers +or ovens being generally used. These vary considerably in +construction, but may be classified into three principal types:—(1) +direct heated ovens, (2) flue-heated ovens, (3) condensing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span> +ovens. In the first class the heating is done by direct contact +or by burning the gases given off in coking within the oven, while +in the other two the heating is indirect, the gas being burned +in cellular passages or flues provided in the walls dividing the +coking chambers, and the heat transmitted through the sides +of the latter which are comparatively thin. The arrangement +is somewhat similar to that of a gas-works retort, whence the +name of “retort ovens” is sometimes applied to them. The +difference between the second and third classes is founded on the +treatment of the gases. In the former the gas is fired in the side +flues immediately upon issuing from the oven, while in the latter +the gases are first subjected to a systematic treatment in condensers, +similar to those used in gas-works, to remove tar, +ammonia and condensable hydrocarbons, the incondensable +gases being returned to the oven and burned in the heating flues. +These are generally known as “by-product ovens.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<p>The simplest form of coke oven, and probably that still most +largely used, is the so-called “beehive oven.” This is circular in +plan, from 7 to 12 ft. in diameter, with a cylindrical wall +about 2½ ft. high and a nearly hemispherical roof with a +<span class="sidenote">Beehive oven.</span> +circular hole at the top. The floor, made of refractory +bricks or slabs, is laid with a slight slope towards an arched opening +in the ring wall, which is stopped with brickwork during the coking +but opened for drawing the finished charge. The ovens are usually +arranged in rows or banks of 20 to 30 or more, with their doors +outwards, two rows being often placed with a longitudinal flue +between them connected by uptakes with the individual ovens on +either side. A railway along the top of the bank brings the coal from +the screens or washery. The largest ovens take a charge of about +5 tons, which is introduced through the hole in the roof, the brickwork +of the empty oven being still red hot from the preceding charge, +and when levelled fills the cylindrical part nearly to the springing +of the roof. The gas fires as it is given off and fills the dome with +flame, and the burning is regulated by air admitted through holes +in the upper part of the door stopping. The temperature being +very high, a proportion of the volatile hydrocarbons is decomposed, +and a film of graphitic carbon is deposited on the coke, giving it a +semi-metallic lustre and silvery grey colour. When the gas is burned +off, the upper part of the door is opened and the glowing charge +cooled by jets of water thrown directly upon it from a hose, and it +is subsequently drawn out through the open door. The charge +breaks up into prisms or columns whose length corresponds to the +depth of the charge, and as a rule is uniform in character and free +from dull black patches or “black ends.” The time of burning is +either 48 or 72 hours, the turns being so arranged as to avoid the +necessity of drawing the ovens on Sunday. The longer the heat +is continued the denser the product becomes, but the yield also +diminishes, as a portion of the finished coke necessarily burns to waste +when the gas is exhausted. For this reason the yield on the coal +charged is usually less than that obtained in retort ovens, although +the quality may be better. Coals containing at most about 35% of +volatile matter are best suited for the beehive oven. With less than +25% the gas is not sufficient to effect the coking completely, and +when there is a higher percentage the coke is brittle and spongy and +unsuited for blast furnace or foundry use. The spent flame from the +ovens passes to a range of steam boilers before escaping by the +chimney.</p> + +<p>The retort oven, which is now generally displacing the beehive +form in new installations, is made in a great variety of forms, the +differences being mainly in the arrangement of the +heating flues, but all have the central feature, the coking +<span class="sidenote">Retort oven.</span> +chamber, in common. This is a tubular chamber with +vertical sides and cylindrical roof, about 30 ft. long, from 17 to 20 in. +wide, and 6 or 7 ft. high, and closed at both ends by sliding doors +which are raised by crab winches when the charge is to be drawn. +The general arrangements of such an oven are shown in fig. 1, which +represents one of the earliest and most popular forms, that of Evence +Coppée of Brussels. The coking chambers A B connect by rectangular +posts at the springing of the roof, where the gas given off +from the top of the charge is fired by air introduced through <i>c c</i>. +The flames pass downwards through the parallel flues <i>f f</i> along the +bottom flue of one oven, and return in the opposite direction under +the next to the chimney flue, a further part of the heat being intercepted +by placing a range of steam boilers between the ovens and +the chimney stack. The charging of the oven is done through the +passages D D in the roof from small wagons on transverse lines of +rails, the surface being raked level before the doors are closed and +luted up. The time of coking is much less than in the beehive +ovens and may be from 24 to 36 hours, according to the proportion +of volatile matter present. When the gas is completely given off +the doors are lifted and the charge is pushed out by the ram—a +cast-iron plate of the shape of the cross section of the oven, at the +end of a long horizontal bar, which is driven by a rack and pinion +movement and pushes the block of coke out of the oven on to the +wharf or bank in front where it falls to pieces and is immediately +quenched by jets of water from a hose pipe. When sufficiently +cooled it is loaded into railway wagons or other conveyances for +removal. The ram, together with its motor, and boiler when steam +is used, is mounted upon a carriage running upon a line of rails of +about 2 ft. gauge along the back of the range of ovens, so that it can +be brought up to any one of them in succession.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:469px; height:291px" src="images/img656.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Coppée’s Coke Oven.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In some cases, instead of the small coal being charged through the +roof of the oven and levelled by hand, it is formed into blocks by +being stamped in a slightly moistened condition in a mould consisting +of a bottom plate or peel on a racked rod like that of the ram, with +movable sides and ends. This, when the ends are removed, is pushed +forward into the oven, and the bottom plate is withdrawn by reversing +the rack motion. The moulding box is mounted on a carriage +like that of the ram, the two being sometimes carried on the same +framing. The moulding is done at a fixed station in the centre of the +range of ovens by a series of cast-iron stampers driven by an electric +motor. This system is useful for coals low in volatile matter, which +do not give a coherent coke under ordinary conditions.</p> + +<p>In the distilling or by-product ovens the gases, instead of being +burned at the point of origin, pass by an uptake pipe in the roof +about the centre of the oven into a water-sealed collecting +trough or hydraulic main, whence they are drawn by +<span class="sidenote">Condensing ovens.</span> +exhausters through a series of air and water cooled condensers +and scrubbers. In the first or atmospheric condensers the +tar is removed, and in the second ammoniacal water, which is +further enriched by a graduated system of scrubbing with weak +ammoniacal liquor until it is sufficiently concentrated to be sent +to the ammonia stills. The first treatment by scrubbing with creosote +or heavy tar oil removes benzene, after which the permanent gaseous +residue consisting chiefly of hydrogen and marsh gas is returned +to the ovens as fuel.</p> + +<p>In the Otto-Hoffmann oven, one of the most generally used forms, +vertical side flues like those of Coppée are adopted. The returned +gas enters by a horizontal flue along the bottom of the coking +chamber, divided into two parts by a mid-feather wall, and is fired +by heated air from a Siemens regenerator on the substructure at one +end, and the flame rising through one half of the side flues to a +parallel collector at the top returns downwards through the flues +of the other half and passes out to the chimney through a similar +regenerator at the other end. The course of the gases is reversed +at intervals of about an hour, as in the ordinary Siemens furnace, +each end of the oven having its own gas supply. In the later modification +known as the Otto-Hilgenstock, the regenerators are abandoned, +but provision is made for more perfect distribution of the +heat by a line of sixteen Bunsen burners in each wall; each of these +serves two flues, the course of the flame being continuously upwards +without reversal. In the newest Otto ovens the same system of +burners is combined with regenerators. In the Bauer system, +another vertical flue oven, each flue has its own burner, which is of +a simplified construction.</p> + +<p>In the Carvés oven, the earliest of the by-product ovens, the +heating flues are arranged horizontally in parallel series along the +entire length of the side walls, the gas being introduced from both +ends but at different levels. This system was further developed by +H. Simon of Manchester, who added a continuous air “recuperator” +heated by the spent flame; this Simon-Carvés system has been +extensively adopted in Great Britain. Another horizontal flue oven, +the Semet-Solvay, is distinguished by the structure of the flues, +which are independent of the dividing walls of the ovens, so that +the latter can be made with thinner sides than those of the earlier +systems, and are more readily repaired. In the horizontal ovens +it is sometimes difficult to maintain the heat when the flues are +continuous along the whole length of the wall, especially when the +heating value of the gas is reduced by the removal of the heavy +hydrocarbons. This difficulty is met by dividing the flues in the +middle so as to shorten the length of travel of the flame, and working +each end independently. The Hüssener and Koppers systems are +two of the best-known examples of this modification.</p> + +<p>Coke from retort ovens is not so dense or brilliant as that made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span> +in beehive ovens, but the waste being less there is a decided saving, +apart from the value of the condensed products. In one instance +the coke was found to be about 5% less efficient in the blast furnace, +while the yield on the coal charged was increased 10%. In the +further treatment of the condensed products by distillation the tar +gives burning oil and pitch, the benzene is separated from the creosote +oil by steam-heated stills, and the ammoniacal liquor, after some +lime has been added to decompose fixed ammonium compounds, +is heated to vaporize the ammonia, which is condensed in lead or +copper-lined tanks containing strong sulphuric acid to produce a +crystalline powder of ammonium sulphate, which accumulates +in the receiver and is fished out from time to time. The yield of +by-products averages about 1% of ammonium sulphate, about +3½% of tar, and 0.6 to 0.9% of benzene, of the weight of the coal +carbonized. After the ovens have been heated and steam supplied +for the machinery of the condensing plant and the coke ovens, there +is usually a surplus of gas, which may be used for lighting or driving +gas-engines. For the latter purpose, however, it is necessary to +remove the last traces of tar, which acts very prejudicially in fouling +the valves when the gas is not completely purified. The gas given +off during the earlier part of the coking process is richer in heavy +hydrocarbons and of a higher illuminating value than that of the +later period when the temperature is higher. This property is +utilized in several large coking plants in America, where the gas +from the first ten hours’ working is drawn off by a second hydraulic +main and sent directly to town gas-works, where it passes through +the ordinary purifying treatment, the gas from the second period +being alone used for heating the ovens.</p> +</div> + +<p>Coke is essentially a partially graphitized carbon, its density +being about midway between that of coal and graphite, and it +should therefore occupy less space than the original coal; but +owing to the softening of the charge a spongy structure is set +up by the escaping gases, which acts in the other direction, so +that for equal bulk coke is somewhat lighter than coal. It is +this combination of properties that gives it its chief value in +iron smelting, the substance being sufficiently dense to resist +oxidation by carbon dioxide in the higher regions of the furnace, +while the vesicular structure gives an extended surface for the +action of heated air and facilitates rapid consumption at the +tuyeres. Compact coke, such as that formed on the inner sides +of gas retorts (retort carbon), can only be burned with great +difficulty in small furnaces of special construction, but it gives +out a great amount of heat.</p> + +<p>The most deleterious constituents of coke are ash, sulphur +and volatile constituents including water. As the coke yield +is only from two-thirds to three-quarters of that of the coal, +the original proportion of ash is augmented by one-third or one-half +in the product. For this reason it is now customary to +crush and wash the coal carefully to remove intermingled +patches of shale and dirt before coking, so that the ash may not +if possible exceed 10% in the coke. About one-half of the +sulphur in the coal is eliminated in coking, so that the percentage +in the coke is about the same. It should not be much above 1%. +According to the researches of F. Wuest (<i>Journ. Iron and Steel +Inst.</i>, 1906) the sulphur is retained in a complex carbon compound +which is not destroyed until the coke is actually consumed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The older methods of coking and the earlier forms of retort ovens +are described in J. Percy, <i>Metallurgy</i>, Jordan, <i>Album du cours de +metallurgie</i>; Phillips and Bauerman, <i>Handbook of Metallurgy</i>, and +other text-books. A systematic series of articles on the newer forms +will be found in <i>The Engineer</i>, vol. 82, pp. 205-303 and vol. 83, pp. 207-231; +see also Dürre, <i>Die neuern Koksöfen</i> (Leipzig, 1892); D. A. +Louis, “Von Bauer and Brünck Ovens,” <i>Journ. Iron and Steel Inst.</i>, +1904, ii. p. 293; C. L. Bell, “Hüssener Oven,” <i>id.</i>, 1904, i. p. 188; +Hurez, “A Comparison of Different Systems of Vertical and Horizontal +Flue Ovens,” <i>Bull. soc. industrie minérale</i>, 1903, p. 777. A +well-illustrated description of the Otto system in its American +modification was issued by the United Gas & Coke Company of +New York, in 1906.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COL<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (Fr. for “neck,” Lat. <i>collum</i>), in physical geography, +generally any marked depression upon a high and rugged water-parting +over which passage is easy from one valley to another. +Such is the Col de Balme between the Trient and Chamounix +valleys, where the great inaccessible wall crowned with aiguilles +running to the massif of Mt. Blanc is broken by a gentle downward +curve with smooth upland slopes, over which a footpath +gives easy passage. The col is usually formed by the head-waters +of a stream eating backward and lowering the water-parting +at the head of its valley. In early military operations, the march +of an army was always over a col, which has at all times considerable +commercial importance in relation to roads in high +mountain regions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1619-1683), French statesman, +was born at Reims, where his father and grandfather were +merchants. He claimed to be the descendant of a noble Scottish +family, but the evidence for this is lacking. His youth is said +to have been spent in a Jesuit college, in the office of a Parisian +banker, and in that of a Parisian notary, Chapelain, the father +of the poet. But the first fact on which we can rely with confidence +is that, when not yet twenty, he obtained a post in the war-office, +by means of the influence that he possessed through the marriage +of one of his uncles to the sister of Michel Le Tellier, the secretary +of state for war. During some years he was employed in the +inspection of troops and other work of the kind, but at length +his ability, his extraordinary energy and his untiring laboriousness +induced Le Tellier to make him his private secretary. These +qualities, combined, it must be confessed, with a readiness to +seize every opportunity of advancement, soon brought Colbert +both wealth and influence. In 1647 we find him receiving the +confiscated goods of his uncle Pussort, in 1648 obtaining 40,000 +crowns with his wife Marie Charron, in 1649 appointed councillor +of state.</p> + +<p>It was the period of the wars of the Fronde; and in 1651 the +triumph of the Condé family drove Cardinal Mazarin from Paris. +Colbert, now aged thirty-two, was engaged to keep him acquainted +with what should happen in the capital during his absence. At +first Colbert’s position was far from satisfactory; for the close +wary Italian treated him merely as an ordinary agent. On one +occasion, for example, he offered him 1000 crowns. The gift was +refused somewhat indignantly; and by giving proof of the +immense value of his services, Colbert gained all that he desired. +His demands were not small; for, with an ambition mingled, as +his letters show, with strong family affection, he aimed at placing +all his relatives in positions of affluence and dignity; and many +a rich benefice and important public office was appropriated by +him to that purpose. For these favours, conferred upon him +by his patron with no stinted hand, his thanks were expressed in +a most remarkable manner; he published a letter defending the +cardinal from the charge of ingratitude which was often brought +against him, by enumerating the benefits that he and his family +had received from him (April 1655). Colbert obtained, besides, +the higher object of his ambition; the confidence of Mazarin, so +far as it was granted to any one, became his, and he was entrusted +with matters of the gravest importance. In 1659 he was giving +directions as to the suppression of the revolt of the gentry +which threatened in Normandy, Anjou and Poitou, with +characteristic decision arresting those whom he suspected, and +arranging every detail of their trial, the immediate and arbitrary +destruction of their castles and woods, and the execution of +their chief, Bonnesson. In the same year we have evidence that +he was already planning his great attempt at financial reform. +His earliest tentative was the drawing up of a <i>mémoire</i> to Mazarin, +showing that of the taxes paid by the people not one-half reached +the king. The paper also contained an attack upon the superintendent +Nicholas Fouquet (<i>q.v.</i>), and being opened by the +postmaster of Paris, who happened to be a spy of Fouquet’s, it +gave rise to a bitter quarrel, which, however, Mazarin repressed +during his lifetime.</p> + +<p>In 1661 the death of Mazarin allowed Colbert to take the first +place in the administration, and he made sure of the king’s +favour by revealing to him some of Mazarin’s hidden wealth. It +was some time before he assumed official dignities; but in +January 1664 he obtained the post of superintendent of buildings; +in 1665 he was made controller-general; in 1669 he became +minister of the marine; and he was also appointed minister of +commerce, the colonies and the king’s palace. In short, he soon +acquired power in every department except that of war.</p> + +<p>A great financial and fiscal reform at once claimed all his +energies. Not only the nobility, but many others who had no +legal claim to exemption, paid no taxes; the weight of the burden +fell on the wretched country-folk. Colbert sternly and fearlessly +set about his task. Supported by the young king, Louis XIV., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span> +he aimed the first blow at the greatest of the extortioners—the +bold and powerful superintendent, Fouquet; whose fall, in +addition, secured his own advancement.</p> + +<p>The office of superintendent and many others dependent upon +it being abolished the supreme control of the finances was vested +in a royal council. The sovereign was its president; but Colbert, +though for four years he only possessed the title of intendant, +was its ruling spirit, great personal authority being conferred +upon him by the king. The career on which Colbert now entered +must not be judged without constant remembrance of the utter +rottenness of the previous financial administration. His ruthlessness +in this case, dangerous precedent as it was, was perhaps +necessary; individual interests could not be respected. Guilty +officials having been severely punished, the fraudulent creditors +of the government remained to be dealt with. Colbert’s method +was simple. Some of the public loans were totally repudiated, +and from others a percentage was cut off, which varied, at first +according to his own decision, and afterwards according to that +of the council which he established to examine all claims against +the state.</p> + +<p>Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce +equality in the pressure of the taxes on the various classes. To +diminish the number of the privileged was impossible, but false +claims to exemption were firmly resisted, and the unjust direct +taxation was lightened by an increase of the indirect taxes, from +which the privileged could not escape. The mode of collection +was at the same time immensely improved.</p> + +<p>Order and economy being thus introduced into the working +of the government, the country, according to Colbert’s vast yet +detailed plan, was to be enriched by commerce. Manufactures +were fostered in every way he could devise. New industries +were established, inventors protected, workmen invited from +foreign countries, French workmen absolutely prohibited to +emigrate. To maintain the character of French goods in +foreign markets, as well as to afford a guarantee to the home +consumer, the quality and measure of each article were fixed +by law, breach of the regulations being punished by public +exposure of the delinquent and destruction of the goods, and, on +the third offence, by the pillory. But whatever advantage resulted +from this rule was more than compensated by the disadvantages +it entailed. The production of qualities which would +have suited many purposes of consumption was prohibited, and +the odious supervision which became necessary involved great +waste of time and a stereotyped regularity which resisted all +improvements. And other parts of Colbert’s schemes deserve +still less equivocal condemnation. By his firm maintenance of +the corporation system, each industry remained in the hands of +certain privileged bourgeois; in this way, too, improvement was +greatly discouraged; while to the lower classes opportunities of +advancement were closed. With regard to international commerce +Colbert was equally unfortunate in not being in advance of his +age; the tariffs he published were protective to an extreme. +The interests of internal commerce were, however, wisely +consulted. Unable to abolish the duties on the passage of goods +from province to province, he did what he could to induce the +provinces to equalize them. The roads and canals were improved. +The great canal of Languedoc was planned and constructed by +Pierre Paul Riquet (1604-1680) under his patronage. To +encourage trade with the Levant, Senegal, Guinea and other +places, privileges were granted to companies; but, like the more +important East India Company, all were unsuccessful. The +chief cause of this failure, as well as of the failure of the colonies, +on which he bestowed so much watchful care, was the narrowness +and rigidity of the government regulations.</p> + +<p>The greatest and most lasting of Colbert’s achievements was +the establishment of the French marine. The royal navy owed +all to him, for the king thought only of military exploits. For +its use, Colbert reconstructed the works and arsenal of Toulon, +founded the port and arsenal of Rochefort, and the naval schools +of Rochefort, Dieppe and Saint-Malo, and fortified, with some +assistance from Vauban (who, however, belonged to the party +of his rival Louvois), among other ports those of Calais, Dunkirk, +Brest and Havre. To supply it with recruits he invented his +famous system of classes, by which each seaman, according to +the class in which he was placed, gave six months’ service every +three or four or five years. For three months after his term of +service he was to receive half-pay; pensions were promised; +and, in short, everything was done to make the navy popular. +There was one department, however, that was supplied with +men on a very different principle. Letters exist written by +Colbert to the judges requiring them to sentence to the oar as +many criminals as possible, including all those who had been +condemned to death; and the convict once chained to the bench, +the expiration of his sentence was seldom allowed to bring him +release. Mendicants also, against whom no crime had been +proved, contraband dealers, those who had been engaged in +insurrections, and others immeasurably superior to the criminal +class, nay, innocent men—Turkish, Russian and negro slaves, +and poor Iroquois Indians, whom the Canadians were ordered +to entrap—were pressed into that terrible service. By these +means the benches of the galleys were filled, and Colbert took +no thought of the long unrelieved agony borne by those who +filled them.</p> + +<p>Nor was the mercantile marine forgotten. Encouragement +was given to the building of ships in France by allowing a +premium on those built at home, and imposing a duty on those +brought from abroad; and as French workmen were forbidden +to emigrate, so French seamen were forbidden to serve foreigners +on pain of death.</p> + +<p>Even ecclesiastical affairs, though with these he had no official +concern, did not altogether escape Colbert’s attention. He took +a subordinate part in the struggle between the king and Rome +as to the royal rights over vacant bishoprics; and he seems +to have sympathized with the proposal that was made to seize +part of the wealth of the clergy. In his hatred of idleness, he +ventured to suppress no less than seventeen fêtes, and he had +a project for lessening the number of those devoted to clerical +and monastic life, by fixing the age for taking the vows some +years later than was then customary. With heresy he was at +first unwilling to interfere, for he was aware of the commercial +value of the Huguenots; but when the king resolved to make +all France Roman Catholic, he followed him and urged his +subordinates to do all that they could to promote conversions.</p> + +<p>In art and literature Colbert took much interest. He possessed +a remarkably fine private library, which he delighted to fill with +valuable manuscripts from every part of Europe where France +had placed a consul. He has the honour of having founded the +Academy of Sciences (now called the Institut de France), the +Observatory, which he employed Claude Perrault to build and +brought G. D. Cassini (1625-1712) from Italy to superintend, +the Academies of Inscriptions and Medals, of Architecture and +of Music, the French Academy at Rome, and Academies at +Arles, Soissons, Nîmes and many other towns, and he reorganized +the Academy of Painting and Sculpture which Richelieu had +established. He was a member of the French Academy; and +one very characteristic rule, recorded to have been proposed +by him with the intention of expediting the great Dictionary, in +which he was much interested, was that no one should be +accounted present at any meeting unless he arrived before the +hour of commencement and remained till the hour for leaving. +In 1673 he presided over the first exhibition of the works of +living painters; and he enriched the Louvre with hundreds of +pictures and statues. He gave many pensions to men of letters, +among whom we find Molière, Corneille, Racine, Boileau, P. D. +Huet (1630-1721) and Antoine Varillas (1626-1696), and even +foreigners, as Huyghens, Vossius the geographer, Carlo Dati the +Dellacruscan, and Heinsius the great Dutch scholar. There is +evidence to show that by this munificence he hoped to draw out +praises of his sovereign and himself; but this motive certainly +is far from accounting for all the splendid, if in some cases +specious, services that he rendered to literature, science and +art.</p> + +<p>Indeed to everything that concerned the interests of France +Colbert devoted unsparing thought and toil. Besides all that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span> +has been mentioned, he found time to do something for the +better administration of justice (the codification of ordinances, +the diminishing of the number of judges, the reduction of the +expense and length of trials for the establishment of a superior +system of police) and even for the improvement of the breed of +horses and the increase of cattle. As superintendent of public +buildings he enriched Paris with boulevards, quays and +triumphal arches; he relaid the foundation-stone of the Louvre, +and brought Bernin from Rome to be its architect; and he +erected its splendid colonnade upon the plan of Claude Perrault, +by whom Bernin had been replaced. He was not permitted, +however, to complete the work, being compelled to yield to the +king’s preference for residences outside Paris, and to devote +himself to Marly and Versailles.</p> + +<p>Amid all these public labours his private fortune was never +neglected. While he was reforming the finances of the nation, +and organizing its navy, he always found time to direct the +management of his smallest farm. He died extremely rich, and +left fine estates all over France. He had been created marquis +de Seignelay, and for his eldest son he obtained the reversion of +the office of minister of marine; his second son became archbishop +of Rouen; and a third son, the marquis d’Ormoy, became +superintendent of buildings.</p> + +<p>To carry out his reforms, Colbert needed peace; but the war +department was in the hands of his great rival Louvois, whose +influence gradually supplanted that of Colbert with the king. +Louis decided on a policy of conquest. He was deaf also to all +the appeals against the other forms of his boundless extravagance +which Colbert, with all his deference towards his sovereign, +bravely ventured to make.<a name="FnAnchor_1f" id="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Thus it came about that, only a +few years after he had commenced to free the country from the +weight of the loans and taxes which crushed her to the dust, +Colbert was forced to heap upon her a new load of loans and taxes +more heavy than the last. Henceforth his life was a hopeless +struggle, and the financial and fiscal reform which, with the +great exception of the establishment of the navy, was the most +valuable service to France contemplated by him, came to nought.</p> + +<p>Depressed by his failure, deeply wounded by the king’s favour +for Louvois, and worn out by overwork, Colbert’s strength gave +way at a comparatively early age. In 1680 he was the constant +victim of severe fevers, from which he recovered for a time +through the use of quinine prescribed by an English physician. +But in 1683, at the age of sixty-four, he was seized with a fatal +illness, and on the 6th of September he expired. It was said +that he died of a broken heart, and a conversation with the king +is reported in which Louis disparagingly compared the buildings +of Versailles, which Colbert was superintending, with the works +constructed by Louvois in Flanders. He took to bed, it is true, +immediately afterwards, refusing to receive all messages from +the king; but his constitution was utterly broken before, and a +post-mortem examination proved that he had been suffering +from stone. His body was interred in the secrecy of night, for +fear of outrage from the Parisians, by whom his name was +cordially detested.</p> + +<p>Colbert was a great statesman, who did much for France. +Yet his insight into political science was not deeper than that of +his age; nor did he possess any superiority in moral qualities. +His rule was a very bad example of over-government. He did +not believe in popular liberty;, the parlements and the states-general +received no support from him. The technicalities of +justice he never allowed to interfere with his plans; but he did +not hesitate to shield his friends. He trafficked in public offices +for the profit of Mazarin and in his own behalf. He caused the +suffering of thousands in the galleys; he had no ear, it is said, +for the cry of the suppliant. There was indeed a more human +side to his character, as is shown in his letters, full of wise advice +and affectionate care, to his children, his brothers, his cousins +even. Yet to all outside he was “the man of marble.” Madame +de Sévigné called him “the North.” To diplomacy he never +pretended; persuasion and deceit were not the weapons he +employed; all his work was carried out by the iron hand of +authority. He was a great statesman in that he conceived a +magnificent yet practicable scheme for making France first +among nations, and in that he possessed a matchless faculty for +work, neither shrinking from the vastest undertakings nor +scorning the most trivial details.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Numerous <i>vies</i> and <i>éloges</i> of Colbert have been published; but +the most thorough student of his life and administration was Pierre +Clément, member of the Institute, who in 1846 published his <i>Vie +de Colbert</i>, and in 1861 the first of the 9 vols. of the <i>Lettres, instructions, +et mémoires de Colbert</i>. The historical introductions prefixed +to each of these volumes have been published by Mme. Clément +under the title of the <i>Histoire de Colbert et de son administration</i> +(3rd ed., 1892). The best short account of Colbert as a statesman +is that in Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i> (1905), which gives a thorough +study of the administration. Among Colbert’s papers are <i>Mémoires +sur les affaires de finance de France</i> (written about 1663), a fragment +entitled <i>Particularités secrètes de la vie du Roy</i>, and other accounts +of the earlier part of the reign of Louis XIV.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1f" id="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See especially a <i>Mémoire</i> presented to the king in 1666, published +in the <i>Lettres, &c., de Colbert</i>, vol. ii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLBERT DE CROISSY, CHARLES<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Marquis</span> (1625-1696), +French diplomatist, like his elder brother Jean Baptiste Colbert, +began his career in the office of the minister of war Le Tellier. +In 1656 he bought a counsellorship at the parlement of Metz, +and in 1658 was appointed intendant of Alsace and president of +the newly-created sovereign council of Alsace. In this position +he had to re-organize the territory recently annexed to France. +The steady support of his brother at court gained for him several +diplomatic missions—to Germany and Italy (1659-1661). In +1662 he became marquis de Croissy and <i>président à mortier</i> of +the parlement of Metz. After various intendancies, at Soissons +(1665), at Amiens (1666), and at Paris (1667), he turned definitely +to diplomacy. In 1668 he represented France at the conference +of Aix-la-Chapelle; and in August of the same year was sent as +ambassador to London, where he was to negotiate the definite +treaty of alliance with Charles II. He arranged the interview +at Dover between Charles and his sister Henrietta of Orleans, +gained the king’s personal favour by finding a mistress for him, +Louise de Kéroualle, maid of honour to Madame, and persuaded +him to declare war against Holland. The negotiation of the +treaty of Nijmwegen (1676-1678) still further increased his +reputation as a diplomatist and Louis XIV. made him secretary +of state for foreign affairs after the disgrace of Arnauld de +Pomponne, brought about by his brother, 1679. He at once +assumed the entire direction of French diplomacy. Foreign +ambassadors were no longer received and diplomatic instructions +were no longer given by other secretaries of state. It was he, +not Louvois, who formed the idea of annexation during a time of +peace, by means of the chambers of reunion. He had outlined +this plan as early as 1658 with regard to Alsace. His policy at +first was to retain the territory annexed by the chambers of +reunion without declaring war, and for this purpose he signed +treaties of alliance with the elector of Brandenburg (1681), and +with Denmark (1683); but the troubles following upon the +revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685) forced him to give up +his scheme and to prepare for war with Germany (1688). The +negotiations for peace had been begun again when he died, on +the 28th of July 1696. His clerk, Bergeret, was his invaluable +assistant.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—His papers, preserved in the <i>Archives des affaires +étrangères</i> at Paris, have been partially published in the <i>Recueil des +instructions données aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France</i> (since +1884). See especially the volumes:—<i>Autriche</i> (t. i.), <i>Suède</i> (t. ii.), +<i>Rome</i> (t. vi.), <i>Bavière</i> (t. viii.), <i>Savoie</i> (t. xiv.), <i>Prusse</i> (t. xvi.). Other +documents have been published in Mignet’s <i>Négociations relatives à +la succession d’Espagne</i>, vol. iv., and in the collection of <i>Lettres et +négociations ... pour la paix de Nimègue</i>, 1676-1677 (La Haye, +1710). In addition to the <i>Mémoires</i> of the time, see Spanheim, +<i>Relation de la cour de France en 1690</i>, ed. E. Bourgeois (Paris and +Lyons, 1900); Baschet, <i>Histoire du depôt des affaires étrangères</i>; +C. Rousset, <i>Histoire de Louvois</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1863); E. Bourgeois, +“Louvois, et Colbert de Croissy,” in the <i>Revue historique</i>, vol. xxxiv. +(1887); A. Waddington, <i>Le Grand Électeur et Louis XIV</i> (Paris, +1905); G. Pagis, <i>Le Grand Électeur et Louis XIV</i> (Paris, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLBURN, HENRY<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (d. 1855), British publisher, obtained his +earliest experience of bookselling in London at the establishment +of W. Earle, Albemarle Street, and afterwards as an assistant at +Morgan’s Library, Conduit Street, of which in 1816 he became +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span> +proprietor. He afterwards removed to New Burlington Street, +where he established himself as a publisher, resigning the Conduit +Street Library to Messrs Saunders & Otley. In 1814 he originated +the <i>New Monthly Magazine</i>, of which at various times Thomas +Campbell, Bulwer Lytton, Theodore Hook and Harrison +Ainsworth were editors. Colburn published in 1818 <i>Evelyn’s +Diary</i>, and in 1825 the <i>Diary of Pepys</i>, edited by Lord Braybrooke, +paying £2200 for the copyright. He also issued Disraeli’s +first novel, <i>Vivian Grey</i>, and a large number of other works by +Theodore Hook, G. P. R. James, Marryat and Bulwer Lytton. +In 1829 Richard Bentley (<i>q.v.</i>) was taken into partnership; and +in 1832 Colburn retired, but set up again soon afterwards independently +in Great Marlborough Street; his business was +taken over in 1841 by Messrs Hurst & Blackett. Henry Colburn +died on the 16th of August 1855, leaving property to the value +of £35,000.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLBURN, ZERAH<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1804-1840), American mathematical +prodigy, was born at Cabot, Vermont, on the 1st of September +1804. At a very early age he developed remarkable powers of +calculating with extreme rapidity, and in 1810 his father began +to exhibit him. As a performing prodigy he visited Great Britain +and France. From 1816 to 1819 he studied in Westminster +school, London. After the death of his father in 1824 he returned +to America, and from 1825 to 1834 he was a Methodist preacher. +As he grew older his extraordinary calculating powers diminished. +From 1835 until his death, on the 2nd of March 1840, he was +professor of languages at the Norwich University in Vermont. +He published a <i>Memoir</i> of his life in 1833.</p> + +<p>His nephew, also named <span class="sc">Zerah Colburn</span> (1832-1870), was a +well-known mechanical engineer; the editor successively of the +<i>Railroad Advocate</i>, in New York, <i>The Engineer</i>, in London, and +<i>Engineering</i>, in London; and the author of a work entitled <i>The +Locomotive Engine</i> (1851).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLBY, THOMAS FREDERICK<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1784-1852), British major-general +and director of ordnance survey, was born at St Margaret’s, +Rochester, on the 1st of September 1784, a member of a South +Wales family. Entering the Royal Engineers he began in 1802 +a life-long connexion with the Ordnance Survey department. +His most important work was the survey of Ireland. This he +planned in 1824, and was engaged upon it until 1846. The last +sheets of this survey were almost ready for issue in that year +when he reached the rank of major-general, and according to the +rules of the service had to vacate his survey appointment. He +was the inventor of the compensation bar, an apparatus used in +base-measurements. He died at New Brighton on the 9th of +October 1852.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLCHAGUA<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span>, a province of central Chile, bounded N. by +Santiago and O’Higgins, E. by Argentina, S. by Curicó, and W. +by the Pacific. Its area is officially estimated at 3856 sq. m.; +pop. (1895) 157,566. Extending across the great central valley +of Chile, the province has a considerable area devoted to agriculture, +but much attention is given to cattle and mining. Its +principal river is the Rapel, sometimes considered as the southern +limit of the Inca empire. Its greatest tributary is the Cachapoal, +in the valley of which, among the Andean foothills, are the +popular thermal mineral baths of Cauquenes, 2306 ft. above +sea-level. The state central railway from Santiago to Puerto +Montt crosses the province and has two branches within its +borders, one from Rengo to Peumo, and one from San Fernando +via Palmilla to Pichilemu on the coast. The principal towns are +the capital, San Fernando, Rengo and Palmilla. San Fernando +is one of the several towns founded in 1742 by the governor-general +José de Manso, and had a population of 7447 in 1895. +Rengo is an active commercial town and had a population of +6463 in 1895.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span>, <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1757-1829), +born at Abingdon, was the son of Dr John Abbot, rector of All +Saints, Colchester, and, by his mother’s second marriage, half-brother +of the famous Jeremy Bentham. From Westminster +school Charles Abbot passed to Christ Church, Oxford, at which +he gained the chancellor’s medal for Latin verse as well as the +Vinerian <span class="correction" title="superfluous round bracket instead of period">scholarship.</span> In 1795, after having practised twelve +years as a barrister, and published a treatise proposing the +incorporation of the judicial system of Wales with that of +England, he was appointed to the office previously held by his +brother of clerk of the rules in the king’s bench; and in June +of the same year he was elected member of parliament for Helston, +through the influence of the duke of Leeds. In 1796 Abbot +commenced his career as a reformer in parliament by obtaining +the appointment of two committees—the one to report on the +arrangements which then existed as to temporary laws or laws +about to expire, the other to devise methods for the better +publication of new statutes. To the latter committee, and a +second committee which he proposed some years later, it is owing +that copies of new statutes were thenceforth sent to all magistrates +and municipal bodies. To Abbot’s efforts were also due the +establishment of the Royal Record Commission, the reform of +the system which had allowed the public money to lie for some +time at long interest in the hands of the public accountants, +by charging them with payment of interest, and, most important +of all, the act for taking the first census, that of 1801. On the +formation of the Addington ministry in March 1801 Abbot +became chief secretary and privy seal for Ireland; and in the +February of the following year he was chosen speaker of the +House of Commons—a position which he held with universal +satisfaction till 1817, when an attack of erysipelas compelled him +to retire. In response to an address of the Commons, he was raised +to the peerage as Baron Colchester, with a pension of £4000, of +which £3000 was to be continued to his heir. He died on the 8th +of May 1829. His speeches against the Roman Catholic claims +were published in 1828.</p> + +<p>He was succeeded by his eldest son <span class="sc">Charles</span> (d. 1867), postmaster-general +in 1858; and the latter by his son <span class="sc">Reginald +Charles Edward</span> (b. 1842), as 3rd baron.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLCHESTER<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a market town, river port and municipal and +parliamentary borough of Essex, England; 52 m. N. E. by E. +from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 38,373. +It lies on the river Colne, 12 m. from the open sea. Among +numerous buildings of antiquarian interest the first is the ruined +keep of the castle, a majestic specimen of Norman architecture, +the largest of its kind in England, covering nearly twice the area +of the White Tower in London. It was erected in the reign of +William I. or William II., and is quadrangular, turreted at the +angles. As in other ancient buildings in Colchester there are +evidences of the use of material from the Roman town which +occupied the site, but it is clearly of Norman construction. Here +is the museum of the Essex Archaeological Society, with a remarkable +collection of Roman antiquities, and a library belonging to +the Round family, who own the castle. Among ecclesiastical +buildings are remains of two monastic foundations—the priory +of St Botolph, founded early in the 12th century for Augustinian +canons, of which part of the fine Norman west front (in which +Roman bricks occur), and of the nave arcades remain; and the +restored gateway of the Benedictine monastery of St John, +founded by Eudo, steward to William II. This is a beautiful +specimen of Perpendicular work, embattled, flanked by spired +turrets, and covered with panel work. The churches of Holy +Trinity, St Martin and St Leonard at Hythe are of antiquarian +interest; the first has an apparently pre-Norman tower and the +last preserves some curious frescoes.</p> + +<p>The principal modern buildings are the town hall, corn exchange, +free library, the Eastern Counties’ asylum, Essex county +hospital and barracks. The town has long been an important +military centre with a large permanent camp. There are a free +grammar school (founded 1539), a technical and university +extension college, a literary institute and medical and other +societies. Castle Park is a public ground surrounding the castle. +Colchester is the centre of an agricultural district, and has +extensive corn and cattle markets. Industries include founding, +engineering, malting, flour-milling, rose-growing and the making +of clothing and boots and shoes. The oyster fisheries at the +mouth of the Colne, for which the town has been famous for +centuries, belong to the corporation, and are held on a ninety-nine +years’ lease by the Colne Fishery Company, incorporated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span> +under an act of 1870. The harbour, with quayage at the suburb +of Hythe, is controlled by the corporation. The parliamentary +borough, which is co-extensive with the municipal, returns one +member. The municipal corporation consists of a mayor, 8 +aldermen and 24 councillors. Area 11,333 acres.</p> + +<p>The Roman town, <i>Colonia Victricensis Camalodunum</i> (or +<i>Camulodunum</i>), was of great importance. It was founded by +Claudius, early in the period of the Roman conquest, as a +municipality with discharged Roman soldiers as citizens, to +assist the Roman dominion and spread its civilization. Under +Queen Boadicea the natives burned the town and massacred the +colonists; but Camalodunum soon rose to fresh prosperity and +flourished throughout the Roman period. Its walls and some +other remains, including the guardroom at the principal gate, +can still be clearly traced, and many such relics as sculptures, +inscriptions, pavements and pottery have been discovered. +When the borough originated is not known, but Domesday Book +mentions two hundred and seventy-six burgesses and land <i>in +commune burgensium</i>, a phrase that may point to a nascent +municipal corporation. The first charter given by Richard I. +in 1189 granted the burghers leave to choose their bailiffs and a +justice to hold the pleas of the crown within the borough, freedom +from the obligation of duel, freedom of passage and pontage +through England, free warren, fishery and custom as in the time +of Henry I., and other privileges. An <i>inspeximus</i> of this charter +by Henry III. in 1252 granted the burgesses the return of certain +writs. The charters were confirmed by various kings, and new +grants obtained in 1447 and 1535. In 1635 Charles I. granted a +fresh charter, which replaced the bailiffs by a mayor, and in +1653 Cromwell altered it to secure a permanent majority for his +party on the corporation. But his action was undone in 1659, +and in 1663 Charles II. granted a new charter. In 1684 the +charters were surrendered, and a new one obtained reserving to +the crown power to remove the mayor and alderman, and this +one was further modified by James II. But the charter of 1663 +was confirmed in 1693 and remained in force till 1741, when the +liberties were allowed to lapse. In 1763 George III. made the +borough a renewed grant of its liberties. Colchester returned +two members to parliament from 1295 until 1885. Fairs were +granted by Richard I. in 1189 to the hospital of St Mary +Magdalene, and by Edward II. in 1319 to the town for the eve of +and feast of St Denis and the six following days—a fair which is +still held. In the 13th century Colchester was sufficiently important +as a port to pay a fee-farm of £46, its ships plying to +Winchelsea and France. Elizabeth and James I. encouraged +Flemish settlers in the manufacture of baize (“bays and says”), +which attained great importance, so that a charter of Charles I. +speaks of burgesses industriously exercising the manufacture of +cloth. Both Camden and Fuller mention the trade in barrelled +oysters and candied eringo-root. The most notable event in the +history of the town was its siege by Fairfax in 1648, when the +raw levies of the Royalists in the second civil war held his army +at bay for nearly eleven weeks, only surrendering when starved +out, and when Cromwell’s victory in the north made further +resistance useless. Colchester was made the see of a suffragan +bishop by King Henry VIII., and two bishops were in succession +appointed by him; no further appointments, however, were +made until the see was re-established under Queen Victoria.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Essex</i>; <i>Charters and Letters Patent +granted to the Borough of Colchester</i> (Colchester, 1903); Morant, +<i>History of Colchester</i> (1748); Harrod’s <i>Report on the Records of +Colchester</i> (1865); Cutts, <i>Colchester</i> (Historic Towns) 1888; J. H. +Round, “Colchester and the Commonwealth” in <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> +vol. xv.; Benham, <i>Red Paper Book of Colchester</i> (1902), and <i>Oath +Book of Colchester</i> (1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLCHESTER<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span>, a township of Chittenden county, Vermont, +U.S.A., on Lake Champlain, immediately N.E. of Burlington, +from which it is separated by the Winooski river. Pop. (1900) +5352; (1910) 6450. It is served by the Central Vermont railway. +The surface is generally gently rolling, and in places along the +banks of the Winooski or Onion river, the shore of the lake, +and in the valleys, it is very picturesque. At Mallett’s Bay, +an arm of Lake Champlain, 2 m. long and 1½ m. wide, several +large private schools hold summer sessions. The soil is varied, +much of it being good meadow land or well adapted to the +growing of grain and fruit. The township has two villages: +Colchester Centre, a small, quiet settlement, and Winooski +(pop. in 1900, 3783) on the Winooski river. This stream +furnishes good water power, and the village has manufactories +of cotton and woollen goods, lumber, woodenware, gold and silver +plated ware, carriages, wagons and screens. Within the township +there is a United States military reservation, Fort Ethan +Allen. The village was founded in 1772 by Ira Allen and for +many years it was known as “Allen’s Settlement”; but later +it was called Winooski Falls, and in 1866 it was incorporated +as the Village of Winooski.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLCHICUM<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span>, the Meadow Saffron, or Autumn Crocus (<i>Colchicum +autumnale</i>), a perennial plant of the natural order, +Liliaceae, found wild in rich moist meadow-land in England and +Ireland, in middle and southern Europe, and in the Swiss Alps. +It has pale-purple flowers, rarely more than three in number; +the perianth is funnel-shaped, and produced below into a long +slender tube, in the upper part of which the six stamens are +inserted. The ovary is three-celled, and lies at the bottom of +this tube. The leaves are three or four in number, flat, lanceolate, +erect and sheathing; and there is no stem. Propagation is by +the formation of new corms from the parent corm, and by seeds. +The latter are numerous, round, reddish-brown, and of the size +of black mustard-seeds. The corm of the meadow-saffron attains +its full size in June or early in July. A smaller corm is then +formed from the old one, close to its root; and this in September +and October produces the crocus-like flowers. In the succeeding +January or February it sends up its leaves, together with the +ovary, which perfects its seeds during the summer. The young +corm, at first about the diameter of the flower-stalk, grows +continuously, till in the following July it attains the size of a +small apricot. The parent corm remains attached to the new +one, and keeps its form and size till April in the third year of its +existence, after which it decays. In some cases a single corm +produces several new plants during its second spring by giving +rise to immature corms.</p> + +<p><i>C. autumnale</i> and its numerous varieties as well as other +species of the genus, are well known in cultivation, forming +some of the most beautiful of autumn-flowering plants. They +are very easy to cultivate and do not require lifting. The most +suitable soil is a light, sandy loam enriched with well decomposed +manure, in a rather moist situation. The corms should be planted +not less than 3 in. deep. Propagation is effected by seed or +increase of corms; the seed should be sown as soon as it is ripe +in June or July.</p> + +<p>Colchicum was known to the Greeks under the name of +<span class="grk" title="Kolchikon">Κολχικόν</span>, from <span class="grk" title="Kolchis">Κολχίς</span>, or Colchis, a country in which the +plant grew; and it is described by Dioscorides as a poison. In +the 17th century the corms were worn by some of the German +peasantry as a charm against the plague. The drug was little +used till 1763, when Baron Störck of Vienna introduced it for +the treatment of dropsy. Its use in febrile diseases, at one time +extensive, is now obsolete. As a specific for gout colchicum +was early employed by the Arabs; and the preparation known +as <i>eau médicinale</i>, much resorted to in the 18th century for the +cure of gout, owes its therapeutic virtues to colchicum; but +general attention was first directed by Sir Everard Home to the +use of the drug in gout.</p> + +<p>For medical purposes the corm should be collected in the +early summer and, after the outer coat has been removed, +should be sliced and dried at a temperature of 130° to 150° F.</p> + +<p>The chief constituents of colchicum are two alkaloids, <i>colchicine</i> +and <i>veratrine</i>. Colchicine is the active principle and may be +given in full form in doses of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">32</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> grain. It is a yellow, micro-crystalline +powder, soluble in water, alcohol and chloroform, +and forming readily decomposed salts with acids. It is the +methyl ester of a neutral body <i>colchicein</i>, which may be obtained +in white acicular crystals.</p> + +<p>The official dose of powdered colchicum is 2 to 5 grains, which +may be given in a cachet. The British Pharmacopoeia contains +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span> +(1) an extract of the fresh corm, having doses of ¼ to 1 grain, and +(2) the <i>Vinum Colchici</i>, made by treating the dried corm with +sherry and given in doses of 10 to 30 minims. This latter is the +preparation still most generally used, though the presence of +veratrine both in the corm and the seeds renders the use of +colchicine itself theoretically preferable. The dried ripe seeds of +this plant are also used in medicine. They are exceedingly hard +and difficult to pulverize, odourless, bitter and readily confused +with black mustard seeds. They contain a volatile oil which +does not occur in the corm, and their proportion of colchicine +is higher, for which reason the <i>Tinctura Colchici Seminum</i>—dose +5 to 15 minims—is preferable to the wine prepared from the +corm. At present this otherwise excellent preparation is not +standardized, but the suggestion has been made that it should +be standardized to contain 0.1% of colchicine. The salicylate +of colchicine is stable in water and may be given in doses of about +one-thirtieth of a grain. It is often known as Colchi-Sal.</p> + +<p><i>Pharmacology.</i>—Colchicum or colchicine, when applied to +the skin, acts as a powerful irritant, causing local pain and +congestion. When inhaled, the powder causes violent sneezing, +similar to that produced by veratrine itself, which is, as already +stated, a constituent of the corm. Taken internally, colchicum +or colchicine markedly increases the amount of bile poured into +the alimentary canal, being amongst the most powerful of known +cholagogues. Though this action doubtless contributes to its +remarkable therapeutic power, it is very far from being an +adequate explanation of the virtues of the drug in gout. In +larger doses colchicum or colchicine acts as a most violent gastrointestinal +irritant, causing terrible pain, colic, vomiting, diarrhoea, +haemorrhage from the bowel, thirst and ultimately death from +collapse. This is accelerated by a marked depressant action +upon the heart, similar to that produced by veratrine and +aconite. Large doses also depress the nervous system, weakening +the anterior horns of grey matter in the spinal cord so as ultimately +to cause complete paralysis, and also causing a partial +insensibility of the cutaneous nerves of touch and pain. The +action of colchicum or colchicine upon the kidneys has been +minutely studied, and it is asserted on the one hand that the +urinary solids are much diminished and, on the other hand, +that they are markedly increased, the specific gravity of the +secretion being much raised. These assertions, and the total +inadequacy of the pharmacology of colchicum, as above detailed, +to explain its specific therapeutic property, show that the secret +of colchicum is as yet undiscovered.</p> + +<p>The sole but extremely important use of this drug is as a +specific for gout. It has an extraordinary power over the pain +of acute gout; it lessens the severity and frequency of the attacks +when given continuously between them, and it markedly controls +such symptoms of gout as eczema, bronchitis and neuritis, +whilst it is entirely inoperative against these conditions when +they are not of gouty origin. Despite the general recognition +of these facts, the pharmacology of colchicum has hitherto +thrown no light on the pathology of gout, and the pathology of +gout has thrown no light upon the manner in which colchicum +exerts its unique influence upon this disease. Veratrine is +useless in the treatment of gout. A further curious fact, doubtless +of very great significance, but hitherto lacking interpretation, +is that the administration of colchicum during an acute attack +of gout may often hasten the oncoming of the next attack; and +this property, familiar to many gouty patients, may not be affected +by the administration of small doses after the attack. Altogether +colchicum is a puzzle, and will remain so until the efficient poison +of gout is isolated and defined. When that is done, colchicine +may be found to exhibit a definite chemical interaction with +this hitherto undiscovered substance.</p> + +<p>In <i>colchicum poisoning</i>, empty the stomach, give white of +egg, olive or salad oil, and water. Use hot bottles and stimulants, +especially trying to counteract the cardiac depression by atropine, +caffeine, strophanthin, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLCHIS<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span>, in ancient geography, a nearly triangular district +of Asia Minor, at the eastern extremity of the Black Sea, bounded +on the N. by the Caucasus, which separated it from Asiatic +Sarmatia, E. by Iberia, S. by the Montes Moschici, Armenia and +part of Pontus, and W. by the Euxine. The ancient district is +represented roughly by the modern province of Kutais (formerly +Mingrelia). The name of Colchis first appears in Aeschylus and +Pindar. It was inhabited by a number of tribes whose settlements +lay chiefly along the shore of the Black Sea. The chief of +those were the Lazi, Moschi, Apsilae, Abasci, Sagadae, Suani +and Coraxi. These tribes differed so completely in language and +appearance from the surrounding nations, that the ancients +originated various theories to account for the phenomenon. +Herodotus, who states that they, with the Egyptians and the +Ethiopians, were the first to practise circumcision, believed them +to have sprung from the relics of the army of Sesostris (<i>q.v.</i>), +and thus regarded them as Egyptians. Apollonius Rhodius +(<i>Argon</i>, iv. 279) states that the Egyptians of Colchis preserved +as heirlooms a number of wooden <span class="grk" title="kurbeis">κύρβεις</span> (tablets) showing seas +and highways with considerable accuracy. Though this theory +was not generally adopted by the ancients, it has been defended, +but not with complete success, by some modern writers. It is +quite possible that there was an ancient trade connexion between +the Colchians and the Mediterranean peoples. We learn that +women were buried, while the corpses of men were suspended on +trees. The principal coast town was the Milesian colony of +Dioscurias (Roman Sebastopolis; mod. Sukhum Kaleh), the +ancient name being preserved in the modern C. Iskuria. The +chief river was the Phasis (mod. Rion). From Colchis is derived +the name of the plant Colchicum (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Colchis was celebrated in Greek mythology as the destination of +the Argonauts, the home of Medea and the special domain of +sorcery. Several Greek colonies were founded there by Miletus. +At a remote period it seems to have been incorporated with the +Persian empire, though the inhabitants evidently enjoyed a +considerable degree of independence; in this condition it was +found by Alexander the Great, when he invaded Persia. From +this time till the era of the Mithradatic wars nothing is known +of its history. At the time of the Roman invasion it seems to +have paid a nominal homage to Mithradates the Great and to have +been ruled over by Machares, his second son. On the defeat of +Mithradates by Pompey, it became a Roman province. After +the death of Pompey, Pharnaces, the son of Mithradates, rose in +rebellion against the Roman yoke, subdued Colchis and Armenia, +and made head, though but for a short time, against the Roman +arms. After this Colchis was incorporated with Pontus, and the +Colchians are not again alluded to in ancient history till the +6th century, when, along with the Abasci or Abasgi, under their +king Gobazes, whose mother was a Roman, they called in the aid +of Chosroes I. of Persia (541). The importance of the district, +then generally called Lazica from the Lazi (cf. mod. Lazistan) +who led the revolt, was due to the fact that it was the only remaining +bar which held the Persians, already masters of Iberia, from +the Black Sea. It had therefore been specially garrisoned by +Justinian under first Peter, a Persian slave, and subsequently +Johannes Tzibos, who built Petra on the coast as the Roman +Headquarters. Tzibos took advantage of the extreme poverty of +the Lazi to create a Roman monopoly by which he became a +middleman for all the trade both export and import. Chosroes +at once accepted the invitation of Gobazes and succeeded in +capturing Petra (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 541). The missionary zeal of the Zoroastrian +priests soon caused discontent among the Christian inhabitants +of Colchis, and Gobazes, perceiving that Chosroes intended to +Persianize the district, appealed to Rome, with the result that in +549 one Dagisthaeus was sent out with 7000 Romans and 1000 +auxiliaries of the Tzani (Zani, Sanni). The “Lazic War” lasted +till 556 with varying success. Petra was recaptured in 551 and +Archaeopolis was held by the Romans against the Persian general +Mermeroes. Gobazes was assassinated in 552, but the Persian +general Nachoragan was heavily defeated at Phasis in 553.</p> + +<p>By the peace of 562 the district was left in Roman possession, +but during the next 150 years it is improbable that the Romans +exercised much authority over it. In 697 we hear of a revolt +against Rome led by Sergius the Patrician, who allied himself +with the Arabs. Justinian II. in his second period of rule sent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span> +Leo the Isaurian, afterwards emperor, to induce the Alans to +attack the Abasgi. The Alans, having gained knowledge of +the district by a trick, invaded Lazica, and, probably in 712, a +Roman and Armenian army laid siege to Archaeopolis. On the +approach of a Saracen force they retired, but a small plundering +detachment was cut off. Ultimately Leo joined this band and +aided by the Apsilian chief Marinus escaped with them to the +coast.</p> + +<p>From the beginning of the 14th to the end of the 17th century +the district under the name Mingrelia (<i>q.v.</i>) was governed by an +independent dynasty, the Dadians, which was succeeded by a +semi-independent dynasty, the Chikovans, who by 1838 had +submitted to Russia, though they retained a nominal sovereignty. +In 1866 the district was finally annexed by Russia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the kings see Stokvis, <i>Manuel d’histoire</i>, i. 83.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLCOTHAR<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (adapted in Romanic languages from Arabic +<i>golgotar</i>, which was probably a corruption of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="chalkanthos">χάλκανθος</span>, +from <span class="grk" title="chalkos">χαλκός</span>, copper, <span class="grk" title="anthos">ἄνθος</span>, flower, <i>i.e.</i> copper sulphate), a name +given to the brownish-red ferric oxide formed in the preparation +of fuming sulphuric (Nordhausen) acid by distilling ferrous +sulphate. It is used as a polishing powder, forming the rouge of +jewellers, and as the pigment Indian red. It is also known as +<i>Crocus Martis</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLD<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>cald</i> and <i>ceald</i>, a word coming ultimately +from a root cognate with the Lat. <i>gelu</i>, <i>gelidus</i>, and common in +the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms +for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. <i>Kälte</i>, <i>kalt</i>, Dutch +<i>koude</i>, <i>koud</i>), subjectively the sensation which is excited by contact +with a substance whose temperature is lower than the normal; +objectively a quality or condition of material bodies which gives +rise to that sensation. Whether cold, in the objective sense, was +to be regarded as a positive quality or merely as absence of heat +was long a debated question. Thus Robert Boyle, who does not +commit himself definitely to either view, says, in his <i>New Experiments +and Observations touching Cold</i>, that “the dispute which is +the <i>primum frigidum</i> is very well known among naturalists, +some contending for the earth, others for water, others for the air, +and some of the moderns for nitre, but all seeming to agree that +there is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely +cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that +quality.” But with the general acceptance of the dynamical +theory of heat, cold naturally came to be regarded as a negative +condition, depending on decrease in the amount of the molecular +vibration that constitutes heat.</p> + +<p>The question whether there is a limit to the degree of cold +possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first +attacked by the French physicist, G. Amontons, in 1702-1703, +in connexion with his improvements in the air-thermometer. +In his instrument temperatures were indicated by the height +at which a column of mercury was sustained by a certain mass +of air, the volume or “spring” of which of course varied with +the heat to which it was exposed. Amontons therefore argued +that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at +which the spring of the air in it was reduced to nothing. On the +scale he used the boiling-point of water was marked at 73 and the +melting-point of ice at 51½, so that the zero of his scale was +equivalent to about -240° on the centigrade scale. This remarkably +close approximation to the modern value of -273° for the +zero of the air-thermometer was further improved on by J. H. +Lambert (<i>Pyrometrie</i>, 1779), who gave the value -270° and +observed that this temperature might be regarded as absolute +cold. Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, +however, universally accepted about this period. Laplace and +Lavoisier, for instance, in their treatise on heat (1780), arrived +at values ranging from 1500° to 3000° below the freezing-point +of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600° +below, while John Dalton in his <i>Chemical Philosophy</i> gave ten +calculations of this value, and finally adopted -3000° C. as the +natural zero of temperature. After J. P. Joule had determined +the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached +the question from an entirely different point of view, and in +1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature which was independent +of the properties of any particular substance and was +based solely on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heat</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermodynamics</a></span>). It followed from the principles +on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at +-273°, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the +air-thermometer.</p> + +<p>In nature the realms of space, on the probable assumption +that the interstellar medium is perfectly transparent and diathermanous, +must, as was pointed out by W. J. Macquorn Rankine, +be incapable of acquiring any temperature, and must therefore +be at the absolute zero. That, however, is not to say that if a +suitable thermometer could be projected into space it would +give a reading of -273°. On the contrary, not being a transparent +and diathermanous body, it would absorb radiation +from the sun and other stars, and would thus become warmed. +Professor J. H. Poynting (“Radiation in the Solar System,” +<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, A, 1903, 202, p. 525) showed that as regards bodies +in the solar system the effects of radiation from the stars are +negligible, and calculated that by solar radiation alone a small +absorbing sphere at the distance of Mercury from the sun would +have its temperature raised to 483° Abs. (210° C), at the distance +of Venus to 358° Abs. (85° C), of the earth to 300° Abs. (27° C), +of Mars to 243° Abs. (-30° C), and of Neptune to only 54° Abs. +(-219° C.). The French physicists of the early part of the 19th +century held a different view, and rejected the hypothesis of the +absolute cold of space. Fourier, for instance, postulated a +fundamental temperature of space as necessary for the explanation +of the heat-effects observed on the surface of the earth, and +estimated that in the interplanetary regions it was little less +than that of the terrestrial poles and below the freezing-point of +mercury, though it was different in other parts of space (<i>Ann. +chim. phys.</i>, 1824, 27, pp. 141, 150). C. S. M. Pouillet, again, +calculated the temperature of interplanetary space as -142° C. +(<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1838, 7, p. 61), and Sir John Herschel as +-150° (<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, 8th ed., art. “Meteorology,” p. 643).</p> + +<p>To attain the absolute zero in the laboratory, that is, to +deprive a substance entirely of its heat, is a thermodynamical +impossibility, and the most that the physicist can hope for is an +indefinitely close approach to that point. The lowest steady +temperature obtainable by the exhaustion of liquid hydrogen +is about -262° C. (11° Abs.), and the liquefaction of helium by +Professor Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908 yielded a liquid having a +boiling-point of about 4.3° Abs., which on exhaustion must +bring us to within about 2½ degrees of the absolute zero. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a “cold,” in the medical sense, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catarrh</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Respiratory +System</a></span>: <i>Pathology</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLDEN, CADWALLADER<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1688-1776), American physician +and colonial official, was born at Duns, Scotland, on the 17th of +February 1688. He graduated at the university of Edinburgh +in 1705, spent three years in London in the study of medicine, +and emigrated to America in 1708. After practising medicine +for ten years in Philadelphia, he was invited to settle in New +York by Governor Hunter, and in 1718 was appointed the first +surveyor-general of the colony. Becoming a member of the +provincial council in 1720, he served for many years as its president, +and from 1761 until his death was lieutenant-governor; +for a considerable part of the time, during the interim between +the appointment of governors, he was acting-governor. About +1755 he retired from medical practice. As early as 1729 he had +built a country house called Coldengham on the line between +Ulster and Orange counties, where he spent much of his time +until 1761. Aristocratic and extremely conservative, he had a +violent distrust of popular government and a strong aversion +to the popular party in New York. Naturally he came into +frequent conflict with the growing sentiment in the colony in +opposition to royal taxation. He was acting-governor when in +1765 the stamped paper to be used under the Stamp Act arrived +in the port of New York; a mob burned him in effigy in his +own coach in Bowling Green, in sight of the enraged acting-governor +and of General Gage; and Colden was compelled to +surrender the stamps to the city council, by whom they were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span> +locked up in the city hall until all attempts to enforce the new +law were abandoned. Subsequently Colden secured the suspension +of the provincial assembly by an act of parliament. +He understood, however, the real temper of the patriot party, +and in 1775, when the outbreak of hostilities seamed inevitable, +he strongly advised the ministry to act with caution and to +concede some of the colonists’ demands. When the war began, +he retired to his Long Island country seat, where he died on the +28th of September 1776. Colden was widely known among +scientists and men of letters in England and America. He was +a life-long student of botany, and was the first to introduce in +America the classification system of Linnaeus, who gave the +name “Coldenia” to a newly recognized genus. He was an +intimate friend of Benjamin Franklin. He wrote several medical +works of importance in their day, the most noteworthy being +<i>A Treatise on Wounds and Fevers</i> (1765); he also wrote <i>The +History of the Five Indian Nations depending on the Province +of New York</i> (1727, reprinted 1866 and 1905), and an elaborate +work on <i>The Principles of Action in Matter</i> (1751) which, with +his <i>Introduction to the Study of Physics</i> (c. 1756), his <i>Enquiry into +the Principles of Vital Motion</i> (1766), and his <i>Reflections</i> (c. 1770), +mark him as the first of American materialists and one of the +ablest material philosophers of his day. I. Woodbridge Riley, +in <i>American Philosophy</i> (New York, 1907), made the first +critical study of Colden’s philosophy, and said of it that it +combined “Newtonian mechanics with the ancient hylozoistic +doctrine ...” and “ultimately reached a kind of dynamic +panpsychism, substance being conceived as a self-acting and +universally diffused principle, whose essence is power and force.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Alice M. Keys, <i>Cadwallader Colden, A Representative 18th +Century Official</i> (New York, 1906), a Columbia University doctoral +dissertation; J. G. Mumford, <i>Narrative of Medicine in America</i> +(New York, 1903); and Asa Gray, “Selections from the Scientific +Correspondence of Cadwallader Colden” in <i>American Journal of +Science</i>, vol. 44, 1843.</p> +</div> + +<p>His grandson, <span class="sc">Cadwallader David Colden</span> (1769-1834), +lawyer and politician, was educated in London, but returned +in 1785 to New York, where he attained great distinction at the +bar. He was a colonel of volunteers during the war of 1812, and +from 1818 to 1821 was the successor of Jacob Radcliff as mayor +of New York City. He was a member of the state assembly +(1818) and the state senate (1825-1827), and did much to secure +the construction of the Erie Canal and the organization of the +state public school system; and in 1821-1823 he was a representative +in Congress. He wrote a <i>Life of Robert Fulton</i> (1817) +and a <i>Memoir of the Celebration of the Completion of the New York +Canals</i> (1825).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLD HARBOR<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Old</span> and <span class="sc">New</span>, two localities in Hanover +county, Virginia, U.S.A., 10 m. N.E. of Richmond. They were +the scenes of a succession of battles, on May 31-June 12, 1864, +between the Union forces under command of General U. S. +Grant and the Confederates under General R. E. Lee, who +held a strongly entrenched line at New Cold Harbor. The +main Union attack on June 3 was delivered by the II. +(Hancock), VI. (Wright), and XVIII. (W. F. Smith) corps, and +was brought to a standstill in eight minutes. An order from army +headquarters to renew the attack was ignored by the officers and +men at the front, who realized fully the strength of the hostile +position. These troops lost as many as 5,000 men in an hour’s +fighting, the greater part in the few minutes of the actual assault. +In the constant fighting of 31st of May to 12th of June on this +ground Grant lost 14,000 men. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilderness</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American +Civil War</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLDSTREAM<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span>, a police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 1482. It is situated on the north bank of the Tweed, +here spanned by John Smeaton’s fine bridge of five arches, +erected in 1763-1766, 13½ m. south-west of Berwick by the +North Eastern railway. The chief public buildings are the town +hall, library, mechanics’ institute, and cottage hospital. Some +brewing is carried on. Owing to its position on the Border and +also as the first ford of any consequence above Berwick, the +town played a prominent part in Scottish history during many +centuries. Here Edward I. crossed the stream in 1296 with his +invading host, and Montrose with the Covenanters in 1640. +Of the Cistercian priory, founded about 1165 by Cospatric of +Dunbar, and destroyed by the 1st earl of Hertford in 1545, which +stood a little to the east of the present market-place, no trace +remains; but for nearly four hundred years it was a centre of +religious fervour. Here it was that the papal legate, in the reign +of Henry VIII., published a bull against the printing of the +Scriptures; and by the irony of fate its site was occupied in the +19th century by an establishment, under Dr Adam Thomson, +for the production of cheap Bibles. At Coldstream General +Monk raised in 1659 the celebrated regiment of Foot Guards +bearing its name. Like Gretna Green, Coldstream long enjoyed +a notoriety as the resort of runaway couples, the old toll-house +at the bridge being the usual scene of the marriage ceremony. +“Marriage House,” as it is called, still exists in good repair. +Henry Brougham, afterwards lord chancellor, was married in +this clandestine way, though in an inn and not at the bridge, in +1821. Birgham, 3 m. west, was once a place of no small importance, +for there in 1188 William the Lion conferred with the bishop +of Durham concerning the attempt of the English Church to +impose its supremacy upon Scotland; there in 1289 was held the +convention to consider the question of the marriage of the Maid +of Norway with Prince Edward of England; and there, too, in +1290 was signed the treaty of Birgham, which secured the independence +of Scotland. Seven miles below Coldstream on the +English side, though 6 m. north-east of it, are the massive ruins +of Norham Castle, made famous by Scott’s <i>Marmion</i>, and from +the time of its building by Ranulph Flambard in 1121 a focus +of Border history during four centuries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLDWATER<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span>, a city and county-seat of Branch county, +Michigan, U.S.A., on Coldwater Stream (which connects two +of the group of small lakes in the vicinity), about 80 m. +S.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 5247; (1900) 6216, of +whom 431 were foreign-born; (1904) 6225; (1910) 5945. It +is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railway. It is +the seat of a state public school and temporary home (opened +in 1874) for dependent, neglected or ill-treated children, who +are received at any age under twelve. The city is situated in +a fine farming region, has an important flouring and grist mill +industry, and also manufactures Portland cement, liniment, +lumber, furniture, sashes, doors and blinds, brass castings, sleighs, +shoes, &c. The municipality owns and operates the water-works +and electric lighting plant. Coldwater was settled in 1829, was +laid out as a town under the name of Lyons in 1832, received its +present name in the following year, was incorporated as a village +in 1837, was reached by railway and became the county-seat in +1851, and was chartered as a city in 1861.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLE, SIR HENRY<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1808-1882), English civil servant, was +born at Bath on the 15th of July 1808, and was the son of an +officer in the army. At the age of fifteen he became clerk to +Sir Francis Palgrave, then a subordinate officer in the record +office, and, helped by Charles Buller, to whom he had been introduced +by Thomas Love Peacock, and who became chairman +of a royal commission for inquiry into the condition of the +public records, worked his way up until he became an assistant +keeper. He largely assisted in influencing public opinion in +support of Sir Rowland Hill’s reforms at the post office. A +connexion with the Society of Arts caused him to drift gradually +out of the record office: he was a leading member of the commission +that organized the Great Exhibition of 1851, and upon +the conclusion of its labours was made secretary to the School +of Design, which by a series of transformations became in 1853 +the Department of Science and Art. Under its auspices the +South Kensington (now Victoria and Albert) Museum was +founded in 1855 upon land purchased out of the surplus of the +exhibition, and Cole practically became its director, retiring in +1873. His proceedings were frequently criticized, but the +museum owes much to his energy. Indefatigable, genial and +masterful, he drove everything before him, and by all sorts of +schemes and devices built up a great institution, whose variety +and inequality of composition seemed imaged in the anomalous +structure in which it was temporarily housed. He also, though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span> +to the financial disappointment of many, conferred a great +benefit upon the metropolis by originating the scheme for the +erection of the Royal Albert Hall. He was active in founding +the national training schools for cookery and music, the latter +the germ of the Royal College of Music. He edited the works of +his benefactor Peacock; and was in his younger days largely +connected with the press, and the author of many useful topographical +handbooks published under the pseudonym of “Felix +Summerly.” He died on the 18th of April 1882.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLE, THOMAS<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1801-1848), American landscape painter, +was born at Bolton-le-Moors, England, on the 1st of February +1801. In 1819 the family emigrated to America, settling first in +Philadelphia and then at Steubenville, Ohio, where Cole learned +the rudiments of his profession from a wandering portrait painter +named Stein. He went about the country painting portraits, +but with little financial success. Removing to New York (1825), +he displayed some landscapes in the window of an eating-house, +where they attracted the attention of the painter Colonel +Trumbull, who sought him out, bought one of his canvases, and +found him patrons. From this time Cole was prosperous. He is +best remembered by a series of pictures consisting of four canvases +representing “The Voyage of Life,” and another series of five +canvases representing “The Course of Empire,” the latter now +in the gallery of the New York Historical Society. They were +allegories, in the taste of the day, and became exceedingly popular, +being reproduced in engravings with great success. The work, +however, was meretricious, the sentiment false, artificial and +conventional, and the artist’s genuine fame must rest on his +landscapes, which, though thin in the painting, hard in the +handling, and not infrequently painful in detail, were at least +earnest endeavours to portray the world out of doors as it +appeared to the painter; their failings were the result of Cole’s +environment and training. He had an influence on his time and +his fellows which was considerable, and with Durand he may be +said to have founded the early school of American landscape +painters. Cole spent the years 1829-1832 and 1841-1842 abroad, +mainly in Italy, and at Florence lived with the sculptor +Greenough. After 1827 he had a studio in the Catskills which +furnished the subjects of some of his canvases, and he died at +Catskill, New York, on the 11th of February 1848. His pictures +are in many public and private collections. His “Expulsion from +Eden” is in the Metropolitan Museum in New York.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLE, TIMOTHY<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1852-  ), American wood engraver, was +born in London, England, in 1852, his family emigrating to the +United States in 1858. He established himself in Chicago, where +in the great fire of 1871 he lost everything he possessed. In 1875 +he removed to New York, finding work on the <i>Century</i> (then +<i>Scribner’s</i>) magazine. He immediately attracted attention by +his unusual facility and his sympathetic interpretation of illustrations +and pictures, and his publishers sent him abroad in 1883 to +engrave a set of blocks after the old masters in the European +galleries. These achieved for him a brilliant success. His reproductions +of Italian, Dutch, Flemish and English pictures were +published in book form with appreciative notes by the engraver +himself. Though the advent of new mechanical processes had +rendered wood engraving almost a lost art and left practically +no demand for the work of such craftsmen, Mr Cole was thus +enabled to continue his work, and became one of the foremost +contemporary masters of wood engraving. He received a +medal of the first class at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and the +only grand prize given for wood engraving at the Louisiana +Purchase Exposition at St Louis, Missouri, in 1904.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLE, VICAT<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1833-1893), English painter, born at Portsmouth +on the 17th of April 1833, was the son of the landscape +painter, George Cole, and in his practice followed his father’s +lead with marked success. He exhibited at the British Institution +at the age of nineteen, and was first represented at the Royal +Academy in 1853. His election as an associate of this institution +took place in 1870, and he became an Academician ten years later. +He died in London on the 6th of April 1893. The wide popularity +of his work was due partly to the simple directness of his technical +method, and partly to his habitual choice of attractive material. +Most of his subjects were found in the counties of Surrey and +Sussex, and along the banks of the Thames. One of his largest +pictures, “The Pool of London,” was bought by the Chantrey +Fund Trustees in 1888, and is now in the Tate Gallery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Robert Chignell, <i>The Life and Paintings of Vicat Cole, R.A.</i> +(London, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1765-1837), English +Orientalist, the third son of Sir George Colebrooke, 2nd baronet, +was born in London on the 15th of June 1765. He was educated +at home; and when only fifteen he had made considerable +attainments in classics and mathematics. From the age of +twelve to sixteen he resided in France, and in 1782 was appointed +to a writership in India. About a year after his arrival there he +was placed in the board of accounts in Calcutta; and three years +later he was removed to a situation in the revenue department +at Tirhut. In 1789 he was removed to Purneah, where he investigated +the resources of that part of the country, and published his +<i>Remarks on the Husbandry and Commerce of Bengal</i>, privately +printed in 1795, in which he advocated free trade between Great +Britain and India. After eleven years’ residence in India, +Colebrooke began the study of Sanskrit; and to him was confided +the translation of the great <i>Digest of Hindu Laws</i>, which had been +left unfinished by Sir William Jones. He translated the two +treatises <i>Mitacshara</i> and <i>Dayabhaga</i> under the title <i>Law of Inheritance</i>. +He was sent to Nagpur in 1799 on a special mission, +and on his return was made a judge of the new court of appeal, +over which he afterwards presided. In 1805 Lord Wellesley +appointed him professor of Hindu Law and Sanskrit at the college +of Fort William. During his residence at Calcutta he wrote his +<i>Sanskrit Grammar</i> (1805), some papers on the religious ceremonies +of the Hindus, and his <i>Essay on the Vedas</i> (1805), for a long time +the standard work on the subject. He became member of council +in 1807 and returned to England seven years later. He died on +the 18th of March 1837. He was a director of the Asiatic Society, +and many of the most valuable papers in the society’s <i>Transactions</i> +were communicated by him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life was written by his son, Sir T. E. Colebrooke, in 1873.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLEMANITE<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span>, a hydrous calcium borate, Ca<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">11</span> + 5H<span class="su">2</span>O, +found in California as brilliant monoclinic crystals. It contains +50.9% of boron trioxide, and is an important source of commercial +borates and boracic acid. Beautifully developed +crystals, up to 2 or 3 in. in length, encrust cavities in compact, +white colemanite; they are colourless and transparent, and +the brilliant lustre of their faces is vitreous to adamantine in +character. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of +symmetry of the crystals. Hardness 4-4½; specific gravity +2.42. The mineral was first discovered in 1882 in Death Valley, +Inyo county, California, and in the following year it was found +in greater abundance near Daggett in San Bernardino county, +forming with other borates and borosilicates a bed in sedimentary +strata of sandstones and clays; in more recent years +very large masses have been found and worked in these localities, +and also in Los Angeles county (see Special Report, 1905, of +U.S. Census Bureau on <i>Mines and Quarries</i>; and <i>Mineral +Resources of the U.S.</i>, 1907).</p> + +<p>Priceite and pandermite are hydrous calcium borates with very +nearly the same composition as colemanite, and they may really +be only impure forms of this species. They are massive white +minerals, the former friable and chalk-like, and the latter firm +and compact in texture. Priceite occurs near Chetco in Curry +county, Oregon, where it forms layers between a bed of slate and +one of tough blue steatite; embedded in the steatite are rounded +masses of priceite varying in size from that of a pea to masses +weighing 200 ℔. Pandermite comes from Asia Minor, and is shipped +from the port of Panderma on the Sea of Marmora: it occurs as +large nodules, up to a ton in weight, beneath a thick bed of gypsum.</p> + +<p>Another borate of commercial importance found abundantly in +the Californian deposits is ulexite, also known as boronatrocalcite +or “cotton-ball,” a hydrous calcium and sodium borate, +CaNaB<span class="su">5</span>O<span class="su">9</span> + 8H<span class="su">2</span>O, which forms rounded masses consisting of a +loose aggregate of fine fibres. It is the principal species in the +borate deposits in the Atacama region of South America.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1814-1883), English bishop of +Natal, was born at St Austell, Cornwall, on the 24th of January +1814. His family were in embarrassed circumstances, and he was +indebted to relatives for the means of university education. In +1836 he was second wrangler and Smith’s prizeman at Cambridge, +and in 1837 he became fellow of St John’s. Two years later he +went to Harrow as mathematical tutor, but the step proved an unfortunate +one. The school was just then at the lowest ebb, and +Colenso not only had few pupils, but lost most of his property +by a fire. He went back to Cambridge, and in a short time paid +off heavy debts by diligent tutoring and the proceeds of his +series of manuals of algebra (1841) and arithmetic (1843), which +were adopted all over England. In 1846 he became rector of +Forncett St Mary, Norfolk, and in 1853 he was appointed +bishop of Natal. He at once devoted himself to acquiring the +Zulu language, of which he compiled a grammar and a dictionary, +and into which he translated the New Testament and other +portions of Scripture. He had already given evidence, in a +volume of sermons dedicated to Maurice, that he was not satisfied +with the traditional views about the Bible. The puzzling +questions put to him by the Zulus strengthened him in this +attitude and led him to make a critical examination of the +Pentateuch. His conclusions, positive and negative, were +published in a series of treatises on the Pentateuch, extending +from 1862 to 1879, and, being in advance of his time, were +naturally disputed in England with a fervour of conviction +equal to his own. On the continent they attracted the +notice of Abraham Kuenen, and furthered that scholar’s investigations.</p> + +<p>While the controversy raged in England, the South African +bishops, whose suspicions Colenso had already incurred by the +liberality of his views respecting polygamy among native converts +and by a commentary upon the Epistle to the Romans (1861), +in which he combated the doctrine of eternal punishment, met +in conclave to condemn him, and pronounced his deposition +(December 1863). Colenso, who had refused to appear before +their tribunal otherwise than as sending a protest by proxy, +appealed to the privy council, which pronounced that the +metropolitan of Cape Town (Robert Gray) had no coercive +jurisdiction and no authority to interfere with the bishop of +Natal. No decision, therefore, was given upon the merits of the +case. His adversaries, though unable to obtain his condemnation, +succeeded in causing him to be generally inhibited from +preaching in England, and Bishop Gray not only excommunicated +him but consecrated a rival bishop for Natal (W. K. Macrorie), +who, however, took his title from Maritzburg. The contributions +of the missionary societies were withdrawn, but an +attempt to deprive him of his episcopal income was frustrated +by a decision of the courts. Colenso, encouraged by a handsome +testimonial raised in England, to which many clergymen subscribed, +returned to his diocese, and devoted the latter years of +his life to further labours as a biblical commentator and translator. +He also championed the cause of the natives against Boer oppression +and official encroachments, a course by which he made +more enemies among the colonists than he had ever made among +the clergy. He died at Durban on the 20th of June 1883. +His daughter Frances Ellen Colenso (1840-1887) published two +books on the relations of the Zulus to the British (1880 and +1885), taking a pro-Zulu view; and an elder daughter, Harriette +E. Colenso (b. 1847), became prominent as an advocate of the +natives in opposition to their treatment by Natal, especially in +the case of Dinizulu in 1888-1889 and in 1908-1909.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>Life</i> by Sir G. W. Cox (2 vols., London, 1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLENSO<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span>, a village of Natal on the right or south bank of +the Tugela river, 16 m. by rail south by east of Ladysmith. It +was the scene of an action fought on the 15th of December +1899 between the British forces under Sir Redvers Buller and the +Boers, in which the former were repulsed. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ladysmith</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLEOPTERA<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span>, a term used in zoological classification for the +true beetles which form one of the best-marked and most natural +of the orders into which the class Hexapoda (or Insecta) has been +divided. For the relationship of the Coleoptera to other orders +of insects see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span>. The name (Gr. <span class="grk" title="koleos">κολεός</span>, a sheath, and +<span class="grk" title="ptera">πτερά</span>, wings) was first used by Aristotle, who noticed the firm +protective sheaths, serving as coverings for the hind-wings +which alone are used for flight, without recognizing their correspondence +with the fore-wings of other insects.</p> + +<p>These firm fore-wings, or elytra (fig. 1, A), are usually convex +above, with straight hind margins (<i>dorsa</i>); when the elytra are +closed, the two hind margins come together along the mid-dorsal +line of the body, forming a <i>suture</i>. In many beetles the hind-wings +are reduced to mere vestiges useless for flight, or are +altogether absent, and in such cases the two elytra are often +fused together at the suture; thus organs originally intended +for flight have been transformed into an armour-like covering +for the beetle’s hind-body. In correlation with their heavy build +and the frequent loss of the power of flight, many beetles are +terrestrial rather than aerial in habit, though a large proportion +of the order can fly well.</p> + +<p>Aristotle’s term was adopted by Linnaeus (1758), and has been +universally used by zoologists. The identification of the elytra +of beetles with the fore-wings of other insects has indeed been +questioned (1880) by F. Meinert, who endeavoured to compare +them with the tegulae of Hymenoptera, but the older view was +securely established by the demonstration in pupal elytra by J. +G. Needham (1898) and W. L. Tower (1903), of nervures similar +to those of the hind-wing, and by the proof that the small membranous +structures present beneath the elytra of certain beetles, +believed by Meinert to represent the whole of the true fore-wings, +are in reality only the alulae.</p> + +<p><i>Structure.</i>—Besides the conspicuous character of the elytra, +beetles are distinguished by the adaptation of the jaws for +biting, the mandibles (fig. 1, Bb) being powerful, and the first +pair of maxillae (fig. 1, Bc) usually typical in form. The maxillae +of the second pair (fig. 1, Bd) are very intimately fused together +to form what is called the “lower lip” or labium, a firm transverse +plate representing the fused basal portions of the maxillae, +which may carry a small median “ligula,” representing apparently +the fused inner maxillary lobes, a pair of paraglossae +(outer maxillary lobes), and a pair of palps. The feelers of +beetles differ greatly in the different families (cf. figs. 2b, 9b and +26b, c); the number of segments is usually eleven, but may vary +from two to more than twenty.</p> + +<p>The head is extended from behind forwards, so that the +crown (epicranium) is large, while the face (clypeus) is small. +The chin (gula) is a very characteristic sclerite in beetles, absent +only in a few families, such as the weevils. There is usually a +distinct labrum (fig. 1, Ba).</p> + +<p>The prothorax is large and “free,” <i>i.e.</i> readily movable on the +mesothorax, an arrangement usual among insects with the +power of rapid running. The tergite of the prothorax (pronotum) +is prominent in all beetles, reaching back to the bases of the +elytra and forming a substantial shield for the front part of the +body. The tergal regions of the mesothorax and of the metathorax +are hidden under the pronotum and the elytra when the +latter are closed, except that the mesothoracic scutellum is +often visible—a small triangular or semicircular plate between +the bases of the elytra (fig. 1, A). The ventral region of the +thoracic skeleton is complex, each segment usually possessing +a median sternum with paired episterna (in front) and epimera +(behind). The articular surfaces of the haunches (coxae) of the +fore-legs are often conical or globular, so that each limb works +in a ball-and-socket joint, while the hind haunches are large, +displacing the ventral sclerites of the first two abdominal segments +(fig. 1, C). The legs themselves (fig. 1, A) are of the usual +insectan type, but in many families one, two, or even three of +the five foot-segments may be reduced or absent. In beetles +of aquatic habit the intermediate and hind legs are modified +as swimming-organs (fig. 2, a), while in many beetles that burrow +into the earth or climb about on trees the fore-legs are broadened +and strengthened for digging, or lengthened and modified for +clinging to branches. The hard fore-wings (elytra) are +strengthened with marginal ridges, usually inflected ventrally +to form epipleura which fit accurately along the edges of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span> +abdomen. The upper surface of the elytron is sharply folded +inwards at intervals, so as to give rise to a regular series of +external longitudinal furrows (striae) and to form a set of supports +between the two chitinous layers forming the elytron. The +upper surface often shows a number of impressed dots (punctures). +Along the sutural border of the elytron, the chitinous lamella +forms a tubular space within which are numerous glands. The +glands occur in groups, and lead into common ducts which open +in several series along the suture. Sometimes the glands are +found beneath the disk of the elytron, opening by pores on the +surface. The hind-wings, when developed, are characteristic +in form, possessing a sub-costal nervure with which the reduced +radial nervure usually becomes associated. There are several +curved median and cubital nervures and a single anal, but few +cross nervures or areolets. The wing, when not in use, is folded +both lengthwise and transversely, and doubled up beneath +the elytron; to permit the transverse folding, the longitudinal +nervures are interrupted.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:356px" src="images/img667a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Structure of Male Stag-Beetle (<i>Lucanus cervus</i>). A, Dorsal view; B, mouth organs; C, under side.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:526px; height:346px" src="images/img667b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Water Beetles (<i>Dyticidae</i>). a, Beetle; b, head of beetle +with feelers and palps; c, larva; d, pupa.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Ten segments can be recognized—according to the studies +of K. W. Verhoeff (1804-1896)—in a beetle’s abdomen, but the +tenth sternite is usually absent. On account of the great +extension of the metathorax and the haunches of the large hind-legs, +the first abdominal sternite is wanting, and the second is +usually so much reduced that the foremost apparent ventral +sclerite of the abdomen represents the third sternite. From +this point backwards the successive abdominal segments, as +far as the seventh or eighth, can be readily made out. The +ninth and tenth segments are at most times retracted within the +eighth. The female can protrude a long flexible tube in connexion +with the eighth segment, carrying the sclerites of the ninth at +its extremity, and these sclerites may carry short hairy processes—the +stylets. This flexible tube is the functional ovipositor, +the typical insectan ovipositor with its three pairs of processes +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span>) being undeveloped among the Coleoptera. In +male beetles, however, the two pairs of genital processes (paramera) +belonging to the ninth abdominal segment are always +present, though sometimes reduced. Between them is situated, +sometimes asymmetrically, the prominent intromittent organ.</p> + +<p>In the structure of the digestive system, beetles resemble +most other mandibulate insects, the food-canal consisting of +gullet, crop, gizzard, mid-gut or stomach, intestine and rectum. +The stomach is beset throughout its length with numerous +small, finger-like caecal tubes. The excretory (malpighian) +tubes are few in number, either four or six. Many beetles have, +in connexion with the anus, glands which secrete a repellent +acid fluid, serving as a defence for the insect when attacked. +The “bombardier” ground beetles (fig. 5) have this habit. +Oil-beetles (figs. 23 and 24) and ladybirds (fig. 32) defend themselves +by ejecting drops of fluid from the knee-joints. The +nervous system is remarkably concentrated in some beetles, the +abdominal ganglia showing a tendency to become shifted +forward and crowded together, and in certain chafers all the +thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused into a single nerve-centre +situated in the thorax,—a degree of specialization only +matched in the insectan class among the Hemiptera and some +muscid flies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Development.</i>—The embryonic development (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span>) has +been carefully studied in several genera of beetles. As regards growth +after hatching, all beetles undergo a “complete” metamorphosis, +the wing-rudiments developing beneath the cuticle throughout the +larval stages, and a resting pupal stage intervening between the last +larval instar<a name="FnAnchor_1g" id="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and the imago. The coleopterous pupa (figs. 2d, 3c) +is always “free,” the legs, wings and other appendages not being +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span> +fixed to the body as in the pupa of a moth, and the likeness of pupa +to perfect insect is very close.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:376px; height:385px" src="images/img668.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Chittenden, <i>Yearbook</i>, 1894, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.</span><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Grain Weevils. a, <i>Calandra granaria</i>; b, larva; c, pupa; +d, <i>C. oryzae</i>.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The most striking feature in the development of beetles is the +great diversity noticeable in the outward form of the larva in different +families. The larva of a ground-beetle or a carnivorous water-beetle +(fig. 2 c) is an active elongate grub with well-armoured +cuticle. The head—carrying feelers, mandibles and two pairs of +maxillae—is succeeded by the three thoracic segments, each bearing +a pair of strong five-segmented legs, whose feet, like those of the adult, +carry two claws. Ten segments can be distinguished in the tapering +abdomen, the ninth frequently bearing a pair of tail-feelers (cerci), +and the tenth, attached ventrally to the ninth, having the anal +opening at its extremity and performing the function of a posterior +limb, supporting and temporarily fixing the tail end of the insect +on the surface over which it crawls. Such a typically “campodeiform” +grub, moving actively about in pursuit of prey, is the +one extreme of larval structure to be noticed among the Coleoptera. +The other is exemplified by the white, wrinkled, soft-skinned, legless +grub of a weevil, which lives underground feeding on roots, or +burrows in the tissues of plants (fig. 3 b). Between these two +extremes we find various transitional forms: an active larva, as +described above, but with four-segmented, single-clawed legs, as +among the rove-beetles and their allies; the body well armoured, +but slender and worm-like, with very short legs as in wireworms +and mealworms (figs. 18, 21 b); the body shortened, with the abdomen +swollen, but protected with tubercles and spines, and with +longish legs adapted for an active life, as in the predaceous larvae +of ladybirds; the body soft-skinned, swollen and caterpillar-like, +with legs well developed, but leading a sluggish underground life, as +in the grub of a chafer; the body soft-skinned and whitish, and the +legs greatly reduced in size, as in the wood-feeding grub of a longhorn +beetle. In the case of certain beetles whose larvae do not find +themselves amid appropriate food from the moment of hatching, +but have to migrate in search of it, an early larval stage, with legs, +is followed by later sluggish stages in which legs have disappeared, +furnishing examples of what is called hypermetamorphosis. For +example, the grub of a pea or bean beetle (<i>Bruchus</i>) is hatched, from +the egg laid by its mother on the carpel of a leguminous flower, +with three pairs of legs and spiny processes on the prothorax. It +bores through and enters the developing seed, where it undergoes +a moult and becomes legless. Similarly the newly-hatched larva +of an oil-beetle (<i>Meloe</i>) is an active little campodeiform insect, which, +hatched from an egg laid among plants, waits to attach itself to a +passing bee. Carried to the bee’s nest, it undergoes a moult, and +becomes a fat-bodied grub, ready to lead a quiet life feeding on the +bee’s rich food-stores.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Distribution and Habits.</i>—The Coleoptera are almost world-wide +in their distribution, being represented in the Arctic +regions and on almost all oceanic islands. Most of the dominant +families—such as the <i>Carabidae</i> (ground-beetles), <i>Scarabaeidae</i> +(chafers), or <i>Curculionidae</i> (weevils) have a distribution as wide +as the order. But while some large families, such as the <i>Staphylinidae</i> +(rove-beetles) are especially abundant on the great +northern continents, becoming scarcer in the tropics, others, the +<i>Cicindelidae</i> (tiger-beetles), for example, are most strongly +represented in the warmer regions of the earth, and become +scarce as the collector journeys far to south or north. The +distribution of many groups of beetles is restricted in correspondence +with their habits; the <i>Cerambycidae</i> (longhorns), +whose larvae are wood-borers, are absent from timberless +regions, and most abundant in the great tropical forests. Some +families are very restricted in their range. The <i>Amphizoidae</i>, +for example, a small family of aquatic beetles, are known only +from western North America and Eastern Tibet, while an allied +family, the <i>Pelobiidae</i>, inhabit the British Isles, the Mediterranean +region, Tibet and Australia. The beetles of the British +islands afford some very interesting examples of restricted +distribution among species. For example, large and conspicuous +European beetles, such as the stag-beetle (fig. 1, <i>Lucanus cervus</i>) +and the great water-beetle (<i>Hydrophilus piceus</i>, fig. 20), are +confined to eastern and southern Britain, and are unknown +in Ireland. On the other hand, there are Arctic species like the +ground-beetle, <i>Pelophila borealis</i>, and south-western species +like the boring weevil, <i>Mesites Tardyi</i>, common in Ireland, and +represented in northern or western Britain, but unknown in +eastern Britain or in Central Europe. Careful study of insular +faunas, such as that of Madeira by T. V. Wollaston, and of the +Sandwich Islands by D. Sharp, and the comparison of the species +found with those of the nearest continental land, furnish the +student of geographical distribution with many valuable and +suggestive facts.</p> + +<p>Notes on habit are given below in the accounts of the various +families. In general it may be stated that beetles live and feed +in almost all the diverse ways possible for insects. There are +carnivores, herbivores and scavengers among them. Various +species among those that are predaceous attack smaller insects, +hunt in packs crustaceans larger than themselves, insert their +narrow heads into snail-shells to pick out and devour the occupants, +or pursue slugs and earthworms underground. The +vegetable-feeders attack leaves, herbaceous or woody stems +and roots; frequently different parts of a plant are attacked +in the two active stages of the life-history; the cockchafers, +for example, eating leaves, and their grubs gnawing roots. +Some of the scavengers, like the burying beetles, inter the +bodies of small vertebrates to supply food for themselves and +their larvae, or, like the “sacred” beetle of Egypt, collect for +the same purpose stores of dung. Many beetles of different +families have become the “unbidden guests” of civilized man, +and may be found in dwelling-houses, stores and ships’ cargoes, +eating food-stuffs, paper, furniture, tobacco and drugs. Hence +we find that beetles of some kind can hold their own anywhere +on the earth’s surface. Some climb trees and feed on leaves, +while others tunnel between bark and wood. Some fly through +the air, others burrow in the earth, while several families have +become fully adapted to life in fresh water. A large number +of beetles inhabit the deep limestone caves of Europe and North +America, while many genera and some whole families are at +home nowhere but in ants’ nests. Most remarkable is the +presence of a number of beetles along the seashore between +tide-marks, where, sheltered in some secure nook, they undergo +immersion twice daily, and have their active life confined to the +few hours of the low ebb.</p> + +<p><i>Stridulating Organs.</i>—Many beetles make a hissing or chirping +sound by rubbing a “scraper,” formed by a sharp edge or +prominence on some part of their exoskeleton, over a “file” +formed by a number of fine ridges situate on an adjacent region. +These stridulating organs were mentioned by C. Darwin as probable +examples of the action of sexual selection; they are, however, +frequently present in both sexes, and in some families also in +the larvae. An account of the principal types of stridulators +that have been described has been published by C. J. Gahan +(1900). The file may be on the head—either upper or lower +surface—and the scraper formed by the front edge of the prothorax, +as in various wood-boring beetles (<i>Anobium</i> and <i>Scolytus</i>). +Or ridged areas on the sides of the prothorax may be scraped by +“files” on the front thighs, as in some ground-beetles. Among +the longhorn beetles, the prothorax scrapes over a median file +on the mid-dorsal aspect of the mesothorax. In a large number +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span> +of beetles of different families, stridulating areas occur on various +segments of the abdomen, and are scraped by the elytra. It is +remarkable that these organs are found in similar positions in +genera belonging to widely divergent families, while two genera +of the same family may have them in different positions. It +follows, therefore, that they have been independently acquired +in the course of the evolution of the Coleoptera.</p> + +<p>Stridulating organs among beetle-larvae have been noted, +especially in the wood-feeding grub of the stag-beetles (<i>Lucanidae</i>) +and their allies the <i>Passalidae</i>, and in the dung-eating +grubs of the dor-beetles (<i>Geotrupes</i>), which belong to the +chafer family (<i>Scarabaeidae</i>). These organs are described by +J. C. Schiödte and D. Sharp; in the stag-beetle larva a series +of short tubercles on the hind-leg is drawn across the serrate edge +of a plate on the haunch of the intermediate legs, while in the +Passalid grub the modified tip of the hind-leg acts as a scraper, +being so shortened that it is useless for locomotion, but highly +specialized for producing sound. Whatever may be the true +explanation of stridulating organs in adult beetles, sexual +selection can have had nothing to do with the presence of these +highly-developed larval structures. It has been suggested that +the power of stridulation would be advantageous to wood-boring +grubs, the sound warning each of the position of its neighbour, +so that adjacent burrowers may not get in each other’s way. +The root-feeding larvae of the cockchafer and allied members +of the <i>Scarabaeidae</i> have a ridged area on the mandible, which +is scraped by teeth on the maxillae, apparently forming a +stridulating organ.</p> + +<p><i>Luminous Organs.</i>—The function of the stridulating organs +just described is presumably to afford means of recognition +by sound. Some beetles emit a bright light from a portion of +their bodies, which leads to the recognition of mate or comrade +by sight. In the wingless female glow-worm (<i>Lampyris</i>, fig. 15 f) +the luminous region is at the hinder end, the organ emitting +the light consisting, according to H. von Wielowiejski (1882), +of cells similar to those of the fat-body, containing a substance +that undergoes oxidation. The illumination is intermittent, +and appears to be under the control of the insect’s nervous +system. The well-known “fire-flies” of the tropics are large +click-beetles (<i>Elateridae</i>), that emit light from paired spots on +the prothorax and from the base of the ventral abdominal +region. The luminous organs of these beetles consist of a +specialized part of the fat-body, with an inner opaque and an +outer transparent layer. Its structure has been described by +C. Heinemann, and its physiology by R. Dubois (1886), who +considers that the luminosity is due to the influence of an enzyme +in the cells of the organ upon a special substance in the blood. +The eggs and larvae of the fire-flies are luminous as well as the +perfect beetles.</p> + +<p><i>Fossil History.</i>—The Coleoptera can be traced back farther +in time than any other order of insects with complete transformations, +if the structures that have been described from the +Carboniferous rocks of Germany are really elytra. In the +Triassic rocks of Switzerland remains of weevils (<i>Curculionidae</i>) +occur, a family which is considered by many students the most +specialized of the order. And when we know that the <i>Chrysomelidae</i> +and <i>Buprestidae</i> also lived in Triassic, and the <i>Carabidae</i>, +<i>Elateridae</i>, <i>Cerambycidae</i> and <i>Scarabaeidae</i>, in Liassic times, +we cannot doubt that the great majority of our existing families +had already been differentiated at the beginning of the Mesozoic +epoch. Coming to the Tertiary we find the Oligocene beds of +Aix, of east Prussia (amber) and of Colorado, and the Miocene +of Bavaria, especially rich in remains of beetles, most of which +can be referred to existing genera.</p> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—The Coleoptera have been probably more +assiduously studied by systematic naturalists than any other +order of insects. The number of described species can now hardly +be less than 100,000, but there is little agreement as to the main +principles of a natural classification. About eighty-five families +are generally recognized; the difficulty that confronts the +zoologists is the arrangement of these families in “superfamilies” +or “sub-orders.” Such obvious features as the number of +segments in the foot and the shape of the feeler were used by +the early entomologists for distinguishing the great groups of +beetles. The arrangement dependent on the number of tarsal +segments—the order being divided into tribes <i>Pentamera</i>, +<i>Tetramera</i>, <i>Heteromera</i> and <i>Trimera</i>—was suggested by E. L. +Geoffroy in 1762, adopted by P. A. Latreille, and used largely +through the 19th century. W. S. Macleay’s classification (1825), +which rested principally on the characters of the larvae, is +almost forgotten nowadays, but it is certain that in any systematic +arrangement which claims to be natural the early stages +in the life-history must receive due attention. In recent years +classifications in part agreeing with the older schemes but largely +original, in accord with researches on the comparative anatomy +of the insects, have been put forward. Among the more conservative +of these may be mentioned that of D. Sharp (1899), +who divides the order into six great series of families: <i>Lamellicornia</i> +(including the chafers and stag-beetles and their allies +with five-segmented feet and plate-like terminal segments to +the feelers); <i>Adephaga</i> (carnivorous, terrestrial and aquatic +beetles, all with five foot-segments); <i>Polymorpha</i> (including +a heterogeneous assembly of families that cannot be fitted into +any of the other groups); <i>Heteromera</i> (beetles with the fore and +intermediate feet five-segmented, and the hind-feet four-segmented); +<i>Phytophaga</i> (including the leaf-beetles, and longhorns, +distinguished by the apparently four-segmented feet), and +<i>Rhynchophora</i> (the weevils and their allies, with head prolonged +into a snout, and feet with four segments). L. Ganglbauer (1892) +divides the whole order into two sub-orders only, the <i>Caraboidea</i> +(the <i>Adephaga</i> of Sharp and the older writers) and the <i>Cantharidoidea</i> +(including all other beetles), since the larvae of <i>Caraboidea</i> +have five-segmented, two-clawed legs, while those of all other +beetles have legs with four segments and a single claw. A. +Lameere (1900) has suggested three sub-orders, the <i>Cantharidiformia</i> +(including the <i>Phytophaga</i>, the <i>Heteromera</i>, the <i>Rhynchophora</i> +and most of the <i>Polymorpha</i> of Sharp’s classification), +the <i>Staphyliniformia</i> (including the rove-beetles, carrion-beetles +and a few allied families of Sharp’s <i>Polymorpha</i>), and the <i>Carabidiformia</i> +(<i>Adephaga</i>). Lameere’s classification is founded on +the number of abdominal sterna, the nervuration of the wings, +the number of malpighian tubules (whether four or six) and other +structural characters. Preferable to Lameere’s system, because +founded on a wider range of adult characters and taking the +larval stages into account, is that of H. J. Kolbe (1901), who +recognizes three sub-orders: (i.) the <i>Adephaga</i>; (ii.) the +<i>Heterophaga</i>, including the <i>Staphylinoidea</i>, the <i>Actinorhabda</i> +(<i>Lamellicornia</i>), the <i>Heterorhabda</i> (most of Sharp’s <i>Polymorpha</i>), +and the <i>Anchistopoda</i> (the <i>Phytophaga</i>, with the ladybirds +and some allied families which Sharp places among the <i>Polymorpha</i>); +(iii.) the <i>Rhynchophora</i>.</p> + +<p>Students of the Coleoptera have failed to agree not only on a +system of classification, but on the relative specialization of +some of the groups which they all recognize as natural. Lameere, +for example, considers some of his <i>Cantharidiformia</i> as the most +primitive Coleoptera. J. L. Leconte and G. H. Horn placed +the <i>Rhynchophora</i> (weevils) in a group distinct from all other +beetles, on account of their supposed primitive nature. Kolbe, +on the other hand, insists that the weevils are the most modified +of all beetles, being highly specialized as regards their adult +structure, and developing from legless maggots exceedingly +different from the adult; he regards the Adephaga, with their +active armoured larvae with two foot-claws, as the most primitive +group of beetles, and there can be little doubt that the likeness +between larvae and adult may safely be accepted as a primitive +character among insects. In the Coleoptera we have to do with +an ancient yet dominant order, in which there is hardly a family +that does not show specialization in some point of structure +or life-history. Hence it is impossible to form a satisfactory +linear series.</p> + +<p>In the classification adopted in this article, the attempt has +been made to combine the best points in old and recent schemes, +and to avoid the inconvenience of a large heterogeneous group +including the vast majority of the families.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Adephaga</span>.—This tribe includes beetles of carnivorous habit with +five segments on every foot, simple thread-like feelers with none of +the segments enlarged to form club or pectination, and the outer +lobs (galea) of the first maxilla usually two-segmented and palpiform +(fig. 4 b). The transverse fold of the hind-wing is towards the tip, +about two-thirds of the wing-length from the base. At this fold +the median nervure stops and is joined by a cross nervure to the +radial, which can be distinguished throughout its length from the +subcostal. There are four malpighian tubules. In the ovarian +tubes of Adephaga small yolk-chambers alternate with the egg-chambers, +while in all other beetles there is only a single large yolk-chamber +at the narrow end of the tube. The larvae (fig. 2 c) are +active, with well-chitinized cuticle, often with elongate tail-feelers +(cerci), and with five-segmented legs, the foot-segment carrying two +claws.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:481px" src="images/img670a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—<i>Mormolyce phyllodes</i>. Java. a, Labium; b, maxilla; +c, labrum; d, mandible.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The generalized arrangement of the wing-nervure and the nature +of the larva, which is less unlike the adult than in other beetles, +distinguish this tribe as primitive, although the perfect insects are, +in the more dominant families, distinctly specialized. Two very +small families of aquatic beetles seem to stand at the base of the series, +the <i>Amphizoidae</i>, whose larvae are broad and well armoured with +short cerci, and the <i>Pelobiidae</i>, which have elongate larvae, tapering +to the tail end, where are long paired cerci and a median process, +recalling the grub of a Mayfly.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:496px; height:307px" src="images/img670b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—<i>Pheropsophus Jurinei</i>. W. Africa.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—<i>Carabus rutilans</i>. Spain.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Dyticidae</i> (fig. 2) are Adephaga highly specialized for life in +the water, the hind-legs having the segments short, broad and fringed, +so as to be well adapted for swimming, and the feet without claws. +The metasternum is without the transverse linear impression that +is found in most families of Adephaga. The beetles are ovoid in +shape, with smooth contours, and the elytra fit over the edges of the +abdomen so as to enclose a supply of air, available for use when the +insect remains under water. The fore-legs of many male dyticids +have the three proximal foot-segments broad and saucer-shaped, and +covered with suckers, by means of which they secure a firm hold of +their mates. Larval dyticids (fig. 2 b) possess slender, curved, +hollow mandibles, which are perforated at the tip and at the base, +being thus adapted for sucking the juices of victims. Large dyticid +larvae often attack small fishes and tadpoles. They breathe by +piercing the surface film with the tail, where a pair of spiracles are +situated. The pupal stage is passed in an earthen cell, just beneath +the surface of the ground. Nearly 2000 species of <i>Dyticidae</i> are +known: they are universally distributed, but are most abundant in +cool countries. The <i>Haliplidae</i> form a small aquatic family allied +to the <i>Dyticidae</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:495px; height:348px" src="images/img670c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—<i>Cicindela sylvatica</i> (Wood Tiger-Beetle). Europe.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—<i>Manticora tuberculata</i>. S. Africa.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Carabidae</i>, or ground-beetles, comprising 13,000 species, form +the largest and most typical family of the Adephaga (figs. 4, 5, 6), the +legs of all three pairs being alike and adapted for rapid running. In +many <i>Carabidae</i> the hind-wings are reduced or absent, and the elytra +fused together along the suture. Many of our native species spend +the day lurking beneath stones, and sally forth at night in pursuit of +their prey, which consists of small insects, earthworms and snails. But +a number of the more brightly coloured ground-beetles run actively +in the sunshine. The carabid larva is an active well-armoured grub +with the legs and cerci variable in length. Great differences in the +general form of the body may be observed in the family. For +example, the stout, heavy body of <i>Carabus</i> (fig. 6) contrasts markedly +with the wonderful flattened abdomen and elytra of <i>Mormolyce</i> +(fig. 4), a Malayan genus found beneath fallen trees, a situation for +which its compressed shape is admirably adapted. Blind <i>Carabidae</i> +form a large proportion of cave-dwelling +beetles, and several +species of great interest live +between tide-marks along the +seashore.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:434px" src="images/img670d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Cicindelidae</i>, or tiger-beetles +(figs. 7, 8) are the most +highly organized of all the +Adephaga. The inner lobe +(lacinia) of the first maxilla +terminates in an articulated +hook, while in the second +maxillae (labium) both inner +and outer lobes (“ligula” and +“para-glossae”) are much +reduced. The face (clypeus) is +broad, extending on either side +in front of the insertion of the +feelers. The beetles are elegant +insects with long, slender legs, +running quickly, and flying in +the sunshine. The pronotum +and elytra are often adorned +with bright colours or metallic +lustre, and marked with stripes +or spots. The beetles are fierce +in nature and predaceous in +habit, their sharp toothed +mandibles being well adapted +for the capture of small insect-victims. The larvae are more +specialized than those of other Adephaga, the head and prothorax +being very large and broad, the succeeding segments slender and incompletely +chitinized. The fifth abdominal segment has a pair of +strong dorsal hook-like processes, by means of which the larva +supports itself in the burrow which it excavates in the earth, the +great head blocking the entrance with the mandibles ready to seize +on any unwary insect that may venture within reach.</p> + +<p>Two or three families may be regarded as aberrant Adephaga. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span> +The <i>Paussidae</i> are a very remarkable family of small beetles, mostly +tropical, found only in ants’ nests, or flying by night, and apparently +migrating from one nest to another. The number of antennal +segments varies from eleven to two. It is supposed that these +beetles secrete a sweet substance on which the ants feed, but they +have been seen to devour the ants’ eggs and grubs. The <i>Gyrinidae</i>, +or whirligig beetles (fig. 9), are a curious aquatic family with the +feelers (fig. 9, b) short and reduced as in most <i>Paussidae</i>. They are +flattened oval in form, circling with gliding motion over the surface +film of the water, and occasionally diving, when they carry down +with them a bubble of air. The fore-legs are elongate and adapted +for clasping, while the short and flattened intermediate and hind +legs form very perfect oar-like propellers. The larva of <i>Gyrinus</i> +(fig. 9, c) is slender with elongate legs, and the abdominal segments +carry paired tracheal gills.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Staphylinoidea.</span>—The members of this tribe may be easily +recognized by their wing-nervuration. Close to a transverse fold +near the base of the wing, the median nervure divides into branches +which extend to the wing-margin; there is a second transverse fold +near the tip of the wing, and cross nervures are altogether wanting. +There are four malpighian tubes, and all five tarsal segments are +usually recognizable. With very few exceptions, the larva in this +group is active and campodeiform, with cerci and elongate legs as in +the Adephaga, but the leg has only four segments and one claw.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:423px; height:187px" src="images/img671a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—<i>Silpha quadripunctata</i>. Europe.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—<i>Necrophorus vespillo</i><br /> (Sexton Beetle). Europe.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Silphidae</i>, or carrion beetles, form one of the best-known +families of this group. They are rotund or elongate insects with +conical front haunches, the elytra generally covering (fig. 10) the +whole dorsal region of the abdomen, but sometimes leaving as many +as four terga exposed (fig. 11). Some of these beetles are brightly +coloured, while others are dull black. They are usually found in +carrion, and the species of <i>Necrophorus</i> (fig. 11) and <i>Necrophaga</i> are +valuable scavengers from their habit of burying small vertebrate +carcases which may serve as food for their larvae. At this work a +number of individuals are associated together. The larvae that live +underground have spiny dorsal plates, while those of the <i>Silpha</i> +(fig. 10) and other genera that go openly about in search of food +resemble wood-lice. About 1000 species of <i>Silphidae</i> are known. +Allied to the <i>Silphidae</i> are a number of small and obscure families, +for which reference must be made to monographs of the order. +Of special interest among these are the <i>Histeridae</i>, compact beetles +(fig. 12) with very hard cuticle and somewhat abbreviated elytra, +with over 2000 species, most of which live on decaying matter, and +the curious little <i>Pselaphidae</i>, with three-segmented tarsi, elongate +palpi, and shortened abdomen; the latter are usually found in ants’ +nests, where they are tended by the ants, which take a sweet fluid +secreted among little tufts of hair on the beetles’ bodies; these +beetles, which are carried about by the ants, sometimes devour +their larvae. The <i>Trichopterygidae</i>, with their delicate narrow +fringed wings, are the smallest of all beetles, while the <i>Platypsyllidae</i> +consist of only a single species of curious form found on the beaver.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:455px; height:183px" src="images/img671b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span> <i>Hister iv-maculatus</i><br /> (Mimic Beetle). Europe.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span> <i>Oxyporus rufus</i>.<br /> Europe.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span> <i>Stenus biguttatus</i>.<br /> Europe.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Staphylinidae</i>, or rove-beetles—a large family of nearly +10,000 species—may be known by their very short elytra, which +cover only two of the abdominal segments, leaving the elongate +hind-body with seven or eight exposed, firm terga (figs. 13, 14). +These segments are very mobile, and as the rove-beetles run along +they often curl the abdomen upwards and forwards like the tail of a +scorpion. The <i>Staphylinid</i> larvae are typically campodeiform. +Beetles and larvae are frequently carnivorous in habit, hunting for +small insects under stones, or pursuing the soft-skinned grubs of +beetles and flies that bore in woody stems or succulent roots. Many +<i>Staphylinidae</i> are constant inmates of ants’ nests.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:319px; height:224px" src="images/img671c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Glow-worm. <i>Lampyris noctiluca</i>. a, Male; b, female; c, larva (ventral view). Europe.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Malacodermata.</span>—In this tribe may be included a number of +families distinguished by the softness of the cuticle, the presence of +seven or eight abdominal sterna and of four malpighian tubes, +and the firm, well-armoured +larva (fig. 15, c) +which is often predaceous +in habit. The mesothoracic +epimera bound the +coxal cavities of the intermediate +legs. The <i>Lymexylonidae</i>, +a small family +of this group, characterized +by its slender, undifferentiated +feelers and +feet, is believed by +Lameere to comprise the +most primitive of all living +beetles, and Sharp lays +stress on the undeveloped +structure of the tribe +generally.</p> + +<p>The <i>Lampyridae</i> are a +large family, of which the glow-worm (<i>Lampyris</i>) and the “soldier +beetles” (<i>Telephorus</i>) are familiar examples. The female “glow-worm” +(fig. 15, b), emitting the well-known light (see above), is +wingless and like a larva; the luminosity seems to be an attraction +to the male, whose eyes are often exceptionally well developed. +Some male members of the family have remarkably complex feelers. +In many genera of <i>Lampyridae</i> the female can fly as well as the +male; among these are the South European “fireflies.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:331px; height:150px" src="images/img671d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—<i>Clerus apiarus</i> (Hive Beetle). Europe.</td> +<td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—<i>Dermestes lardarius</i> (Bacon Beetle).</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Trichodermata.</span>—Several families of rather soft-skinned beetles, +such as the <i>Melyridae</i>, <i>Cleridae</i> (fig. 16), <i>Corynetidae</i>, <i>Dermestidae</i> +(fig. 17), and <i>Dascillidae</i>, +are included +in this tribe. They +may be distinguished +from the +Malacodermata by +the presence of only +five or six abdominal +sterna, while six malpighian +tubes are +present in some of +the families. The +beetles are hairy +and their larvae +well-armoured and often predaceous. Several species of <i>Dermestidae</i> +are commonly found in houses, feeding on cheeses, dried meat, +skins and other such substances. The “bacon beetle” (<i>Dermestes +lardarius</i>), and its hard hairy larva, are well known. According to +Sharp, all Dermestid larvae probably feed on dried animal matters; +he mentions one species that can find sufficient food in the horsehair +of furniture, and another that eats the dried insect-skins hanging in +old cobwebs.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Sternoxia.</span>—This is an important tribe of beetles, including +families with four malpighian tubes and only five or six abdominal +sterna, while in the thorax there is a backwardly directed process +of the prosternum that fits into a mesosternal cavity. The larvae +are elongate and worm-like, with short legs but often with hard strong +cuticle.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:434px; height:275px" src="images/img671e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle; C, adult Click Beetle (<i>Agriotes lineatum</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Elateridae</i> or click beetles (fig. 18) have the prosternal process +just mentioned, capable of movement in and out of the mesosternal +cavity, the beetles being thus enabled to leap into the air, hence their +popular name of “click-beetles” or “skip-jacks.” The prothorax +is convex in front, and is usually drawn out behind into a prominent +process on either side, while the elytra are elongate and tapering. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span> +Many of the tropical American <i>Elateridae</i> emit light from the spots +on the prothorax and an area beneath the base of the abdomen; +these are “fireflies” (see above). The larvae of <i>Elateridae</i> are +elongate, worm-like grubs, with narrow bodies, very firm cuticle, +short legs, and a distinct anal proleg. They are admirably adapted +for moving through the soil, where some of them live on decaying +organic matter, while others are predaceous. Several of the elaterid +larvae, however, gnaw roots and are highly destructive to farm crops. +These are the well-known “wire-worms” (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 406px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:356px; height:509px" src="images/img672a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—<i>Catoxantha bicolor</i>. Java.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Buprestidae</i> are distinguished from the <i>Elateridae</i> by the immobility +of the prosternal process in the mesosternal cavity and by +the absence of the lateral processes at the hind corners of the +prothorax. Many +tropical <i>Buprestidae</i> +are of large size (fig. +19), and exhibit +magnificent metallic +colours; their elytra +are used as ornaments +in human +dress. The larvae +are remarkable for +their small head, +very broad thorax, +with reduced legs, +and narrow elongate +abdomen. They +feed by burrowing in +the roots and stems +of plants.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bostrychoidea.</span>—This tribe is distinguished +from the +Malacoderma and +allied groups by the +mesothoracic epimera +not bounding +the coxal cavities +of the intermediate +legs. The downwardly +directed +head is covered by +the pronotum, and +the three terminal +antennal segments +form a distinct club. +To this group belong the <i>Bostrychidae</i> and <i>Ptinidae</i>, well known +(especially the latter family) for their ravages in old timber. The +larvae are stout and soft-skinned, with short legs in correlation +with their burrowing habit. The noises made by some <i>Ptinidae</i> +(<i>Anobium</i>) tapping on the walls of their burrows with their mandibles +give rise to the “death tick” that has for long alarmed the +superstitious.</p> + +<p style="clear: both;"> </p> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:213px; height:353px" src="images/img672b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>—<i>Hydrophilus piceus</i> (Black Water Beetle). Europe.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Clavicornia.</span>—This is a somewhat heterogeneous group, most of +whose members are characterized by clubbed feelers and simple, +unbroadened tarsal segments—usually +five on each foot—but in some families +and genera the males have less than the +normal number on the feet of one pair. +There are either four or six malpighian +tubes. A large number of families, +distinguished from each other by more +or less trivial characters, are included +here, and there is considerable diversity +in the form of the larvae. The best-known +family is the <i>Hydrophilidae</i>, in +which the feelers are short with less +than eleven segments and the maxillary +palpi very long. Some members of this +family—the large black <i>Hydrophilus +piceus</i> (fig. 20), for example—are +specialized for an aquatic life, the body +being convex and smooth as in the +<i>Dyticidae</i>, and the intermediate and +hind-legs fringed for swimming. When +<i>Hydrophilus</i> dives it carries a supply +of air between the elytra and the dorsal +surface of the abdomen, while air is +also entangled in the pubescence which +extends beneath the abdomen on either +side, being scooped in bubbles by the +terminal segments of the feelers when +the insect rises to the surface. Many of the <i>Hydrophilidae</i> construct, +for the protection of their eggs, a cocoon formed of a silky +material derived from glands opening at the tip of the abdomen. +That of <i>Hydrophilus</i> is attached to a floating leaf, and is provided +with a hollow, tapering process, which projects above the +surface and presumably conveys air to the enclosed eggs. Other +<i>Hydrophilidae</i> carry their egg-cocoons about with them beneath +the abdomen. Many <i>Hydrophilidae</i>, unmodified for aquatic life, +inhabit marshes. The larvae in this family are well-armoured, +active and predaceous. Of the numerous other families of the +Clavicornia may be mentioned the <i>Cucujidae</i> and <i>Cryptophagidae</i>, +small beetles, examples of which may be found feeding on stored +seeds or vegetable refuse, and the <i>Mycetophagidae</i>, which devour +fungi. The <i>Nitidulidae</i> are a large family with 1600 species, +among which members of the genus <i>Meligethes</i> are often found in +numbers feeding on blossoms, while others live under the bark of +trees and prey on the grubs of boring beetles.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:464px; height:297px" src="images/img672c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—(a) <i>Tenebrio molitor</i> (Flour Beetle).<br /> Europe. +(b) Larva, or mealworm.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—<i>Blaps mortisaga</i><br /> (Churchyard Beetle). Europe.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Heteromera.</span>—This tribe is distinguished by the presence of the +normal five segments in the feet of the fore and intermediate legs, +while only four segments are visible in the hind-foot. Considerable +diversity is to be noticed in details of structure within this group, +and for an enumeration of all the various families which have been +proposed and their distinguishing characters the reader is referred +to one of the monographs mentioned below. Some of the best-known +members of the group belong to the <i>Tenebrionidae</i>, a large +family containing over 10,000 species and distributed all over the +world. The tenebrionid larva is elongate, with well-chitinized +cuticle, short legs and two stumpy tail processes, the common mealworm +(fig. 21) being a familiar example. Several species of this +family are found habitually in stores of flour or grain. The beetles +have feelers with eleven segments, whereof the terminal few are +thickened so as to form a club. The true “black-beetles” or +“churchyard beetles” (<i>Blaps</i>) (fig. 22) belong to this family; like +members of several allied genera they are sooty in colour, and somewhat +resemble ground beetles (<i>Carabi</i>) in general appearance.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:447px; height:219px" src="images/img672d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—<i>Meloe proscarabaeus</i><br /> (Oil Beetle). Europe.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>—<i>Lytta vesicatoria</i><br /> (Blister Beetle). Europe.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The most interesting of the Heteromera, and perhaps of all the +Coleoptera, are some beetles which pass through two or more larval +forms in the course of the life-history (hypermetamorphosis). These +belong to the families <i>Rhipidophoridae</i> and <i>Meloidae</i>. The latter are +the oil beetles (fig. 23) or blister beetles (fig. 24), insects with rather +soft cuticle, the elytra (often abbreviated) not fitting closely to the +sides of the abdomen, the head constricted behind the eyes to form +a neck, and the claws of the feet divided to the base. Several of the +<i>Meloidae</i> (such as the “Spanish fly,” fig. 24) are of economic +importance, as they contain a vesicant substance used for raising +medicinal blisters on the human skin. The wonderful transformations +of these insects were first investigated by G. Newport in 1851, +and have recently been more fully studied by C. V. Riley (1878) +and J. H. Fabre. The first larval stage is the “triungulin,” a tiny, +active, armoured larva with long legs (each foot with three claws) +and cercopods. In the European species of <i>Sitaris</i> and <i>Meloe</i> these +little larvae have the instinct of clinging to any hairy object. All +that do not happen to attach themselves to a bee of the genus +<i>Anthophora</i> perish, but those that succeed in reaching the right +host are carried to the nest, and as the bee lays an egg in the cell the +triungulin slips off her body on to the egg, which floats on the surface +of the honey. After eating the contents of the egg, the larva moults +and becomes a fleshy grub with short legs and with paired spiracles +close to the dorsal region, so that, as it floats in and devours the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span> +honey, it obtains a supply of air. After a resting (pseudo-pupal) +stage and another larval stage, the pupa is developed. In the +American <span class="sc">Epicauta vittata</span> the larva is parasitic on the eggs and egg-cases +of a locust. The triungulin searches for the eggs, and, after a +moult, becomes changed into a soft-skinned tapering larva. This is +followed by a resting (pseudo-pupal) stage, and this by two successive +larval stages like the grub of a chafer. The <span class="sc">Rhipidophoridae</span> are +beetles with, short elytra, the feelers pectinate in the males and serrate +in the females. The life-history of <i>Metoecus</i> has been studied by +T. A. Chapman, who finds that the eggs are laid in old wood, and that +the triungulin seeks to attach itself to a social wasp, who carries it +to her nest. There it feeds first as an internal parasite of the wasp-grub, +then bores its way out, moults and devours the wasp larva +from outside. The wasps are said to leave the larval or pupal +<i>Metoecus</i> unmolested, but they are hostile to the developed beetles, +which hasten to leave the nest as soon as possible.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Strepsiptera.</span>—Much difference of opinion has prevailed with +regard to the curious, tiny, parasitic insects included in this division, +some authorities considering that they should be referred to a distinct +order, while others would group them in the family <i>Meloidae</i> just +described. While from the nature of their life-history there is no +doubt that they have a rather close relationship to the <i>Meloidae</i>, +their structure is so remarkable that it seems advisable to regard +them as at least a distinct tribe of Coleoptera.</p> + +<p>They may be comprised in a single family, the <i>Stylopidae</i>. The +males are very small, free-flying insects with the prothorax, mesothorax +and elytra greatly reduced, the latter appearing as little, +twisted strips, while the metathorax is relatively large, with its +wings broad and capable of longitudinal folding. The feelers are +branched and the jaws vestigial. The female is a segmented, worm-like +creature, spending her whole life within the body of the bee, +wasp or bug on which she is parasitic. One end of her body protrudes +from between two of the abdominal segments of the host; +it has been a subject of dispute whether this protruded end is the +head or the tail, but there can be little doubt that it is the latter. +While thus carried about by the host-insect, the female is fertilized +by the free-flying male, and gives birth to a number of tiny triungulin +larvae. The chief points in the life-history of <i>Stylops</i> and <i>Xenos</i>, +which are parasitic on certain bees (<i>Andrena</i>) and wasps (<i>Polistes</i>), +have been investigated by K. T. E. von Siebold (1843) and N. +Nassonov (1892). The little triungulins escape on to the body of +the bee or wasp; then those that are to survive must leave their +host for a non-parasitized insect. Clinging to her hairs they are +carried to the nest, where they bore into the body of a bee or wasp +larva, and after a moult become soft-skinned legless maggots. The +growth of the parasitic larva does not stop the development of the +host-larva, and when the latter pupates and assumes the winged +form, the stylopid, which has completed its transformation, is +carried to the outer world. The presence of a <i>Stylops</i> causes derangement +in the body of its host, and can be recognized by various +external signs. Other genera of the family are parasitic on Hemiptera—bugs +and frog-hoppers—but nothing is known as to the details of +their life-history.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Lamellicornia.</span>—This is a very well-marked tribe of beetles, +characterized by the peculiar elongation and flattening of three or +more of the terminal antennal segments, so that the feeler seems to +end in a number of leaf-like plates, or small comb-teeth (fig. 26, b, c). +The wings are well developed for flight, and there is a tendency +in the group, especially among the males, towards an excessive +development of the mandibles or the presence of enormous, horn-like +processes on the head or pronotum. There are four malpighian tubes. +The larvae are furnished with large heads, powerful mandibles and +well-developed legs, but the body-segments are feebly chitinized, +and the tail-end is swollen. They feed in wood or spend an underground +life devouring roots or animal excrement.</p> + +<p>The <i>Lucanidae</i> or stag beetles (figs. 1 and 25) have the terminal +antennal segments pectinate, and so arranged that the comb-like +part of the feeler cannot be curled up, while the elytra completely +cover the abdomen. There are about 600 species in the family, +the males being usually larger than the females, and remarkable +for the size of their mandibles. In the same species, however, great +variation occurs in the development of the mandibles, and the +breadth of the head varies correspondingly, the smallest type of +male being but little different in appearance from the female. The +larvae of <i>Lucanidae</i> live within the wood of trees, and may take +three or four years to attain their full growth. The <i>Passalidae</i> are a +tropical family of beetles generally considered to be intermediate +between stag-beetles and chafers, the enlarged segments of the feeler +being capable of close approximation.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:523px; height:435px" src="images/img673a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>—<i>Cladognathus cinnamomeus</i>.<br /> Java.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>—<i>Melolontha fullo</i> (Cockchafer).<br /> S. Europe, b, +Antenna of male; c, antenna of female.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Scarabaeidae</i> or chafers are an enormous family of about +15,000 species. The plate-like segments of the feeler (fig. 26, b, c) +can be brought close together so as to form a club-like termination; +usually the hinder abdominal segments are not covered by the elytra. +In this family there is often a marked divergence between the sexes; +the terminal antennal segments are larger in the male than in the +female, and the males may carry large spinous processes on the head +or prothorax, or both. These structures were believed by C. Darwin +to be explicable by sexual selection. The larvae have the three pairs +of legs well developed, and the hinder abdominal segments swollen. +Most of the <i>Scarabaeidae</i> are vegetable-feeders, but one section +of the family—represented in temperate countries by the dor-beetles +(<i>Geotrupes</i>) (fig. 28) and <i>Aphodius</i>, and in warmer regions +by the “sacred” beetles of the Egyptians (<i>Scarabaeus</i>) (fig. 27), +and allied genera—feed both in the adult and larval stages, on dung +or decaying animal matter. The heavy grubs of <i>Geotrupes</i>, their +swollen tail-ends black with the contained food-material, are often +dug up in numbers in well-manured fields. The habits of <i>Scarabaeus</i> +have been described in detail by J. H. Fabre. The female beetle in +spring-time collects dung, which she forms into a ball by continuous +rolling, sometimes assisted by a companion. This ball is buried in a +suitable place, and serves the insect as a store of food. During +summer the insects rest in their underground retreats, then in autumn +they reappear to bury another supply of dung, which serves as food +for the larvae. Fabre states that the mother-insect carefully +arranges the food-supply so that the most nutritious and easily +digested portion is nearest the egg, to form the first meal of the +young larva. In some species of <i>Copris</i> it is stated that the female +lays only two or three eggs at a time, watching the offspring grow to +maturity, and then rearing another brood.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:408px; height:246px" src="images/img673b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>—<i>Scarabaeus Aegyptiorum</i>.<br /> Africa.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>—<i>Geotrupes Blackburnei</i>.<br /> N. America.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:429px; height:177px" src="images/img673c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>—<i>Phaneus Imperator</i>.<br /> S. America.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>—<i>Cetonia Baxii</i>.<br /> W. Africa.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among the vegetable-feeding chafers we usually find that while +the perfect insect devours leaves, the larva lives underground and +feeds on roots. Such are the habits of the cockchafer (<i>Melolontha +vulgaris</i>) and other species that often cause great injury to farm and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span> +garden crops (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chafer</a></span>). Many of these insects, such as the species +of <i>Phanaeus</i> (fig. 29) and <i>Cetonia</i> (fig. 30), are adorned with metallic +or other brilliant colours. The African “goliath-beetles” (fig. 31) +and the American “elephant-beetles” (<i>Dynastes</i>) are the largest of +all insects.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:612px; height:936px" src="images/img674a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>—<i>Goliathus giganteus</i> (Goliath Beetle).</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Anchistopoda.</span>—The families of beetles included by Kolbe in this +group are distinguished by the possession of six malpighian tubes, +and a great reduction in one or two of the tarsal segments, so that +there seem to be only four or three segments in each foot; hence the +names <i>Tetramera</i> and <i>Trimera</i> formerly applied to them. The larvae +have soft-skinned bodies sometimes protected by rows of spiny +tubercles, the legs being fairly developed in some families and greatly +reduced or absent in others. As might be expected, degeneration in +larval structure is correlated with a concealed habit of life.</p> + +<p>The <i>Coccinellidae</i>, or ladybirds (fig. 32), are a large family of +beetles, well known by their rounded convex bodies, usually shining +and hairless. They have eleven segments to the feeler, which is +clubbed at the tip, and apparently three segments only in each foot. +Ladybirds are often brightly marked with spots and dashes, their +coloration being commonly regarded as an advertisement of inedibility. +The larvae have a somewhat swollen abdomen, which is +protected by bristle-bearing tubercles. Like the perfect insects, +they are predaceous, feeding on plant-lice (<i>Aphidae</i>) and scale insects +(<i>Coccidae</i>). Their role in nature is therefore beneficial to the cultivator. +The <i>Endomychidae</i> (fig. 33), an allied family, are mostly +fungus-eaters. In the <i>Erotylidae</i> and a few other small related +families the feet are evidently four-segmented.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:396px; height:198px" src="images/img674b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>—<i>Anatio ocellata</i><br /> (Eyed Ladybird). Europe.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>—<i>Endomychus coccineus</i>.<br /> Europe.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:346px; height:223px" src="images/img674c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>—<i>Sagra cyanea</i>.<br /> W. Africa.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>—<i>Eumorphus ivguttatus</i>.<br /> Sumatra.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:383px; height:336px" src="images/img674d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>—<i>Lophonocerus barbicornis</i>. S. America.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Chrysomelidae</i>, or leaf-beetles (figs. 34, 35), are a very large +family, with “tetramerous” tarsi; there seem to be only four +segments to the foot, but there are really five, the fourth being +greatly reduced. The mandibles are strong, adapted for biting the +vegetable substances on which these beetles feed, and the palps of +the second maxillae have three segments. Most of the <i>Chrysomelidae</i> +are metallic in colour and convex in form; in some the head is +concealed beneath the prothorax, and the so-called “tortoise” +beetles (<i>Cassidinae</i>) have the elytra raised into a prominent median +ridge. The most active form of larva found in this family resembles +in shape that of a ladybird, tapering towards the tail end, and +having the trunk segments protected by small firm sclerites. Such +larvae, and also many with soft cuticle and swollen abdomen—those +of the notorious “Colorado beetle,” for example—feed openly +on foliage. Others, with soft, white, cylindrical bodies, which recall +the caterpillars of moths, burrow in the leaves or stems of plants. +The larvae of the tortoise-beetles have the curious habit of forming +an umbrella-like shield out of their own excrement, held in position +by the upturned tail-process. The larvae of the beautiful, elongate, +metallic <i>Donaciae</i> live in the roots and stems of aquatic plants, +obtaining thence both food and air. The larva pierces the vessels +of the plant with sharp processes at the hinder end of its body. +In this way it is believed that the sub-aqueous cocoon in which the +pupal stage is passed becomes filled with air.</p> + +<p>The <i>Cerambycidae</i>, or longhorn beetles, are recognizable by their +slender, elongate feelers, which are never clubbed and rarely serrate. +The foot has apparently four segments, as in the <i>Chrysomelidae</i>. +The beetles are usually elongate and elegant in form, often adorned +with bright bands of colour, and some of the tropical species attain +a very large size (figs. 36, 37). The feelers are usually longer in the +male than in the female, exceeding in some cases by many times the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span> +length of the body. The larvae have soft, fleshy bodies, with the +head and prothorax large and broad, and the legs very much reduced. +They live and feed in the wood of trees. Consequently, beetles of +this family are most abundant in forest regions, and reach their +highest development in the dense virgin forests of tropical countries, +South America being particularly rich in peculiar genera.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:373px; height:402px" src="images/img675a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>—<i>Phryneta aurocincta</i>. West Africa.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Bruchidae</i>, or seed-beetles, agree with the two preceding +families in tarsal structure; the head is largely hidden by the +pronotum, and the elytra are short enough to leave the end of the +abdomen exposed (fig. 38). The development of the pea and bean-beetles +has been carefully studied by C. V. Riley, who finds that the +young larva, hatched from the egg laid on the pod, has three pairs +of legs, and that these are lost after the moult that occurs when the +grub has bored its way into the seed. In Great Britain the beetle, +after completing its development, winters in the seed, waiting to +emerge and lay its eggs on the blossom in the ensuing spring.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:470px; height:141px" src="images/img675b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span>—<i>Bruchus piei</i><br /> (Pea Beetle.) Europe.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span>—<i>Platyrrhinus<br /> latirostris</i>. Europe.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="sc">Rhynchophora.</span>—The <i>Rhynchophora</i> are a group of beetles easily +recognized by the elongation of the head into a beak or snout, which +carries the feelers at its sides and the jaws at its tip. The third tarsal +segment is broad and bi-lobed, and the fourth is so small that the +feet seem to be only four-segmented. There are six malpighian +tubes. The ventral sclerite of the head-skeleton (gula), well developed +in most families of beetles, is absent among the <i>Rhynchophora</i>, while +the palps of the maxillae are much reduced. The larvae have soft, +white bodies and, with very few exceptions, no legs.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:468px; height:263px" src="images/img675c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>—<i>Brenthus anchorago</i>.<br /> Tropical Countries.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>—<i>Otiorrhynchus <br />ligustici</i>. Europe.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>—<i>Lixus paraplecticus</i>.<br /> Europe.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Of the four families included in this group, the <i>Anthribidae</i> (fig. 39) +have jointed, flexible palps, feelers—often of excessive length—with +a short basal segment, and the three terminal segments forming +a club, and, in some genera, larvae with legs. There are nearly 1000 +known species, most of which live in tropical countries. The +<i>Brenthidae</i> are a remarkable family almost confined to the tropics; +they are elongate and narrow in form (fig. 40), with a straight, +cylindrical snout which in some male beetles of the family is longer +than the rest of the body.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:124px" src="images/img675d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>—<i>Scolytus ulmi</i>. (Bark Beetle). Europe.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The <i>Curculionidae</i>, or weevils (<i>q.v.</i>), comprising 23,000 species, +are by far the largest family of the group. The maxillary palps are +short and rigid, and there is no distinct +labrum, while the feelers are usually of +an “elbowed” form, the basal segment +being very elongate (figs. 41, 42). They +are vegetable feeders, both in the perfect +and larval stages, and are often highly +injurious. The female uses her snout +as a boring instrument to prepare a +suitable place for egg-laying. The larvae +(fig. 3) of some weevils live in seeds; +others devour roots, while the parent-beetles +eat leaves; others, again, are +found in wood or under bark. The <i>Scolytidae</i>, or bark-beetles, are +a family of some 1500 species, closely allied to the <i>Curculionidae</i>, +differing only in the feeble development of the snout. They have +clubbed feelers, and their cylindrical bodies (fig. 43) are well adapted +for their burrowing habits under the bark of trees. Usually the +mother-beetle makes a fairly straight tunnel along which, at short +intervals, she lays her eggs. The grubs, when hatched, start galleries +nearly at right angles to this, and when fully grown form oval cells +in which they pupate; from these the young beetles emerge by +making circular holes directly outward through the bark.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—In addition to what may be found in numerous +important works on the Hexapoda (<i>q.v.</i>) as a whole, such as J. O. +Westwood’s <i>Modern Classification of Insects</i>, vol. i. (London, 1838); +J. H. Fabre’s <i>Souvenirs Entomologiques</i> (Paris, 1879-1891); D. +Sharp’s contribution to the Cambridge Natural History (vol. vi., +London, 1899); and L. C. Miall’s <i>Aquatic Insects</i> (London, 1895), +the special literature of the <i>Coleoptera</i> is enormous. Classical +anatomical memoirs are those of L. Dufour (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> ii., iii., +iv., vi., viii., xiv., 1824-1828); <i>Ib.</i> (ser. 2, Zool.) i., 1834; and +H. E. Strauss-Dürkheim, <i>Anatomie comparée des animaux articulées</i> +(Paris, 1828).</p> + +<p>The wings of <i>Coleoptera</i> (including the elytra) are described and +discussed by F. Meinert (<i>Entom. Tijdsk.</i> v., 1880); C. Hoffbauer +(<i>Zeit. f. wissen. Zool.</i> liv., 1892); J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham +(<i>Amer. Nat.</i> xxxii., 1898); and W. L. Tower (<i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> +xvii., 1903). The morphology of the abdomen, ovipositor and genital +armature is dealt with by K. W. Verhoeff (<i>Ent. Nachtr.</i> xx., 1894, +and <i>Arch. f. Naturg.</i> lxi., lxii., 1895-1896); and B. Wandolleck (<i>Zool. +Jahrb. Anat.</i> xxii., 1905).</p> + +<p>Luminous organs are described by H. von Wielowiejski (<i>Zeits. f. +wissen. Zool.</i> xxxvii., 1882); C. Heinemann (<i>Arch. f. mikr. Anat.</i> +xxvii., 1886); and R. Dubois (<i>Bull. soc. zool. France</i>, 1886); and +stridulating organs by C. J. Gahan (<i>Trans. Entom. Soc.</i>, 1900). See +also C. Darwin’s <i>Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex</i> +(London, 1871).</p> + +<p>Many larvae of <i>Coleoptera</i> are described and beautifully figured by +J. C. Schiödte (<i>Naturh. Tidsskr.</i> i.-xiii., 1861-1872). Hypermetamorphosis +in the <i>Meloidae</i> is described by G. Newport (<i>Trans. +Linn. Soc.</i> xx., xxi., 1851-1853); C. V. Riley (<i>Rep. U.S. Entom. +Comm.</i> i., 1878); J. H. Fabre (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> (4), ix., xix., 1848-1853); +H. Beauregard (<i>Les Insectes vésicants</i>, Paris, 1890); and +A. Chabaud (<i>Ann. Soc. Ent. France</i>, lx., 1891); in the <i>Bruchidae</i> +by Riley (<i>Insect Life</i>, iv., v., 1892-1893); and in the <i>Strepsiptera</i> +(<i>Stylopidae</i>) by K. T. E. von Siebold (<i>Arch. f. Naturg.</i> ix., 1843); +N. Nassonov (<i>Bull. Univ. Narsovie</i>, 1892); and C. T. Brues (<i>Zool. +Jahrb. Anat.</i> xiii., 1903).</p> + +<p>For various schemes of classification of the <i>Coleoptera</i> see E. L. +Geoffroy (<i>Insectes qui se trouvent aux environs de Paris</i>, Paris, 1762); +A. G. Olivier (<i>Coléoptères</i>, Paris, 1789-1808); W. S. MacLeay +(<i>Annulosa Javanica</i>, London, 1825); the general works of Westwood +and Sharp, mentioned above; M. Gemminger and B. de Harold +(<i>Catalogus Coleopterorum</i>, 12 vols., Munich, 1868-1872); T. +Lacordaire and F. Chapuis (<i>Genera des Coléoptères</i>, 10 vols., Paris, +1854-1874); J. L. Leconte and G. H. Horn (<i>Classification of Coleoptera +of N. America</i>, Washington, Smithsonian Inst., 1883); L. +Ganglbauer (<i>Die Käfer von Mitteleuropa</i>, Vienna, 1892, &c.); A. +Lameere (<i>Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.</i> xliv., xlvii., 1900-1903); and H. J. +Kolbe (<i>Arch. f. Naturg.</i> lxvii., 1901).</p> + +<p>For the British species, W. W. Fowler (<i>Coleoptera of the British +Islands</i>, 5 vols., London, 1887-1891) is the standard work; and W. F. +Johnson and J. N. Halbert’s “Beetles of Ireland” (<i>Proc. R. Irish +Acad.</i>, 3, vi., 1902) is valuable faunistically. Among the large +number of systematic writers on the order generally, or on special +families, may be mentioned D. Sharp, T. V. Wollaston, H. W. Bates, +G. C. Champion, E. Reitter, G. C. Crotch, H. S. Gorham, M. Jacoby, +L. Fairmaire and C. O. Waterhouse.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1g" id="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Instar is a convenient term suggested by D. Sharp to indicate +a stage in the life-history of an insect between two successive castings +of the cuticle.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLEPEPER, JOHN COLEPEPER<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Culpepper</span>), <span class="sc">1st +Baron</span> (d. 1660), English politician, was the only son of Sir +John Colepeper of Wigsell, Sussex. He began his career in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span> +military service abroad, and came first into public notice at +home through his knowledge of country affairs, being summoned +often before the council board to give evidence on such matters. +He was knighted, and was elected member for Kent in the Long +Parliament, when he took the popular side, speaking against +monopolies on the 9th of November 1640, being entrusted with +the impeachment of Sir Robert Berkeley on the 12th of February +1641, supporting Stafford’s attainder, and being appointed to +the committee of defence on the 12th of August 1641. He +separated, however, from the popular party on the Church +question, owing to political rather than religious objections, +fearing the effect of the revolutionary changes which were now +contemplated. He opposed the London petition for the abolition +of episcopacy, the project of religious union with the Scots, and +the Root and Branch Bill, and on the 1st of September he +moved a resolution in defence of the prayer-book. In the +following session he opposed the militia bill and the Grand +Remonstrance, and finally on the 2nd of January 1642 he +joined the king’s party, taking office as chancellor of the exchequer. +He highly disapproved of the attempt upon the five +members, which was made without his knowledge, but advised +the enterprise against Hull. On the 25th of August 1642 he +appeared at the bar of the House of Commons to deliver the +king’s final proposals for peace, and was afterwards present at +Edgehill, where he took part in Prince Rupert’s charge and +opposed the retreat of the king’s forces from the battlefield. +In December he was made by Charles master of the rolls. He +was a leading member of the Oxford Parliament, and was said, +in opposition to the general opinion, to have counselled considerable +concessions to secure peace. His influence in military +affairs caused him to be much disliked by Prince Rupert and +the army, and the general animosity against him was increased +by his advancement to the peerage on the 21st of October 1644 +by the title of Baron Colepeper of Thoresway in Lincolnshire.</p> + +<p>He was despatched with Hyde in charge of the prince of Wales +to the West in March 1645, and on the 2nd of March 1646, after +Charles’s final defeat, embarked with the prince for Scilly, and +thence to France. He strongly advocated the gaining over +of the Scots by religious concessions, a policy supported by the +queen and Mazarin, but opposed by Hyde and other leading +royalists, and constantly urged this course upon the king, at the +same time deprecating any yielding on the subject of the militia. +He promoted the mission of Sir John Berkeley in 1647 to secure +an understanding between Charles and the army. In 1648 he +accompanied the prince in his unsuccessful naval expedition, +and returned with him to the Hague, where violent altercations +broke out among the royalist leaders, Colepeper going so far, on +one occasion in the council, as to challenge Prince Rupert, and +being himself severely assaulted in the streets by Sir Robert +Walsh. He continued after the execution of the king to press +the acceptance on Charles II. of the Scottish proposals. He was +sent to Russia in 1650, where he obtained a loan of 20,000 +roubles from the tsar, and, soon after his return, to Holland, to +procure military assistance. By the treaty, agreed to between +Cromwell and Mazarin, of August 1654, Colepeper was obliged +to leave France, and he appears henceforth to have resided in +Flanders. He accompanied Charles II. to the south of France +in September 1659, at the time of the treaty of the Pyrenees. +At the Restoration he returned to England, but only survived +a few weeks, dying on the 11th of June 1660.</p> + +<p>Several contemporary writers agree in testifying to Colepeper’s +great debating powers and to his resources as an adviser, but +complain of his want of stability and of his uncertain temper. +Clarendon, with whom he was often on ill terms, speaks generally +in his praise, and repels the charge of corruption levelled against +him. That he was gifted with considerable political foresight +is shown by a remarkable letter written on the 20th of September +1658 on the death of Cromwell, in which he foretells with +uncommon sagacity the future developments in the political +situation, advises the royalists to remain inactive till the right +moment and profit by the division of their opponents, and +distinguishes Monck as the one person willing and capable of +effecting the Restoration (<i>Clarendon State Papers</i>, iii. 412). +Colepeper was twice married, (1) to Philippa, daughter of Sir +John Snelling, by whom he had one son, who died young, and +a daughter, and (2) to Judith, daughter of Sir J. Colepeper +of Hollingbourn, Kent, by whom he had seven children. Of +these Thomas (d. 1719; governor of Virginia 1680-1683) was +the successor in the title, which became extinct on the death +of his younger brother Cheney in 1725.</p> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLERAINE<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span>, a seaport and market town of Co. Londonderry, +Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, on the Bann, 4 m. +from its mouth, and 61½ m. N.W. by N. from Dublin by the +Northern Counties (Midland) railway. Pop. of urban district +(1901) 6958. The town stands upon both sides of the river, +which is crossed by a handsome stone bridge, connecting the +town and its suburb, Waterside or Killowen. The principal +part is on the east bank, and consists of a central square called +the Diamond, and several diverging streets. Among institutions +may be mentioned the public schools founded in 1613 and +maintained by the Honourable Irish Society, and the Academical +Institution, maintained by the Irish Society and the London +Clothworkers’ Company. The linen trade has long been +extensively carried on in the town, from which, indeed, a fine +description of cloth is known as “Coleraines.” Whisky-distilling, +pork-curing, and the salmon and eel fisheries are prosecuted. +The mouth of the river was formerly obstructed by a bar, but +piers were constructed, and the harbours greatly improved by +grants from the Irish Society of London and from a loan under +the River Bann Navigation Act 1879. Coleraine ceased to +return one member to the Imperial parliament in 1885; having +previously returned two to the Irish parliament until the Union. +It was incorporated by James I. It owed its importance mainly +to the Irish Society, which was incorporated as the Company +for the New Plantation of Ulster in 1613. Though fortified only +by an earthen wall, it managed to hold out against the rebels +in 1641. There are no remains of a former priory, monastery +and castle. A rath or encampment of large size occupies Mount +Sandel, 1 m. south-east.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLERIDGE, HARTLEY<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1796-1849), English man of letters, +eldest son of the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, was born on the +19th of September 1796, near Bristol. His early years were +passed under Southey’s care at Greta Hall, Keswick, and he was +educated by the Rev. John Dawes at Ambleside. In 1815 he +went to Oxford, as scholar of Merton College. His university +career, however, was very unfortunate. He had inherited the +weakness of purpose, as well as the splendid conversational +powers, of his father, and lapsed into habits of intemperance. +He was successful in gaining an Oriel fellowship, but at the +close of the probationary year (1820) was judged to have forfeited +it. The authorities could not be prevailed upon to reverse +their decision; but they awarded to him a free gift of £300. +Hartley Coleridge then spent two years in London, where he +wrote short poems for the <i>London Magazine</i>. His next step was +to become a partner in a school at Ambleside, but this scheme +failed. In 1830 a Leeds publisher, Mr. F. E. Bingley, made a +contract with him to write biographies of Yorkshire and Lancashire +worthies. These were afterwards republished under the +title of <i>Biographia Borealis</i> (1833) and <i>Worthies of Yorkshire +and Lancashire</i> (1836). Bingley also printed a volume of his +poems in 1833, and Coleridge lived in his house until the contract +came to an end through the bankruptcy of the publisher. From +this time, except for two short periods in 1837 and 1838 when +he acted as master at Sedbergh grammar school, he lived quietly +at Grasmere and (1840-1849) Rydal, spending his time in +study and wanderings about the countryside. His figure was as +familiar as Wordsworth’s, and his gentleness and simplicity of +manner won for him the friendship of the country-people. In +1839 appeared his edition of Massinger and Ford, with biographies +of both dramatists. The closing decade of Coleridge’s +life was wasted in what he himself calls “the woeful impotence +of weak resolve.” He died on the 6th of January 1849. The +prose style of Hartley Coleridge is marked by much finish and +vivacity; but his literary reputation must chiefly rest on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span> +sanity of his criticisms, and above all on his <i>Prometheus</i>, an +unfinished lyric drama, and on his sonnets. As a sonneteer he +achieved real excellence, the form being exactly suited to his +sensitive genius. <i>Essays and Marginalia</i>, and <i>Poems</i>, with a +memoir by his brother Derwent, appeared in 1851.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span>, <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1820-1894), +lord chief justice of England, was the eldest son of Sir +John Taylor Coleridge. He was born at Heath’s Court, Ottery +St Mary, on the 3rd of December 1820. He was educated at +Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, of which he was a scholar. +He was called to the bar in 1846, and went the western circuit, +rising steadily, through more than twenty years of hard work, +till in 1865 he was returned as member for Exeter in the Liberal +interest. The impression which he made on the heads of his +party was so favourable that they determined, early in the +session of 1867, to put him forward as the protagonist of their +attack on the Conservative government. But that move +seemed to many of their staunchest adherents unwise, and it +was frustrated by the active opposition of a section, including +Hastings Russell (later ninth duke of Bedford), his brother +Arthur, member for Tavistock, Alexander Mitchell of Stow, +A. W. Kinglake and Henry Seymour. They met to deliberate +in the tea-room of the House, and were afterwards sometimes +confounded with the tea-room party which was of subsequent +formation and under the guidance of a different group. The +protest was sufficient to prevent the contemplated attack being +made, but the Liberals returned to power in good time with a +large majority behind them in 1868. Coleridge was made, first +solicitor-, and then attorney-general.</p> + +<p>As early as 1863 a small body of Oxford men in parliament +had opened fire against the legislation which kept their university +bound by ecclesiastical swaddling clothes. They had made a +good deal of progress in converting the House of Commons to +their views before the general election of 1865. That election +having brought Coleridge into parliament, he was hailed as a +most valuable ally, whose great university distinction, brilliant +success as an orator at the bar, and hereditary connexion with +the High Church party, entitled him to take the lead in a movement +which, although gathering strength, was yet very far +from having achieved complete success. The clerically-minded +section of the Conservative party could not but listen to the son +of Sir John Coleridge, the godson of Keble, and the grand-nephew +of the man who had been an indirect cause of the Anglican +revival of 1833,—for John Stuart Mill was right when he said +that the poet Coleridge and the philosopher Bentham were, +so far as England was concerned, the leaders of the two chief +movements of their times: “it was they who taught the teachers, +and who were the two great seminal minds.”</p> + +<p>Walking up one evening from the House of Commons to dine +at the Athenaeum with Henry Bruce (afterwards Lord Aberdare) +and another friend, Coleridge said: “There is a trial coming +on which will be one of the most remarkable <i>causes célèbres</i> +that has ever been heard of.” This was the Tichborne case, +which led to proceedings in the criminal courts rising almost to +the dignity of a political event. The Tichborne trial was the +most conspicuous feature of Coleridge’s later years at the bar, +and tasked his powers as an advocate to the uttermost, though +he was assisted by the splendid abilities and industry of Charles +(afterwards Lord) Bowen. In November 1873 Coleridge succeeded +Sir W. Bovill as chief justice of the common pleas, and +was immediately afterwards raised to the peerage as Baron +Coleridge of Ottery St Mary. In 1880 he was made lord chief +justice of England on the death of Sir Alexander Cockburn.</p> + +<p>In jury cases his quickness in apprehending facts and his +lucidity in arranging them were very remarkable indeed. He +was not one of the most learned of lawyers, but he was a great +deal more learned than many people believed him to be, and as +an ecclesiastical lawyer had perhaps few or no superiors. His +fault—a natural fault in one who had been so successful as an +advocate—was that of being too apt to take one side. He +allowed, also, certain political or personal prepossessions to colour +the tone of his remarks from the bench. A game-preserving +landlord had not to thank the gods when his case, however +buttressed by generally accepted claims, came before Coleridge. +Towards the end of his life his health failed, and he became +somewhat indolent. On the whole, he was not so strong a man +in his judicial capacity as Campbell or Cockburn; but it must +be admitted that his scholarship, his refinement, his power of +oratory, and his character raised the tone of the bench while he +sat upon it, and that if it has been adorned by greater judicial +abilities, it has hardly ever known a greater combination of +varied merits. It is curious to observe that of all judges the +man whom he put highest was one very unlike himself, the +great master of the rolls, Sir William Grant. Coleridge died in +harness on the 14th of June 1894.</p> + +<p>Coleridge’s work, first as a barrister, and then as a judge, +prevented his publishing as much as he otherwise would have +done, but his addresses and papers would, if collected, fill a +substantial volume and do much honour to his memory. One +of the best, and one most eminently characteristic of the man, +was his inaugural address to the Philosophical Institution at +Edinburgh in 1870; another was a paper on Wordsworth (1873). +He was an exceptionally good letter-writer. Of travel he had +very little experience. He had hardly been to Paris; once, +quite near the end of his career, he spent a few days in Holland, +and came back a willing slave to the genius of Rembrandt; but +his longest absence from England was a visit, which had something +of a representative legal character, to the United States. +It is strange that a man so steeped in Greek and Roman poetry, +so deeply interested in the past, present and future of Christianity, +never saw Rome, or Athens, or the Holy Land. A subsidiary +cause, no doubt, was the fatal custom of neglecting +modern languages at English schools. He felt himself at a +disadvantage when he passed beyond English-speaking lands, +and cordially disliked the situation. No notice of Coleridge +should omit to make mention of his extraordinary store of +anecdotes, which were nearly always connected with Eton, +Oxford, the bar or the bench. His exquisite voice, considerable +power of mimicry, and perfect method of narration added +greatly to the charm. He once told, at the table of Dr Jowett, +master of Balliol, anecdotes through the whole of dinner on +Saturday evening, through the whole of breakfast, lunch and +dinner the next day, through the whole journey on Monday +morning from Oxford to Paddington, without ever once repeating +himself. He was frequently to be seen at the Athenaeum, was +a member both of Grillion’s and The Club, as well as of the +Literary Society, of which he was president, and whose meetings +he very rarely missed. Bishop Copleston is said to have divided +the human race into three classes,—men, women and Coleridges. +If he did so, he meant, no doubt, to imply that the family of +whom the poet of <i>Christabel</i> was the chief example regarded +themselves as a class to themselves, the objects of a special +dispensation. John Duke Coleridge was sarcastic and critical, +and at times over-sensitive. But his strongest characteristics +were love of liberty and justice. By birth and connexions a +Conservative, he was a Liberal by conviction, and loyal to his +party and its great leader, Mr Gladstone.</p> + +<p>Coleridge had three sons and a daughter by his first wife, +Jane Fortescue, daughter of the Rev. George Seymour of +Freshwater. She was an artist of real genius, and her portrait +of Cardinal Newman was considered much better than the one +by Millais. She died in February 1878; a short notice of her +by Dean Church of St Paul’s was published in the <i>Guardian</i>, +and was reprinted in her husband’s privately printed collection +of poems. Coleridge remained for some years a widower, but +married in 1885 Amy Augusta Jackson Lawford, who survived +him. He was succeeded in the peerage by his eldest son, Bernard +John Seymour (b. 1851), who went to the bar and became a K.C. +in 1892. In 1907 he was appointed a judge of the Supreme +Court. The two other sons were Stephen (b. 1854), a barrister, +secretary to the Anti-Vivisection Society, and Gilbert James +Duke (b. 1859).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Life and Correspondence</i>, edited by E. H. Coleridge, was +published in 1904; see further E. Manson, <i>Builders of our Law</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span> +(1904); and for the history of the Coleridge family see Lord Coleridge, +<i>The Story of a Devonshire House</i> (1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. G. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1790-1876), English +judge, the second son of Captain James Coleridge and nephew +of the poet S. T. Coleridge, was born at Tiverton, Devon, and +was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he had +a brilliant career. He graduated in 1812 and was soon after +made a fellow of Exeter; in 1819 he was called to the bar at the +Middle Temple and practised for some years on the western +circuit. In 1824, on Gifford’s retirement, he assumed the +editorship of the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, resigning it a year afterwards +in favour of Lockhart. In 1825 he published his excellent +edition of <i>Blackstone’s Commentaries</i>, and in 1832 he was made +a serjeant-at-law and recorder of Exeter. In 1835 he was +appointed one of the judges of the king’s bench. In 1852 his +university created him a D.C.L., and in 1858 he resigned his +judgeship, and was made a member of the privy council. In +1869, although in extreme old age, he produced his pleasant +<i>Memoir of the Rev. John Keble</i>, whose friend he had been since +their college days, a third edition of which was issued within +a year. He died on the 11th of February 1876 at Ottery St Mary, +Devon, leaving two sons and a daughter; the eldest son, John +Duke, 1st Baron Coleridge (<i>q.v.</i>), became lord chief justice of +England; the second son, Henry James (1822-1893), left the +Anglican for the Roman Catholic church in 1852, and became +well-known as a Jesuit divine, editor of <i>The Month</i>, and author +of numerous theological works. Sir John Taylor Coleridge’s +brothers, James Duke and Henry Nelson (husband of Sara +Coleridge), are referred to in other articles; his brother Francis +George was the father of Arthur Duke Coleridge (b. 1830), clerk +of assizes on the midland circuit and author of <i>Eton in the Forties</i>, +whose daughter Mary E. Coleridge (1861-1907) became a +well-known writer of fiction.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1772-1834), English poet +and philosopher, was born on the 21st of October 1772, at his +father’s vicarage of Ottery St Mary’s, Devonshire. His father, +the Rev. John Coleridge (1719-1781), was a man of some mark. +He was known for his great scholarship, simplicity of character, +and affectionate interest in the pupils of the grammar school, +of which he was appointed master a few months before becoming +vicar of the parish (1760), reigning in both capacities till his +death. He had married twice. The poet was the youngest +child of his second wife, Anne Bowdon (d. 1809), a woman of +great good sense, and anxiously ambitious for the success of +her sons. On the death of his father, a presentation to Christ’s +Hospital was procured for Coleridge by the judge, Sir Francis +Buller, an old pupil of his father’s. He had already begun to +give evidence of a powerful imagination, and he has described +in a letter to his valued friend, Tom Poole, the pernicious effect +which the admiration of an uncle and his circle of friends had +upon him at this period. For eight years he continued at Christ’s +Hospital. Of these school-days Charles Lamb has given delightful +glimpses in the <i>Essays of Elia</i>. The headmaster, Bowyer +(as he was called, though his name was Boyer), was a severe +disciplinarian, but respected by his pupils. Middleton, afterwards +known as a Greek scholar, and bishop of Calcutta, reported +Coleridge to Bowyer as a boy who read Virgil for amusement, +and from that time Bowyer began to notice him and encouraged +his reading. Some compositions in English poetry, written at +sixteen, and not without a touch of genius, give evidence of the +influence which Bowles, whose poems were then in vogue, had +over his mind at this time. Before he left school his constitutional +delicacy of frame, increased by swimming the New River +in his clothes, began to give him serious discomfort.</p> + +<p>In February 1791 he was entered at Jesus College, Cambridge. +A school-fellow who followed him to the university has described +in glowing terms evenings in his rooms, “when Aeschylus, and +Plato, and Thucydides were pushed aside, with a pile of lexicons +and the like, to discuss the pamphlets of the day. Ever and +anon a pamphlet issued from the pen of Burke. There was no +need of having the book before us;—Coleridge had read it in +the morning, and in the evening he would repeat whole pages +verbatim.” William Frend, a fellow of Jesus, accused of sedition +and Unitarianism, was at this time tried and expelled from +Cambridge. Coleridge had imbibed his sentiments, and joined +the ranks of his partisans. He grew discontented with university +life, and in 1793, pressed by debt, went to London. Perhaps +he was also influenced by his passion for Mary Evans, the sister +of one of his school-fellows. A poem in the <i>Morning Chronicle</i> +brought him a guinea, and when that was spent he enlisted in +the 15th Dragoons under the name of Silas Tomkyn Comberbache. +One of the officers of the dragoon regiment, finding a +Latin sentence inscribed on a wall, discovered the condition of +the very awkward recruit. Shortly afterwards an old school-fellow +(G. L. Tuckett) heard of his whereabouts, and by the +intervention of his brother, Captain James Coleridge, his discharge +was procured. He returned for a short time to Cambridge, but +quitted the university without a degree in 1794. In the same +year he visited Oxford, and after a short tour in Wales went to +Bristol, where he met Southey. The French Revolution had +stirred the mind of Southey to its depths. Coleridge received +with rapture his new friend’s scheme of Pantisocracy. On the +banks of the Susquehanna was to be founded a brotherly community, +where selfishness was to be extinguished, and the +virtues were to reign supreme. No funds were forthcoming, +and in 1795, to the chagrin of Coleridge, the scheme was dropped. +In 1794 <i>The Fall of Robespierre</i>, of which Coleridge wrote the +first act and Southey the other two, appeared. At Bristol +Coleridge formed the acquaintance of Joseph Cottle, the bookseller, +who offered him thirty guineas for a volume of poems. +In October of 1795 Coleridge married Sarah Fricker, and took +up his residence at Clevedon on the Bristol Channel. A few +weeks afterwards Southey married a sister of Mrs Coleridge, and +on the same day quitted England for Portugal.</p> + +<p>Coleridge began to lecture in Bristol on politics and religion. +He embodied the first two lectures in his first prose publication, +<i>Conciones ad Populum</i> (1795). The book contained much +invective against Pitt, and in after life Coleridge declared that, +with this exception, and a few pages involving philosophical +tenets which he afterwards rejected, there was little or nothing +he desired to retract. The first volume of <i>Poems</i> was published +by Cottle early in 1796. Coleridge projected a periodical called +<i>The Watchman</i>, and in 1796 undertook a journey, well described +in the <i>Biographic Literaria</i>, to enlist subscribers. <i>The Watchman</i> +had a brief life of two months, but at this time Coleridge began +to think of becoming a Unitarian preacher, and abandoning +literature for ever. Hazlitt has recorded his very favourable +impression of a remarkable sermon delivered at Shrewsbury; +but there are other accounts of Coleridge’s preaching not so +enthusiastic. In the summer of 1795 he met for the first time +the brother poet with whose name his own will be for ever +associated. Wordsworth and his sister had established themselves +at Racedown in the Dorsetshire hills, and here Coleridge +visited them in 1797. There are few things in literary history +more remarkable than this friendship. The gifted Dorothy +Wordsworth described Coleridge as “thin and pale, the lower +part of the face not good, wide mouth, thick lips, not very good +teeth, longish, loose, half-curling, rough, black hair,”—but all +was forgotten in the magic charm of his utterance. Wordsworth, +who declared, “The only wonderful man I ever knew was +Coleridge,” seems at once to have desired to see more of his new +friend. He and his sister removed in July 1797 to Alfoxden, +near Nether Stowey, to be in Coleridge’s neighbourhood, and +in the most delightful and unrestrained intercourse the friends +spent many happy days. It was the delight of each one to +communicate to the other the productions of his mind, and the +creative faculty of both poets was now at its best. One evening, +at Watchett on the British Channel, <i>The Ancient Mariner</i> first +took shape. Coleridge was anxious to embody a dream of a +friend, and the suggestion of the shooting of the albatross came +from Wordsworth, who gained the idea from Shelvocke’s <i>Voyage</i> +(1726). A joint volume was planned. Wordsworth was to +show the real poetry that lies hidden in commonplace subjects, +while Coleridge was to treat supernatural subjects to illustrate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span> +the common emotions of humanity. From this sprang the +<i>Lyrical Ballads</i>, to which Coleridge contributed <i>The Ancient +Mariner</i>, the <i>Nightingale</i> and two scenes from <i>Osorio</i>, and after +much cogitation the book was published in 1798 at Bristol by +Cottle, to whose reminiscences, often indulging too much in +detail, we owe the account of this remarkable time. A second +edition of the <i>Lyrical Ballads</i> in 1800 included another poem +by Coleridge—<i>Love</i>, to which subsequently the sub-title was +given of <i>An Introduction to the Tale of the Dark Ladie</i>. To the +Stowey period belong also the tragedy of <i>Osorio</i> (afterwards +known as <i>Remorse</i>), <i>Kubla Khan</i> and the first part of <i>Christabel</i>. +In 1798 an annuity, granted him by the brothers Wedgwood, +led Coleridge to abandon his reluctantly formed intention of +becoming a Unitarian minister. For many years he had desired +to see the continent, and in September 1798, in company with +Wordsworth and his sister, he left England for Hamburg. +<i>Satyrane’s Letters</i> (republished in <i>Biog. Lit.</i> 1817) give an account +of the tour.</p> + +<p>A new period in Coleridge’s life now began. He soon left the +Wordsworths to spend four months at Ratzeburg, whence he +removed to Göttingen to attend lectures. A great intellectual +movement had begun in Germany. Coleridge was soon in the +full whirl of excitement. He learnt much from Blumenbach and +Eichhorn, and took interest in all that was going on around him. +During his stay of nine months in Germany, he made himself +master of the language to such purpose that the translation of +<i>Wallenstein</i>—his first piece of literary work after his return to +England—was actually accomplished in six weeks. It was +published in 1800, and, although it failed to make any impression +on the general public, it became at once prized by Scott and +others as it deserved. It is matter for regret that a request to +Coleridge that he should undertake to translate <i>Faust</i> never +received serious attention from him. During these years Coleridge +wrote many newspaper articles and some poems, among +them “Fire, Famine and Slaughter,” for the <i>Morning Post</i> +(January 8, 1798). He had vehemently opposed Pitt’s policy, +but a change came over his way of thought, and he found +himself separated from Fox on the question of a struggle with +Napoleon. He had lost his admiration for the Revolutionists, +as his “Ode to France” shows (<i>Morning Post</i>, April 16, 1798). +Like many other Whigs, he felt that all questions of domestic +policy must at a time of European peril be postponed. From +this time, however, his value for the ordered liberty of constitutional +government increased; and though never exactly to be +found among the ranks of old-fashioned Constitutionalists, +during the remainder of his life he kept steadily in view the +principles which received their full exposition in his well-known +work on <i>Church and State</i>. In the year 1800 Coleridge left +London for the Lakes. Here in that year he wrote the second +part of <i>Christabel</i>. In 1803 Southey became a joint lodger with +Coleridge at Greta Hall, Keswick, of which in 1812 Southey +became sole tenant and occupier.</p> + +<p>In 1801 begins the period of Coleridge’s life during which, in +spite of the evidence of work shown in his compositions, he sank +more and more under the dominion of opium, in which he may +have first indulged at Cambridge. Few things are so sad to +read as the letters in which he details the consequences of his +transgression. He was occasionally seen in London during the +first years of the century, and wherever he appeared he was the +delight of admiring circles. He toured in Scotland with the +Wordsworths in 1803, visited Malta in 1804, when for ten +months he acted as secretary to the governor, and stayed nearly +eight months at Naples and Rome in 1805-1806. In Rome he +received a hint that his articles in the <i>Morning Post</i> had been +brought to Napoleon’s notice, and he made the voyage from +Leghorn in an American ship. On a visit to Somersetshire in +1807 he met De Quincey for the first time, and the younger man’s +admiration was shown by a gift of £300, “from an unknown +friend.” In 1809 he started a magazine called <i>The Friend</i>, +which continued only for eight months. At the same time +Coleridge began to contribute to the <i>Courier</i>. In 1808 he +lectured at the Royal Institution, but with little success, and +two years later he gave his lectures on Shakespeare and other +poets. These lectures attracted great attention and were +followed by two other series. In 1812 his income from the +Wedgwoods was reduced, and he settled the remainder on his +wife. His friends were generous in assisting him with money. +Eventually Mackintosh obtained a grant of £100 a year for him +in 1824 during the lifetime of George IV., as one of the royal +associates of the Society of Literature, and at different times +he received help principally from Stuart, the publisher, Poole, +Sotheby, Sir George Beaumont, Byron and Wordsworth, while +his children shared Southey’s home at Keswick. But between +1812 and 1817 Coleridge made a good deal by his work, and was +able to send money to his wife in addition to the annuity she +received. The tragedy of <i>Remorse</i> was produced at Drury +Lane in 1813, and met with considerable success. Three years +after this, having failed to conquer the opium habit, he determined +to enter the family of Mr James Gillman, who lived at +Highgate. The letter in which he discloses his misery to this +kind and thoughtful man gives a real insight into his character. +Under judicious treatment the hour of mastery at last arrived. +The shore was reached, but the vessel had been miserably +shattered in its passage through the rocks. For the rest of his +life he hardly ever left his home at Highgate. During his +residence there, <i>Christabel</i>, written many years before, and +known to a favoured few, was first published in a volume with +<i>Kubla Khan</i> and the <i>Pains of Sleep</i> in 1816. He read widely +and wisely, in poetry, philosophy and divinity. In 1816 and the +following year, he gave his <i>Lay Sermons</i> to the world. <i>Sibylline +Leaves</i> appeared in 1817; the <i>Biographia Literaria</i> and a revised +edition of <i>The Friend</i> soon followed. Seven years afterwards +his most popular prose work—<i>The Aids to Reflection</i>—first +appeared. His last publication, in 1830, was the work on <i>Church +and State</i>. It was not till 1840 that his <i>Confessions of an Inquiring +Spirit</i>, by far his most seminal work, was posthumously published. +In 1833 he appeared at the meeting of the British Association +at Cambridge, but he died in the following year (25th of July +1834), and was buried in the churchyard close to the house of +Mr Gillman, where he had enjoyed every consolation which +friendship and love could render. Coleridge died in the communion +of the Church of England, of whose polity and teaching +he had been for many years a loving admirer. An interesting +letter to his god-child, written twelve days before his death, +sums up his spiritual experience in a most touching form.</p> + +<p>Of the extraordinary influence which he exercised in conversation +it is impossible to speak fully here. Many of the most +remarkable among the younger men of that period resorted to +Highgate as to the shrine of an oracle, and although one or two +disparaging judgments, such as that of Carlyle, have been +recorded, there can be no doubt that since Samuel Johnson +there had been no such power in England. His nephew, Henry +Nelson Coleridge, gathered together some specimens of the +<i>Table Talk</i> of the few last years. But remarkable as these are +for the breadth of sympathy and extent of reading disclosed, +they will hardly convey the impressions furnished in a dramatic +form, as in Boswell’s great work. Four volumes of <i>Literary +Remains</i> were published after his death, and these, along with the +chapters on the poetry of Wordsworth in the <i>Biographia Literaria</i>, +may be said to exhibit the full range of Coleridge’s power as +a critic of poetry. In this region he stands supreme. With +regard to the preface, which contains Wordsworth’s theory, +Coleridge has honestly expressed his dissent:—“With many +parts of this preface, in the sense attributed to them, and which +the words undoubtedly seem to authorize, I never concurred; +but, on the contrary, objected to them as erroneous in principle, +and contradictory (in appearance at least) both to other parts +of the same preface, and to the author’s own practice in the +greater number of the poems themselves.” This disclaimer of +perfect agreement renders the remaining portion of what he +says more valuable. Coleridge was in England the creator of +that higher criticism which had already in Germany accomplished +so much in the hands of Lessing and Goethe. It is enough +to refer here to the fragmentary series of his Shakespearian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span> +criticisms, containing evidence of the truest insight, and a +marvellous appreciation of the judicial “sanity” which raises +the greatest name in literature far above even the highest of +the poets who approached him.</p> + +<p>As a poet Coleridge’s own place is safe. His niche in the great +gallery of English poets is secure. Of no one can it be more +emphatically said that at his highest he was “of imagination +all compact.” He does not possess the fiery pulse and humaneness +of Burns, but the exquisite perfection of his metre and the +subtle alliance of his thought and expression must always +secure for him the warmest admiration of true lovers of poetic +art. In his early poems may be found traces of the fierce struggle +of his youth. The most remarkable is the <i>Monody on the Death +of Chatterton</i> and the <i>Religious Musings</i>. In what may be +called his second period, the ode entitled <i>France</i>, considered +by Shelley the finest in the language, is most memorable. The +whole soul of the poet is reflected in the <i>Ode to Dejection</i>. The +well-known lines—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> + +<p>“O Lady! we receive but what we give,</p> +<p class="i05">And in our life alone does nature live;</p> +<p class="i05">Ours is her wedding garment, ours her shroud,”</p> + +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">with the passage which follows, contain more vividly, perhaps, +than anything which Coleridge has written, the expression of +the shaping and colouring function which he assigns, in the +<i>Biographia Literaria</i>, to imagination. <i>Christabel</i> and the <i>Ancient +Mariner</i> have so completely taken possession of the highest place, +that it is needless to do more than allude to them. The supernatural +has never received such treatment as in these two wonderful +productions of his genius, and though the first of them +remains a torso, it is the loveliest torso in the gallery of English +literature. Although Coleridge had, for many years before his +death, almost entirely forsaken poetry, the few fragments of +work which remain, written in later years, show little trace of +weakness, although they are wanting in the unearthly melody +which imparts such a charm to <i>Kubla Khan</i>, <i>Love</i> and <i>Youth +and Age</i>.</p> + +<div class="author">(G. D. B.; H. Ch.)</div> + +<p>In the latter part of his life, and for the generation which +followed, Coleridge was ranked by many young English churchmen +of liberal views as the greatest religious thinker of their +time. As Carlyle has told in his <i>Life of Sterling</i>, the poet’s +distinction, in the eyes of the younger churchmen with philosophic +interests, lay in his having recovered and preserved his +Christian faith after having passed through periods of rationalism +and Unitarianism, and faced the full results of German criticism +and philosophy. His opinions, however, were at all periods +somewhat mutable, and it would be difficult to state them in +any form that would hold good for the whole even of his later +writings. He was, indeed, too receptive of thought impressions +of all kinds to be a consistent systematizer. As a schoolboy, by +his own account, he was for a time a Voltairean, on the strength +of a perusal of the <i>Philosophical Dictionary</i>. At college, as we +have seen, he turned Unitarian. From that position he gradually +moved towards pantheism, a way of thought to which he +had shown remarkable leanings when, as a schoolboy, he discoursed +of Neo-Platonism to Charles Lamb, or—if we may trust +his recollection—translated the hymns of Synesius. Early in +life, too, he met with the doctrines of Jacob Behmen, of whom, +in the <i>Biographia Literaria</i>, he speaks with affection and gratitude +as having given him vital philosophic guidance. Between +pantheism and Unitarianism he seems to have balanced till his +thirty-fifth year, always tending towards the former in virtue +of the recoil from “anthropomorphism” which originally took +him to Unitarianism. In 1796, when he named his first child +David Hartley, but would not have him baptized, he held by +the “Christian materialism” of the writer in question, whom in +his <i>Religious Musings</i> he terms “wisest of mortal kind.”</p> + +<p>When, again, he met Wordsworth in 1797, the two poets freely +and sympathetically discussed Spinoza, for whom Coleridge +always retained a deep admiration; and when in 1798 he gave +up his Unitarian preaching, he named his second child Berkeley, +signifying a new allegiance, but still without accepting Christian +rites otherwise than passively. Shortly afterwards he went to +Germany, where he began to study Kant, and was much captivated +by Lessing. In the <i>Biographia</i> he avows that the writings +of Kant “more than any other work, at once invigorated and +disciplined my understanding”; yet the gist of his estimate +there is that Kant left his system undeveloped, as regards his +idea of the Noumenon, for fear of orthodox persecution—a +judgment hardly compatible with any assumption of Kant’s +Christian orthodoxy, which was notoriously inadequate. But +after his stay at Malta, Coleridge announced to his friends that +he had given up his “Socinianism” (of which ever afterwards +he spoke with asperity), professing a return to Christian faith, +though still putting on it a mystical construction, as when he told +Crabb Robinson that “Jesus Christ was a Platonic philosopher.” +At this stage he was much in sympathy with the historico-rationalistic +criticism of the Old Testament, as carried on in +Germany; giving his assent, for instance, to the naturalistic +doctrine of Schiller’s <i>Die Sendung Moses</i>. From about 1810 +onwards, however, he openly professed Christian orthodoxy, +while privately indicating views which cannot be so described. +And even his published speculations were such as to draw from +J. H. Newman a protest that they took “a liberty which no +Christian can tolerate,” and carried him to “conclusions which +were often heathen rather than Christian.” This would apply +to some of his positions concerning the Logos and the Trinity. +After giving up Unitarianism he claimed that from the first he +had been a Trinitarian on Platonic lines; and some of his latest +statements of the doctrine are certainly more pantheistic than +Christian.</p> + +<p>The explanation seems to be that while on Christian grounds +he repeatedly denounced pantheism as being in all its forms +equivalent to atheism, he was latterly much swayed by the +thought of Schelling in the pantheistic direction which was +natural to him. To these conflicting tendencies were probably +due his self-contradictions on the problem of original sin and the +conflicting claims of feeling and reason. It would seem that, +in the extreme spiritual vicissitudes of his life, conscious alternately +of personal weakness and of the largest speculative grasp, +he at times threw himself entirely on the consolations of evangelical +faith, and at others reconstructed the cosmos for himself +in terms of Neo-Platonism and the philosophy of Schelling. So +great were his variations even in his latter years, that he could +speak to his friend Allsop in a highly latitudinarian sense, +declaring that in Christianity “the miracles are supererogatory,” +and that “the law of God and the great principles of the Christian +religion would have been the same had Christ never assumed +humanity.”</p> + +<p>From Schelling, whom he praised as having developed Kant +where Fichte failed to do so, he borrowed much and often, not +only in the metaphysical sections of the <i>Biographia</i> but in his +aesthetic lectures, and further in the cosmic speculations of the +posthumous <i>Theory of Life</i>. On the first score he makes but +an equivocal acknowledgment, claiming to have thought on +Schelling’s lines before reading him; but it has been shown by +Hamilton and Ferrier that besides transcribing much from +Schelling without avowal he silently appropriated the learning +of Maass on philosophical history. In other directions he laid +under tribute Herder and Lessing; yet all the while he cast +severe imputations of plagiarism upon Hume and others. His +own plagiarisms were doubtless facilitated by the physiological +effects of opium.</p> + +<p>Inasmuch as he finally followed in philosophy the mainly +poetical or theosophic movement of Schelling, which satisfied +neither the logical needs appealed to by Hegel nor the new +demand for naturalistic induction, Coleridge, after arousing a +great amount of philosophic interest in his own country in the +second quarter of the century, has ceased to “make a school.” +Thus his significance in intellectual history remains that of a +great stimulator. He undoubtedly did much to deepen and +liberalize Christian thought in England, his influence being +specially marked in the school of F. D. Maurice, and in the lives +of men like John Sterling. And even his many borrowings from +the German were assimilated with a rare power of development, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span> +which bore fruit not only in a widening of the field of English +philosophy but in the larger scientific thought of a later +generation.</p> + +<div class="author">(J. M. Ro.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of Coleridge’s four children, two (Hartley and Sara) are separately +noticed. His second child, Berkeley, died when a baby. The third, +Derwent (1800-1883), a distinguished scholar and author, was master +of Helston school, Cornwall (1825-1841), first principal of St Mark’s +College, Chelsea (1841-1864), and rector of Hanwell (1864-1880); +and his daughter Christabel (b. 1843) and son Ernest Hartley (b. +1846) both became well known in the world of letters, the former as a +novelist, the latter as a biographer and critic.</p> + +<p>After Coleridge’s death several of his works were edited by his +nephew, Henry Nelson Coleridge, the husband of Sara, the poet’s +only daughter. In 1847 Sara Coleridge published the <i>Biographia +Literaria</i>, enriched with annotations and biographical supplement +from her own pen. Three volumes of political writings, entitled +<i>Essays on his Own Times</i>, were also published by Sara Coleridge in +1850. The standard life of Coleridge is that by J. Dykes Campbell +(1894); his letters were edited by E. H. Coleridge.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLERIDGE, SARA<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1802-1852), English author, the fourth +child and only daughter of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his +wife Sarah Fricker of Bristol, was born on the 23rd of December +1802, at Greta Hall, Keswick. Here, after 1803, the Coleridges, +Southey and his wife (Mrs Coleridge’s sister), and Mrs Lovell +(another sister), widow of Robert Lovell, the Quaker poet, all lived +together; but Coleridge was often away from home; and +“Uncle Southey” was a <i>pater familias</i>. The Wordsworths at +Grasmere were their neighbours. Wordsworth, in his poem, +the <i>Triad</i>, has left us a description, or “poetical glorification,” +as Sara Coleridge calls it, of the three girls—his own daughter +Dora, Edith Southey and Sara Coleridge, the “last of the three, +though eldest born.” Greta Hall was Sara Coleridge’s home +until her marriage; and the little Lake colony seems to have +been her only school. Guided by Southey, and with his ample +library at her command, she read by herself the chief Greek and +Latin classics, and before she was five-and-twenty had learnt +French, German, Italian and Spanish.</p> + +<p>In 1822 Sara Coleridge published <i>Account of the Abipones</i>, a +translation in three large volumes of Dobrizhoffer, undertaken in +connexion with Southey’s <i>Tale of Paraguay</i>, which had been +suggested to him by Dobrizhoffer’s volumes; and Southey +alludes to his niece, the translator (canto iii. stanza 16), where he +speaks of the pleasure the old missionary would have felt if</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> + +<p>“.... he could in Merlin’s glass have seen</p> +<p class="i05">By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught.”</p> + +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">In less grandiloquent terms, Charles Lamb, writing about the +<i>Tale of Paraguay</i> to Southey in 1825, says, “How she Dobrizhoffered +it all out, puzzles my slender Latinity to conjecture.” +In 1825 her second work appeared, a translation from the medieval +French of the “Loyal Serviteur,” <i>The Right Joyous and Pleasant +History of the Feats, Jests, and Prowesses of the Chevalier Bayard, +the Good Knight without Fear and without Reproach: By the +Loyal Servant</i>.</p> + +<p>In September 1829 at Crosthwaite church, Keswick, after an +engagement of seven years’ duration, Sara Coleridge was married +to her cousin, Henry Nelson Coleridge (1798-1843), younger son +of Captain James Coleridge (1760-1836). He was then a chancery +barrister in London. The first eight years of her married life were +spent in a little cottage in Hampstead. There four of her children +were born, of whom two survived. In 1834 Mrs Coleridge published +her <i>Pretty Lessons in Verse for Good Children; with some +Lessons in Latin in Easy Rhyme</i>. These were originally written +for the instruction of her own children, and became very popular. +In 1837 the Coleridges removed to Chester Place, Regent’s Park; +and in the same year appeared <i>Phantasmion, a Fairy Tale</i>, Sara +Coleridge’s longest original work. The songs in <i>Phantasmion</i> +were much admired at the time by Leigh Hunt and other critics. +Some of them, such as “Sylvan Stay” and “One Face Alone,” +are extremely graceful and musical, and the whole fairy tale is +noticeable for the beauty of the story and the richness of its +language.</p> + +<p>In 1843 Henry Coleridge died, leaving to his widow the unfinished +task of editing her father’s works. To these she added +some compositions of her own, among which are the <i>Essay on +Rationalism, with a special application to the Doctrine of Baptismal</i> +<i>Regeneration</i>, appended to Coleridge’s <i>Aids to Reflection</i>, a Preface +to the <i>Essays on his Own Times, by S. T. Coleridge</i>, and the Introduction +to the <i>Biographia Literaria</i>. During the last few years of +her life Sara Coleridge was a confirmed invalid. Shortly before +she died she amused herself by writing a little autobiography for +her daughter. This, which reaches only to her ninth year, was +completed by her daughter, and published in 1873, together with +some of her letters, under the title <i>Memoirs and Letters of Sara +Coleridge</i>. The letters show a cultured and highly speculative +mind. They contain many apt criticisms of known people and +books, and are specially interesting for their allusions to Wordsworth +and the Lake Poets. Sara Coleridge died in London on +the 3rd of May 1852.</p> + +<p>Her son, Herbert Coleridge (1830-1861), won a double first +class in classics and mathematics at Oxford in 1852. He was +secretary to a committee appointed by the Philological Society +to consider the project of a standard English dictionary, a scheme +of which the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, published by the Clarendon +Press, was the ultimate outcome. His personal researches into +the subject were contained in his <i>Glossarial Index to the Printed +English Literature of the Thirteenth Century</i> (1859).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLET, JOHN<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1467?-1510), English divine and educationist, +the eldest son of Sir Henry Colet (lord mayor of London 1486 +and 1495), was born in London about 1467. He was educated +at St Anthony’s school and at Magdalen College, Oxford, where +he took the M.A. degree in 1490. He already held the non-resident +rectory of Dennington, Suffolk, and the vicarage of +St Dunstan’s, Stepney, and was now collated rector of Thurning, +Hunts. In 1493 he went to Paris and thence to Italy, studying +canon and civil law, patristics and the rudiments of Greek. +During his residence abroad he became acquainted with Budaeus +(Guillaume Budé) and Erasmus, and with the teaching of +Savonarola. On his return to England in 1496 he took orders +and settled at Oxford, where he lectured on the epistles of St Paul, +replacing the old scholastic method of interpretation by an +exegesis more in harmony with the new learning. His methods +did much to influence Erasmus, who visited Oxford in 1498, +and in after years Erasmus received an annuity from him. +Since 1494 he had been prebendary of York, and canon of St +Martin le Grand, London. In 1502 he became prebendary of +Salisbury, in 1505 prebendary of St Paul’s, and immediately +afterwards dean of the same cathedral, having previously taken +the degree of doctor of divinity. Here he continued his +practice of lecturing on the books of the Bible; and he soon +afterwards established a perpetual divinity lecture, on three +days in each week, in St Paul’s church. About the year 1508, +having inherited his father’s large wealth, Colet formed his plan +for the re-foundation of St Paul’s school, which he completed +in 1512, and endowed with estates of an annual value of £122 +and upwards. The celebrated grammarian William Lilly was +the first master, and the company of mercers were (in 1510) +appointed trustees, the first example of non-clerical management +in education. The dean’s religious opinions were so +much more liberal than those of the contemporary clergy +(whose ignorance and corruption he denounced) that they +deemed him little better than a heretic; but William Warham, +the archbishop, refused to prosecute him. Similarly Henry +VIII. held him in high esteem despite his sermons against +the French wars. In 1514 he made the Canterbury pilgrimage, +and in 1515 preached at Wolsey’s installation as cardinal. +Colet died of the sweating sickness on the 16th of September 1519. +He was buried on the south side of the choir of St Paul’s, where +a stone was laid over his grave, with no other inscription than +his name. Besides the preferments above mentioned, he was +rector of the gild of Jesus at St Paul’s and chaplain to Henry VIII.</p> + +<p>Colet, though never dreaming of a formal breach with the +Roman Church, was a keen reformer, who disapproved of auricular +confession, and of the celibacy of the clergy. Though no great +scholar or writer, he was a powerful force in the England of his +day, and helped materially to disintegrate the medieval conditions +still obtaining, and to introduce the humanist movement. +Among his works, which were first collectively published in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span> +1867-1876, are <i>Absolutissimus de octo orationis partium constructione +libellus</i> (Antwerp, 1530), <i>Rudimenta Grammatices</i> +(London, 1539), <i>Daily Devotions</i>, <i>Monition to a Godly Life</i>, +<i>Epistolae ad Erasmum</i>, and commentaries on different parts of +the Bible.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Seebohm, <i>The Oxford Reformers</i>; J. H. Lupton, <i>Life of +John Colet</i> (1887); art. in <i>The Times</i>, July 7, 1909.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLET, LOUISE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1810-1876), French poet and novelist, +was born at Aix of a Provençal family named Revoil, on the +15th of September 1810. In 1835 she came to Paris with her +husband Hippolyte Colet (1808-1851), a composer of music and +professor of harmony and counterpoint at the conservatoire. +In 1836 appeared her <i>Fleurs du Midi</i>, a volume of verse, of liberal +tendency, followed by <i>Penserosa</i> (1839), a second volume of verse; +by <i>La Jeunesse de Goethe</i> (1839), a one-act comedy; by <i>Les Cœurs +brisés</i> (1843), a novel; <i>Les Funerailles de Napoléon</i> (1840), a +poem, and <i>La Jeunesse de Mirabeau</i> (1841), a novel. Her works +were crowned five or six times by the Institute, a distinction +which she owed, however, to the influence of Victor Cousin +rather than to the quality of her work. The criticisms on her +books and on the prizes conferred on her by the Academy +exasperated her; and in 1841 Paris was diverted by her attempted +reprisals on Alphonse Karr for certain notices in <i>Les Guêpes</i>. +In 1849 she had to defend an action brought against her by the +heirs of Madame Récamier, whose correspondence with Benjamin +Constant she had published in the columns of the <i>Presse</i>. She +produced a host of writings in prose and verse, but she is perhaps +best known for her intimate connexion with some of her famous +contemporaries, Abel Villemain, Gustave Flaubert and Victor +Cousin. Only one of her books is now of interest—<i>Lui: roman +contemporain</i> (1859), the novel in which she told the story of her +life. She died on the 8th of March 1876.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLEUS<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span>, a genus of herbaceous or shrubby plants belonging +to the natural order Labiatae, chiefly natives of the tropics. +They are very ornamental plants, the colour of their leaves being +exceedingly varied, and often very brilliant. They are of the +easiest culture. The cuttings of young shoots should be propagated +every year, about March, being planted in thumb pots, +in sandy loam, and placed in a close temperature of 70°. After +taking root shift into 6-in. pots, using ordinary light loamy +compost, containing abundance of leaf-mould and sand, and +keeping them near the light. They may be passed on into +larger pots as often as required, but 8-in. pots will be large enough +for general purposes, as they can be fed with liquid manure. +The young spring-struck plants like a warm growing atmosphere, +but by midsummer they will bear more air and stand in a greenhouse +or conservatory. They should be wintered in a temperature +of 60° to 65°. The stopping of the young shoots must be +regulated by the consideration whether bushy or pyramidal plants +are desired. Some of the varieties are half-hardy and are used +for summer bedding.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLFAX, SCHUYLER<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1823-1885), American political leader, +vice-president of the United States from 1869 to 1873, was born +in New York city on the 23rd of March 1823. His father died +before the son’s birth, and his mother subsequently married a +Mr Matthews. The son attended the public schools of New York +until he was ten, and then became a clerk in his step-father’s +store, removing in 1836 with his mother and step-father to New +Carlisle, Indiana. In 1841 he removed to South Bend, where +for eight years he was deputy auditor (his step-father being +auditor) of St Joseph county; in 1842-1844 he was assistant +enrolling clerk of the state senate and senate reporter for the +<i>Indiana State Journal</i>. In 1845 he established the <i>St Joseph +Valley Register</i>, which he published for eighteen years and made +an influential Whig and later Republican journal. In 1850 he +was a member of the state constitutional convention, and in +1854 took an active part in organizing the “Anti-Nebraska +men” (later called Republicans) of his state, and was by them +sent to Congress. Here he served with distinction from 1855 +until 1869, the last six years as speaker of the House. At the +close of the Civil War he was a leading member of the radical +wing of the Republican party, advocating the disfranchisement +of all who had been prominent in the service of the Confederacy, +and declaring that “loyalty must govern what loyalty has preserved.” +In 1868 he had presidential aspirations, and was not +without supporters. He accepted, however, the Republican +nomination as vice-president on a ticket headed by General +Grant, and was elected; but he failed in 1872 to secure renomination. +During the political campaign of 1872 he was accused, +with other prominent politicians, of being implicated in corrupt +transactions with the Crédit Mobilier, and a congressional +investigation brought out the fact that he had agreed to take +twenty shares from this concern, and had received dividends +amounting to $1200. It also leaked out during the investigation +that he had received in 1868, as a campaign contribution, a gift +of $4000 from a contractor who had supplied the government with +envelopes while Colfax was chairman of the post office committee +of the House. At the close of his term Colfax returned to private +life under a cloud, and during the remainder of his lifetime +earned a livelihood by delivering popular lectures. He died at +Mankato, Minnesota, on the 13th of January 1885.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. C. Hollister’s <i>Life of Schuyler Colfax</i> (New York, 1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLIC<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolon">κόλον</span> or <span class="grk" title="kôlon">κῶλον</span>, the large intestine), +a term in medicine of very indefinite meaning, used by physicians +outside England for any paroxysmal abdominal pain, but generally +limited in England to a sudden sharp pain having its origin +in the pelvis of the kidney, the ureter, gall-bladder, bile-ducts +or intestine. Thus it is customary to speak of renal, biliary or +intestinal colic. There is a growing tendency, however, among +professional men of to-day, to restrict the use of the word to +a pain produced by the contraction of the muscular walls of any +of the hollow viscera of which the aperture has become more or +less occluded, temporarily or otherwise. For renal and biliary +colic, see the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kidney Diseases</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liver</a></span>, only intestinal +colic being treated in this place.</p> + +<p>In infants, usually those who are “bottle-fed,” colic is exceedingly +common, and is shown by the drawing up of their legs, +their restlessness and their continuous cries.</p> + +<p>Among adults one of the most serious causes is that due to +lead-poisoning and known as lead colic (<i>Syn.</i> painters’ colic, +<i>colica Pictonum</i>, Devonshire colic), from its having been clearly +ascertained to be due to the absorption of lead into the system +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lead-Poisoning</a></span>). This disease had been observed and +described long before its cause was discovered. Its occurrence +in an epidemic form among the inhabitants of Poitou was recorded +by François Citois (1572-1652) in 1617, under the title +of <i>Novus et popularis apud Pictones dolor colicus biliosus</i>. The +disease was thereafter termed <i>colica Pictonum</i>. It was supposed +to be due to the acidity of the native wines, but it was afterwards +found to depend on lead contained in them. A similar epidemic +broke out in certain parts of Germany in the end of the 17th +century, and was at the time believed by various physicians +to be caused by the admixture of acid wines with litharge to +sweeten them.</p> + +<p>About the middle of the 18th century this disease, which had +long been known to prevail in Devonshire, was carefully investigated +by Sir George Baker (1722-1809), who succeeded in tracing +it unmistakably to the contamination of the native beverage, +cider, with lead, either accidentally from the leadwork of the vats +and other apparatus for preparing the liquor, or from its being +sweetened with litharge.</p> + +<p>In Germany a similar colic resulting from the absorption of +copper occurs, but it is almost unknown in England.</p> + +<p>The simplest form of colic is that arising from habitual +constipation, the muscular wall of the intestines contracting +painfully to overcome the resistance of hardened scybalous +masses of faeces, which cause more or less obstruction to the +onward passage of the intestinal contents. Another equally +common cause is that due to irritating or indigestible food such +as apples, pears or nuts, heavy pastry, meat pies and puddings, +&c. It may then be associated with either constipation or +diarrhoea, though the latter is the more common. It may +result from any form of enteritis as simple, mucous and ulcerative +colitis, or an intestinal malignant growth. The presence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span> +of <i>ascaris lumbricoides</i> may, by reflex action, set up a very painful +nervous spasm; and certain forms of influenza (<i>q.v.</i>) are ushered +in by colic of a very pronounced type. Many physicians describe +a rheumatic colic due to cold and damp, and among women +disease of the pelvic organs may give rise to an exactly similar pain. +There are also those forms of colic which must be classed as +functional or neuralgic, though this view of the case must never +be accepted until every other possible cause is found to be untenable. +From this short account of a few of the commoner +causes of the trouble, it will be clear that colic is merely a symptom +of disease, not a disease in itself, and that no diagnosis +has been made until the cause of the pain has been determined.</p> + +<p>Intestinal colic is paroxysmal, usually both beginning and +ending suddenly. The pain is generally referred to the neighbourhood +of the umbilicus, and may radiate all over the abdomen. +It varies in intensity from a slight momentary discomfort to a +pain so severe as to cause the patient to shriek or even to break +out into a cold clammy sweat. It is usually relieved by pressure, +and this point is one which aids in the differential diagnosis +between a simple colic and peritonitis, the pain of the latter +being increased by pressure. But should the colic be due to +a malignant growth, or should the intestines be distended with +gas, pressure will probably increase the pain. The temperature +is usually subnormal, but may be slightly raised, and the pulse +is in proportion.</p> + +<p>In the treatment of simple colic the patient must be confined +to bed, hot fomentations applied to the abdomen and a purge +administered, a few drops of laudanum being added when the +pain is exceptionally severe. But the whole difficulty lies in +making the differential diagnosis. Acute intestinal obstruction +(ileus) begins just as an attack of simple colic, but the rapid +increase of illness, frequent vomiting, anxious countenance, +and still more the condition of the pulse, warn a trained observer +of the far more serious state. Appendicitis and peritonitis, as +also the gastric crises of locomotor ataxy, must all be excluded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLIGNY, GASPARD DE<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1519-1572), admiral of France and +Protestant leader, came of a noble family of Burgundy, who +traced their descent from the 11th century, and in the reign of +Louis XI. were in the service of the king of France. His father, +Gaspard de Coligny, known as the maréchal de Châtillon (d. +1522), served in the Italian wars from 1495 to 1515, and was +created marshal of France in 1516. By his wife, Louise de +Montmorency, sister of the future constable, he had three +sons: Odet, cardinal de Châtillon; Gaspard, the admiral; and +Francis, seigneur d’Andelot; all of whom played an important +part in the first period of the wars of religion. At twenty-two +young Gaspard came to court, and there contracted a friendship +with Francis of Guise. In the campaign of 1543 Coligny distinguished +himself greatly, and was wounded at the sieges of +Montmédy and Bains. In 1544 he served in the Italian campaign +under the duke of Enghien, and was knighted on the field of +Ceresole. Returning to France, he took part in different military +operations; and having been made colonel-general of the infantry +(April 1547), exhibited great capacity and intelligence as a +military reformer. He was made admiral on the death of +d’Annebaut (1552). In 1557 he was entrusted with the defence +of Saint Quentin. In the siege he displayed great courage, resolution, +and strength of character; but the place was taken, and he +was imprisoned in the stronghold of L’Ecluse. On payment of +a ransom of 50,000 crowns he recovered his liberty. But he had +by this time become a Huguenot, through the influence of his +brother, d’Andelot—the first letter which Calvin addressed to +him is dated the 4th of September 1558—and he busied himself +secretly with protecting his co-religionists, a colony of whom +he sent to Brazil, whence they were afterwards expelled by the +Portuguese.</p> + +<p>On the death of Henry II. he placed himself, with Louis, prince +of Condé, in the front of his sect, and demanded religious toleration +and certain other reforms. In 1560, at the Assembly of +Notables at Fontainebleau, the hostility between Coligny and +Francis of Guise broke forth violently. When the civil wars +began in 1562, Coligny decided to take arms only after long +hesitation, and he was always ready to negotiate. In none of +these wars did he show superior genius, but he acted throughout +with great prudence and extraordinary tenacity; he was “le +héros de la mauvaise fortune.” In 1569 the defeat and death +of the prince of Condé at Jarnac left him sole leader of the +Protestant armies. Victorious at Arnay-le-Duc, he obtained +in 1570 the pacification of St Germain. Returning to the court +in 1571, he grew rapidly in favour with Charles XI. As a means +of emancipating the king from the tutelage of his mother and +the faction of the Guises, the admiral proposed to him a descent +on Spanish Flanders, with an army drawn from both sects and +commanded by Charles in person. The king’s regard for the +admiral, and the bold front of the Huguenots, alarmed the +queen-mother; and the massacre of St Bartholomew was the +consequence. On the 22nd of August 1572 Coligny was shot in +the street by Maurevel, a bravo in the pay of the queen-mother +and Guise; the bullets, however, only tore a finger from his +right hand and shattered his left elbow. The king visited him, +but the queen-mother prevented all private intercourse between +them. On the 24th of August, the night of the massacre, he +was attacked in his house, and a servant of the duke of Guise, +generally known as Besme, slew him and cast him from a window +into the courtyard at his master’s feet. His papers were seized +and burned by the queen-mother; among them, according to +Brantôme, was a history of the civil war, “très-beau et tres-bien +faict, et digne d’estre imprimé.”</p> + +<p>By his wife, Charlotte de Laval, Coligny had several children, +among them being Louise, who married first Charles de Téligny +and afterwards William the Silent, prince of Orange, and Francis, +admiral of Guienne, who was one of the devoted servants of +Henry IV. Gaspard de Coligny (1584-1646), son of Francis, +was marshal of France during the reign of Louis XIII.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jean du Bouchet, <i>Preuves de l’histoire généalogique de l’illustre +maison de Coligny</i> (Paris, 1661); biography by François Hotman, +1575 (French translation, 1665); L. J. Delaborde, <i>Gaspard de +Coligny</i> (1879-1882); Erich Marcks, <i>Gaspard von Coligny, sein Leben +und das Frankreich seiner Zeit</i> (Stuttgart, 1892); H. Patry, “Coligny +et la Papauté,” in the <i>Bulletin du protestantisme français</i> (1902); +A. W. Whitehead, <i>Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France</i> (1904); +and C. Merki, <i>L’Amiral de Coligny</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLIMA<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span>, a small Pacific coast state of Mexico, lying between +Jalisco on the N.W. and N., and Michoacan on the E. Including +the Revilla Gigédo islands its area is only 2272 sq. m., which +thus makes it the second smallest of the Mexican states. Pop. +(1895) 55,264; (1900) 65,115. The larger part of its territory +is within the narrow, flat coastal plain, beyond which it rises +toward the north-east into the foothills of the Sierra Madre, the +higher masses of the range, including the Colima volcano, lying +outside the state. It is drained by the Ameria and Coahuayana +rivers and their affluents, which are largely used for irrigation. +There are tidewater lagoons and morasses on the coast which +accentuate its malarious character. One of the largest of these, +Cuitlán, immediately south of Manzanillo, is the centre of a +large salt-producing industry. The soil is generally fertile and +productive, but lack of transportation facilities has been a +serious obstacle to any production greatly exceeding local +demands. The dry and rainy seasons are sharply defined, the +rainfall being abundant in the latter. The climate is hot, humid +and malarious, becoming drier and healthier on the higher +mountain slopes of the interior. Stock-raising is an important +industry in the higher parts of the state, but the horses, mules +and cattle raised have been limited to local demands. Agriculture, +however, is the principal occupation of the state, the +more important products being sugar, rice, Indian corn, palm +oil, coffee, indigo, cotton and cacao. The production of cacao +is small, and that of indigo and cotton is declining, the latter +being limited to the requirements of small local mills. There +are two crops of Indian corn a year, but sugar and rice are the +principal crops. The “Caracolillo” coffee, produced on the +slopes of the mountains culminating in the volcano of Colima, is +reputed the best in Mexico, and the entire crop (about 506,000 ℔. +in 1906) is consumed in the country at a price much above +other grades. There are important mineral deposits in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span> +state, including iron, copper and lead, but mining enterprise +has made no progress through lack of transportation facilities. +Salt is made on the coast and shipped inland, and palm-leaf +hats are manufactured and exported. Hides and deerskins are +also exported in large quantities. A narrow-gauge railway has +been in operation between the capital and Manzanillo for many +years, and in 1907 a branch of the Mexican Central was completed +between Guadalajara and the capital, and the narrow-gauge +line to the coast was widened to the standard gauge. The +chief cities of the state are the capital Colima, Manzanillo, +Comala (the second largest town in the state), 5 m. from the +capital, with which it is connected by an electric railway, Ixtlahuacan +Coquimatlan and Almoloyan.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLIMA<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span>, a city of Mexico and capital of a state of the same +name, 570 m. (direct) W. by S. of Mexico City and about 36 m. +inland from the Pacific coast. Pop. (1895) 18,977; (1900) +20,698. Colima is picturesquely situated on the Colima river, +in a large fertile valley about 1650 ft. above the sea, and lies +in the midst of fine mountain-scenery. About 30 m. to the +north-east the volcano of Colima, in the state of Jalisco, rises +to an elevation of 12,685 ft.; it is the most westerly of the +active volcanoes of Mexico. Colima enjoys a moderately cool +and healthy climate, especially in the dry season (November +to June). The city is regularly laid out and is in great part +well built, with good public buildings, several churches, a theatre, +two hospitals, and a handsome market completed in 1905. +Tramways connect the central plaza with the railway station, +cemetery, and the suburb of Villa de Alvarez, 2½ m. distant, and +an extension of 5 m. was projected in 1906 to Comala. The +local industries include two old-fashioned cotton mills, an ice +plant, corn-grinding mill, and five cigarette factories. Colima +is the commercial centre for a large district, but trade has been +greatly restricted by lack of transportation facilities. A railway +connects with the port of Manzanillo, and the Mexican Central +railway serves Colima itself. Colima was founded in 1522 by +Gonzalo de Sandoval. It has not played a very prominent part +in Mexican history because of its inaccessibility, and for the +same reason has suffered less from revolutionary violence.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLIN, ALEXANDRE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1526-1612), Flemish sculptor, was +born at Malines. In 1563 he went, at the invitation of the +emperor Ferdinand I., to Innsbruck, to work on the magnificent +monument which was being erected to Maximilian I. in the nave +of the Franciscan church. Of the twenty-four marble alti-rilievi, +representing the emperor’s principal acts and victories, which +adorn the sides of this tomb, twenty were executed by Colin, +apparently in three years. The work displays a remarkable +combination of liveliness and spirit with extreme care and finish, +its delicacy rivalling that of a fine cameo. Thorwaldsen is said +to have pronounced it the finest work of its kind. Colin, who +was sculptor in ordinary both to the emperor and to his son, the +archduke Ferdinand of Tirol, did a great deal of work for his +patrons at Innsbruck and in its neighbourhood; particular +mention may be made of the sepulchres of the archduke and his +first wife, Philippine Welser, both in the same church as the +Maximilian monument, and of Bishop Jean Nas. His tomb in +the cemetery at Innsbruck bears a fine bas-relief executed by +one of his sons.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLL<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span>, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scotland. +Pop. (1901) 432. It is situated about 7 m. west of Caliach +Point in Mull, and measures 12 m. from N.E. to S.W., +with a breadth varying from ¾ m. to 4 m. It is composed of +gneiss, is generally rather flat, save in the west where Ben Hogh +reaches a height of 339 ft., and has several lakes. The pasturage +is good and the soil fairly fertile. Much dairy produce is exported, +besides sheep and cattle. The antiquities include stone +circles, duns, the ruins of Breachacha Castle, once a fortress of +the Lords of the Isles. A steamer from Oban calls regularly +at Arinagour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLAERT, HANS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span>, Flemish engraver, son of Adrian Collaert, +a draughtsman and engraver of repute, was born at Antwerp +about 1545. After working some years in his father’s studio, +he went to Rome to perfect himself in his art. His engravings +after Rubens are very highly esteemed. He left many works; +among the best may be mentioned a “Life of Saint Francis,” +16 prints; a “Last Judgment,” folio; “Monilium, Bullarum, +Inauriumque Artificiosissimae Icones,” 10 prints, 1581; “The +Dead Christ in his Mother’s Lap”; “Marcus Curtius”; “Moses +Striking the Rock,” and “The Resurrection of Lazarus,” after +Lambert Lombard; “The Fathers of the Desert”; and +“Biblia Sacra and the History of the Church,” after Rubens.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLAR<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span>, something worn or fastened round the neck (Lat. +<i>collare</i>, from <i>collum</i>, neck), particularly a band of linen, lace or +other material, which, under various shapes at different periods, +has been worn by men and women to serve as a completion or +finish to the neckband of a garment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>); also a +chain, worn as a personal ornament, a badge of livery, a symbol +of office, or as part of the insignia of an order of knighthood, an +application of the term with which the present article deals. +The word is also applied to that part of the draught-harness of a +horse which fits over the animal’s neck, to which the traces are +attached, and against which the strain of the drawing of the +vehicle is exercised, and to a circular piece of metal passed round +the joints of a rod or pipe, to prevent movement or to make the +joint steam- or water-tight.</p> + +<p>Necklaces with beads and jewels threaded thereon or the plain +laces with a hanging ornament are among the common braveries +of all times and countries. From these come the collar and the +neck-chain. Torques or twisted collars of metal are found in +burying-places of the barbarous people of northern Europe. +British chiefs wore them, and gold torques were around the necks +of the leaders of the first of the Saxon invaders of Britain, among +whose descendants, however, the fashion seems to have languished. +Edward the Confessor was buried with a neck-chain +of gold 2 ft. long, fastened with a jewelled locket and carrying +an enamelled crucifix.</p> + +<p>The extravagant age of Richard II. saw a great revival of the +neck-chain, heavy links twisted of gold or silver. From this +time onward neck chains, with or without pendant devices, +were commonly worn by men and women of the richer sort. +The men abandoned them in the time of Charles I.</p> + +<p>Closely allied to the chain are the livery collars which appeared +in the 14th century, worn by those who thus displayed their +alliances or their fealty. Thus Charles V. of France in 1378 +granted to his chamberlain Geoffrey de Belleville the right of +bearing in all feasts and in all companies the collar of the <i>Cosse +de Geneste</i> or Broomcod, a collar which was accepted and worn +even by the English kings, Charles VI. sending such collars to +Richard II. and to his three uncles. This French collar, a chain +of couples of broom-cods linked by jewels, is seen in the contemporary +portrait of Richard II. at Wilton. The like collar was +worn by Henry IV. on the way to his crowning. During the +sitting of the English parliament in 1394 the complaints of the +earl of Arundel against Richard II. are recorded, one of his +grievances being that the king was wont to wear the livery of +the collar of the duke of Lancaster, his uncle, and that people of +the king’s following wore the same livery. To which the king +answered that soon after the return from Spain (in 1389) of his +uncle, the said duke, he himself took the collar from his uncle’s +neck, putting it on his own, which collar the king would wear +and use for a sign of the good and whole-hearted love between +them, even as he wore the liveries of his other uncles. Livery +collars of the king of France, of Queen Anne and of the dukes +of York and Lancaster are numbered with the royal plate and +jewels which in the first year of Henry IV. had come to the king’s +hands. The inventory shows that Queen Anne’s collar was made +up of sprigs of rosemary garnished with pearls. The York +collar had falcons and fetterlocks, and the Lancaster collar was +doubtless that collar of Esses (or S S) used by the duke’s son, +Henry of Bolingbroke, as an earl, duke and king. This famous +livery collar, which has never passed out of use, takes many +forms, its Esses being sometimes linked together chainwise, and +sometimes, in early examples, bestowed as the ornamental +bosses of a garter-shaped strap-collar. The oldest effigy bearing +it is that in Spratton church of Sir John Swinford, who died in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span> +1371. Swinford was a follower of John of Gaunt, and the date +of his death easily disposes of the fancy that the Esses were +devised by Henry IV. to stand for his motto or “word” of +<i>Soverayne</i>. Many explanations are given of the origin of these +letters, but none has as yet been established with sufficient proof. +During the reigns of Henry IV., his son and grandson, the collar +of Esses was a royal badge of the Lancastrian house and party, +the white swan being its pendant. In one of Henry VI.’s own +collars the S was joined to the Broomcod of the French device, +thus symbolizing the king’s claim to the two kingdoms.</p> + +<p>The kings of the house of York and their chief followers wore +the Yorkist collar of suns and roses, with the white lion of March, +the Clare bull, or Richard’s white boar for a pendant device. +Henry VII. brought back the collar of Esses, a portcullis or a +rose hanging from it, although in a portrait of this king, now +possessed by the Society of Antiquaries, his neck bears the <i>rose +en soleil</i> alternating with knots, and his son, when young, had +a collar of roses red and white. Besides these royal collars, the +14th and 15th centuries show many of private devices. A brass +at Mildenhall shows a knight whose badge of a dog or wolf +circled by a crown hangs from a collar with edges suggesting a +pruned bough or the ragged staff. Thomas of Markenfield +(d. c. 1415) on his brass at Ripon has a strange collar of park +palings with a badge of a hart in a park, and the Lord Berkeley +(d. 1392) wears one set with mermaids.</p> + +<p>Collars of various devices are now worn by the grand crosses +of the European orders of knighthood. The custom was begun +by Philip of Burgundy, who gave his knights of the Golden Fleece, +an order founded on the 10th of February 1429-1430, badges +of a golden fleece hung from that collar of flints, steels and sparks +which is seen in so many old Flemish portraits. To this day +it remains the most beautiful of all the collars, keeping in the +main the lines of its Flemish designer, although a vulgar fancy +sometimes destroys the symbolism of the golden fleece by changing +it for an unmeaning fleece of diamonds. Following this new +fashion, Louis XI. of France, when instituting his order of +St Michael in 1469, gave the knights collars of scallop shells +linked on a chain. The chain was doubled by Charles VIII., +and the pattern suffered other changes before the order lapsed +in 1830. Until the reign of Henry VIII., the Garter, most +ancient of the great knightly orders, had no collar. But the +Tudor king must needs match in all things with continental +sovereigns, and the present collar of the Garter knights, with +its golden knots and its buckled garters enclosing white roses +set on red roses, has its origin in the Tudor age. An illustration +in colours of the Garter collar is given on Plate I. in the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Knighthood and Chivalry</a></span>, while descriptions of the collars +of the other principal orders are also given. The collar of the +Thistle with the thistles and rue-sprigs is as old as the reign of +James II. The Bath collar, in its first form of white knots linking +closed crowns to roses and thistles issuing from sceptres, dates +from 1725, up to which time the knights of the Bath had hung +their medallion from a ribbon.</p> + +<p>Founding the order of the Saint Esprit in 1578, Henry III. +of France devised a collar of enflamed fleur-de-lis and cyphers +of H and L, a fashion which was soon afterwards varied by +Henry his successor. Elephants have been always borne on +the collar of the Elephant founded in Denmark in 1478, the other +links of which have taken many shapes. Another Danish order, +the Dannebrog, said to be “re-instituted” by Christian V. in +1671, has a collar of crosses formy alternating with the crowned +letters C and W, the latter standing for Waldemar the Victorious, +whom a legend of no value described as founding the order in +1219. Of other European orders, that of St Andrew, founded +by Peter of Russia in 1698, has eagles and Andrew crosses and +cyphers, while the Black Eagle of Prussia has the Prussian eagle +with thunderbolts in its claws beside roundels charged with +cyphers of the letters F.R.</p> + +<p>Plain collars of Esses are now worn in the United Kingdom +by kings-of-arms, heralds and serjeants-at-arms. Certain legal +dignitaries have worn them since the 16th century, the collar +of the lord chief-justice having knots and roses between the +letters. Henry IV.’s parliament in his second year restricted +the free use of the king’s livery collar to his sons and to all dukes, +earls, barons and bannerets, while simple knights and squires +might use it when in the royal presence or in going to and from +the hostel of the king. The giving of a livery collar by the king +made a squire of a man even as the stroke of the royal sword +made him a knight. Collars of Esses are sometimes seen on the +necks of ladies. The queen of Henry IV. wears one. So do the +wife of a 16th century Knightley on her tomb at Upton, and +Penelope, Lady Spencer (d. 1667), on her Brington monument.</p> + +<p>Since 1545 the lord mayor of London has worn a royal livery +collar of Esses. This collar, however, has its origin in no royal +favour, Sir John Alen, thrice a lord mayor, having bequeathed +it to the then lord mayor and his successors “to use and occupie +yerely at and uppon principall and festivall dayes.” It was +enlarged in 1567, and in its present shape has 28 Esses alternating +with knots and roses and joined with a portcullis. Lord mayors +of York use a plain gold chain of a triple row of links given in +1670; this chain, since the day when certain links were found +wanting, is weighed on its return by the outgoing mayor. In +Ireland the lord mayor of Dublin wears a collar given by +Charles II., while Cork’s mayor has another which the Cork +council bought of a silversmith in 1755, stipulating that it should +be like the Dublin one. The lady mayoress of York wears a plain +chain given with that of the lord mayor in 1670, and, like his, +weighed on its return to official keeping. For some two hundred +and thirty years the mayoress of Kingston-on-Hull enjoyed a +like ornament until a thrifty council in 1835 sold her chain as a +useless thing.</p> + +<p>Of late years municipal patriotism and the persuasions of +enterprising tradesmen have notably increased the number +of English provincial mayors wearing collars or chains of office. +Unlike civic maces, swords and caps of maintenance, these +gauds are without significance. The mayor of Derby is decorated +with the collar once borne by a lord chief-justice of the king’s +bench, and his brother of Kingston-on-Thames uses without +authority an old collar of Esses which once hung over a herald’s +tabard. By a modern custom the friends of the London sheriffs +now give them collars of gold and enamel, which they retain as +mementoes of their year of office.</p> +<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLATERAL<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (from Med. Lat. <i>collateralis</i>,—<i>cum</i>, with, and +<i>latus</i>, <i>lateris</i>, side,—side by side, hence parallel or additional), +a term used in law in several senses. <i>Collateral relationship</i> +means the relationship between persons who are descended +from the same stock or ancestor, but in a different line; as +opposed to <i>lineal</i>, which is the relationship between ascendants +and descendants in a direct line, as between father and son, +grandfather and grandson. A <i>collateral agreement</i> is an agreement +made contemporaneously with a written contract as part of the +transaction, but without being incorporated with it. <i>Collateral +facts</i>, in evidence, are those facts which do not bear directly on +the matters in dispute. <i>Collateral security</i> is an additional +security for the better safety of the mortgagee, <i>i.e.</i> property +or right of action deposited to secure the fulfilment of an +obligation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLATIA<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span>, an ancient town of Latium, 10 m. E. by N. of +Rome by the Via Collatina. It appears in the legendary history +of Rome as captured by Tarquinius Priscus. Livy tells us it was +taken from the Sabines, while Virgil speaks of it as a Latin +colony. In the time of Cicero it had lost all importance; Strabo +names it as a mere village, in private hands, while for Pliny it +was one of the lost cities of Latium. The site is undoubtedly +to be sought on the hill now occupied by the large medieval +fortified farmhouse of Lunghezza, immediately to the south +of the Anio, which occupies the site of the citadel joined by a +narrow neck to the tableland to the south-east on which the +city stood: this is protected by wide valleys on each side, and +is isolated at the south-east end by a deep narrow valley enlarged +by cutting. No remains are to be seen, but the site is admirably +adapted for an ancient settlement. The road may be traced +leading to the south end of this tableland, being identical with +the modern road to Lunghezza for the middle part of its course +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span> +only. The current indentification with Castellaccio, 2 m. to the +south-east, is untenable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, i. 138 seq., +iii. 201.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLATION<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (Lat. <i>collatio</i>, from <i>conferre</i>, to bring together +or compare), the bringing together of things for the special +purpose of comparison, and thus, particularly, the critical +examination of the texts of documents or MSS. and the result +of such comparison. The word is also a term in printing and +bookbinding for the register of the “signatures,” the number +of quires and leaves in each quire of a book or MS. In Roman +and Scots law “collation” answers to the English law term +“hotch-pot” (<i>q.v.</i>). From another meaning of the Latin word, +a consultation or conference, and so a treatise or homily, comes +the title of a work of Johannes Cassianus (<i>q.v.</i>), the <i>Conferences +of the Fathers</i> (<i>Collationes Patrum</i>). Readings from this and +similar works were customary in monasteries; by the <i>regula</i> +of St Benedict it is ordered that on rising from supper there +should be read <i>collationes</i>, passages from the lives of the Fathers +and other edifying works; the word is then applied to the +discussions arising from such readings. On fast days it was +usual in monasteries to have a very light meal after the <i>Collatio</i>, +and hence the meal itself came to be called “collation,” a meaning +which survives in the modern use of the word for any light +or quickly prepared repast.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLÉ, CHARLES<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1709-1783), French dramatist and song-writer, +the son of a notary, was born at Paris in 1709. He +was early interested in the rhymes of Jean Heguanier, then the +most famous maker of couplets in Paris. From a notary’s office +Collé was transferred to that of M. de Neulan, the receiver-general +of finance, and remained there for nearly twenty years. +When about seventeen, however, he made the acquaintance of +Alexis Piron, and afterwards, through Gallet (d. 1757), of +Panard. The example of these three masters of the vaudeville, +while determining his vocation, made him diffident; and for +some time he composed nothing but <i>amphigouris</i>—verses whose +merit was measured by their unintelligibility. The friendship +of the younger Crébillon, however, diverted him from this +by-way of art, and the establishment in 1729 of the famous +“Caveau” gave him a field for the display of his fine talent +for popular song. In 1739 the Society of the Caveau, which +numbered among its members Helvétius, Charles Duclos, +Pierre Joseph Bernard, called Gentil-Bernard, Jean Philippe +Rameau, Alexis Piron, and the two Crébillons, was dissolved, +and was not reconstituted till twenty years afterwards. His +first and his best comedy, <i>La Vérité dans le vin</i>, appeared in 1747. +Meanwhile, the Regent Orleans, who was an excellent comic +actor, particularly in representations of low life, and had been +looking out for an author to write suitable parts for him, made +Collé his reader. It was for the duke and his associates that +Collé composed the greater part of his <i>Théâtre de société</i>. In +1763 Collé produced at the Théâtre Français <i>Dupuis et Desronais</i>, +a successful sentimental comedy, which was followed +in 1771 by <i>La Veuve</i>, which was a complete failure. In 1774 +appeared <i>La Partie de chasse de Henri Quatre</i> (partly taken from +Dodsley’s <i>King and the Miller of Mansfield</i>), Collé’s last and best +play. From 1748 to 1772, besides these and a multitude of +songs, Collé was writing his <i>Journal</i>, a curious collection of +literary and personal strictures on his boon companions as well +as on their enemies, on Piron as on Voltaire, on La Harpe as on +Corneille. Collé died on the 3rd of November 1783. His lyrics +are frank and jovial, though often licentious. The subjects +are love and wine; occasionally, however, as in the famous +lyric (1756) on the capture of Port Mahon, for which the author +received a pension of 600 livres, the note of patriotism is struck +with no unskilful hand, while in many others Collé shows himself +possessed of considerable epigrammatic force.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also H. Bonhomme’s edition (1868) of his <i>Journal et Mémoires</i> +(1748-1772); Grimm’s <i>Correspondance</i>; and C. A. Sainte-Beuve, +<i>Nouveaux lundis</i>, vol. vii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLECTIVISM<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span>, a term used to denote the economic principle +of the ownership by a community of all the means of production +in order to secure to the people collectively an equitable distribution +of the produce of their associated labour. Though +often used in a narrow sense to express the economic basis of +Socialism, the latter term is so generally employed in the same +sense that collectivism is best discussed in connexion with it +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Socialism</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLECTOR<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span>, a term technically used for various officials, +and particularly in India for the chief administrative official of a +district. The word was in this case originally a translation of +<i>tahsildar</i>, and indicates that the special duty of the office is the +collection of revenue; but the collector has also magisterial +powers and is a species of autocrat within the bounds of his +district. The title is confined to the regulation provinces, especially +Madras; in the non-regulation provinces the same duties are +discharged by the deputy-commissioner (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commissioner</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLE DI VAL D’ ELSA<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in +the province of Siena, 5 m. by rail S. of Poggibonsi, which is 16 m. +N.W. of Siena. Pop. (1901) town 1987; commune 9879. The +old (upper) town (732 ft. above sea-level), contains the cathedral, +dating from the 13th century, with a pulpit partly of this period; +the façade has been modernized. There are also some old palaces +of good architecture, and the old house where Arnolfo di Cambio, +the first architect of the cathedral at Florence (1232-1301) was +born. The lower town (460 ft.) contains glass-works; the paper +and iron industries (the former as old as 1377) are less important.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLEGE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (<i>Collegium</i>), in Roman law, a number of persons +associated together by the possession of common functions,—a +body of colleagues. Its later meaning applied to any union of +persons, and <i>collegium</i> was the equivalent of <span class="grk" title="hetaireia">ἑταιρεία</span>. In +many respects, <i>e.g.</i> in the distinction between the responsibilities +and rights of the society and those of individual members thereof, +the collegium was what we should now call a corporation (<i>q.v.</i>). +Collegia might exist for purposes of trade like the English gilds, +or for religious purposes (<i>e.g.</i> the college of augurs, of pontifices, +&c.), or for political purposes, <i>e.g.</i> <i>tribunorum plebis collegia</i>. +By the Roman law a collegium must have at least three members. +The name is now usually applied to educational corporations, +such as the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, with which, in the +numerous English statutes relating to colleges, the colleges of +Winchester and Eton are usually associated. These colleges are +in the eye of the law eleemosynary corporations. In some of the +earlier statutes of Queen Elizabeth they are spoken of as having +an ecclesiastical character, but the doctrine of the common law +since the Reformation has been that they are purely lay corporations, +notwithstanding that most or all of their members may be +persons in priest’s orders. This is said to have been settled by +Dr Patrick’s case (<i>Raymond’s Reports</i>, p. 101).</p> + +<p>Colleges appear to have grown out of the voluntary association +of students and teachers at the university. According to some +accounts these must at one time have been numerous and flourishing +beyond anything we are now acquainted with. We are told, +for example, of 300 halls or societies at Oxford, and 30,000 +students. In early times there seems to have been a strong +desire to confine the scholars to certain licensed houses beyond +the influence of the townspeople. Men of wealth and culture, +and notably the political bishops and chancellors of England, +obtained charters from the crown for the incorporation of +societies of scholars, and these in time became exclusively the +places of abode for students attending the university. At the +same time the corporations thus founded were not necessarily +attached to the locality of the university. The early statutes of +Merton College, for example, allow the residence of the college +to be shifted as occasion required; and the foundations of Wolsey +at Oxford and Ipswich seem to have been the same in intention. +In later times (until the introduction of non-collegiate students) +the university and the colleges became coextensive; every +member of the university had to attach himself to some college +or hall, and every person admitted to a college or hall was obliged +to matriculate himself in the university.</p> + +<p>In Ayliffe’s <i>Ancient and Present State of the University of Oxford</i> +it is stated that a college must be “made up of three persons (at +least) joined in community. And the reason of this almost seems +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span> +to speak its own necessity, without the help of any express law to +countenance it: because among two persons only there cannot +be, in fact, a major part; and then if any disagreement should +happen to arise between them it cannot be, in fact, brought to a +conclusion by such a number alone in case both the parties should +firmly adhere to their dissenting opinions; and thus it is declared +by the civil law. But by the canon law it is known to be otherwise; +for by that law two persons in number may make and +constitute a college, forasmuch as according to this law two +persons make and constitute an assembly or congregation. The +common law of England, or rather the constant usage of our +princes in erecting aggregate bodies, which has established this rule +among us as a law, has been herein agreeable to the method and +doctrine of the civil law, for that in all their grants and charters +of incorporation of colleges they have not framed any aggregate +body consisting of less than three in number.” Another principle, +apparently derived from the civil law, is that a man cannot be +a fellow in two colleges at the same time. The law of England +steadily resisted any attempt to introduce the principle of inequality +into colleges. An act of 1542, reciting that divers founders +of colleges have given in their statutes a power of veto to individual +members, enacts that every statute made by any such +founder, whereby the grant or election of the governor or ruler +with the assent of the most part of such corporation should be in +any wise hindered by any one or more being the lesser number +(contrary to the common law), shall be void.</p> + +<p>The corporation consists of a head or master, fellows and +scholars. Students, not being on the foundation, residing in the +college, are not considered to be members of the corporation. +The governing body in all cases is the head and fellows.</p> + +<p>It is considered essential to corporations of an ecclesiastical +or educational character that they should have a Visitor whose +duty it is to see that the statutes of the founder are obeyed. +The duties of this officer have been ascertained by the courts of +law in a great variety of decided cases. Subject to such restrictions +as may be imposed on him by the statutes of the college, +his duties are generally to interpret the statutes of the college +in disputed cases, and to enforce them where they have been +violated. For this purpose he is empowered to “visit” the +society—usually at certain stated intervals. In questions +within his jurisdiction his judgment is conclusive, but his jurisdiction +does not extend to any cases under the common laws +of the country, or to trusts attached to the college. Generally +the visitorship resides in the founder and his heirs unless he has +otherwise appointed, and in default of him in the crown.</p> + +<p>The fellowships, scholarships, &c., of colleges were until a +comparatively recent date subject to various restrictions. +Birth in a particular county, education at a particular school, +relationship to the founder and holy orders, are amongst the +most usual of the conditions giving a preferential or conclusive +claim to the emoluments. Most of these restrictions have been +or are being swept away. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oxford</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cambridge</a></span>; +<span class="sc">&c.</span>)</p> + +<p>The term “college” (like “academy”) is also applied to +various institutions, <i>e.g.</i> to colleges of physicians and surgeons, +and to the electoral college in the United States presidential +elections, &c. For the Sacred College see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cardinal</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1400-1475), Italian soldier +of fortune, was born at Bergamo. While he was still a child his +father was attacked and murdered in his castle of Trezzo by +Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan. After wandering about +Italy he entered the service of various <i>condottieri</i>, such as Braccio +da Montone and Carmagnola. At the age of thirty-two he was +serving the Venetian republic, and although Francesco Maria +Gonzaga was commander-in-chief, Colleoni was the life and soul +of the army. He recaptured many towns and districts for +Venice from the Milanese, and when Gonzaga went over to the +enemy he continued to serve the Venetians under Erasmo da +Narni (known as Gattamelata) and Francesco A. Sforza, winning +battles at Brescia, Verona and on the lake of Garda. When +peace was made between Milan and Venice in 1441 Colleoni went +over to the Milanese, together with Sforza in 1443. But although +well treated at first, he soon fell under the suspicion of the +treacherous Visconti and was imprisoned at Monza, where he +remained until the duke’s death in 1447. Milan then fell under +the lordship of Sforza, whom Colleoni served for a time, but in +1448 he took leave of Sforza and returned to the Venetians. +Disgusted at not having been elected captain-general, he went +over to Sforza once more, but Venice could not do without him +and by offering him increased emoluments induced him to return, +and in 1455 he was appointed captain-general of the republic +for life. Although he occasionally fought on his own account, +when Venice was at peace, he remained at the disposal of the +republic in time of war until his death.</p> + +<p>Colleoni was perhaps the most respectable of all the Italian +<i>condottieri</i>, and although he often changed sides, no act of +treachery is imputed to him, nor did he subject the territories +he passed through to the rapine and exactions practised by other +soldiers of fortune. When not fighting he devoted his time to +introducing agricultural improvements on the vast estates with +which the Venetians had endowed him, and to charitable works. +At his death in 1475 he left a large sum to the republic for the +Turkish war, with a request that an equestrian statue of himself +should be erected in the Piazza San Marco. The statue was +made by Verrocchio, but as no monument was permitted in the +famous Piazza it was placed opposite the hospital of St Mark +by way of compromise.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. M. Bonomi, <i>Il Castello di Cavernago e i conti Martinengo +Colleoni</i> (Bergamo, 1884); for an account of his wars see S. Romanin, +<i>Storia documentata di Venezia</i>, vol. iv. (Venice, 1855), and other +histories of Venice. (L. V.*)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLETER<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kollos">κόλλος</span>, glue), a botanical term for the +gum-secreting hairs on the buds of certain plants.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLETTA, PIETRO<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1775-1831), Neapolitan general and +historian, entered the Neapolitan artillery in 1796 and took part +in the campaign against the French in 1798. On the entry of +the French into Naples and the establishment of the Parthenopean +republic (1799) he adhered to the new government, and +when the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (<i>q.v.</i>) reconquered the +city Colletta was thrown into prison and only escaped the death +penalty by means of judiciously administered bribes. Turned +out of the army he became a civil engineer, but when the +Bourbons were expelled a second time in 1806 and Joseph Bonaparte +seized the throne of Naples, he was reinstated in his rank +and served in the expedition against the brigands and rebels of +Calabria. In 1812 he was promoted general, and made director +of roads and bridges. He served under Joachim Murat and +fought the Austrians on the Panaro in 1815. On the restoration +of Ferdinand Colletta was permitted to retain his rank in the +army, and given command of the Salerno division. At the outbreak +of the revolution of 1820 the king called him to his councils, +and when the constitution had been granted Colletta was sent +to put down the separatist rising in Sicily, which he did with +great severity. He fought in the constitutionalist army against +the Austrians at Rieti (7th of March 1821), and on the re-establishment +of autocracy he was arrested and imprisoned for three +months by order of the prince of Canosa, the chief of police, his +particular enemy. He would have been executed had not +the Austrians intervened in his favour, and he was exiled instead +to Brünn in Moravia; in 1823 he was permitted to settle in +Florence, where he spent the rest of his days engaged on his +<i>Storia del reame di Napoli</i>. He died in 1831. His history +(1st ed., Capolago, 1834), which deals with the reigns of Charles +III. and Ferdinand IV. (1734-1825), is still the standard work +for that period; but its value is somewhat diminished by the +author’s bitterness against his opponents and the fact that he +does not give chapter and verse for his statements, many of +which are based on his recollection of documents seen, but not +available at the time of writing. Still, having been an actor in +many of the events recorded, he is on the whole accurate and +trustworthy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gino Capponi’s memoir of him published in the <i>Storia del +reame di Napoli</i> (2nd ed., Florence, 1848).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLEY, SIR GEORGE POMEROY<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1835-1881), British +general, third son of George Pomeroy Colley, of Rathangan, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span> +Co. Kildare, Ireland, and grandson of the fourth Viscount Harberton, +was born on the 1st of November 1835, and entered the +2nd Queen’s Regiment from Sandhurst as ensign in 1852. From +1854 to 1860 he served in South Africa, and was employed in +surveying and as a magistrate in charge of the Bashi river district +in Kaffraria. Early in 1860 he went with his regiment to China to +join the Anglo-French expedition, and took part in the capture +of the Taku forts and the entry into Peking, returning to South +Africa to complete his work in Kaffraria (brevet-majority). +In 1862 he entered the Staff College and passed out in one year +with honours. After serving as brigade-major at Devonport for +five years, he went to the War Office in 1870 to assist in the +preparation of (Lord) Cardwell’s measures of army reform. He +was appointed professor of military administration at the Staff +College in 1871. Early in 1873 he joined Sir Garnet Wolseley at +the Gold Coast, where he took charge of the transport, and the +success of the Ashanti expedition was in no small degree due to +his exertions. He was promoted brevet-colonel and awarded the +C.B. In 1875 he accompanied Wolseley to Natal (C.M.G.). On +his return home he was appointed military secretary to Lord +Lytton, governor-general of India, and in 1877 private secretary +(K.C.S.I.). In 1879 he joined Wolseley as chief of the staff and +brigadier-general in S.E. Africa, but, on the murder of Cavagnari +at Kabul, returned to India. In 1880 he succeeded Wolseley in +S.E. Africa as high commissioner and general commanding, and +conducted the operations against the rebel Boers. He was +defeated at Laing’s Nek and at the Ingogo river, and killed at +Majuba Hill on the 27th of February 1881. He had a very high +reputation not only for a theoretical knowledge of military +affairs, but also as a practical soldier.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life of Sir George Pomeroy Colley</i> by Lieut.-Gen. Sir W. F. +Butler (London, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLIER, ARTHUR<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1680-1732), English philosopher, was +born at the rectory of Steeple Langford, Wiltshire, on the 12th of +October 1680. He entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, in July +1697, but in October 1698 he and his brother William became +members of Balliol. His father having died in 1697, it was +arranged that the family living of Langford Magna should be given +to Arthur as soon as he was old enough. He was presented to the +benefice in 1704, and held it till his death. His sermons show no +traces of his bold theological speculations, and he seems to have +been faithful in the discharge of his duty. He was often in +pecuniary difficulties, from which at last he was obliged to free +himself by selling the reversion of Langford rectory to Corpus +Christi College, Oxford. His philosophical opinions grew out of +a diligent study of Descartes and Malebranche. John Norris of +Bemerton also strongly influenced him by his <i>Essay on the Ideal +World</i> (1701-1704). It is remarkable that Collier makes no +reference to Locke, and shows no sign of having any knowledge +of his works. As early as 1703 he seems to have become convinced +of the non-existence of an external world. In 1712 he +wrote two essays, which are still in manuscript, one on substance +and accident, and the other called <i>Clavis Philosophica</i>. His +chief work appeared in 1713, under the title <i>Clavis Universalis</i>, +or a <i>New Inquiry after Truth</i>, being a <i>Demonstration of the Non-Existence +or Impossibility of an External World</i> (printed privately, +Edinburgh, 1836, and reprinted in <i>Metaphysical Tracts</i>, 1837, +edited by Sam. Parr). It was favourably mentioned by Reid, +Stewart and others, was frequently referred to by the Leibnitzians, +and was translated into German by von Eschenbach in +1756. Berkeley’s <i>Principles of Knowledge</i> and <i>Theory of Vision</i> +preceded it by three and four years respectively, but there is no +evidence that they were known to Collier before the publication +of his book.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His views are grounded on two presuppositions:—first, the utter +aversion of common sense to any theory of representative perception; +second, the opinion which Collier held in common with Berkeley, +and Hume afterwards, that the difference between imagination and +sense perception is only one of degree. The former is the basis of +the negative part of his argument; the latter supplies him with all +the positive account he has to give, and that is meagre enough. +The <i>Clavis</i> consists of two parts. After explaining that he will use +the term “external world” in the sense of absolute, self-existent, +independent matter, he attempts in the first part to prove that the +visible world is not external, by showing—first, that the seeming +externality of a visible object is no proof of real externality, and +second, that a visible object, as such, is not external. The image +of a centaur seems as much external to the mind as any object of +sense; and since the difference between imagination and perception +is only one of degree, God could so act upon the mind of a person +imagining a centaur, that he would perceive it as vividly as any +object can be seen. Similar illustrations are used to prove the second +proposition, that a visible object, as such, is not external. The first +part ends with a reply to objections based on the universal consent +of men, on the assurance given by touch of the extra existence of the +visible world, and on the truth and goodness of God (Descartes), +which would be impugned if our senses deceived us. Collier argues +naively that if universal consent means the consent of those who have +considered the subject, it may be claimed for his view. He thinks +with Berkeley that objects of sight are quite distinct from those of +touch, and that the one therefore cannot give any assurance of the +other; and he asks the Cartesians to consider how far God’s truth +and goodness are called in question by their denial of the externality +of the secondary qualities. The second part of the book is taken up +with a number of metaphysical arguments to prove the impossibility +of an external world. The pivot of this part is the logical principle of +contradiction. From the hypothesis of an external world a series of +contradictions are deduced, such as that the world is both finite and +infinite, is movable and immovable, &c.; and finally, Aristotle and +various other philosophers are quoted, to show that the external +matter they dealt with, as mere potentiality, is just nothing at all. +Among other uses and consequences of his treatise, Collier thinks it +furnishes an easy refutation of the Romish doctrine of transubstantiation. +If there is no external world, the distinction between +substance and accidents vanishes, and these become the sole essence +of material objects, so that there is no room for any change whilst +they remain as before. Sir William Hamilton thinks that the +logically necessary advance from the old theory of representative +perception to idealism was stayed by anxiety to save this miracle of +the church; and he gives Collier credit for being the first to make +the discovery.</p> + +<p>His <i>Clavis Universalis</i> is interesting on account of the resemblance +between its views and those of Berkeley. Both were moved by their +dissatisfaction with the theory of representative perception. Both +have the feeling that it is inconsistent with the common sense of +mankind, which will insist that the very object perceived is the sole +reality. They equally affirm that the so-called representative image +is the sole reality, and discard as unthinkable the unperceiving +material cause of the philosophers. Of objects of sense, they say, +their <i>esse</i> is <i>percipi</i>. But Collier never got beyond a bald assertion +of the fact, while Berkeley addressed himself to an explanation of it. +The thought of a distinction between direct and indirect perception +never dawned upon Collier. To the question how all matter exists +in dependence on percipient mind his only reply is, “Just how my +reader pleases, provided it be somehow.” As cause of our sensations +and ground of our belief in externality, he substituted for an unintelligible +material substance an equally unintelligible operation of +divine power. His book exhibits no traces of a scientific development. +The most that can be said about him is that he was an +intelligent student of Descartes and Malebranche, and had the ability +to apply the results of his reading to the facts of his experience. In +philosophy he is a curiosity, and nothing more. His biographer +attributes the comparative failure of the <i>Clavis</i> to its inferiority in +point of style, but the crudeness of his thought had quite as much to +do with his failure to gain a hearing. Hamilton (<i>Discussions</i>, p. 197) +allows greater sagacity to Collier than to Berkeley, on the ground +that he did not vainly attempt to enlist men’s natural belief against +the hypothetical realism of the philosophers. But Collier did so as +far as his light enabled him. He appealed to the popular conviction +that the proper object of sense is the sole reality, although he +despaired of getting men to give up their belief in its externality, and +asserted that nothing but prejudice prevented them from doing so; +and there is little doubt that, if it had ever occurred to him, as it did to +Berkeley, to explain the genesis of the notion of externality, he would +have been more hopeful of commending his theory to the popular +mind.</p> + +<p>In theology Collier was an adherent of the High Church party, +though his views were by no means orthodox. In the Jacobite +<i>Mist’s Journal</i> he attacked Bishop Hoadly’s defence of sincere +errors. His views on the problems of Arianism, and his attempt to +reconcile it with orthodox theology, are contained in <i>A Specimen of +True Philosophy</i> (1730, reprinted in <i>Metaphysical Tracts</i>, 1837) and +<i>Logology, or a Treatise on the Logos in Seven Sermons on John i. +1, 2, 3, 14</i> (1732, analysed in <i>Metaph. Tracts</i>). These may be +compared with Berkeley’s <i>Siris</i>.</p> + +<p>See Robt. Benson, <i>Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Arthur +Collier</i> (1837); Tennemann, <i>History of Philosophy</i>; Hamilton, +<i>Discussions</i>; A. C. Fraser, edition of <i>Berkeley’s Works</i>; G. Lyon, +“Un Idéaliste anglais au XVIII. siècle,” in <i>Rev. philos.</i> (1880), +x. 375.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLIER, JEREMY<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1650-1726), English nonjuring divine, +was born at Stow-with-Quy, Cambridgeshire, on the 23rd of +September 1650. He was educated at Ipswich free school, over +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span> +which his father presided, and at Caius College, Cambridge, +graduating B.A. in 1673 and M.A. in 1676. He acted for a short +time as a private chaplain, but was appointed in 1679 to the +small rectory of Ampton, near Bury St Edmunds, and in 1685 he +was made lecturer of Gray’s Inn.</p> + +<p>At the Revolution he was committed to Newgate for writing in +favour of James II. a tract entitled <i>The Desertion discuss’d in a +Letter to a Country Gentleman</i> (1688), in answer to Bishop Burnet’s +defence of King William’s position. He was released after some +months of imprisonment, without trial, by the intervention of his +friends. In the two following years he continued to harass the +government by his publications: and in 1692 he was again in +prison under suspicion of treasonable correspondence with James. +His scruples forbade him to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the +court by accepting bail, but he was soon released. But in +1696 for his boldness in granting absolution on the scaffold to +Sir John Friend and Sir William Parkyns, who had attempted +the assassination of William, he was obliged to flee, and for the +rest of his life continued under sentence of outlawry.</p> + +<p>When the storm had blown over he returned to London, and +employed his leisure in works which were less political in their +tone. In 1697 appeared the first volume of his <i>Essays on Several +Moral Subjects</i>, to which a second was added in 1705, and a third +in 1709. The first series contained six essays, the most notable +being that “On the office of a Chaplain,” which throws much +light on the position of a large section of the clergy at that time. +Collier deprecated the extent of the authority assumed by the +patron and the servility of the poorer clergy.</p> + +<p>In 1698 Collier produced his famous <i>Short View of the Immorality +and Profaneness of the English Stage...</i>. He dealt +with the immodesty of the contemporary stage, supporting his +contentions by a long series of references attesting the comparative +decency of Latin and Greek drama; with the profane +language indulged in by the players; the abuse of the clergy +common in the drama; the encouragement of vice by representing +the vicious characters as admirable and successful; and +finally he supported his general position by the analysis of +particular plays, Dryden’s <i>Amphitryon</i>, Vanbrugh’s <i>Relapse</i> and +D’Urfey’s <i>Don Quixote</i>. The Book abounds in hypercriticism, +particularly in the imputation of profanity; and in a useless +display of learning, neither intrinsically valuable nor conducive +to the argument. He had no artistic appreciation of the subject +he discussed, and he mistook cause for effect in asserting that the +decline in public morality was due to the flagrant indecency of +the stage. Yet, in the words of Macaulay, who gives an admirable +account of the discussion in his essay on the comic dramatists of +the Restoration, “when all deductions have been made, great +merit must be allowed to the work.” Dryden acknowledged, +in the preface to his <i>Fables</i>, the justice of Collier’s strictures, +though he protested against the manner of the onslaught;<a name="FnAnchor_1h" id="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but +Congreve made an angry reply; Vanbrugh and others followed. +Collier was prepared to meet any number of antagonists, and +defended himself in numerous tracts. <i>The Short View</i> was +followed by a <i>Defence</i> (1699), a <i>Second Defence</i> (1700), and <i>Mr +Collier’s Dissuasive from the Playhouse, in a Letter to a Person of +Quality</i> (1703), and a <i>Further Vindication</i> (1708). The fight +lasted in all some ten years; but Collier had right on his side, +and triumphed; his position was, moreover, strengthened by the +fact that he was known as a Troy and high churchman, and that +his attack could not, therefore, be assigned to Puritan rancour +against the stage.</p> + +<p>From 1701 to 1721 Collier was employed on his <i>Great Historical, +Geographical, Genealogical and Poetical Dictionary</i>, founded on, +and partly translated from, Louis Moréri’s <i>Dictionnaire historique</i>, +and in the compilation and issue of the two volumes +folio of his own <i>Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain from the +first planting of Christianity to the end of the reign of Charles II</i>. +(1708-1714). The latter work was attacked by Burnet and others, +but the author showed himself as keen a controversialist as ever. +Many attempts were made to shake his fidelity to the lost cause +of the Stuarts, but he continued indomitable to the end. In +1712 George Hickes was the only survivor of the nonjuring +bishops, and in the next year Collier was consecrated. He +had a share in an attempt made towards union with the Greek +Church. He had a long correspondence with the Eastern +authorities, his last letters on the subject being written in 1725. +Collier preferred the version of the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> +issued in 1549, and regretted that certain practices and petitions +there enjoined were omitted in later editions. His first tract on +the subject, <i>Reasons for Restoring some Prayers</i> (1717), was +followed by others. In 1718 was published a new <i>Communion +Office taken partly from Primitive Liturgies and partly from the +first English Reformed Common Prayer Book,...</i> which embodied +the changes desired by Collier. The controversy that +ensued made a split in the nonjuring communion. His last work +was a volume of <i>Practical Discourses</i>, published in 1725. He +died on the 26th of April 1726.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—There is an excellent account of Collier in +A. Kippis’s <i>Biographia Britannica</i>, vol. iv. (1789), where some +sensible observations by the editor are added to the original biography. +A full list of Collier’s writings is given by the Rev. Wm. +Hunt in the article in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>. For +particulars of Collier’s history as a nonjuring bishop, see Thomas +Lathbury, <i>A History of the Nonjurors ...</i> (1845). There is an +excellent account of the <i>Short View</i> and the controversy arising +from it in A. Beljame’s <i>Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre +au XVIIIe siècle</i> (2nd ed., 1897), pp. 244-263.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1h" id="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “He is too much given to horse-play in his raillery, and comes +to battle like a dictator from the plough. I will not say, ‘the zeal +of God’s house has eaten him up’; but I am sure it has devoured +some part of his good manners and civility.” (Dryden, <i>Works</i>, ed. +Scott, xi. 239).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1789-1883), English Shakespearian +critic, was born in London, on the 11th of January 1789. His +father, John Dyer Collier (1762-1825), was a successful journalist, +and his connexion with the press obtained for his son a position +on the <i>Morning Chronicle</i> as leader writer, dramatic critic and +reporter, which continued till 1847; he was also for some time +a reporter for <i>The Times</i>. He was summoned before the House +of Commons in 1819 for giving an incorrect report of a speech +by Joseph Hume. He entered the Middle Temple in 1811, but +was not called to the bar until 1829. The delay was partly due +to his indiscretion in publishing the <i>Criticisms on the Bar</i> (1819) +by “Amicus Curiae.” His leisure was given to the study of +Shakespeare and the early English drama. After some minor +publications he produced in 1825-1827 a new edition of Dodsley’s +<i>Old Plays</i>, and in 1833 a supplementary volume entitled <i>Five +Old Plays</i>. In 1831 appeared his <i>History of English Dramatic +Poetry and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration</i>, a badly arranged, +but valuable work. It obtained for him the post of librarian +to the duke of Devonshire, and, subsequently, access to the +chief collections of early English literature throughout the +kingdom, especially to the treasures of Bridgwater House. +These opportunities were unhappily misused to effect a series of +literary fabrications, which may be charitably, and perhaps +not unjustly, attributed to literary monomania, but of which +it is difficult to speak with patience, so completely did they for +a long time bewilder the chronology of Shakespeare’s writings, +and such suspicion have they thrown upon MS. evidence in +general. After <i>New Facts</i>, <i>New Particulars</i> and <i>Further Particulars</i> +respecting Shakespeare had appeared and passed muster, +Collier produced (1852) the famous <i>Perkins Folio</i>, a copy of the +second folio (1632), so called from a name written on the title-page. +On this book were numerous MS. emendations of Shakespeare +said by Collier to be from the hand of “an old corrector.” +He published these corrections as <i>Notes and Emendations to +the Text of Shakespeare</i> (1852), and boldly incorporated them +in his edition (1853) of Shakespeare. Their authenticity was +disputed by S. W. Singer in <i>The Text of Shakespeare Vindicated</i> +(1853) and by E. A. Brae in <i>Literary Cookery</i> (1855) on internal +evidence; and when in 1859 the folio was submitted by its +owner, the duke of Devonshire, to experts at the British Museum, +the emendations were incontestably proved to be forgeries of +modern date. Collier was exposed by Mr Nicholas Hamilton in +his <i>Inquiry</i> (1860). The point whether he was deceiver or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span> +deceived was left undecided, but the falsifications of which he +was unquestionably guilty among the MSS. at Dulwich College +have left little doubt respecting it. He had produced the +<i>Memoirs of Edward Alleyn</i> for the Shakespeare Society in 1841. +He followed up this volume with the <i>Alleyn Papers</i> (1843) and +the <i>Diary of P. Henslowe</i> (1845). He forged the name of Shakespeare +in a genuine letter at Dulwich, and the spurious entries +in Alleyn’s <i>Diary</i> were proved to be by Collier’s hand when the +sale of his library in 1884 gave access to a transcript he had +made of the <i>Diary</i> with interlineations corresponding with the +Dulwich forgeries. No statement of his can be accepted without +verification, and no manuscript he has handled without careful +examination, but he did much useful work. He compiled a +valuable <i>Bibliographical and Critical Account of the Rarest +Books in the English Language</i> (1865); he reprinted a great +number of early English tracts of extreme rarity, and rendered +good service to the numerous antiquarian societies with which +he was connected, especially in the editions he produced for the +Camden Society and the Percy Society. His <i>Old Man’s Diary</i> +(1871-1872) is an interesting record, though even here the taint +of fabrication is not absent. Unfortunately what he did amiss +is more striking to the imagination than what he did aright, +and he will be chiefly remembered by it. He died at Maidenhead, +where he had long resided, on the 17th of September +1883.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For an account of the discussion raised by Collier’s emendations +see C.M. Ingleby, <i>Complete View of the Shakespeare Controversy</i> (1861).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1771-1811), Austrian +dramatist, was born in Vienna, on the 26th of December 1771. +He received a legal education and entered the Austrian ministry +of finance where he found speedy promotion. In 1805 and in +1809, when Austria was under the heel of Napoleon, Collin was +entrusted with important political missions. In 1803 he was, +together with other members of his family, ennobled, and in +1809 made <i>Hofrat</i>. He died on the 28th of July 1811. His +tragedy <i>Regulus</i> (1801), written in strict classical form, was +received with enthusiasm in Vienna, where literary taste, +less advanced than that of North Germany, was still under the +ban of French classicism. But in his later dramas, <i>Coriolan</i> +(1804), <i>Polyxena</i> (1804), <i>Balboa</i> (1806), <i>Bianca della Porta</i> +(1808), he made some attempt to reconcile the pseudo-classic +type of tragedy with that of Shakespeare and the German +romanticists. As a lyric poet (<i>Gedichte</i>, collected 1812), Collin +has left a collection of stirring <i>Wehrmannslieder</i> for the fighters +in the cause of Austrian freedom, as well as some excellent +ballads (<i>Kaiser Max auf der Martinswand</i>, <i>Herzog Leupold vor +Solothurn</i>). His younger brother Matthäus von Collin (1779-1824), +was, as editor of the <i>Wiener Jahrbücher für Literatur</i>, an +even more potent force in the literary life of Vienna. He was, +moreover, in sympathy with the Romantic movement, and +intimate with its leaders. His dramas on themes from Austrian +national history (<i>Belas Krieg mit dem Vater</i>, 1808, <i>Der Tod +Friedrichs des Streitbaren</i>, 1813) may be regarded as the +immediate precursors of Grillparzer’s historical tragedies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> appeared in 6 vols. (1812-1814); he is the +subject of an excellent monograph by F. Laban (1879). See also +A. Hauffen, <i>Das Drama der klassischen Periode</i>, ii. 2 (1891), where +a reprint of <i>Regulus</i> will be found. M. von Collin’s <i>Dramatische +Dichtungen</i> were published in 4 vols. (1815-1817); his <i>Nachgelassene +Schriften</i>, edited by J. von Hammer, in 2 vols. (1827). A study +of his life and work by J. Wihan will be found in <i>Euphorion</i>, Ergänzungsheft, +v. (1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLIN D’HARLEVILLE, JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1755-1806), +French dramatist, was born at Mévoisins, near Maintenon +(Eure-et-Loire), on the 30th of May 1755. His first dramatic +success was <i>L’Inconstant</i>, a comedy accepted by the Comédie +Française in 1780, but not produced there until six years later, +though it was played elsewhere in 1784. This was followed +by <i>L’Optimiste, ou l’homme toujours content</i> (1788), and <i>Châteaux +en Espagne</i> (1789). His best play, <i>Le Vieux Célibataire</i>, appeared +in 1793. Among his other plays are—the one-act comedy +<i>Monsieur de Crac dans son petit castel</i> (1791), <i>Les Artistes</i> (1796), +<i>Les Mœurs du jour</i> (1800) and <i>Malice pour malice</i> (1803). +Collin was one of the original members of the Institute of France, +and died in Paris on the 24th of February 1806.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The 1822 edition of his <i>Théâtre et poésies fugitives</i> contains a notice +by his friend the dramatist Andrieux. His <i>Théâtre</i> was also edited +by L. Moland in 1876; and by Édouard Thierry in 1882.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLING, ROBERT<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1749-1820), and <span class="bold">CHARLES</span> (1751-1836), +English stock breeders, famous for their improvement of the +Shorthorn breed of cattle, were the sons of Charles Colling, a +farmer of Ketton near Darlington. Their lives are closely +connected with the history of the Shorthorn breed. Of the two +brothers, Charles is probably the better known, and it was his +visit to the farm of Robert Bakewell at Dishley that first led the +brothers to realize the possibilities of scientific cattle breeding. +Charles succeeded to his father’s farm at Ketton. Robert, +after being first apprenticed to a grocer in Shields, took a farm +at Barmpton. An animal which he bought at Charles’s advice +for £8 and afterwards sold to his brother, became known as the +celebrated “Hubback,” a bull which formed the basis of both +the Ketton and Barmpton herds. The two brothers pursued +the same system of “in and in” breeding which they had learned +from Bakewell, and both the Ketton and the Barmpton herds +were sold by auction in the autumn of 1810. The former with +47 lots brought £7116, and the latter with 61 lots £7852. Robert +Colling died unmarried at Barmpton on the 7th of March 1820, +leaving his property to his brother. Charles Colling, who is +remembered as the owner of the famous bulls “Hubback,” +“Favourite” and “Comet,” was more of a specialist and a +business man than his brother. He died on the 16th of January +1836.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1899, for a +biographical sketch of the brothers Colling, by C. J. Bates.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1750-1810), +British naval commander, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, +on the 26th of September 1750. He was early sent to +school; and when only eleven years of age he was put on board +the “Shannon,” then under the command of Captain (afterwards +Admiral) Brathwaite, a relative of his own, to whose care and +attention he was in a great measure indebted for that nautical +knowledge which shone forth so conspicuously in his subsequent +career. After serving under Captain Brathwaite for some years, +and also under Admiral Roddam, he went in 1774 to Boston with +Admiral Graves, and served in the naval brigade at the battle +of Bunker Hill (17th of June 1775), where he gained his lieutenancy. +In 1779 he was made commander of the “Badger,” +and shortly afterwards post-captain of the “Hinchinbroke,” a +small frigate. In the spring of 1780 that vessel, under the +command of Nelson, was employed upon an expedition to the +Spanish Main, where it was proposed to pass into the Pacific +by navigating boats along the river San Juan and the lakes +Nicaragua and Leon. The attempt failed, and most of those +engaged in it became victims to the deadly influence of the +climate. Nelson was promoted to a larger vessel, and Collingwood +succeeded him in the command. It is a fact worthy of +record that the latter succeeded the former very frequently +from the time when they first became acquainted, until the star +of Nelson set at Trafalgar—giving place to that of Collingwood, +less brilliant certainly, but not less steady in its lustre.</p> + +<p>After commanding in another small frigate, Collingwood +was promoted to the “Sampson” (64); and in 1783 he was +appointed to the “Mediator,” destined for the West Indies, +where, with Nelson, who had a command on that station, he +remained till the end of 1786. With Nelson he warmly co-operated +in carrying into execution the provisions of the navigation +laws, which had been infringed by the United States, whose +ships, notwithstanding the separation of the countries, continued +to trade to the West Indies, although that privilege was by law +exclusively confined to British vessels. In 1786 Collingwood +returned to England, where, with the exception of a voyage to +the West Indies, he remained until 1793, in which year he was +appointed captain of the “Prince,” the flag-ship of Rear-Admiral +Bowyer. About two years previous to this event he +had married Miss Sarah Roddam—a fortunate alliance, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span> +continued to be a solace to him amidst the privations to which +the life of a seaman must ever be subject.</p> + +<p>As captain of the “Barfleur,” Collingwood was present at the +naval engagement which was fought on the 1st of June 1794; +and on that occasion he displayed equal judgment and courage. +On board the “Excellent” he shared in the victory of the 14th +of February 1797, when Sir John Jervis (Lord St Vincent) +humbled the Spanish fleet off Cape St Vincent. His conduct in +this engagement was the theme of universal admiration throughout +the fleet, and greatly advanced his fame as a naval officer. +After blockading Cadiz for some time, he returned for a few +weeks to Portsmouth to repair. In the beginning of 1799 +Collingwood was raised to the rank of vice-admiral, and hoisting +his flag in the “Triumph,” he joined the Channel Fleet, with +which he proceeded to the Mediterranean, where the principal +naval forces of France and Spain were assembled. Collingwood +continued actively employed in watching the enemy, until the +peace of Amiens restored him once more to the bosom of his +family.</p> + +<p>The domestic repose, however, which he so highly relished, +was cut short by the recommencement of hostilities with France, +and in the spring of 1803 he quitted the home to which he was +never again to return. The duty upon which he was employed +was that of watching the French fleet off Brest, and in the +discharge of it he displayed the most unwearied vigilance. +Nearly two years were spent in this employment; but Napoleon +had at length matured his plans and equipped his armament, +and the grand struggle which was to decide the fate of Europe +and the dominion of the sea was close at hand. The enemy’s +fleet having sailed from Toulon, Admiral Collingwood was +appointed to the command of a squadron, with orders to pursue +them. The combined fleets of France and Spain, after spreading +terror throughout the West Indies, returned to Cadiz. On their +way thither they bore down upon Admiral Collingwood, who +had only three vessels with him; but he succeeded in eluding +the pursuit, although chased by sixteen ships of the line. Ere +one-half of the enemy had entered the harbour he drew up +before it and resumed the blockade, at the same time employing +an ingenious artifice to conceal the inferiority of his force. But +the combined fleet was at last compelled to quit Cadiz; and the +battle of Trafalgar immediately followed. The brilliant conduct +of Admiral Collingwood upon this occasion has been much and +justly applauded. The French admiral drew up his fleet in the +form of a crescent, and in a double line, every alternate ship +being about a cable’s length to windward of her second, both +ahead and astern. The British fleet bore down upon this +formidable and skilfully arranged armament in two separate +lines, the one led by Nelson in the “Victory,” and the other +by Collingwood in the “Royal Sovereign.” The latter vessel +was the swifter sailer, and having shot considerably ahead of the +rest of the fleet, was the first engaged. “See,” said Nelson, +pointing to the “Royal Sovereign” as she penetrated the centre +of the enemy’s line, “see how that noble fellow Collingwood +carries his ship into action!” Probably it was at the same +instant that Collingwood, as if in response to the observation of +his great commander, remarked to his captain, “What would +Nelson give to be here?” The consummate valour and skill +evinced by Collingwood had a powerful moral influence upon +both fleets. It was with the Spanish admiral’s ship that the +“Royal Sovereign” closed; and with such rapidity and precision +did she pour in her broadsides upon the “Santa Anna,” that the +latter was on the eve of striking in the midst of thirty-three sail +of the line, and almost before another British ship had fired a +gun. Several other vessels, however, seeing the imminent peril +of the Spanish flag-ship, came to her assistance, and hemmed +in the “Royal Sovereign” on all sides; but the latter, after +suffering severely, was relieved by the arrival of the rest of the +British squadron; and not long afterwards the “Santa Anna” +struck her colours. The result of the battle of Trafalgar, and the +expense at which it was purchased, are well known. On the +death of Nelson, Collingwood assumed the supreme command; +and by his skill and judgment greatly contributed to the preservation +of the British ships, as well as of those which were captured +from the enemy. He was raised to the peerage as Baron +Collingwood of Coldburne and Heathpool, and received the +thanks of both Houses of Parliament, with a pension of £2000 +per annum.</p> + +<p>From this period until the death of Lord Collingwood no great +naval action was fought; but he was much occupied in important +political transactions, in which he displayed remarkable tact and +judgment. Being appointed to the command of the Mediterranean +fleet, he continued to cruise about, keeping a watchful eye +upon the movements of the enemy. His health, however, which +had begun to decline previously to the action of Trafalgar in 1805, +seemed entirely to give way, and he repeatedly requested government +to be relieved of his command, that he might return home; +but he was urgently requested to remain, on the ground that his +country could not dispense with his services. This conduct has +been regarded as harsh; but the good sense and political sagacity +which he displayed afford some palliation of the conduct of the +government; and the high estimation in which he was held is +proved by the circumstance that among the many able admirals, +equal in rank and duration of service, none stood so prominently +forward as to command the confidence of ministers and of the +country to the same extent as he did. After many fruitless +attempts to induce the enemy to put to sea, as well as to fall in +with them when they had done so (which circumstance materially +contributed to hasten his death), he expired on board the “Ville +de Paris,” then lying off Port Mahon, on the 7th of March 1810.</p> + +<p>Lord Collingwood’s merits as a naval officer were in every +respect of the first order. In original genius and romantic daring +he was inferior to Nelson, who indeed had no equal in an age +fertile in great commanders. In seamanship, in general talent, +and in reasoning upon the probability of events from a number of +conflicting and ambiguous statements, Collingwood was equal to +the hero of the Nile; indeed, many who were familiar with both +give him the palm of superiority. His political penetration was +remarkable; and so high was the opinion generally entertained of +his judgment, that he was consulted in all quarters, and on all +occasions, upon questions of general policy, of regulation, and +even of trade. He was distinguished for benevolence and generosity; +his acts of charity were frequent and bountiful, and the +petition of real distress was never rejected by him. He was an +enemy to impressment and to flogging; and so kind was he to his +crew, that he obtained amongst them the honourable name of +father. Between Nelson and Collingwood a close intimacy +subsisted, from their first acquaintance in early life till the fall of +the former at Trafalgar; and they lie side by side in the cathedral +of St Paul’s.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The selections from the public and private correspondence of +Lord Collingwood, published in 2 vols., 8vo, in 1828, contain some +of the best specimens of letter-writing in the language. See also <i>A +Fine Old English Gentleman exemplified in the Life and Character of +Lord Collingwood, a Biographical Study</i>, by William Davies (London, +1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLINGWOOD<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span>, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, +suburban to Melbourne on the N.E., on the Yarra Yarra river. +Pop. (1901) 32,766. It was the first town in Victoria incorporated +after Melbourne and Geelong. It is esteemed one of +the healthiest of the metropolitan suburbs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLINGWOOD<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span>, a town of Simcoe county, Ontario, Canada, +90 m. N.N.W. of Toronto, on Georgian Bay, and on the Grand +Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) 5755. It is the eastern terminus of +two lines of steamers for the ports of Lakes Huron and Superior. +It contains a large stone dry-dock and shipyard, pork factory, +and saw and planing mills, and has a large lumber, grain and +produce export trade, besides a shipbuilding plant and steel works.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, ANTHONY<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1676-1729), English deist, was born at +Heston, near Hounslow in Middlesex, on the 21st of June 1676. +He was educated at Eton and King’s College, Cambridge, and +was for some time a student at the Middle Temple. The most +interesting episode of his life was his intimacy with Locke, who in +his letters speaks of him with affection and admiration. In 1715 +he settled in Essex, where he held the offices of justice of the peace +and deputy-lieutenant, which he had before held in Middlesex. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span> +He died at his house in Harley Street, London, on the 13th of +December 1729.</p> + +<p>His writings are important as gathering together the results of +previous English Freethinkers. The imperturbable courtesy of +his style is in striking contrast to the violence of his opponents; +and it must be remembered that, in spite of his unorthodoxy, he +was not an atheist or even an agnostic. In his own words, +“Ignorance is the foundation of atheism, and freethinking the +cure of it” (<i>Discourse of Freethinking</i>, 105).</p> + +<p>His first work of note was his <i>Essay concerning the Use of +Reason in Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human +Testimony</i> (1707), in which he rejected the distinction between +<i>above</i> reason and <i>contrary to</i> reason, and demanded that revelation +should conform to man’s natural ideas of God. Like all his works, +it was published anonymously, although the identity of the +author was never long concealed. Six years later appeared his +chief work, <i>A Discourse of Freethinking, occasioned by the Rise and +Growth of a Sect called Freethinkers</i> (1713). Notwithstanding the +ambiguity of its title, and the fact that it attacks the priests of all +churches without moderation, it contends for the most part, at +least explicitly, for no more than must be admitted by every +Protestant. Freethinking is a right which cannot and must not +be limited, for it is the only means of attaining to a knowledge of +truth, it essentially contributes to the well-being of society, and it +is not only permitted but enjoined by the Bible. In fact the first +introduction of Christianity and the success of all missionary +enterprise involve freethinking (in its etymological sense) on the +part of those converted. In England this essay, which was +regarded and treated as a plea for deism, made a great sensation, +calling forth several replies, among others from William Whiston, +Bishop Hare, Bishop Hoadly, and Richard Bentley, who, under +the signature of <i>Phileleutherus Lipsiensis</i>, roughly handles +certain arguments carelessly expressed by Collins, but triumphs +chiefly by an attack on trivial points of scholarship, his own +pamphlet being by no means faultless in this very respect. Swift +also, being satirically referred to in the book, made it the subject +of a caricature.</p> + +<p>In 1724 Collins published his <i>Discourse of the Grounds and +Reasons of the Christian Religion</i>, with <i>An Apology for Free Debate +and Liberty of Writing</i> prefixed. Ostensibly it is written in +opposition to Whiston’s attempt to show that the books of the Old +Testament did originally contain prophecies of events in the New +Testament story, but that these had been eliminated or corrupted +by the Jews, and to prove that the fulfilment of prophecy by the +events of Christ’s life is all “secondary, secret, allegorical, and +mystical,” since the original and literal reference is always to some +other fact. Since, further, according to him the fulfilment of +prophecy is the only valid proof of Christianity, he thus secretly +aims a blow at Christianity as a revelation. The canonicity of the +New Testament he ventures openly to deny, on the ground that +the canon could be fixed only by men who were inspired. No less +than thirty-five answers were directed against this book, the most +noteworthy of which were those of Bishop Edward Chandler, +Arthur Sykes and Samuel Clarke. To these, but with special +reference to the work of Chandler, which maintained that a +number of prophecies were literally fulfilled in Christ, Collins +replied by his <i>Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered</i> (1727). An +appendix contends against Whiston that the book of <i>Daniel</i> was +forged in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deism</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In philosophy, Collins takes a foremost place as a defender of +Necessitarianism. His brief <i>Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty</i> +(1715) has not been excelled, at all events in its main outlines, as a +statement of the determinist standpoint. One of his arguments, +however, calls for special criticism,—his assertion that it is self-evident +that nothing that has a beginning can be without a cause +is an unwarranted assumption of the very point at issue. He was +attacked in an elaborate treatise by Samuel Clarke, in whose +system the freedom of the will is made essential to religion and +morality. During Clarke’s lifetime, fearing perhaps to be +branded as an enemy of religion and morality, Collins made no +reply, but in 1729 he published an answer, entitled <i>Liberty and +Necessity</i>.</p> + +<p>Besides these works he wrote <i>A Letter to Mr Dodwell</i>, arguing +that it is conceivable that the soul may be material, and, secondly, +that if the soul be immaterial it does not follow, as Clarke had +contended, that it is immortal; <i>Vindication of the Divine Attributes</i> +(1710); <i>Priestcraft in Perfection</i> (1709), in which he asserts +that the clause “the Church ... Faith” in the twentieth of the +Thirty-nine Articles was inserted by fraud.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Kippis, <i>Biographia Britannica</i>; G. Lechler, <i>Geschichte des +englischen Deismus</i> (1841); J. Hunt, <i>Religious Thought in England</i>, +ii. (1871); Leslie Stephen, <i>English Thought in the 18th Century</i>, i. +(1881); A. W. Benn, <i>Hist. of English Rationalism in the 19th Century</i> +(London, 1906), vol. i. ch. iii.; J. M. Robertson, <i>Short History of +Freethought</i> (London, 1906); and Deism.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1848-1908), English literary +critic, was born on the 26th of March 1848 at Bourton on the +Water, Gloucestershire. From King Edward’s school, Birmingham, +he went to Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in +1872, and at once devoted himself to a literary career, as journalist, +essayist and lecturer. His first book was a study of Sir +Joshua Reynolds (1874), and later he edited various classical +English writers, and published volumes on <i>Bolingbroke and +Voltaire in England</i> (1886), a <i>Study of English Literature</i> (1891), a +study of <i>Dean Swift</i> (1893), <i>Essays and Studies</i> (1895), <i>Ephemera +Critica</i> (1901), <i>Essays in Poetry and Criticism</i> (1905), and <i>Rousseau +and Voltaire</i> (1908), his original essays being sharply controversial +in tone, but full of knowledge. In 1904 he became professor of +English literature at Birmingham University. For many years he +was a prominent University Extension lecturer, and a constant +contributor to the principal reviews. On the 15th of September +1908 he was found dead in a ditch near Lowestoft, at which place +he had been staying with a doctor for the benefit of his health. +The circumstances necessitated the holding of an inquest, the +verdict being that of “accidental death.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, MORTIMER<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1827-1876), English writer, was born +at Plymouth, where his father, Francis Collins, was a solicitor, on +the 29th of June 1827. He was educated at a private school, and +after some years spent as mathematical master at Queen Elizabeth’s +College, Guernsey, he went to London, where he devoted +himself to journalism in the Conservative interest. In 1855 he +published his <i>Idyls and Rhymes</i>; and in 1865 appeared his first +story, <i>Who is the Heir?</i> A second volume of lyrics, <i>The Inn of +Strange Meetings</i>, was issued in 1871; and in 1872 he produced +his longest and best sustained poem, <i>The British Birds, a communication +from the Ghost of Aristophanes</i>. He also wrote several +capital novels, the best of which is perhaps <i>Sweet Anne Page</i> +(1868). Some of his lyrics, in their light grace, their sparkling +wit, their airy philosophy, are equal to anything of their kind in +modern English. On his second marriage in 1868 he settled at +Knowl Hill, Berkshire. Collins was an athlete, an excellent +pedestrian, and an enthusiastic lover of country life; and from +this time he rarely left his home for a day. Conservative in his +political and literary tastes, an ardent upholder of Church and +State, he was yet a hater of convention; and his many and very +varied gifts endeared him to a large circle of friends. He died on +the 28th of July 1876.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, WILLIAM<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1721-1759), English poet, was born on +the 25th of December 1721. He divides with Gray the glory of +being the greatest English lyrist of the 18th century. After some +childish studies in Chichester, of which his father, a rich hatter, +was the mayor, he was sent, in January 1733, to Winchester +College, where Whitehead and Joseph Warton were his school-fellows. +When he had been nine months at the school, Pope paid +Winchester a visit and proposed a subject for a prize poem; it is +legitimate to suppose that the lofty forehead, the brisk dark eyes +and gracious oval of the childish face, as we know it in the only +portrait existing of Collins, did not escape the great man’s notice, +then not a little occupied with the composition of the <i>Essay on +Man</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1734 the young poet published his first verses, in a sixpenny +pamphlet on <i>The Royal Nuptials</i>, of which, however, no copy has +come down to us; another poem, probably satiric, called <i>The +Battle of the Schoolbooks</i>, was written about this time, and has also +been lost. Fired by his poetic fellows to further feats in verse, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span> +Collins produced, in his seventeenth year, those <i>Persian Eclogues</i> +which were the only writings of his that were valued by the world +during his own lifetime. They were not printed for some years, +and meanwhile Collins sent, in January and October 1739, some +verses to the <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i>, which attracted the notice +and admiration of Johnson, then still young and uninfluential. +In March 1740 he was admitted a commoner of Queen’s College, +Oxford, but did not go up to Oxford until July 1741, when he +obtained a demyship at Magdalen College. At Oxford he continued +his affectionate intimacy with the Wartons, and gained +the friendship of Gilbert White. Early in 1742 the <i>Persian +Eclogues</i> appeared in London. They were four in number, and +formed a modest pamphlet of not more than 300 lines in all. In a +later edition, of 1759, the title was changed to <i>Oriental Eclogues</i>. +Those pieces may be compared with Victor Hugo’s <i>Les Orientales</i>, +to which, of course, they are greatly inferior. Considered with +regard to the time at which they were produced, they are more +than meritorious, even brilliant, and one at least—the second—can +be read with enjoyment at the present day. The rest, perhaps, +will be found somewhat artificial and effete.</p> + +<p>In November 1743 Collins was made bachelor of arts, and a +few days after taking his degree published his second work, +<i>Verses humbly addressed to Sir Thomas Hanmer</i>. This poem, +written in heroic couplets, shows a great advance in individuality, +and resembles, in its habit of personifying qualities of the mind, +the riper lyrics of its author. For the rest, it is an enthusiastic +review of poetry, culminating in a laudation of Shakespeare. +It is supposed that he left Oxford abruptly in the summer of +1744 to attend his mother’s death-bed, and did not return. +He is said to have now visited an uncle in Flanders. His indolence, +which had been no less marked at the university than his +genius, combined with a fatal irresolution to make it extremely +difficult to choose for him a path in life. The army and the +church were successively suggested and rejected; and he finally +arrived in London, bent on enjoying a small property as an independent +man about town. He made the acquaintance of +Johnson and others, and was urged by those friends to undertake +various important writings—a <i>History of the Revival of Learning</i>, +several tragedies, and a version of Aristotle’s <i>Poetics</i>, among +others—all of which he began but lacked force of will to continue. +He soon squandered his means, plunged, with most disastrous +effects, into profligate excesses, and sowed the seed of his untimely +misfortune.</p> + +<p>It was at this time, however, that he composed his matchless +<i>Odes</i>—twelve in number—which appeared on the 12th of +December 1746, dated 1747. The original project was to have +combined them with the odes of Joseph Warton, but the latter +proved at that time to be the more marketable article. Collins’s +little volume fell dead from the press, but it won him the admiration +and friendship of the poet Thomson, with whom, until the +death of the latter in 1748, he lived on terms of affectionate +intimacy. In 1749 Collins was raised beyond the fear of poverty +by the death of his uncle, Colonel Martyn, who left him about +£2000, and he left London to settle in his native city. He had +hardly begun to taste the sweets of a life devoted to literature +and quiet, before the weakness of his will began to develop in +the direction of insanity, and he hurried abroad to attempt to +dispel the gathering gloom by travel. In the interval he had +published two short pieces of consummate grace and beauty—the +<i>Elegy on Thomson</i>, in 1749, and the <i>Dirge in Cymbeline</i>, +later in the same year. In the beginning of 1750 he composed +the <i>Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands</i>, which was +dedicated to the author of <i>Douglas</i>, and not printed till long +after the death of Collins, and an <i>Ode on the Music of the Grecian +Theatre</i>, which no longer exists, and in which English literature +probably has sustained a severe loss. With this poem his literary +career closes, although he lingered in great misery for nearly +nine years. From Gilbert White, who jotted down some pages +of invaluable recollections of Collins in 1781, and from other +friends, we learn that his madness was occasionally violent, +and that he was confined for a time in an asylum at Oxford. +But for the most part he resided at Chichester, suffering from +extreme debility of body when the mind was clear, and incapable +of any regular occupation. Music affected him in a singular +manner, and it is recorded that he was wont to slip out into +the cathedral cloisters during the services, and moan and howl +in horrible accordance with the choir. In this miserable condition +he passed out of sight of all his friends, and in 1756 it +was supposed, even by Johnson, that he was dead; in point +of fact, however, his sufferings did not cease until the 12th of +June 1759. No journal or magazine recorded the death of the +forgotten poet, though Goldsmith, only two months before, had +begun the laudation which was soon to become universal.</p> + +<p>No English poet so great as Collins has left behind him so +small a bulk of writings. Not more than 1500 lines of his have +been handed down to us, but among these not one is slovenly, and +few are poor. His odes are the most sculpturesque and faultless +in the language. They lack fire, but in charm and precision of +diction, exquisite propriety of form, and lofty poetic suggestion +they stand unrivalled. The ode named <i>The Passions</i> is the most +popular; that <i>To Evening</i> is the classical example of perfect +unrhymed verse. In this, and the <i>Ode to Simplicity</i>, one seems +to be handling an antique vase of matchless delicacy and elegance. +In his descriptions of nature it is unquestionable that he owed +something to the influence of Thomson. Distinction may +be said to be the crowning grace of the style of Collins; its +leading peculiarity is the incessant personification of some +quality of the character. In the <i>Ode on Popular Superstitions</i> +he produced a still nobler work; this poem, the most considerable +in size which has been preserved, contains passages which are +beyond question unrivalled for rich melancholy fulness in the +literature between Milton and Keats.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The life of Collins was written by Dr Johnson; he found an +enthusiastic editor in Dr Langhorne in 1765, and in 1858 a kindly +biographer in Mr Moy Thomas.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, WILLIAM<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1787-1847), English painter, son of an +Irish picture dealer and man of letters, the author of a <i>Life of +George Morland</i>, was born in London. He studied under Etty +in 1807, and in 1809 exhibited his first pictures of repute—“Boys +at Breakfast,” and “Boys with a Bird’s Nest.” In 1815 he was +made associate of the Royal Academy, and was elected R. A. in +1820. For the next sixteen years he was a constant exhibitor; +his fishermen, shrimp-catchers, boats and nets, stretches of coast +and sand, and, above all, his rustic children were universally +popular. Then, however, he went abroad on the advice of +Wilkie, and for two years (1837-1838) studied the life, manners +and scenery of Italy. In 1839 he exhibited the first fruits of this +journey; and in 1840, in which year he was appointed librarian +to the Academy, he made his first appearance as a painter of +history. In 1842 he returned to his early manner and choice +of subject, and during the last years of life enjoyed greater +popularity than ever. Collins was a good colourist and an +excellent draughtsman. His earlier pictures are deficient in +breadth and force, but his later work, though also carefully +executed, is rich in effects of tone and in broadly painted +masses. His biography by his son, W. Wilkie Collins, the novelist, +appeared in 1848.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1824-1889), English novelist, +elder son of William Collins, R.A., the landscape painter, was +born in London on the 8th of January 1824. He was educated +at a private school in Highbury, and when only a small boy of +twelve was taken by his parents to Italy, where the family lived +for three years. On their return to England Wilkie Collins was +articled to a firm in the tea trade, but four years later he abandoned +that business for the law, and was entered at Lincoln’s Inn +in 1846, being called to the bar three years later. He found little +pleasure in his new career, however; though what he learned in +it was exceedingly valuable to him later. On his father’s death +in 1847 young Collins made his first essay in literature, publishing +the <i>Life of William Collins</i>, in two volumes, in the following year. +In 1850 he put forth his first work of fiction, <i>Antonina, or the +Fall of Rome</i>, which was clearly inspired by his life in Italy. +<i>Basil</i> appeared in 1852, and <i>Hide and Seek</i> in 1854. About this +time he made the acquaintance of Charles Dickens, and began +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span> +to contribute to <i>Household Words</i>, where <i>After Dark</i> (1856) and +<i>The Dead Secret</i> (1857) ran serially. His great success was +achieved in 1860 with the publication of <i>The Woman in White</i>, +which was first printed in <i>All the Year Round</i>. From that time +he enjoyed as much popularity as any novelist of his day, <i>No +Name</i> (1862), <i>Armadale</i> (1866), and <i>The Moonstone</i>, a capital +detective story (1868), being among his most successful books. +After <i>The New Magdalen</i> (1873) his ingenuity became gradually +exhausted, and his later stories were little more than faint echoes +of earlier successes. He died in Wimpole Street, London, on +the 23rd of September 1889. Collins’s gift was of the melodramatic +order, and while many of his stories made excellent +plays, several of them were actually reconstructed from pieces +designed originally for stage production. But if his colours +were occasionally crude and his methods violent, he was at least +a master of situation and effect. His trick of telling a story +through the mouths of different characters is sometimes irritatingly +disconnected; but it had the merit of giving an air of +actual evidence and reality to the elucidation of a mystery. He +possessed in the highest degree the gift of absorbing interest; +the turns and complexities of his plots are surprisingly ingenious, +and many of his characters are not only real, but uncommon. +Count Fosco in <i>The Woman in White</i> is perhaps his masterpiece; +the character has been imitated again and again, but no imitation +has ever attained to the subtlety and humour of the original.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLODION<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolla">κόλλα</span>, glue), a colourless, viscid +fluid, made by dissolving gun-cotton and the other varieties of +pyroxylin in a mixture of alcohol and ether. It was discovered +in 1846 by Louis Nicolas Ménard in Paris, and independently in +1848 by Dr J. Parkers Maynard in Boston. The quality of +collodion differs according to the proportions of alcohol and ether +and the nature of the pyroxylin it contains. Collodion in which +there is a great excess of ether gives by its evaporation a very +tough film; the film left by collodion containing a large quantity +of alcohol is soft and easily torn; but in hot climates the presence +of an excess of alcohol is an advantage, as it prevents the rapid +evaporation of the ether. Under the microscope, the film +produced by collodion of good quality appears translucent and +colourless. To preserve collodion it should be kept cool and out +of the action of the light; iodized collodion that has been discoloured +by the development of free iodine may be purified by +the immersion in it of a strip of silver foil. For the iodizing +of collodion, ammonium bromide and iodide, and the iodides +of calcium and cadmium are the agents employed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photography</a></span>). +Collodion is used in surgery since, when painted +on the skin, it rapidly dries and covers the skin with a thin +film which contracts as it dries and therefore affords both +pressure and protection. Flexible collodion, containing Canada +balsam and castor oil, does not crack, but, on the other hand, +does not contract. It is therefore of less value. Collodion is +applied to small aseptic wounds, to small-pox pustules, and +occasionally to the end of the urethra in boys in order to prevent +nocturnal incontinence. Collodion and crystals of carbolic acid, +taken in equal parts, are useful in relieving toothache due to +the presence of a carious cavity. <i>Vesicating</i> or <i>Blistering +Collodion</i> contains cantharidin as one of its constituents. The +styptic colloid of Richardson is a strong solution of tannin in +gun-cotton collodion. Similarly collodion may be impregnated +with salicylic acid, carbolic acid, iodine and other substances. +Small balloons are manufactured from collodion by coating the +interior of glass globes with the liquid; the film when dry is +removed from the glass by applying suction to the mouth of the +vessel. M. E. Gripon found (<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1875) that collodion +membranes, like glass, reflect light and polarize it both by +refraction and reflection; they also transmit a very much larger +proportion of radiant heat, for the study of which they are +preferable to mica.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLOT D’HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1750-1796), French +revolutionist, was a Parisian by birth and an actor by profession. +After figuring for some years at the principal provincial theatres +of France and Holland, he became director of the playhouse at +Geneva. He had from the first a share in the revolutionary +tumult; but it was not until 1791 that he became a figure of +importance. Then, however, by the publication of <i>L’Almanach +du Père Gérard</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_1i" id="FnAnchor_1i" href="#Footnote_1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a little book setting forth, in homely style, the +advantages of a constitutional monarchy, he suddenly acquired +great popularity. His renown was soon increased by his active +interference on behalf of the Swiss of the Château-Vieux Regiment, +condemned to the galleys for mutiny at Nancy. His +efforts resulted in their liberation; he went himself to Brest in +search of them; and a civic feast was decreed on his behalf +and theirs, which gave occasion for one of the few poems published +during his life by André Chénier. But his opinions became +more and more radical. He was a member of the Commune of +Paris on the 10th of August 1792, and was elected deputy for +Paris to the Convention, where he was the first to demand the +abolition of royalty (on the 21st of September 1792), and he +voted the death of Louis XVI. “<i>sans sursis</i>.” In the struggle +between the Mountain and the Girondists he displayed great +energy; and after the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 31st of May 1793 he +made himself conspicuous by his pitiless pursuit of the defeated +party. In June he was made president of the Convention; and +in September he was admitted to the Committee of Public +Safety, on which he was very active. After having entrusted +him with several missions, the Convention sent him, on the +30th of October 1793, to Lyons to punish the revolt of that city. +There he introduced the Terror in its most terrible form.</p> + +<p>In May 1794 an attempt was made to assassinate Collot; but +it only increased his popularity, and this won him the hatred of +Robespierre, against whom he took sides on the 9th Thermidor, +when he presided over the Convention during a part of the +session. During the Thermidorian reaction he was one of the +first to be accused of complicity with the fallen leader, but was +acquitted. Denounced a second time, he defended himself by +pleading that he had acted for the cause of the Revolution, but +was condemned with Barère and Billaud-Varenne to transportation +to Cayenne (March 1795), where he died early in 1796.</p> + +<p>Collot d’Herbois wrote and adapted from the English and +Spanish many plays, one of which, <i>Le Paysan magistrat</i>, kept +the stage for several years. <i>L’Almanach du Père Gérard</i> was +reprinted under the title of <i>Étrennes aux amis de la Constitution +française, ou entretiens du Père Gérard avec ses concitoyens</i> +(Paris, 1792).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention</i> +(Paris, 1885-1886), t. ii. pp. 501-512. The principal documents +relative to the trial of Collot d’Herbois, Barère and Billaud-Varenne +are indicated in Aulard, <i>Recueil des actes du comité de salut public</i>, +t. i. pp. 5 and 6.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1i" id="Footnote_1i" href="#FnAnchor_1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Michel Gérard was a popular Breton peasant deputy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jacobins</a></span>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLUSION<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>colludere</i>, strictly, to play with), a +secret agreement or compact for some improper purpose. In +judicial proceedings, and particularly in matrimonial causes +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divorce</a></span>), collusion is a deceitful agreement between two +or more persons, or between one of them and a third party, +to bring an action against the other in order to obtain a judicial +decision, or some remedy which would not have been obtained +unless the parties had combined for the purpose or suppressed +material facts or otherwise.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLLYER, ROBERT<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1823-  ), American Unitarian clergyman, +was born in Keighley, Yorkshire, England, on the 8th of +December 1823. At the age of eight he was compelled to leave +school and support himself by work in a linen factory. He +was naturally studious, however, and supplemented his scant +schooling by night study. At fourteen he was apprenticed to +a blacksmith, and for several years worked at this trade at Ilkley. +In 1849 he became a local Methodist minister, and in the following +year emigrated to the United States, where he obtained employment +as a hammer maker at Shoemakersville, Pennsylvania. +Here he soon began to preach on Sundays while still employed in +the factory on week-days. His earnest, rugged, simple style +of oratory made him extremely popular, and at once secured for +him a wide reputation. His advocacy of anti-slavery principles, +then frowned upon by the Methodist authorities, aroused +opposition, and eventually resulted in his trial for heresy and +the revocation of his licence. He continued, however, as an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span> +independent preacher and lecturer, and in 1859, having joined +the Unitarian Church, became a missionary of that church in +Chicago, Illinois. In 1860 he organized and became pastor of +the Unity Church, the second Unitarian church in Chicago. +Under his guidance the church grew to be one of the strongest of +that denomination in the West, and Mr Collyer himself came +to be looked upon as one of the foremost pulpit orators in the +country. During the Civil War he was active in the work of +the Sanitary Commission. In 1879 he left Chicago and became +pastor of the church of the Messiah in New York city, and in +1903 he became pastor emeritus. He published: <i>Nature and +Life</i> (1867); <i>A Man in Earnest: Life of A. H. Conant</i> (1868); +<i>The Life That Now is</i> (1871); <i>The Simple Truth</i> (1877); <i>Talks +to Young Men: With Asides to Young Women</i> (1888); <i>Things +New and Old</i> (1893); <i>Father Taylor</i> (1906); and <i>A History of +the Town and Parish of Ilkley</i> (with Horsefall Turner, 1886).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLMAN, SAINT<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (d. 676), bishop of Lindisfarne, was probably +an Irish monk at Iona. Journeying southwards he became +bishop of Lindisfarne in 661, and a favoured friend of Oswio, +king of Northumbria. He was at the synod of Whitby in 664, +when the great dispute between the Roman and the Celtic parties +in the church was considered; as spokesman of the latter party +he upheld the Celtic usages, but King Oswio decided against him +and his cause was lost. After this event Colman and some +monks went to Iona and then to Ireland. He settled on the +island of Inishbofin, where he built a monastery and where he +died on the 8th of August 676.</p> + +<p>Colman must be distinguished from St Colman of Cloyne +(c. 522-600), an Irish saint, who became a Christian about 570; +and also from another Irishman, St Colman Ela (553-610), +a kinsman of St Columba. The word Colman is derived from +the Latin <i>columbus</i>, a dove, and the <i>Book of Leinster</i> mentions +209 saints of this name.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLMAN, GEORGE<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1732-1794), English dramatist and +essayist, usually called “the Elder,” and sometimes “George +the First,” to distinguish him from his son, was born in 1732 at +Florence, where his father was stationed as resident at the court +of the grand duke of Tuscany. Colman’s father died within a +year of his son’s birth, and the boy’s education was undertaken +by William Pulteney, afterwards Lord Bath, whose wife was +Mrs Colman’s sister. After attending a private school in Marylebone, +he was sent to Westminster School, which he left in due +course for Christ Church, Oxford. Here he made the acquaintance +of Bonnell Thornton, the parodist, and together they founded +<i>The Connoisseur</i> (1754-1756), a periodical which, although it +reached its 140th number, “wanted weight,” as Johnson said. +He left Oxford after taking his degree in 1755, and, having been +entered at Lincoln’s Inn before his return to London, he was +called to the bar in 1757. A friendship formed with David +Garrick did not help his career as a barrister, but he continued +to practise until the death of Lord Bath, out of respect for his +wishes.</p> + +<p>In 1760 he produced his first play, <i>Polly Honeycomb</i>, which met +with great success. In 1761 <i>The Jealous Wife</i>, a comedy partly +founded on <i>Tom Jones</i>, made Colman famous. The death of +Lord Bath in 1764 placed him in possession of independent means. +In 1765 appeared his metrical translation of the plays of Terence; +and in 1766 he produced <i>The Clandestine Marriage</i>, jointly with +Garrick, whose refusal to take the part of Lord Ogleby led to a +quarrel between the two authors. In the next year he purchased +a fourth share in the Covent Garden Theatre, a step which is +said to have induced General Pulteney to revoke a will by which +he had left Colman large estates. The general, who died in that +year, did, however, leave him a considerable annuity. Colman +was acting manager of Covent Garden for seven years, and during +that period he produced several “adapted” plays of Shakespeare. +In 1768 he was elected to the Literary Club, then nominally consisting +of twelve members. In 1774 he sold his share in the +great playhouse, which had involved him in much litigation with +his partners, to Leake; and three years later he purchased +of Samuel Foote, then broken in health and spirits, the little +theatre in the Haymarket. He was attacked with paralysis in +1785; in 1789 his brain became affected, and he died on the 14th +of August 1794. Besides the works already cited, Colman was +author of adaptations of Beaumont and Fletcher’s <i>Bonduca</i>, +Ben Jonson’s <i>Epicoene</i>, Milton’s <i>Comus</i>, and of other plays. +He also produced an edition of the works of Beaumont and +Fletcher (1778), a version of the <i>Ars Poëtica</i> of Horace, an +excellent translation from the <i>Mercator</i> of Plautus for Bonnell +Thornton’s edition (1769-1772), some thirty plays, many +parodies and occasional pieces. An incomplete edition of his +dramatic works was published in 1777 in four volumes.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">George Colman</span> (1762-1836), known as “the +Younger,” English dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was +born on the 21st of October 1762. He passed from Westminster +school to Christ Church, Oxford, and King’s College, Aberdeen, +and was finally entered as a student of law at Lincoln’s Inn, +London. While in Aberdeen he published a poem satirizing +Charles James Fox, called <i>The Man of the People</i>; and in 1782 +he produced, at his father’s playhouse in the Haymarket, his +first play, <i>The Female Dramatist</i>, for which Smollett’s <i>Roderick +Random</i> supplied the materials. It was unanimously condemned, +but <i>Two to One</i> (1784) was entirely successful. It was followed +by <i>Turk and no Turk</i> (1785), a musical comedy; <i>Inkle and +Yarico</i> (1787), an opera; <i>Ways and Means</i> (1788); <i>The Iron +Chest</i> (1796), taken from William Godwin’s <i>Adventures of Caleb +Williams</i>; <i>The Poor Gentleman</i> (1802); <i>John Bull, or an +Englishman’s Fireside</i> (1803), his most successful piece; <i>The +Heir at Law</i> (1808), which enriched the stage with one immortal +character, “Dr Pangloss,” and numerous other pieces, many of +them adapted from the French.</p> + +<p>The failing health of the elder Colman obliged him to relinquish +the management of the Haymarket theatre in 1789, when the +younger George succeeded him, at a yearly salary of £600. On +the death of the father the patent was continued to the son; +but difficulties arose in his way, he was involved in litigation +with Thomas Harris, and was unable to pay the expenses of +the performances at the Haymarket. He was forced to take +sanctuary within the Rules of the King’s Bench. Here he resided +for many years continuing to direct the affairs of his theatre. +Released at last through the kindness of George IV., who had +appointed him exon of the Yeomen of the Guard, a dignity +disposed of by Colman to the highest bidder, he was made +examiner of plays by the duke of Montrose, then lord chamberlain. +This office, to the disgust of all contemporary dramatists, to +whose MSS. he was as illiberal as he was severe, he held till his +death. Although his own productions were open to charges of +indecency and profanity, he was so severe a censor of others +that he would not pass even such words as “heaven,” “providence” +or “angel.” His comedies are a curious mixture of +genuine comic force and sentimentality. A collection of them +was published (1827) in Paris, with a life of the author, by +J. W. Lake.</p> + +<p>Colman, whose witty conversation made him a favourite, was +also the author of a great deal of so-called humorous poetry +(mostly coarse, though much of it was popular)—<i>My Night +Gown and Slippers</i> (1797), reprinted under the name of <i>Broad +Grins</i>, in 1802; and <i>Poetical Vagaries</i> (1812). Some of his +writings were published under the assumed name of Arthur +Griffinhood of Turnham Green. He died in Brompton, London, +on the 17th of October 1836. He had, as early as 1784, contracted +a runaway marriage with an actress, Clara Morris, to whose +brother David Morris, he eventually disposed of his share in the +Haymarket theatre. Many of the leading parts in his plays +were written especially for Mrs Gibbs (<i>née</i> Logan), whom he was +said to have secretly married after the death of his first wife.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the second George Colman’s memoirs of his early life, entitled +<i>Random Records</i> (1830), and R. B. Peake, <i>Memoirs of the Colman +Family</i> (1842).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLMAN, SAMUEL<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1832-  ), American landscape painter, +was born at Portland, Maine, on the 4th of March 1832. He +was a pupil of Ashur B. Durand in New York, and in 1860-1862 +studied in Spain, Italy, France and England. In 1871-1876 he +was again in Europe. In 1860, with James D. Smilie, he founded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span> +the American Water Color Society, and became its first president +(1866-1867), his own water-colour paintings being particularly +fine. He was elected a member of the National Academy of +Design in 1862. Among his works are “The Ships of the Western +Plains,” in the Union League Club, New York; and “The +Spanish Peaks, Colorado,” in the Metropolitan Museum, New +York.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLMAR<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Kolmar</span>, a town of Germany, in the imperial +province of Alsace-Lorraine, formerly the capital of the department +of Haut-Rhin in France, on the Logelbach and Lauch, +tributaries of the Ill, 40 m. S.S.W. from Strassburg on the main +line of railway to Basel. Pop. (1905) 41,582. It is the seat of +the government for Upper Alsace, and of the supreme court of +appeal for Alsace-Lorraine. The town is surrounded by pleasant +promenades, on the site of the old fortifications, and has numerous +narrow and picturesque streets. Of its edifices the most remarkable +are the Roman Catholic parish church of St Martin, +known also as the <i>Münster</i>, dating from the 13th and 14th +centuries, the Lutheran parish church (15th century), the former +Dominican monastery (1232-1289), known as “Unterlinden” +and now used as a museum, the Kaufhaus (trade-hall) of the +15th century, and the handsome government offices (formerly +the Prefecture). Colmar is the centre of considerable textile +industries, comprising wool, cotton and silk-weaving, and has +important manufactures of sewing thread, starch, sugar and +machinery. Bleaching and brewing are also carried on, and +the neighbourhood is rich in vineyards and fruit-gardens. The +considerable trade of the place is assisted by a chamber of +commerce and a branch of the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank).</p> + +<p>Colmar (probably the <i>columbarium</i> of the Romans) is first +mentioned, as a royal <i>villa</i>, in a charter of Louis the Pious in +823, and it was here that Charles the Fat held a diet in 884. It +was raised to the status of a town and surrounded with walls by +Wölfelin, advocate (<i>Landvogt</i>) of the emperor Frederick II. in +Alsace, a masterful and ambitious man, whose accumulated +wealth was confiscated by the emperor in 1235, and who is said +to have been murdered by his wife lest her portion should also +be seized. In 1226 Colmar became an imperial city, and the +civic rights (<i>Stadtrecht</i>) conferred on it in 1274 by Rudolph of +Habsburg became the model for those of many other cities. Its +civic history is much the same as that of other medieval towns: +a struggle between the democratic gilds and the aristocratic +“families,” which ended in 1347 in the inclusion of the former +in the governing body, and in the 17th century in the complete +exclusion of the latter. In 1255 Colmar joined the league of +Rhenish cities, and in 1476 and 1477 took a vigorous share +in the struggle against Charles the Bold. In 1632, during the +Thirty Years’ War, it was taken by the Swedes, and in 1635 by +the French, who held it till after the Peace of Westphalia (1649). +In 1673 the French again occupied it and dismantled the fortifications. +In 1681 it was formally annexed to France by a decree +of Louis XIV.’s <i>Chambre de Réunion</i>, and remained French till +1871, when it passed with Alsace-Lorraine to the new German +empire.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Annalen und Chronik von Kolmar,” German translation, +G. H. Pabst, in <i>Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit</i> (2nd ed., +G. Wattenbach, Leipzig, 1897); Sigmund Billing, <i>Kleine Chronik +der Stadt Kolmar</i> (Colmar, 1891); Hund, <i>Kolmar vor und während +seiner Entwickelung zur Reichsstadt</i> (Strassburg, 1899); J. Liblin, +<i>Chronique de Colmar</i>, 58-1400 (Mülhausen, 1867-1868); T. F. X. +Hunkler, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Kolmar</i> (Colmar, 1838). For further +references see Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources. Topobibliographie</i> +(Montbéliard, 1894-1899); and Waltz, <i>Bibliographie +de la ville de Colmar</i> (Mülhausen, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLNE<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span>, a market town and municipal borough in the Clitheroe +parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 34½ m. N. by E. +from Manchester by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway; it is +served also by a branch of the Midland railway from Skipton. +Pop. (1901) 23,000. It stands on a hilly site above a small affluent +of the river Calder. The church of St Bartholomew retains some +Norman work, but is chiefly of various later periods. There is +a cloth hall or piece hall, originally used as an exchange when +woollens were the staple of the town. The grammar school is +of interest as the place where John Tillotson (1630-1694), +archbishop of Canterbury, received early education. Colne is a +place of great antiquity, and many Roman coins have been +found on the site. As early as the 14th century it was the seat +of a woollen manufacture; but its principal manufactures now +are cottons, printed calicoes and muslin. In the neighbourhood +are several limestone and slate quarries. The town was +incorporated in 1895, and the corporation consists of a mayor, +6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5063 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOCYNTH<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Coloquintida</span> or <span class="sc">Bitter Apple</span>, <i>Citrullus +Colocynthis</i>, a plant of the natural order Cucurbitaceae. The +flowers are unisexual; the male blossoms have five stamens +with sinuous anthers, the female have reniform stigmas, and an +ovary with three large fleshy placentas. The fruit is round, +and about the size of an orange; it has a thick yellowish rind, +and a light, spongy and very bitter pulp, which yields the +colocynth of druggists. The seeds, which number from 200 to +300, and are disposed in vertical rows on the three parietal +placentas of the fruit, are flat and ovoid and dark-brown; they +are used as food by some of the tribes of the Sahara, and a coarse +oil is expressed from them. The pulp contains only about 3.5% +of fixed oil, whilst the seeds contains about 15%. The foliage +resembles that of the cucumber, and the root is perennial. The +plant has a wide range, being found in Ceylon, India, Persia, +Arabia, Syria, North Africa, the Grecian Archipelago, the Cape +Verd Islands, and the south-east of Spain. The term <i>pakkuoth</i>, +translated “wild gourds” in 2 Kings iv. 39, is thought to refer +to the fruit of the colocynth; but, according to Dr Olaf Celsius +(1670-1756), a Swedish theologian and naturalist, it signifies +a plant known as the squirting cucumber, <i>Ecbalium Elaterium</i>.</p> + +<p>The commercial colocynth consists of the peeled and dried +fruits. In the preparation of the drug, the seeds are always +removed from the pulp. Its active principle is an intensely +bitter amorphous or crystalline glucoside, colocynthin, C<span class="su">56</span>H<span class="su">84</span>O<span class="su">23</span>, +soluble in water, ether and alcohol, and decomposable by acids +into glucose and a resin, colocynthein, C<span class="su">40</span>H<span class="su">54</span>O<span class="su">13</span>. Colocynthein +also occurs as such in the drug, together with at least two other +resins, citrullin and colocynthiden. Colocynthin has been used +as a hypodermic purgative—a class of drugs practically nonexistent, +and highly to be desired in numberless cases of apoplexy. +The dose recommended for hypodermic injection is fifteen +minims of a 1% solution in glycerin.</p> + +<p>The British Pharmacopeia contains a compound extract of +colocynth, which no one ever uses; a compound pill—dose 4 to 8 +grains—in which oil of cloves is included in order to relieve the +griping caused by the drug; and the Pilula Colocynthidis et +Hyoscyami, which contains 2 parts of the compound pill to 1 of +extract of hyoscyamus. This is by far the best preparation, the +hyoscyamus being added to prevent the pain and griping which +is attendant on the use of colocynth alone. The official dose +of this pill is 4 to 8 grains, but the most effective and least disagreeable +manner in which to obtain its action is to give four +two-grain pills at intervals of an hour or so.</p> + +<p>In minute doses colocynth acts simply as a bitter, but is never +given for this purpose. In ordinary doses it greatly increases +the secretion of the small intestine and stimulates its muscular +coat. The gall-bladder is also stimulated, and the biliary function +of the liver, so that colocynth is both an excretory and a secretory +cholagogue. The action which follows hypodermic injection +is due to the excretion of the drug from the blood into the +alimentary canal. Though colocynth is a drastic hydragogue +cathartic, it is desirable, as a rule, to supplement its action by +some drug, such as aloes, which acts on the large intestine, +and a sedative must always be added. Owing to its irritant +properties, the drug must not be used habitually, but it is very +valuable in initiating the treatment of simple chronic constipation, +and its pharmacological properties obviously render it +especially useful in cases of hepatitis and congestion of the liver.</p> + +<p>Colocynth was known to the ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic +physicians; and in an Anglo-Saxon herbal of the 11th century +(Cockayne, <i>Leechdoms</i>, &c., vol. i. p. 325, London, 1864), the +following directions are given as to its use:—“For stirring of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span> +inwards, take the inward neshness of the fruit, without the +kernels, by weight of two pennies; give it, pounded in lithe beer +to be drunk, it stirreth the inwards.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOGNE<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Köln</i>, or officially, since 1900, <i>Cöln</i>), a city +and archiepiscopal see of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine +province, a fortress of the first rank, and one of the most important +commercial towns of the empire. Pop. (1885) 239,437; +(1900) 370,685; (1905) 428,503, of which about 80% are Roman +Catholics. It lies in the form of a vast semicircle on the left +bank of the Rhine, 44 m. by rail north-east from Aix-la-Chapelle, +24 south-east from Düsseldorf and 57 north-north-west from +Coblenz. Its situation on the broad and navigable Rhine, and +at the centre of an extensive network of railways, giving it direct +communication with all the important cities of Europe, has +greatly fostered its trade, while its close proximity to the beautiful +scenery of the Rhine, has rendered it a favourite tourist resort. +When viewed from a distance, especially from the river, the +city, with its medieval towers and buildings, the whole surmounted +by the majestic cathedral, is picturesque and imposing. +The ancient walls and ditches, which formerly environed the +city, were dismantled between 1881 and 1885, and the site of the +old fortifications, bought from the government by the municipality, +were converted into a fine boulevard, the Ring, nearly +4 m. long. Beyond the Ring, about ½ m. farther out, a new +continuous line of wall fortifications, with outlying clusters of +earthworks and forts, has since been erected; 1000 acres, now +occupied by handsome streets, squares and two public parks, +were thus added to the inner town, almost doubling its area.</p> + +<p>Cologne is connected by bridges with the suburb of Deutz. +Within the outer municipal boundary are included (besides +Deutz) the suburbs of Bayenthal, Lindenthal, Ehrenfeld, Nippes, +Sülz, Bickendorf, Niehl and Poll, protected by another widely +extended circle of detached forts on both banks of the Rhine. +Of the former city gates four have been retained, restored and +converted into museums: the Severin gate, on the south, +contains the geological section of the natural history museum; +the Hahnen gate, on the west, is fitted as the historical and +antiquarian museum of the city; and the Eigelstein gate, on +the north, accommodates the zoological section of the natural +history museum.</p> + +<p>Cologne, with the tortuous, narrow and dark streets and lanes +of the old inner town, is still regarded as one of the least attractive +capital cities of Germany; but in modern times it has been +greatly improved, and the evil smells which formerly characterized +it have yielded to proper sanitary arrangements. The most +important squares are the Domhof, the Heumarkt, Neumarkt, +Alte Markt and Waidmarkt in the old inner, and the Hansa-platz +in the new inner town. The long Hohe-strasse of the old town +is the chief business street.</p> + +<p>The cathedral or Dom, the principal edifice and chief object +of interest in Cologne, is one of the finest and purest monuments +of Gothic architecture in Europe (for plan, &c. see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>: +<i>Romanesque and Gothic in Germany</i>). It stands on the +site of a cathedral begun about the beginning of the 9th century +by Hildebold, metropolitan of Cologne, and finished under +Willibert in 873. This structure was ruined by the Normans, +was rebuilt, but in 1248 was almost wholly destroyed by fire. +The foundation of the present cathedral was then laid by Conrad +of Hochstaden (archbishop from <span class="correction" title="amended from 1288">1238</span> to 1261). The original +plan of the building has been attributed to Gerhard von Rile +(d. c. 1295). In 1322 the new choir was consecrated, and the +bones of the Three Kings were removed to it from the place they +had occupied in the former cathedral. After Conrad’s death +the work of building advanced but slowly, and at the time +of the Reformation it ceased entirely. In the early part of the +19th century the repairing of the cathedral was taken in hand, +in 1842 the building of fresh portions necessary for the completion +of the whole structure was begun, and on the 15th of +October 1880 the edifice, finally finished, was opened in the +presence of the emperor William I. and all the reigning German +princes. The cathedral, which is in the form of a cross, has a +length of 480, and a breadth of 282 ft.; the height of the central +aisle is 154 ft.; that of each of the towers 511 ft. The heaviest +of the seven bells (<i>Kaiserglocke</i>), cast in 1874 from the metal +of French guns, weighs 543 cwt., and is the largest and heaviest +bell that is rung. In the choir the heart of Marie de’ Medici is +buried; and in the adjoining side-chapels are monuments of +the founder and other archbishops of Cologne, and the shrine +of the Three Kings, which is adorned with gold and precious +stones. The three kings of Cologne (Kaspar, Melchior and +Balthazar) were supposed to be the three wise men who came +from the East to pay adoration to the infant Christ; according +to the legend, the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa brought +their bones from Milan in 1162, and had them buried in Cologne +cathedral, and miraculous powers of healing were attributed +to these relics. The very numerous and richly-coloured windows, +presented at various times to the cathedral, add greatly to the +imposing effect of the interior. The view of the cathedral has +been much improved by a clearance of the old houses on the +Domhof, including the archiepiscopal palace, but the new Hof, +though flanked by many fine buildings, is displeasing owing to +the intrusion of numerous modern palatial hotels and shops.</p> + +<p>Among the other churches of Cologne, which was fondly styled +in the middle ages the “holy city” (<i>heilige Stadt</i>) and “German +Rome,” and, according to legend, possessed as many sacred +fanes as there are days in the year, are several of interest both +for their age and for the monuments and works of art they +contain. In St Peter’s are the famous altar-piece by Rubens, +representing the Crucifixion of St Peter, several works by Lucas +van Leyden, and some old German glass-paintings. St Martin’s, +built between the 10th and 12th centuries, has a fine baptistery; +St Gereon’s, built in the 11th century on the site of a Roman +rotunda, is noted for its mosaics, and glass and oil-paintings; the +Minorite church, begun in the same year as the cathedral, contains +the tomb of Duns Scotus. Besides these may be mentioned +the church of St Pantaleon, a 13th-century structure, with a +monument to Theophano, wife of the emperor Otto II.; St +Cunibert, in the Byzantine-Moorish style, completed in 1248; +St Maria im Capitol, the oldest church in Cologne, dedicated +in 1049 by Pope Leo IX., noted for its crypt, organ and paintings; +St Cecilia, St Ursula, containing the bones of that saint and, +according to legend, of the 11,000 English virgins massacred +near Cologne while on a pilgrimage to Rome; St Severin, the +church of the Apostles, and that of St Andrew (1220 and 1414), +which contains the remains of Albertus Magnus in a gilded +shrine. Most of these, and also many other old churches, have +been completely restored. Among newer ecclesiastical buildings +must be mentioned the handsome Roman Catholic church in +Deutz, completed in 1896, and a large synagogue, in the new +town west of the Ring, finished in 1899.</p> + +<p>Among the more prominent secular buildings are the Gürzenich, +a former meeting-place of the diets of the Holy Roman +Empire, built between 1441 and 1447, of which the ground floor +was in 1875 converted into a stock exchange, and the upper hall, +capable of accommodating 3000 persons, is largely utilized for +public festivities, particularly during the time of the Carnival: +the Rathaus, dating from the 13th century, with beautiful +Gobelin tapestries; the Tempelhaus, the ancestral seat of the +patrician family of the Overstolzens, a beautiful building dating +from the 13th century, and now the chamber of commerce; the +Wallraf-Richartz Museum, in which is a collection of paintings +by old Italian and Dutch masters, together with some works +by modern artists; the Zeughaus, or arsenal, built on Roman +foundations; the Supreme Court for the Rhine provinces; the +post-office (1893); the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank); and the +municipal library and archives. The Wolkenburg, a fine Gothic +house of the 15th century, originally a patrician residence, was +restored in 1874, and is now the headquarters of the famous men’s +choral society of Cologne (Kölner Männergesangverein).</p> + +<p>A handsome central railway station (high level), on the site +of the old station, and close to the cathedral, was built in 1889-1894. +The railway to Bonn and the Upper Rhine now follows +the line of the <i>ceinture</i> of the new inner fortifications, and on +this section there are three city stations in addition to the central. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span> +Like all important German towns, Cologne contains many fine +monuments. The most conspicuous is the colossal equestrian +statue (22½ ft. high) of Frederick William III. of Prussia in the +Heumarkt. There are also monuments to Moltke (1881), to +Count Johann von Werth (1885), the cavalry leader of the Thirty +Years’ War, and to Bismarck (1879). Near the cathedral is +an archiepiscopal museum of church antiquities. Cologne is +richly endowed with literary and scientific institutions. It has +an academy of practical medicine, a commercial high school, a +theological seminary, four Gymnasia (classical schools), numerous +lower-grade schools, a conservatory of music and several +high-grade ladies’ colleges. Of its three theatres, the municipal +theatre (Stadttheater) is famed for its operatic productions.</p> + +<p>Commercially, Cologne is one of the chief centres on the Rhine, +and has a very important trade in corn, wine, mineral ores, +coals, drugs, dyes, manufactured wares, groceries, leather and +hides, timber, porcelain and many other commodities. A large +new harbour, with spacious quays, has been constructed towards +the south of the city. In 1903, the traffic of the port amounted +to over one million tons. Industrially, also, Cologne is a place +of high importance. Of the numerous manufactures, among +which may be especially mentioned sugar, chocolate, tobacco +and cigars, the most famous is the perfume known as <i>eau de +Cologne</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) (<i>Kölnisches Wasser</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Cologne-water).</p> + +<p>Of the newspapers published at Cologne the most important +is the <i>Kölnische Zeitung</i> (often referred to as the “Cologne +Gazette”), which has the largest circulation of any paper in +Germany, and great weight and influence. It must be distinguished +from the <i>Kölnische Volkszeitung</i>, which is the organ +of the Clerical party in the Prussian Rhine provinces.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Cologne occupies the site of <i>Oppidum Ubiorum</i>, +the chief town of the Ubii, and here in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 50 a Roman colony, +<i>Colonia</i>, was planted by the emperor Claudius, at the request +of his wife Agrippina, who was born in the place. After her it +was named Colonia Agrippina or Agrippinensis. Cologne rose to +be the chief town of Germania Secunda, and had the privilege +of the Jus Italicum. Both Vitellius and Trajan were at Cologne +when they became emperors. About 330 the city was taken by +the Franks but was not permanently occupied by them till the +5th century, becoming in 475 the residence of the Frankish +king Childeric. It was the seat of a <i>pagus</i> or <i>gau</i>, and counts +of Cologne are mentioned in the 9th century.</p> + +<p>The succession of bishops in Cologne is traceable, except for +a gap covering the troubled 5th century, from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 313, when the +see was founded. It was made the metropolitan see for the +bishoprics of the Lower Rhine and part of Westphalia by Charlemagne, +the first archbishop being Hildebold, who occupied the +see from 785 to his death in 819. Of his successors one of the +most illustrious was Bruno (<i>q.v.</i>), brother of the emperor Otto I., +archbishop from 953 to 965, who was the first of the archbishops +to exercise temporal jurisdiction, and was also “archduke” of +Lorraine. The territorial power of the archbishops was already +great when, in 1180, on the partition of the Saxon duchy, the +duchy of Westphalia was assigned to them. In the 11th century +they became <i>ex-officio</i> arch-chancellors of Italy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archchancellor</a></span>), +and by the Golden Bull of 1356 they were finally +placed among the electors (<i>Kurfürsten</i>) of the Empire. With +Cologne itself, a free imperial city, the archbishop-electors were +at perpetual feud; in 1262 the archiepiscopal see was transferred +to Brühl, and in 1273 to Bonn; it was not till 1671 that the +quarrel was finally adjusted. The archbishopric was secularized +in 1801, all its territories on the left bank of the Rhine being +annexed to France; in 1803 those on the right bank were +divided up among various German states; and in 1815 by the +congress of Vienna, the whole was assigned to Prussia. The +last archbishop-elector, Maximilian of Austria, died in 1801.</p> + +<p>In Archbishop Hildebold’s day Cologne was still contained by +the square of its Roman walls, within which stood the cathedral +and the newly-founded church of St Maria (known later as +“im Capitol”); the city was, however, surrounded by a ring +of churches, among which those of St Gereon, St Ursula, St +Severin and St Cunibert were conspicuous. In 881 Norman +pirates, sailing up the Rhine, took and sacked the city; but +it rapidly recovered, and in the 11th century had become the +chief trading centre of Germany. Early in the 12th century the +city was enlarged by the inclusion of suburbs of Oversburg; +Niederich and St Aposteln; in 1180 these were enclosed in a +permanent rampart which, in the 13th century, was strengthened +with the walls and gates that survived till the 19th century.</p> + +<p>The municipal history of Cologne is of considerable interest. +In general it follows the same lines as that of other cities of Lower +Germany and the Netherlands. At first the bishop ruled through +his burgrave, advocate, and nominated jurats (<i>scabini</i>, <i>Schöffen</i>). +Then, as the trading classes grew in wealth, his jurisdiction began +to be disputed; the <i>conjuratio pro libertate</i> of 1112 seems to +have been an attempt to establish a commune (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commune, +Medieval</a></span>). Peculiar to Cologne, however, was the <i>Richerzeche</i> +(<i>rigirzegheide</i>), a corporation of all the wealthy patricians, +which gradually absorbed in its hands the direction of the city’s +government (the first record of its active interference is in 1225). +In the 13th century the archbishops made repeated efforts to +reassert their authority, and in 1259 Archbishop Conrad of +Hochstaden, by appealing to the democratic element of the +population, the “brotherhoods” (<i>fraternitates</i>) of the craftsmen, +succeeded in overthrowing the Richerzeche and driving its +members into exile. His successor, Engelbert II., however, +attempted to overthrow the democratic constitution set up by +him, with the result that in 1262 the brotherhoods combined +with the patricians against the archbishop, and the Richerzeche +returned to share its authority with the elected “great council” +(<i>Weiter Rat</i>). As yet, however, none of the trade or craft gilds, +as such, had a share in the government, which continued in the +hands of the patrician families, membership of which was +necessary even for election to the council and to the parochial +offices. This continued long after the battle of Worringen (1288) +had finally secured for the city full self-government, and the +archbishops had ceased to reside within its walls. In the 14th +century a narrow patrician council selected from the Richerzeche, +with two burgomasters, was supreme. In 1370 an insurrection +of the weavers was suppressed; but in 1396, the rule of the +patricians, having been weakened by internal dissensions, a +bloodless revolution led to the establishment of a comparatively +democratic constitution, based on the organization of the trade +and craft gilds, which lasted with but slight modification till the +French Revolution.</p> + +<p>The greatness of Cologne, in the middle ages as now, was due +to her trade. Wine and herrings were the chief articles of her +commerce; but her weavers had been in repute from time +immemorial, and exports of cloth were large, while her goldsmiths +and armourers were famous. So early as the 11th century +her merchants were settled in London, their colony forming the +nucleus of the Steelyard. When, in 1201, the city joined the +Hanseatic League (<i>q.v.</i>) its power and repute were so great that +it was made the chief place of a third of the confederation.</p> + +<p>In spite of their feuds with the archbishops, the burghers of +Cologne were stanch Catholics, and the number of the magnificent +medieval churches left is evidence at once of their piety +and their wealth. The university, founded in 1389 by the sole +efforts of the citizens, soon gained a great reputation; in the +15th century its students numbered much more than a thousand, +and its influence extended to Scotland and the Scandinavian +kingdoms. Its decline began, however, from the moment when +the Catholic sentiment of the city closed it to the influence of +the Reformers; the number of its students sank to vanishing +point, and though, under the influence of the Jesuits, it subsequently +revived, it never recovered its old importance. A final +blow was dealt it when, in 1777, the enlightened archbishop +Maximilian Frederick (d. 1784) founded the university of Bonn, +and in 1798, amid the confusion of the revolutionary epoch, it +ceased to exist.</p> + +<p>The same intolerance that ruined the university all but +ruined the city too. It is difficult, indeed, to blame the burghers +for resisting the dubious reforming efforts of Hermann of Wied, +archbishop from 1515 to 1546, inspired mainly by secular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span> +ambitions; but the expulsion of the Jews in 1414, and still more +the exclusion, under Jesuit influence, of Protestants from the +right to acquire citizenship, and from the magistracy, dealt +severe blows at the prosperity of the place. A variety of other +causes contributed to its decay: the opening up of new trade +routes, the gradual ossification of the gilds into close and corrupt +corporations, above all the wars in the Netherlands, the Thirty +Years’ War, and the Wars of the Spanish and Austrian Succession. +When in 1794 Cologne was occupied by the French, it +was a poor and decayed city of some 40,000 inhabitants, of whom +only 6000 possessed civic rights. When, in 1801, by the treaty +of Lunéville, it was incorporated in France, it was not important +enough to be more than the chief town of an arrondissement. +On the death of the last elector in 1801 the archiepiscopal see +was left vacant. With the assignment of the city to Prussia by +the congress of Vienna in 1815 a new era of prosperity began. +The university, indeed, was definitively established at Bonn, +but the archbishopric was restored (1821) as part of the new +ecclesiastical organization of Prussia, and the city became the +seat of the president of a governmental district. Its prosperity +now rapidly increased; when railways were introduced it became +the meeting-place of several lines, and in 1881 its growth necessitated +the pushing outward of the circle of fortifications.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Ennen, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Köln</i> (5 vols., Cologne, 1863-1880) +to 1648, and <i>Frankreich und der Niederrhein</i> (2 vols., ib., 1855, 1856), +a history of the city and electorate of Cologne since the Thirty +Years’ War; R. Schultze and C. Steuernagel, <i>Colonia Agrippinensis</i> +(Bonn, 1895); K. Heldmann, <i>Der Kölngau und die Civitas Köln</i> +(Halle, 1900); L. Korth, <i>Köln im Mittelalter</i> (Cologne, 1890); +F. Lau, <i>Entwickelung der kommunalen Verfassung der Stadt Köln +bis zum Jahre 1396</i> (Bonn, 1898); K. Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden der +germanischen Völker im Mittelalter</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891), ii. p. 323; +H. Keussen, <i>Historische Topographie der Stadt Köln im Mittelalter</i> +(Bonn, 1906); W. Behnke, <i>Aus Kölns Franzosenzeit</i> (Cologne, 1901); +Helmken, <i>Köln und seine Sehenswürdigkeiten</i> (20th ed., Cologne, +1903). For sources see L. Ennen and G. Eckertz, <i>Quellen zur +Geschichte der Stadt Köln</i> (6 vols., Cologne, 1860-1879); later +sources will be found in U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist. +Topo-bibliographie</i> (Montbéliard, 1894-1899), s.v. Cologne, which +gives also a full list of works on everything connected with the city; +also in Dahlmann-Waitz, <i>Quellenkunde</i> (ed. Leipzig, 1906), p. 17, +Nos. 252, 253. For the archdiocese and electorate of Cologne see +Binterim and Mooren, <i>Die Erzdiözese Köln bis zur französischen +Staatsumwälzung</i>, new ed. by A. Mooren in 2 vols. (Düsseldorf, 1892, +1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOMAN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1070-1116), king of Hungary, was the son of +King Geza of Hungary by a Greek concubine. King Ladislaus +would have made the book-loving youth a monk, and even +designated him for the see of Eger; but Coloman had no inclination +for an ecclesiastical career, and, with the assistance of his +friends, succeeded in escaping to Poland. On the death of +Ladislaus (1095), he returned to Hungary and seized the crown, +passing over his legitimately born younger brother Almos, the +son of the Greek princess Sinadene. Almos did not submit to +this usurpation, and was more or less of an active rebel till 1108, +when the emperor Henry V. espoused his cause and invaded +Hungary. The Germans were unsuccessful; but Coloman +thought fit to be reconciled with his kinsman and restored to him +his estates. Five years later, however, fearing lest his brother +might stand in the way of his heir, the infant prince Stephen, +Coloman imprisoned Almos and his son Béla in a monastery and +had them blinded. Despite his adoption of these barbarous +Byzantine methods, Coloman was a good king and a wise ruler. +In foreign affairs he preserved the policy of St Ladislaus by +endeavouring to provide Hungary with her greatest need, a +suitable seaboard. In 1097 he overthrew Peter, king of Croatia, +and acquired the greater part of Dalmatia, though here he +encountered formidable rivals in the Greek and German emperors, +Venice, the pope and the Norman-Italian dukes, all equally +interested in the fate of that province, so that Coloman had to +proceed cautiously in his expansive policy. By 1102, however, +Zara, Traú, Spalato and all the islands as far as the Cetina were +in his hands. But it was as a legislator and administrator that +Coloman was greatest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>). He was not +only one of the most learned, but also one of the most statesmanlike +sovereigns of the earlier middle ages. Coloman was +twice married, (1) in 1097 to Buzella, daughter of Roger, duke of +Calabria, the chief supporter of the pope, and (2) in 1112 to the +Russian princess, Euphemia, who played him false and was sent +back in disgrace to her kinsfolk the following year. Coloman +died on the 3rd of February 1116.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1831-1899), British vice-admiral, +historian, critic and inventor, the son of General G. T. +Colomb, was born in Scotland, on the 29th of May 1831. He +entered the navy in 1846, and served first at sea off Portugal in +1847; afterwards, in 1848, in the Mediterranean, and from +1848 to 1851 as midshipman of the “Reynard” in operations +against piracy in Chinese waters; as midshipman and mate of +the “Serpent” during the Burmese War of 1852-53; as mate +of the “Phoenix” in the Arctic Expedition of 1854; as lieutenant +of the “Hastings” in the Baltic during the Russian War, +taking part in the attack on Sveaborg. He became what was +known at that time as a “gunner’s lieutenant” in 1857, and +from 1859 to 1863 he served as flag-lieutenant to rear-admiral +Sir Thomas Pasley at Devonport. Between 1858 and 1868 he +was employed in home waters on a variety of special services, +chiefly connected with gunnery, signalling and the tactical +characteristics and capacities of steam warships. From 1868 +to 1870 he commanded the “Dryad,” and was engaged in the +suppression of the slave trade. In 1874, while captain of the +“Audacious,” he served for three years as flag-captain to vice-admiral +Ryder in China; and finally he was appointed, in 1880, +to command the “Thunderer” in the Mediterranean. Next +year he was appointed captain of the steam reserve at Portsmouth; +and after serving three years in that capacity, he remained +at Portsmouth as flag-captain to the commander-in-chief +until 1886, when he was retired by superannuation before he +had attained flag rank. Subsequently he became rear-admiral, +and finally vice-admiral on the retired list.</p> + +<p>Few men of his day had seen more active and more varied +service than Colomb. But the real work on which his title to +remembrance rests is the influence he exercised on the thought +and practice of the navy. He was one of the first to perceive +the vast changes which must ensue from the introduction of +steam into the navy, which would necessitate a new system of +signals and a new method of tactics. He set himself to devise +the former as far back as 1858, but his system of signals was +not adopted by the navy until 1867.</p> + +<p>What he had done for signals Colomb next did for tactics. +Having first determined by experiment—for which he was given +special facilities by the admiralty—what are the manœuvring +powers of ships propelled by steam under varying conditions +of speed and helm, he proceeded to devise a system of tactics +based on these data. In the sequel he prepared a new evolutionary +signal-book, which was adopted by the royal navy, and +still remains in substance the foundation of the existing system +of tactical evolutions at sea. The same series of experimental +studies led him to conclusions concerning the chief causes of +collisions at sea; and these conclusions, though stoutly combated +in many quarters at the outset, have since been generally +accepted, and were ultimately embodied in the international +code of regulations adopted by the leading maritime nations on +the recommendation of a conference at Washington in 1889.</p> + +<p>After his retirement Colomb devoted himself rather to the +history of naval warfare, and to the large principles disclosed by +its intelligent study, than to experimental inquiries having an +immediate practical aim. As in his active career he had wrought +organic changes in the ordering, direction and control of fleets, +so by his historic studies, pursued after his retirement, he helped +greatly to effect, if he did not exclusively initiate, an equally +momentous change in the popular, and even the professional, +way of regarding sea-power and its conditions. He did not invent +the term “sea-power,”—it is, as is shown elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sea-Power</a></span>), +of very ancient origin,—nor did he employ it until +Captain Mahan had made it a household word with all. But he +thoroughly grasped its conditions, and in his great work on naval +warfare (first published in 1891) he enunciated its principles +with great cogency and with keen historic insight. The central +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span> +idea of his teaching was that naval supremacy is the condition +precedent of all vigorous military offensive across the seas, and, +conversely, that no vigorous military offensive can be undertaken +across the seas until the naval force of the enemy has been +accounted for—either destroyed or defeated and compelled to +withdraw to the shelter of its own ports, or at least driven from +the seas by the menace of a force it dare not encounter in the +open. This broad and indefeasible principle he enunciated and +defended in essay after essay, in lecture after lecture, until what +at first was rejected as a paradox came in the end to be accepted +as a commonplace. He worked quite independently of Captain +Mahan, and his chief conclusions were published before Captain +Mahan’s works appeared.</p> + +<p>He died quite suddenly and in the full swing of his +literary activity on the 13th of October 1899, at Steeple Court, +Botley, Hants. His latest published work was a biography of +his friend Sir Astley Cooper Key, and his last article was a critical +examination of the tactics adopted at Trafalgar, which showed +his acumen and insight at their best.</p> + +<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">Sir John Colomb</span> (1838-1909), was +closely associated in the pioneer work done for British naval +strategy and Imperial defence, and his name stands no less high +among those who during this period promoted accurate thinking +on the subject of sea-power. Entering the Royal Marines in +1854, he rose to be captain in 1867, retiring in 1869; and thenceforth +he devoted himself to the study of naval and military +problems, on which he had already published some excellent +essays. His books on <i>Colonial Defence and Colonial Opinions</i> +(1873), <i>The Defence of Great and Greater Britain</i> (1879), <i>Naval +Intelligence and the Protection of Commerce</i> (1881), <i>The Use and +the Application of Marine Forces</i> (1883), <i>Imperial Federation: +Naval and Military</i> (1887), followed later by other similar works, +made him well known among the rising school of Imperialists, +and he was returned to parliament (1886-1892) as Conservative +member for Bow, and afterwards (1895-1906) for Great Yarmouth. +In 1887 he was created C.M.G., and in 1888 K.C.M.G. He died +in London on the 27th of May 1909. In Kerry, Ireland, he +was a large landowner, and became a member of the Irish privy +council (1903), and in 1906 he sat on the Royal Commission +dealing with congested districts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOMBES<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span>, a town of France in the department of Seine, +arrondissement of St Denis, 7 m. N.N.W. of Paris. Pop. (1906) +28,920. It has a 16th-century church with 12th-century tower, a +race-course, and numerous villa residences and boarding-schools. +Manufactures include oil, vinegar and measuring-instruments. +A castle formerly stood here, in which died Henrietta Maria, +queen of Charles I. of England.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOMBEY<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span>, a village of Lorraine, 4 m. E. of Metz, famous as +the scene of a battle between the Germans and the French fought +on the 14th of August 1870. It is often called the battle of +Borny, from another village 2½ m. E. of Metz. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metz</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOMBIA<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span>, a republic of South America occupying the +N.W. angle of that continent and bounded N. by the Caribbean +Sea and Venezuela, E. by Venezuela and Brazil, S. by Brazil, +Peru and Ecuador, and W. by Ecuador, the Pacific Ocean, +Panama and the Caribbean Sea. The republic is very irregular +in outline and has an extreme length from north to south of +1050 m., exclusive of territory occupied by Peru on the north +bank of the upper Amazon, and an extreme width of 860 m. +The approximate area of this territory, according to official +calculations, is 481,979 sq. m., which is reduced to 465,733 sq. m. +by Gotha planimetrical measurements. This makes Colombia +fourth in area among the South American states.</p> + +<p>The loss of the department of Panama left the republic with +unsettled frontiers on every side, and some of the boundary +disputes still unsolved in 1909 concern immense areas of territory. +The boundary with Costa Rica was settled in 1900 by an award +of the President of France, but the secession of Panama in 1903 +gave Colombia another unsettled line on the north-west. If +the line which formerly separated the Colombian departments +of Cauca and Panama is taken as forming the international +boundary, this line follows the water-parting between the +streams which flow eastward to the Atrato, and those which +flow westward to the Gulf of San Miguel, the terminal points +being near Cape Tiburon on the Caribbean coast, and at about +7° 10′ N. lat. on the Pacific coast. The boundary dispute with +Venezuela was referred in 1883 to the king of Spain, and the award +was made in 1891. Venezuela, however, refused to accept the +decision. The line decided upon, and accepted by Colombia, +starts from the north shore of Calabozo Bay on the west side of +the Gulf of Maracaibo, and runs west and south-west to and +along the water-parting (Sierra de Perija) between the drainage +basins of the Magdalena and Lake Maracaibo as far as the source +in lat. 8° 50′ N. of a small branch of the Catatumbo river, thence +in a south-easterly direction across the Catatumbo and Zulia +rivers to a point in 72° 30′ W. long., 8° 12′ N. lat., thence in an +irregular southerly direction across the Cordillera de Mérida to +the source of the Sarare, whence it runs eastward along that river, +the Arauca, and the Meta to the Orinoco. Thence the line runs +south and south-east along the Orinoco, Atabapo and Guainia +to the Pedra de Cucuhy, which serves as a boundary mark for +three republics. Of the eastern part of the territory lying +between the Meta and the Brazilian frontier, Venezuela claims +as far west as the meridian of 69° 10′. Negotiations for the +settlement of the boundary with Brazil (<i>q.v.</i>) were resumed in +1906, and were advanced in the following year to an agreement +providing for the settlement of conflicting claims by a mixed +commission. With Ecuador and Peru the boundary disputes are +extremely complicated, certain parts of the disputed territory +being claimed by all three republics. Colombia holds possession +as far south as the Napo in lat. 2° 47′ S., and claims territory +occupied by Peru as far south as the Amazon. On the other +hand Peru claims as far north as La Chorrera in 0° 49′ S. lat., +including territory occupied by Colombia, and the eastern half +of the Ecuadorean department of Oriente, and Ecuador would +extend her southern boundary line to the Putumayo, in long. +71° 1′ S., and make that river her northern boundary as far +north as the Peruvian claim extends. The provisional line starts +from the Japura river (known as the Caqueta in Colombia) in +lat. 1° 30′ S., long. 69° 24′ W., and runs south-west to the 70th +meridian, thence slightly north of west to the Igaraparana river, +thence up that stream to the Peruvian military post of La +Chorrera, in 0° 49′ S. lat., thence west of south to Huiririmachico, +on the Napo. Thence the line runs north-west along the +Napo, Coca and San Francisco rivers to the Andean watershed, +which becomes the dividing line northward for a distance of +nearly 80 m., where the line turns westward and reaches the +Pacific at the head of Panguapi Bay, into which the southern +outlet of the Mira river discharges (about 1° 34′ N. lat.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Physical Geography.</i>—Colombia is usually described as an extremely +mountainous country, which is true of much less than half +its total area. Nearly one half its area lies south-east of the Andes +and consists of extensive <i>llanos</i> and forested plains, traversed by +several of the western tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoco. +These plains slope gently toward the east, those of the Amazon basin +apparently lying in great terraces whose escarpments have the character +of low, detached ranges of hills forming successive rims to the +great basin which they partly enclose. The elevation and slope of +this immense region, which has an approximate length of 640 m. +and average width of 320 m., may be inferred from the elevations +of the Caqueta, or Japura river, which was explored by Crevaux in +1878-1879. At Santa Maria, near the Cordillera (about 75° 30′ W. +long.), the elevation is 613 ft. above sea-level, on the 73rd meridian +it is 538 ft., and near the 70th meridian 426 ft.—a fall of 187 ft. +in a distance of about 400 m. The northern part of this great region +has a somewhat lower elevation and gentler slope, and consists of +open grassy plains, which are within the zone of alternating wet and +dry seasons. In the south and toward the great lower basin of the +Amazon, where the rainfall is continuous throughout the year, the +plains are heavily forested. The larger part of this territory is +unexplored except along the principal rivers, and is inhabited by +scattered tribes of Indians. Near the Cordilleras and along some of +the larger rivers there are a few small settlements of whites and +mestizos, but their aggregate number is small and their economic +value to the republic is inconsiderable. There are some cattle +ranges on the open plains, however, but they are too isolated to +have much importance. A small part of the northern Colombia, +on the lower courses of the Atrato and Magdalena, extending across +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span> +the country from the Eastern to the Western Cordilleras with a +varying width of 100 to 150 m., not including the lower river basins +which penetrate much farther inland, also consists of low, alluvial +plains, partly covered with swamps and intricate watercourses, +densely overgrown with vegetation, but in places admirably adapted +to different kinds of tropical agriculture. These plains are broken +in places by low ranges of hills which are usually occupied by the +principal industrial settlements of this part of the republic, the +lower levels being for the most part swampy and unsuited for white +occupation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img style="border:0; width:678px; height:919px" + src="images/img701.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> +<p class="noind f90"><a href="images/img701a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p>The other part of the republic, which may be roughly estimated at +two-fifths of its total area, consists of an extremely rugged mountainous +country, traversed from south to north +by the parallel river valleys of the Magdalena, +Cauca and Atrato. The mountain chains which +cover this part of Colombia are the northern +terminal ranges of the great Andean system. +In northern Ecuador the Andes narrows into +a single massive range which has the character +of a confused mass of peaks and ridges on the +southern frontier of Colombia. There are several +lofty plateaus in this region which form a huge +central watershed for rivers flowing east to the +Amazon, west to the Pacific, and north to the +Caribbean Sea. The higher plateaus are called +<i>paramos</i>, cold, windswept, mist-drenched deserts, +lying between the elevations of 10,000 and 15,000 +ft., which are often the only passes over the +Cordilleras, and yet are almost impassable because +of their morasses, heavy mists, and cold, piercing +winds. The <i>paramos</i> of Cruz Verde (11,695 ft.) +and Pasto, and the volcanoes of Chiles (15,900 +ft.), Chumbul (15,715 ft.), and Pasto (13,990 ft.) +are prominent landmarks of this desolate region. +North of this great plateau the Andes divides +into three great ranges, the Western, Central and +Eastern Cordilleras. The Central is the axis of +the system, is distinguished by a line of lofty +volcanoes and <i>paramos</i>, some of which show their +white mantles 2000 to 3000 ft. above the line of +perpetual snow (approx. 15,000 ft. in this latitude), +and is sometimes distinguished with the +name borne by the republic for the time being. +This range runs in a north-north-east direction +and separates the valleys of the Magdalena and +Cauca, terminating in some low hills south-west +of El Banco, a small town on the lower Magdalena. +The principal summits of this range are Tajumbina +(13,534 ft.), Pan de Azucar (15,978 ft.), Purace +(15,420 ft.), Sotara (15,420 ft.), Huila <span class="correction" title="missing round bracket">(over</span> 18,000 +ft.), Tolima (18,432 ft.), Santa Isabel (16,700 ft.), +Ruiz (18,373 ft.), and Mesa de Herveo (18,300 ft.). +The last named affords a magnificent spectacle +from Bogotá, its level top which is 5 or 6 m. across, +and is formed by the rim of an immense crater, +having the appearance of a table, down the sides +of which for more than 3000 ft. hangs a spotless +white drapery of perpetual snow. The Western +Cordillera branches from the main range first +and follows the coast very closely as far north +as the 4th parallel, where the San Juan and +Atrato rivers, though flowing in opposite directions +and separated near the 5th parallel by a low +transverse ridge, combine to interpose valleys +between it and the Cordillera de Baudo, which +thereafter becomes the true coast range. It then +forms the divide between the Cauca and Atrato +valleys, and terminates near the Caribbean coast. +The general elevation of this range is lower than +that of the others, its culminating points being the +volcano Munchique (11,850 ft.)and Cerro Leon (10,847 ft.). The range +is covered with vegetation and its Pacific slopes are precipitous and +humid. The Cordillera de Baudo, which becomes the coast range +above lat. 4° N., is the southern extension of the low mountainous +chain forming the backbone of the Isthmus of Panama, and may be +considered the southern termination of the great North American +system. Its elevations are low and heavily wooded. It divides on +the Panama frontier, the easterly branch forming the watershed +between the Atrato and the rivers of eastern Panama, and serving as +the frontier between the two republics. The passes across these +ranges are comparatively low, but they are difficult because of the +precipitous character of their Pacific slopes and the density of the +vegetation on them. The Eastern Cordillera is in some respects the +most important of the three branches of the Colombian Andes. Its +general elevation is below that of the Central Cordillera, and it has +few summits rising above the line of perpetual snow, the highest +being the Sierra Nevada de Cocui, in lat. 6° 30’ N. Between Cocui +and the southern frontier of Colombia there are no noteworthy +elevations except the so-called Paramo de Suma Paz near Bogotá, +the highest point of which is 14,146 ft. above sea-level, and the Chita +<i>paramo</i>, or range, north-east of Bogotá (16,700 ft.). Between the +5th and 6th parallels the range divides into two branches, the eastern +passing into Venezuela, where it is called the Cordillera de Merida, +and the northern continuing north and north-east as the Sierra de +Perija and the Sierra de Oca, to terminate at the north-eastern +extremity of the Goajira peninsula. The culminating point in the +first-mentioned range is the Cerro Pintado (11,800 ft.). West of +this range, and lying between the 10th parallel and the Caribbean +coast, is a remarkable group of lofty peaks and knotted ranges +known as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the highest snow-crowned +summit of which rises 17,389 ft. above the sea according to +some, and 16,728 according to other authorities. This group of +mountains, covering an approximate area of 6500 sq. m., lies immediately +on the coast, and its highest summits were long considered +inaccessible. It stands detached from the lower ranges of the +Eastern Cordillera, and gives the impression that it is essentially +independent. The eastern Cordillera region is noteworthy for its +large areas of plateau and elevated valley within the limits of the +vertical temperate zone. In this region is to be found the greater +part of the white population, the best products of Colombian civilization, +and the greatest industrial development. The “sabana” of +Bogotá is a good illustration of the higher of these plateaus (8563 ft., +according to Stieler’s <i>Hand-Atlas</i>), with its mild temperature, +inexhaustible fertility and numerous productions of the temperate +zone. It has an area of about 2000 sq. m. The lower valleys, +plateaus and mountain slopes of this range are celebrated for their +coffee, which, with better means of transportation, would be a greater +source of prosperity for the republic than the gold-mines of Antioquia. +The mountainous region of Colombia is subject to volcanic disturbances +and earthquake shocks are frequent, especially in the south. +These shocks, however, are less severe than in Venezuela or in +Ecuador.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span></p> + +<p>There are few islands on the coast of Colombia, and the great +majority of these are too small to appear on the maps in general use. +Gorgona is one of the larger islands on the Pacific coast, +and is situated about 25 m. from the mainland in lat. +<span class="sidenote">Islands.</span> +3° N. It is 5¾ m. long by 1¾ m. wide, and rises to an extreme elevation +of 1296 ft. above sea-level. It is a beautiful island, and is +celebrated as one of Pizarro’s stopping places. It has been used +by the Colombian government for political offenders. Malpelo island, +282 m. west by south of Charambira point, in lat. 3° 40′ N., long. +81° 24′ W., nominally belongs to Colombia. It is a small, rocky, +uninhabited island, rising to an elevation of 846 ft. above the sea, +and has no ascertained value. The famous Pearl islands of the +Gulf of Panama are claimed by Colombia, and their pearl oyster +fisheries are considered a rentable asset by the government. The +group covers an area of about 450 sq. m., and consists of 16 islands +and several rocks. The largest is Rey Island, which is about 17 m. +long, north to south, and 8 m. broad, with an extreme elevation of +600 ft. The other larger islands are San José, Pedro Gonzales, +Casaya, Saboga and Pacheca. There are several fishing villages +whose inhabitants are largely engaged in the pearl fisheries, and a +number of cocoa-nut plantations. The islands belong chiefly to +Panama merchants. There are several groups of small islands on +the northern coast, and a few small islands so near the mainland as +to form sheltered harbours, as at Cartagena. The largest of these +islands is Baru, lying immediately south of the entrance to Cartagena +harbour. North-west of Colombia in the Caribbean Sea are several +small islands belonging to the republic, two of which (Great and +Little Corn Is.) lie very near the coast of Nicaragua. The largest +and most important of these islands is Vieja Providencia (Old +Providence), 120 m. off the Mosquito Coast, 4½ m. long, which +supports a small population.</p> + +<p>The rivers of Colombia may be divided, for convenience of description, +into three general classes according to the destination of their +waters, the Pacific, Caribbean and Atlantic—the last +reaching their destination through the Amazon and +<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span> +Orinoco. Of these, the Caribbean rivers are of the greatest economic +importance to the country, though those of the eastern plains may at +some time become nearly as important as transportation routes in a +region possessing forest products of great importance and rich in +agricultural and pastoral possibilities. It is worthy of note that the +principal rivers of these three classes—the Patia, Cauca, Magdalena, +Caquetá and Putumayo—all have their sources on the high plateaus +of southern Colombia and within a comparatively limited area. +The Pacific coast rivers are numerous, and discharge a very large +volume of water into the ocean in proportion to the area of their +drainage basins, because of the heavy rainfall on the western slopes +of the Coast range. The proximity of this range to the coast limits +them to short, precipitous courses, with comparatively short navigable +channels. The principal rivers of this group, starting from +the southern frontier, are the Mira, Patia, Iscuande, Micai, Buenaventura +or Dagua, San Juan and Baudo. The Mira has its principal +sources in Ecuador, and for a short distance forms the boundary +line between the two republics, but its outlets and navigable channel +are within Colombia. It has a large delta in proportion to the length +of the river, which is visible evidence of the very large quantity +of material brought down from the neighbouring mountain slopes. +The Patia is the longest river of the Pacific group, and is the only one +having its sources on the eastern side of the Western Cordillera. +It is formed by the confluence of the Sotara and Guaitara at the point +where the united streams turn westward to cut their way through +the mountains to the sea. The Sotara or upper Patia rises on the +southern slope of a transverse ridge or dyke, between the Central +and Western Cordilleras, in the vicinity of Popayan, and flows +southward about 120 m. to the point of confluence with the Guaitara. +The latter has its sources on the elevated plateau of Tuquerres and +flows north-west to meet the Sotara. The canyon of the Patia through +the Western Cordillera is known as the “Minima gorge,” and has +been cut to a depth of 1676 ft., above which the perpendicular +mountain sides rise like a wall some thousands of feet more. The +upper course of the Guaitara is known as the Carchi, which for a +short distance forms the boundary line between Colombia and +Ecuador. At one point in its course it is crossed by the Rumichaca +arch, a natural arch of stone, popularly known as the “Inca’s bridge,” +which with the Minima gorge should be classed among the natural +wonders of the world. There is a narrow belt of low, swampy +country between the Cordillera and the coast, traversed at intervals +by mountain spurs, and across this the river channels are usually +navigable. The San Juan has built a large delta at its mouth, +and is navigable for a distance of 140 m. inland, the river flowing +parallel with the coast for a long distance instead of crossing the +coastal plain. It rises in the angle between the Western Cordillera +and a low transverse ridge connecting it with the Baudo coast +range, and flows westward down to the valley between the two +ranges, and then southward through this valley to about lat. 4° 15′ N., +where it turns sharply westward and crosses a narrow belt of lowland +to the coast. It probably has the largest discharge of water of the +Pacific group, and has about 300 m. of navigable channels, including +its tributaries, although the river itself is only 190 m. long and the +sand-bars at its mouth have only 7 or 8 ft. of water on them. The +San Juan is distinguished for having been one of the proposed +routes for a ship canal between the Caribbean and Pacific. At one +point in its upper course it is so near the Atrato that, according to a +survey by Captain C. S. Cochrane, R.N., in 1824, a canal 400 yds. +long with a maximum cutting of 70 ft., together with some improvements +in the two streams, would give free communication. His +calculations were made, of course, for the smaller craft of that +time.</p> + +<p>The rivers belonging to the Caribbean system, all of which flow +in a northerly direction, are the Atrato, Bacuba, Sinú, Magdalena +and Zulia. The Bacuba, Suriquilla or Leon, is a small stream rising +on the western slopes of the Cordillera and flowing into the upper +end of the Gulf of Uraba. Like the Atrato it brings down much silt, +which is rapidly filling that depression. There are many small +streams and one important river, the Sinú, flowing into the sea +between this gulf and the mouth of the Magdalena. The Sinú rises +on the northern slopes of the Alto del Viento near the 7th parallel, +and flows almost due north across the coastal plain for a distance +of about 286 m. to the Gulf of Morosquillo. It has a very sinuous +channel which is navigable for small steamers for some distance, +but there is no good port at its outlet, and a considerable part of the +region through which it flows is malarial and sparsely settled. The +most important rivers of Colombia, however, are the Magdalena and +its principal tributary, the Cauca. They both rise on the high table-land +of southern Colombia about 14,000 ft. above sea-level—the +Magdalena in the Laguna del Buey (Ox Lake) on the Las Papas +plateau, and the Cauca a short distance westward in the Laguna de +Santiago on the Paramo de Guanacas—and flow northward in +parallel courses with the great Central Cordillera, forming the water-parting +between their drainage basins. The principal tributaries +of the Magdalena are the Suaza, Neiva, Cabrera, Prado, Fusagasaga, +Funza or Bogotá, Carare, Opon, Sogamoso, Lebrija and Cesar, +and the western the La Plata, Paez, Saldaña, Cuello, Guali, Samana +or Miel, Nare or Negro and Cauca. There are also many smaller +streams flowing into the Magdalena from both sides of the valley. +Of those named, the Funza drains the “sabana” of Bogotá and is +celebrated for the great fall of Tequendama, about 480 ft. in height; +the Sogamoso passes through some of the richest districts of the +republic; and the Cesar rises on the elevated slopes of the Sierra +Nevada de Santa Marta and flows southward across a low plain, +in which are many lakes, to join the Magdalena where it bends +westward to meet the Cauca. The course of the Magdalena traverses +nine degrees of latitude and is nearly 1000 m. long. It is navigable +for steamers up to La Dorada, near Honda, 561 m. above its mouth, +which is closed by sand-bars to all but light-draught vessels, and for +93 m. above the rapids at Honda, to Girardot. The river is also +navigable at high water for small steamers up to Neiva, 100 m. +farther and 1535 ft. above sea-level, beyond which point it descends +precipitously from the plateaus of southern Colombia. The Honda +rapids have a fall of only 20 ft. in a distance of 2 m., but the current +is swift and the channel tortuous for a distance of 20 m., which +make it impossible for the light-draught, flat-bottomed steamers of +the lower river to ascend them. The Cauca differs much from the +Magdalena, although its principal features are the same. The latter +descends 12,500 ft. before it becomes navigable, but at 10,000 ft. +below its source the Cauca enters a long narrow valley with an +average elevation of 3500 ft., where it is navigable for over 200 m., +and then descends 2500 ft. through a series of impetuous rapids for a +distance of about 250 m., between Cartago and Cáceres, with a break +of 60 m. above Antioquia, where smooth water permits isolated +navigation. While, therefore, the Magdalena is navigable throughout +the greater part of its course, or from Girardot to the coast, with an +abrupt break of only 20 ft. at Honda which could easily be overcome, +the Cauca has only 200 m. of navigable water in the upper valley +and another 200 m. on its lower course before it joins the Magdalena +in lat. 9° 30′, the two being separated by 250 m. of canyon and +rapids. So difficult is the country through which the Cauca has cut +its tortuous course that the fertile upper valley is completely isolated +from the Caribbean, and has no other practicable outlet than the +overland route from Cali to Buenaventura, on the Pacific. The +upper sources of the Cauca flow through a highly volcanic region, +and are so impregnated with sulphuric and other acids that fish +cannot live in them. This is especially true of the Rio Vinagre, +which rises on the Purace volcano. The principal tributaries are +the Piendamó, Ovejas, Palo, Amaime and Nechi, from the central +Cordillera, of which the last named is the most important, and the +Jamundi and a large number of small streams from the Western. +The largest branch of the Cauca on its western side, however, is the +San Jorge, which, though rising in the Western Cordillera on the +northern slopes of the Alto del Viento, in about lat. 7° N., and not +far from the sources of the Sinú and Bacuba, is essentially a river +of the plain, flowing north-east across a level country filled with +small lakes and subject to inundations to a junction with the Cauca +just before it joins the Magdalena. Both the San Jorge and Nechi +are navigable for considerable distances. The valley of the Cauca +is much narrower than that of the Magdalena, and between Cartago +and Cáceres the mountain ranges on both sides press down upon the +river and confine it to a narrow canyon. The Cauca unites with the +Magdalena about 200 m. from the sea through several widely separated +channels, which are continually changing through the wearing away +of the alluvial banks. These changes in the channel are also at work +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span> +in the Lower Magdalena. The remaining rivers of the Caribbean +system, exclusive of the smaller ones rising in the Sierra Nevada +de Santa Marta, are the Zulia and Catatumbo, which rise in the +mountains of northern Santander and flow across the low plains of +the Venezuelan state of Zulia into Lake Maracaibo.</p> + +<p>Of the rivers of the great eastern plains, whose waters pass through +the Orinoco and Amazon to the Atlantic, little can be said beyond +the barest geographical description. The size and courses of many +of their affluents are still unknown, as this great region has been only +partially explored. The largest of these rivers flow across the plains +in an easterly direction, those of the Orinoco system inclining northward, +and those of the Amazon system southward. The first include +the Guaviare or Guayabero, the Vichada, the Meta, and the upper +course of the Arauca. The Guaviare was explored by Crevaux in +1881. It rises on the eastern slopes of the Eastern Cordillera between +the 3rd and 4th parallels, about 75 m. south of Bogotá, and flows +with a slight southward curve across the llanos to the Orinoco, into +which it discharges at San Fernando de Atabapo in lat. 4° N. Its +largest tributary is the Inirida, which enters from the south. The +Guaviare has about 600 m. of navigable channel. The Meta rises +on the opposite side of the Cordillera from Bogotá, and flows with a +sluggish current east-north-east across the llanos to the Orinoco, +into which it discharges below the Atures rapids, in lat. 6° 22′ N. +It is navigable throughout almost its whole length, small steamers +ascending it to a point within 100 m. of Bogotá. Its principal +tributaries, so far as known, are the Tuca, Chire and Casanare. +The principal rivers of the Amazon system are the Napo, the upper +part of which forms the provisional boundary line with Ecuador, +the Putumayo or Iça, and the Caqueta or Japurá (Yapurá), which +flow from the Andes entirely across the eastern plains, and the +Guainia, which rises on the northern slopes of the Serra Tunaji +near the provisional Brazilian frontier, and flows with a great northward +curve to the Venezuelan and Brazilian frontiers, and is thereafter +known as the Rio Negro, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. +There are many large tributaries of these rivers in the unexplored +regions of south-eastern Colombia, but their names as well as their +courses are still unsettled.</p> + +<p>The coast of Colombia faces on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean +Sea, and is divided by the Isthmus of Panama into two completely +separated parts. The Pacific coast-line, omitting minor +convolutions, has a length of about 500 m., while that of +<span class="sidenote">Coasts.</span> +the Caribbean is about 700 m. The former has been of slight service +in the development of the country because of the unsettled and +unhealthy character of the coast region, and the high mountain +barriers between its natural ports and the settled parts of the republic. +There are only two commercial ports on the coast, Tumaco +and Buenaventura, though there are several natural harbours +which would be of great service were there any demand for them. +The rivers Mira, Patia and San Juan permit the entrance of small +steamers, as also some of the smaller rivers. The larger bays on +this coast are Tumaco, Chocó, Magdalena, Cabita, Coqui, Puerto +Utria, Solano, Cupica and Octavia—some of them affording exceptionally +safe and well-sheltered harbours. The Caribbean coast +of Colombia has only four ports engaged in international trade—Barranquilla, +Cartagena, Santa Marta and Rio Hacha. There are +some smaller ports on the coast, but they are open only to vessels +of light draft and have no trade worth mention. Barranquilla, +the principal port of the republic, is situated on the Magdalena, +and its seaport, or landing-place, is Puerto Colombia at the inner +end of Savanilla Bay, where a steel pier 4000 ft. long has been built +out to deep water, alongside which ocean-going vessels can receive and +discharge cargo. The bay is slowly filling up, however, and two +other landing-places—Salgar and Savanilla—had to be abandoned +before Puerto Colombia was selected. The pier-head had 24 ft. of +water alongside in 1907, but the silt brought down by the Magdalena +is turned westward by the current along this coast, and may at any +time fill the bay with dangerous shoals. The oldest and best port +on the coast is Cartagena, 65 m. south-west of Barranquilla, which +has a well-sheltered harbour protected by islands, and is connected +with the Magdalena at Calamar by railway. The next best port is +that of Santa Marta, about 46 m. east-north-east of Barranquilla +(in a straight line), with which it is connected by 23 m. of railway +and 50 m. of inland navigation on the Ciénaga de Santa Marta and +eastern outlets of the Magdalena. Santa Marta is situated on a +small, almost landlocked bay, well protected from prevailing +winds by high land on the north and north-east, affording excellent +anchorage in waters free from shoaling through the deposit of silt. +The depth of the bay ranges from 4½ to 19 fathoms. The town +stands at the foot of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, which +restricts the area of cultivatable land in its immediate vicinity, +and the enclosing high lands make the climate hot and somewhat +dangerous for foreigners. Since the development of the fruit trade +on the shores of the Caribbean sea and Gulf of Mexico by an important +American company, which owns a large tract of land near +Santa Marta devoted to banana cultivation, and has built a railway +50 m. inland principally for the transportation of fruit, the trade +of the port has greatly increased. The population of this region, +however, is sparse, and its growth is slow. The fourth port on this +coast is Rio Hacha, an open roadstead, about 93 m. east of Santa +Marta, at the mouth of the small river Rancheira descending from +the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. It has +little trade, and the undeveloped, unpopulated state of the country +behind it affords no promise of immediate growth. There are other +small towns on the coast which are ports for the small vessels engaged +in the coasting and river trade, but they have no international importance +because of their inaccessibility to ocean-going steamers, +or the extremely small volume of their trade. The Gulf of Uraba is +a large bight or southerly extension of the Gulf of Darien. It +receives the waters of the Atrato, Bacuba, and a number of small +rivers, and penetrates the land about 50 m., but has very little commercial +importance because of the unhealthy and unsettled character +of the neighbouring country, and because of the bar across its +entrance formed by silt from the Atrato. The Gulf of Morosquillo, +a broad shallow indentation of the coast south of Cartagena, receives +the waters of the Rio Sinú, at the mouth of which is the small port +of Cispata. Between the mouth of the Magdalena and Santa Marta +is the Ciénaga de Santa Marta, a large marshy lagoon separated +from the sea by a narrow sand spit, having its “boca” or outlet +at its eastern side. There is some traffic in small steamers on its +shallow waters, which is increasing with the development of fruit +cultivation on its eastern and southern sides. It extends inland +about 31 m., and marks a deep indentation of the coast like the +Gulf of Uraba.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The geology of Colombia is very imperfectly known, and +it is only by a comparison with the neighbouring regions that it is +possible to form any clear idea of the geological structure and +succession. The oldest rocks are gneisses and schists, together with +granite and other eruptive rocks. These are overlaid by sandstones, +slates and limestones, alternating with porphyries and porphyrites +sometimes in the form of sheets, sometimes as breccias and conglomerates. +Cretaceous fossils have been found abundantly in this +series, but it is still possible that earlier systems may be represented. +Coal-bearing beds, possibly of Tertiary age, occur in Antioquia and +elsewhere. Structurally, the four main chains of Colombia differ +considerably from one another in geological constitution. The +low Cordilleras of the Chocos, on the west coast, are covered by soft +Quaternary sandstones and marls containing shells of extant species, +such as still inhabit the neighbouring ocean. The Western Cordillera +is the direct continuation of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador, +and, like the latter, to judge from the scattered observations which +are all that are available, consists chiefly of sandstones and porphyritic +rocks of the Cretaceous series. Between the Western and the +Central Cordilleras is a longitudinal depression along which the river +Cauca finds its way towards the sea. On the western side of this +depression there are red sandstones with coal-seams, possibly +Tertiary; the floor and the eastern side consist chiefly of ancient +crystalline and schistose rocks. The Central Cordillera is the direct +continuation of the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador, and is formed +chiefly of gneiss and other crystalline rocks, but sedimentary deposits +of Cretaceous age also occur. Finally the Eastern branch, known +as the Cordillera of Bogotá, is composed almost entirely of Cretaceous +beds thrown into a series of regular anticlinals and synclinals similar +to those of the Jura Mountains. The older rocks occasionally appear +in the centre of the anticlinals. In all these branches of the Andes +the folds run approximately in the direction of the chains, but the +Sierra de Santa Marta appears to belong to a totally distinct system +of folding, the direction of the folds being from west to east, bending +gradually towards the south-east. Although volcanoes are by no +means absent, they are much less important than in Ecuador, and +their products take a far smaller share in the formation of the Andes. +In Ecuador the depression between the Eastern and Western Cordilleras +is almost entirely filled with modern lavas and agglomerates; +in Colombia the corresponding Cauca depression is almost free from +such deposits. In the Central Cordillera volcanoes extend to about +5° N.; in the Western Cordillera they barely enter within the +limits of Colombia; in the Cordillera of Bogotá they are entirely +absent.<a name="FnAnchor_1j" id="FnAnchor_1j" href="#Footnote_1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—Were it not for the high altitudes of western Colombia, +high temperatures would prevail over the whole country, except +where modified by the north-east trade winds and the cold ocean +current which sweeps up the western coast. The elevated plateaus +and summits of the Andes are responsible, however, for many +important and profound modifications in climate, not only in respect +to the lower temperatures of the higher elevations, but also in respect +to the higher temperatures of the sheltered lowland valleys and the +varying climatic conditions of the neighbouring plains. The +republic lies almost wholly within the north torrid zone, a comparatively +small part of the forested Amazonian plain extending beyond +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span> +the equator into the south torrid zone. The great Andean barrier +which crosses the republic from the south to north acts as a condenser +to the prevailing easterly winds from the Atlantic, and causes a very +heavy rainfall on their eastern slopes and over the forested Amazon +plain. High temperatures as well as excessive humidity prevail +throughout this region. Farther north, on the open llanos of the +Orinoco tributaries, the year is divided into equal parts, an alternating +wet and dry season, the sun temperatures being high followed +by cool nights, and the temperatures of the rainy season being even +higher. The rainfall is heavy in the wet season, causing many of the +rivers to spread over extensive areas, but in the dry season the inundated +plains become dry, the large rivers fed by the snows and +rainfall of the Andes return within their banks, the shallow lagoons +and smaller streams dry up, vegetation disappears, and the level +plain becomes a desert. The northern plains of the republic are +swept by the north-east trades, and here, too, the mountain barriers +exercise a strongly modifying influence. The low ridges of the Sierra +de Perijá do not wholly shut out these moisture-laden winds, but +they cause a heavy rainfall on their eastern slopes, and create a +dry area on their western flanks, of which the Vale of Upar is an +example. The higher masses of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta +cover a very limited area, leaving the trade winds a comparatively +unbroken sweep across the northern plains until checked by the +Western Cordillera, the Panama ranges and the Sierra de Baudo, +where a heavy precipitation follows. Farther south the coast ranges +cause a very heavy rainfall on their western slopes, which are quite +as uninhabitable because of rain and heat as are the coasts of +southern Chile through rain and cold. The rainfall on this coast is +said to average 73 in., though it is much higher at certain points +and in the Atrato Valley. As a result the coastal plain is covered +with swamps and tangled forests, and is extremely unhealthy, +except at a few favoured points on the coast. High temperatures +prevail throughout the greater part of the Magdalena and Cauca +valleys, because the mountain ranges which enclose them shut out +the prevailing winds. At Honda, on the Magdalena, 664 ft. above +sea-level, the mean temperature for the year is 82° F., and the +mercury frequently rises to 102° in the shade. These lowland plains +and valleys comprise the climatic tropical zone of Colombia, which +is characterized by high temperatures, and by excessive humidity +and dense forests, an exception to the last-named characteristic +being the open llanos where dry summers prevail. Above this +tropical zone in the mountainous regions are to be found all the +varying gradations of climate which we are accustomed to associate +with changes in latitude. There are the subtropical districts of the +valleys and slopes between 1500 and 7500 ft. elevation, which include +some of the most fertile and productive areas in Colombia; the +temperate districts between 7500 and 10,000 ft., the cold, bleak and +inhospitable <i>paramos</i> between 10,000 and 15,000 ft., and above +these the arctic wastes of ice and snow. The temperate and subtropical +regions cover the greater part of the departments traversed +by the Eastern Cordillera, the northern end of the Central Cordillera, +the Santa Marta plateaus, and the Upper Cauca Valley. They +include the larger part of the white population and the chief productive +industries of the country. There is no satisfactory record +of temperatures and rainfall in these widely different climatic zones +from which correct averages can be drawn and compared. Observations +have been made and recorded at Bogotá and at some other large +towns, but for the greater part of the country we have only fragmentary +reports. The mean annual temperature on the eastern +plains, so far as known, ranges from 87° F. on the forested slopes +to 90° and 91° on the llanos of the Meta and Arauca. On the +Caribbean coastal plain it ranges from 80° to 84°, but at Tumaco, +on the Pacific coast, within two degrees of the equator, it is only 79°. +At Medellin, in the mountainous region of Antioquia, 4950 ft. above +sea-level, the mean annual temperature is 70°, and the yearly rainfall +55 in., while at Bogotá, 8563 ft., the former is 57° and the latter +44 in. At Tuquerres, near the frontier of Ecuador, 10,200 ft. elevation, +the mean annual temperature is said to be 55°. The changes of +seasons are no less complicated and confusing. A considerable +part of the republic is covered by the equatorial belt of calms, +whose oscillations divide the year into a wet and dry season. This +division is modified, however, by the location of mountain ranges +and by elevation. In the Amazon region there is no great change +during the year, and on the northern plains the so-called dry season +is one of light rains except where mountain ranges break the sweep +of the north-east trades. The alternating wet and dry seasons are +likewise to be found on the Pacific coastal plain, though this region +is not entirely dry and vegetation never dries up as on the <i>llanos</i>. +Above the lowland plains the seasons vary in character according +to geographical position and elevation. The two-season division +rules in the departments of Santander and Antioquia, but without +the extremes of humidity and aridity characteristic of the eastern +plains. Farther south, at elevations between 800 and 9500 ft., +the year is divided into four distinct seasons—two wet and two dry—the +former called <i>inviernos</i> (winters) and the latter <i>veranos</i> +(summers). These seasons are governed by the apparent movements +of the sun, the winters occurring at the equinoxes and the summers +at the solstices. The <i>sabana</i> of Bogotá and neighbouring districts +are subject to these changes of season. At higher altitudes long, +cold, wet winters are experienced, with so short and cold a summer +between them that the bleak <i>paramos</i> are left uninhabited except +by a few shepherds in the short dry season.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—The geographical position of Colombia gives to it a +fauna and flora largely characteristic of the great tropical region of +the Amazon on the south-east, and of the mountainous regions of +Central America on the north-west. At the same time it is rich in +animal and plant types of its own, especially the latter, and is +considered one of the best fields in South America for the student +and collector. The fauna is essentially tropical, though a few species +characteristic of colder regions are to be found in the higher Andes. +Of the Quadrumana there are at least seventeen distinct species, +and this number may be increased after a thorough exploration of +the forested eastern plains. They are all arboreal in habit, and are +to be found throughout the forested lowlands and lower mountain +slopes. The carnivora are represented by seven or eight species of +the Felidae, the largest of which are the puma (<i>Felis concolor</i>) and +the jaguar (<i>F. onca</i>). These animals, together with the smaller +ocelot, have a wide geographical range, and are very numerous in the +valley of the Magdalena. Two species of bear and the “coatí” +(<i>Nasua</i>) represent the plantigrades and inhabit the mountain slopes, +and, of Pachydermata, the peccary (<i>Dicotyles</i>) and “danta” or +tapir (<i>Tapirus</i>) have a wide distribution throughout the lowland +and lower plateau forests. The Colombian tapir is known as the +<i>Tapirus Roulini</i>, and is slightly smaller than the Brazilian species +(<i>T. americanus</i>). There are deer in the forests and on the open +savannahs, the rabbit and squirrel are to be seen on the eastern slopes +of the Andes, and partly amphibious rodents, the “capybara” +(<i>Hydrochoerus</i>) and “guagua” (<i>Coelogenys subniger</i>), are very +numerous along the wooded watercourses. The sloth, armadillo, +opossum, skunk and a species of fox complete the list of the more +common quadrupeds so far as known, though it is certain that a +careful biological survey would discover many others. The large +rivers of Colombia and the lakes of the lowlands are filled with +alligators, turtles, and fish, and several species of fish are highly +esteemed by the natives as food. The saurians are represented on +land by several species of lizard, some of them conspicuous for their +brilliant colouring, and by the large “iguana,” whose flesh is considered +a great delicacy. Among the ophidians, which include many +harmless species, are the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, the dreaded +<i>Lachesis</i> and the coral snake. The “manatee” (<i>Manatus americanus</i>) +is found in the Atrato and other large Colombian rivers.</p> + +<p>In bird and insect life Colombia is second only to Brazil. The +condor, which inhabits the higher Cordilleras, is peculiar to the whole +Andean region, and is the largest of the Raptores. Among other +members of this order are the eagle, osprey, vulture, buzzard, kite +and hawk, with about a dozen species in all. Parrots and paroquets +are numerous everywhere in the tropical and subtropical regions, +as also the gorgeously coloured macaw and awkward toucan. The +largest class, perhaps, is that formed by the astonishing number of +water-fowl which throng the shallow lagoons and river beaches +at certain seasons of the year. They are mostly migratory in habit, +and are to be found in many other countries. Among these are the +large white crane and small crane, the blue heron, the snowy-white +egret, the roseate spoonbill (<i>Platalea ajaja</i>), stork, bittern and many +species of ducks. The largest and most conspicuous member of this +interesting family is the <i>Mycteria americana</i>, the gigantic stork so +frequently seen in the Amazon valley, and even more numerous +about the lagoons of northern Colombia. One of the best game-birds +of the forest is the “crested curassow” (<i>Crax alector</i>), sometimes +weighing 12lb, which feeds on arboreal fruits and rarely comes to +the ground. Colombia also possesses many species of the beautiful +little humming-bird, among which are the tiny <i>Steganura Underwoodi</i> +and the sword-bill, <i>Docimastes ensiferus</i>, which were found by Mr +Albert Millican on a bleak <i>paramo</i> 12,000 ft. above sea-level. One +of the most interesting birds found in the country is the “weaver-bird” +(<i>Cassicus persicus</i>), which lives in colonies and suspends its +long, pouch-like nest from the end of a horizontal branch of some +high, isolated tree. In regard to insects, what has been said of +Brazil will apply very closely to Colombia. Mosquitoes, butterflies, +spiders, beetles and ants are infinitely numerous, and some of the +species are indescribably troublesome.</p> + +<p><i>Flora.</i>—The Colombian flora is richer in species and individual +characteristics than the fauna, owing in part to its greater dependence +on climatic conditions. It ranges from the purely tropical types +of the lowlands to the Alpine species of the more elevated <i>paramos</i>. +It should be remembered, however, that large areas of the lowland +plains have only a very limited arboreal growth. These plains +include the extensive llanos of the Orinoco tributaries where coarse, +hardy grasses and occasional clumps of palms are almost the only +vegetation to be seen. There are other open plains in northern +Colombia, sometimes covered with a shrubby growth, and the +“mesas” (flat-topped mountains) and plateaus of the Cordilleras +are frequently bare of trees. Farther up, on the cold, bleak <i>paramos</i>, +only stunted and hardy trees are to be found. On the other hand, +a luxuriant forest growth covers a very large part of the republic, +including the southern plains of the Amazon tributaries, the foothills, +slopes and valleys of the Cordilleras, a larger part of the +northern plains, and the whole surface of the Western Cordillera and +coast. The most conspicuous and perhaps the most universal type +in all these regions, below an approximate elevation of 10,000 ft., +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span> +is the palm, whose varieties and uses are incredibly numerous. +On the eastern plains are to be found the “miriti” (<i>Mauritia +flexuosa</i>) and the “pirijao” or peach palm (<i>Guilielma speciosa</i>), +called the “pupunha” on the Amazon, whose fruit, fibre, leaf, sap, +pith and wood meet so large a part of the primary needs of the +aborigines. A noteworthy palm of the eastern Andean slopes is the +“corneto” (<i>Deckeria</i>), whose tall, slender trunk starts from the apex +of a number of aerial roots, rising like a cone 6 to 8 ft. above the +ground. It is one of the most fruitful of palms, its clusters weighing +from 120 to 200 ℔ each. Extensive groves of the coco-nut palm +are to be found on the Caribbean coast, the fruit and fibre of which +figure among the national exports. In north-eastern Colombia, +where a part of the year is dry, the “curuas” form the prevailing +species, but farther south, on the slopes of the Cordilleras up to an +elevation of 10,000 ft., the wax-palm, or “palma de cera” (<i>Ceroxylon +andicola</i>), is said to be the most numerous. It is a tall slender palm, +and is the source of the vegetable wax so largely used in some parts +of the country in the manufacture of matches, a single stem sometimes +yielding 16-20 ℔. Another widely distributed species in +central Colombia is known as the “palmita del Azufral” in some +localities, and as the “palma real” and “palma dolce” in others. +Humboldt says it is not the “palma real” of Cuba (<i>Oreodoxa regia</i>), +but in the Rio Sinú region is the <i>Cocos butyracea</i>, or the “palma +dolce,” from which palm wine is derived. Another palm of much +economic importance in Colombia is the “tagua” (<i>Phytelephas +macrocarpa</i>), which grows abundantly in the valleys of the Magdalena, +Atrato and Patia, and produces a large melon-shaped fruit in which +are found the extremely hard, fine-grained nuts or seeds known in +the commercial world as vegetable ivory. The Colombian “Panama +hat” is made from the fibres extracted from the ribs of the fan-shaped +leaves of still another species of palm, <i>Carludovica palmata</i>, +while in the Rio Sinú region the natives make a kind of butter +(“manteca de Corozo”) from the <i>Elaeis melanococca</i>, Mart., by +peeling the nuts in water and then purifying the oil extracted in this +way by boiling. This oil was formerly used for illuminating purposes. +The forests are never made up wholly of palms, but are composed +of trees of widely different characters, including many common to +the Amazon region, together with others found in Central American +forests, such as mahogany and “vera” or lignum vitae (<i>Zygophyllum +arboreum</i>). Brazilwood (<i>Caesalpinia echinata</i>), valuable for its +timber and colouring extract, and “roco” (<i>Bixa orellana</i>), the +“urucú” of Brazil which furnishes the anatto of commerce, are +widely distributed in central and southern Colombia, and another +species of the first-named genus, the <i>C. coariaria</i>, produces the +“divi-divi” of the Colombian export trade—a peculiarly shaped +seed-pod, rich in tannic and gallic acids, and used for tanning leather. +The rubber-producing <i>Hevea guayanensis</i> is found in abundance on +the Amazon tributaries, and the <i>Castilloa elastica</i> is common to all +the Caribbean river valleys. Southern Colombia, especially the +eastern slopes of the Andes, produces another valuable tree, the +<i>Cinchona calisaya</i>, from the bark of which quinine is made. These +are but a few of the valuable cabinet woods, dye-woods, &c., which +are to be found in the forests, but have hardly been reached by +commerce because of their inaccessibility and the unsettled state of +the country. The adventurous orchid-hunter, however, has penetrated +deeply into their recesses in search of choice varieties, and +collectors of these valuable plants are largely indebted to Colombia +for their specimens of <i>Cattleya Mendelli</i>, <i>Warscewiczii</i> and <i>Trianae</i>; +<i>Dowiana aurea</i>; <i>Odontoglossum crispum</i>, <i>Pescatorei</i>, <i>vexillarium</i>, +<i>odoratum</i>, <i>coronarium</i>, <i>Harryanum</i>, and <i>blandum</i>; <i>Miltonia vexillaria</i>; +<i>Oncidium carthaginense</i> and <i>Kramerianum</i>; <i>Masdevalliae</i>, +<i>Epidendra</i>, <i>Schomburgkiae</i> and many others. Colombia is also the +home of the American “Alpine rose” (<i>Befaria</i>), which is to be found +between 9000 and 11,000 ft. elevation, and grows to a height of +5-6 ft. Tree ferns have a remarkable growth in many localities, +their stems being used in southern Cundinamarca to make corduroy +roads. The South American bamboo (<i>Bambusa guadia</i>) has a very +wide range, and is found nearly up to the limit of perpetual snow. +The cactus is also widely distributed, and is represented by several +well-known species. Among the more common fruit-trees, some of +which are exotics, may be mentioned cacáo (<i>Theobroma</i>), orange, +lemon, lime, pine-apple, banana, guava (<i>Psidium</i>), breadfruit (<i>Artocarpus</i>), +cashew (<i>Anacardium</i>), alligator pear (<i>Persea</i>), with the apple, +peach, pear, and other fruits of the temperate zone on the elevated +plateaus. Other food and economic plants are coffee, rice, tobacco, +sugar-cane, cotton, indigo, vanilla, cassava or “yucca,” sweet and +white potatoes, wheat, maize, rye, barley, and vegetables of both +tropical and temperate climates. It is claimed in Colombia that a +species of wild potato found on the <i>paramos</i> is the parent of the +cultivated potato.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The number of the population of Colombia +is very largely a matter of speculation. A census was taken in +1871, when the population was 2,951,323. What the vegetative +increase has been since then (for there has been no immigration) +is purely conjectural, as there are no available returns of births +and deaths upon which an estimate can be based. Civil war +has caused a large loss of life, and the withdrawal from their +homes of a considerable part of the male population, some of them +for military service and a greater number going into concealment +to escape it, and it is certain that the rate of increase has been +small. Some statistical authorities have adopted 1½% as the +rate, but this is too high for such a period. All things considered, +an annual increase of 1% for the thirty-five years between +1871 and 1906 would seem to be more nearly correct, which would +give a population in the latter year—exclusive of the population +of Panama—of a little over 3,800,000. The <i>Statesman’s Year +Book</i> for 1907 estimates it at 4,279,674 in 1905, including about +150,000 wild Indians, while Supan’s <i>Die Bevölkerung der Erde</i> +(1904) places it at 3,917,000 in 1899. Of the total only 10% +is classed as white and 15% as Indian, 40% as <i>mestizos</i> (white +and Indian mixture), and 35% negroes and their mixtures with +the other two races. The large proportion of mestizos, if these +percentages are correct, is significant because it implies a persistence +of type that may largely determine the character of +Colombia’s future population, unless the more slowly increasing +white element can be reinforced by immigration.</p> + +<p>The white contingent in the population of Colombia is chiefly +composed of the descendants of the Spanish colonists who settled +there during the three centuries following its discovery and +conquest. Mining enterprises and climate drew them into the +highlands of the interior, and there they have remained down +to the present day, their only settlements on the hot, unhealthy +coast being the few ports necessary for commercial and political +intercourse with the mother country. The isolation of these +distant inland settlements has served to preserve the language, +manners and physical characteristics of these early colonists +with less variation than in any other Spanish-American state. +They form an intelligent, high-spirited class of people, with all +the defects and virtues of their ancestry. Their isolation has +made them ignorant to some extent of the world’s progress, +while a supersensitive patriotism blinds them to the discredit +and disorganization which political strife and misrule have +brought upon them. A very small proportion of the white element +consists of foreigners engaged in commercial and industrial +pursuits, but they very rarely become permanently identified +with the fortunes of the country. The native whites form the +governing class, and enjoy most of the powers and privileges of +political office.</p> + +<p>Of the original inhabitants there remain only a few scattered +tribes in the forests, who refuse to submit to civilized requirements, +and a much larger number who live in organized communities +and have adopted the language, customs and habits +of the dominant race. Their total number is estimated at 15% +of the population, or nearly 600,000, including the 120,000 +to 150,000 credited to the uncivilized tribes. Many of the +civilized Indian communities have not become wholly Hispanicized +and still retain their own dialects and customs, their attitude +being that of a conquered race submitting to the customs and +demands of a social organization of which they form no part. +According to Uricoechea there are at least twenty-seven native +languages spoken in the western part of Colombia, fourteen in +Tolima, thirteen in the region of the Caquetá, twelve in Panama, +Bolívar and Magdalena, ten in Bogotá and Cundinamarca, +and thirty-four in the region of the Meta, while twelve had died +out during the preceding century. The tribes of the Caribbean +seaboard, from Chiriqui to Goajira, are generally attached to the +great Carib stock; those of the eastern plains show affinities +with the neighbouring Brazilian races; those of the elevated +Tuquerres district are of the Peruvian type; and the tribes of +Antioquia, Cauca, Popayan and Neiva preserve characteristics +more akin to those of the Aztecs than to any other race. At +the time of the Spanish Conquest the most important of these +tribes was the Muyscas or Chibchas, who inhabited the tablelands +of Bogotá and Tunja, and had attained a considerable +degree of civilization. They lived in settled communities, +cultivated the soil to some extent, and ascribed their progress +toward civilization to a legendary cause remarkably similar to +those of the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru. They are +represented by some tribes living on the head-waters of the Meta, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span> +and their blood flows in the veins of the <i>mestizos</i> of the Bogotá +plateau. Their ancient language has been partly preserved +through the labours of Gonzalo Bermudez, José Dadei, Bernardo +de Lugo, and Ezequiel Uricoechea, the last having made it the +subject of a special study. According to this author the Chibchas +were composed of three loosely united nationalities governed +by three independent chiefs—the <i>Zipa</i> of Muequetá (the present +Funza), the <i>Zaque</i> of Hunsa (now Tunja), and the <i>Jeque</i> of Iraca, +who was regarded as the successor of the god Nemterequeteba, +whom they worshipped as the author of their civilization. The +latter had his residence at Suamoz, or Sogamoso.</p> + +<p>The Tayronas, of the Santa Marta highlands, who have +totally disappeared, were also remarkable for the progress which +they had made toward civilization. Evidence of this is to be +found in the excellent roads which they constructed, and in the +skilfully made gold ornaments which have been found in the +district which they occupied, as well as in the contemporary +accounts of them by their conquerors. Among the tribes which +are still living in a savage state are the Mesayas, Caquetas, +Mocoas, Amarizanos, Guipanabis and Andaquies of the unsettled +eastern territories; the Goajiros, Motilones, Guainetas, +and Cocinas of the Rio Hacha, Upar and Santa Marta districts; +and the Dariens, Cunacunas, and Chocos of the Atrato basin. +These tribes have successfully resisted all efforts to bring them +under political and ecclesiastical control, and their subjection +is still a matter of no small concern to the Colombian government. +As late as the year 1900 Mr Albert Millican, while collecting +orchids on the Opon river, a tributary of the Magdalena +between Bogotá and the Caribbean coast, was attacked by +hostile Indians, and one of his companions was killed by a +poisoned arrow. These hostile tribes are usually too small to +make much trouble, but they are able to make exploration and +settlement decidedly dangerous in some districts.</p> + +<p>The <i>mestizos</i>, like the whites and Indians, chiefly inhabit the +more elevated regions of the interior. They are of a sturdy, +patient type, like their Indian ancestors, and are sufficiently +industrious to carry on many of the small industries and occupations, +and to meet the labour requirements of the inhabited +plateau districts. Those of the urban middle classes are shopkeepers +and artizans, and those of the lower class are domestics +and day labourers. The whites of Spanish descent object to +manual labour, and this places all such occupations in the hands +of the coloured races. In the country the <i>mestizos</i> are small +agriculturists, herders, labourers and fishermen; but there are +many educated and successful merchants and professional men +among them. There are no social barriers in their intercourse +with the whites, nor race barriers against those who have political +aspirations. The negroes of pure blood are to be found principally +on the coastal plains and in the great lowland river valleys, +where they live in great part on the bounties of nature. A small +percentage of them are engaged in trade and other occupations; +a few are small agriculturists.</p> + +<p>Bogotá was reputed to be a centre of learning in colonial times, +but there was no great breadth and depth to it, and it produced +nothing of real value. By nature the Spanish-American loves +art and literature, and the poetic faculty is developed in him +to a degree rarely found among the Teutonic races. Writing +and reciting poetry are universal, and fill as important a place +in social life as instrumental music. In Colombia, as elsewhere, +much attention has been given to belles-lettres among the +whites of Spanish descent, but as yet the republic has practically +nothing of a permanent character to show for it. The natural +sciences attracted attention very early through the labours of +José Celestino Mútis, who was followed by a number of writers +of local repute, such as Zea, Cabal, Cáldas, Pombo, Cespedes, +Camacho and Lozano. We are indebted to Humboldt for our +earliest geographical descriptions of the northern part of the +continent, but to the Italian, Augustin Codazzi, who became a +Colombian after the War of Independence, Colombia is indebted +for the first systematic exploration of her territory. Geographical +description has had a peculiar fascination for Colombian +writers, and there have been a number of books issued since the +appearance of Codazzi’s <i>Resumen</i> and <i>Atlas</i>. Historical writing +has also received much attention, beginning with the early work +of José Manuel Restrepo (1827), and a considerable number of +histories, compendiums and memoirs have been published, but +none of real importance. Some good work has been done in +ethnography and archaeology by some writers of the colonial +period, and by Ezequiel Uricoechea and Ernesto Restrepo.</p> + +<p><i>Territorial Divisions and Towns.</i>—Previously to 1903 the republic +was divided into nine departments, which were then +reduced to eight by the secession of Panama. This division of +the national territory was modified in 1905, by creating seven +additional departments from detached portions of the old ones, +and by cutting up the unsettled districts of Goajira and the great +eastern plains into four <i>intendencias</i>. The fifteen departments +thus constituted, with the official estimates of 1905 regarding +their areas and populations, are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Department.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area <br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Estimated <br />Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Capital.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Estimated <br />Population.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Antioquia</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">750,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Medellin</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Atlantico</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,080</td> <td class="tcr rb">104,674</td> <td class="tcl rb">Barranquilla</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,115</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bolívar</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,940</td> <td class="tcr rb">250,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cartagena</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Boyacá</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,630</td> <td class="tcr rb">350,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tunja</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cáldas</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,920</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Manizales</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cauca</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,030</td> <td class="tcr rb">400,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Popayán</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cundinamarca</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,060</td> <td class="tcr rb">225,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Facatativá</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Galán</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,950</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">San Gil</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Huila</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,690</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Neiva</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magdalena</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,460</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Santa Marta</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nariño</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,040</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pasto</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Quesada</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Zipaquirá</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Santander</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,970</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bucaramanga</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tolima</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibagué</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tundama</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,390</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Santa Rosa</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Federal District</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bogotá</td> <td class="tcr rb">120,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Intendencias (4)</td> <td class="tcr rb">277,620</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Totals</td> <td class="tcr allb">444,980</td> <td class="tcr allb">4,279,674</td> <td class="tcc allb">..</td> <td class="tcc allb">..</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Of these departments the original eight are Antioquia, Bolívar, +Boyacá (or Bojacá), Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Santander +and Tolima. The four intendencias are called Goajira, +Meta, Alto Caquetá and Putumayo, and their aggregate area is +estimated to be considerably more than half of the republic. +The first covers the Goajira peninsula, which formerly belonged +to the department of Magdalena, and the other three roughly +correspond to the drainage basins of the three great rivers of the +eastern plains whose names they bear. These territories formerly +belonged to the departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca and +Cauca. The seven new departments are: Atlantico, taken +from the northern extremity of Bolívar; Cáldas, the southern +part of Antioquia; Galán, the southern districts of Santander, +including Charalá, Socorro, Velez, and its capital San Gil; +Huila, the southern part of Tolima, including the headwaters +of the Magdalena and the districts about Neiva and La Plata; +Nariño, the southern part of Cauca extending from the eastern +Cordillera to the Pacific coast; Quesada, a cluster of small, well-populated +districts north of Bogotá formerly belonging to +Cundinamarca, including Zipaquirá, Guatavita, Ubaté and +Pacho; and Tundama, the northern part of Boyacá lying on the +frontier of Galán in the vicinity of its capital Santa Rosa. The +Federal District consists of a small area surrounding the national +capital taken from the department of Cundinamarca. These +fifteen departments are subdivided into provinces, 92 in all, +and these into municipalities, of which there are 740.</p> + +<p>The larger cities and towns of the republic other than the +department capitals, with their estimated populations in 1904, +are:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Aguadas (Antioquia)</td> <td class="tcr">13,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Antioquia (Antioquia)</td> <td class="tcr">13,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Barbacoas (Nariño)</td> <td class="tcr">16,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Buga (Cauca)</td> <td class="tcr">12,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cali (Cauca)</td> <td class="tcr">16,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Chiquinquira (Boyacá)</td> <td class="tcr">18,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">La Mesa (Cundinamarca)</td> <td class="tcr">10,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pamplona (Santander)</td> <td class="tcr">11,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Palmira (Cauca)</td> <td class="tcr">15,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pié de Cuesta (Santander)</td> <td class="tcr">12,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Puerto Nacional</td> <td class="tcr">16,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Rio Negro (Antioquia)</td> <td class="tcr">12,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Santa Rosa de Osos (Antioquia)</td> <td class="tcr">11,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sonson</td> <td class="tcr">15,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">San José de Cúcuta (Santander)</td> <td class="tcr">13,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Soatá (Boyacá)</td> <td class="tcr">16,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Socorro (Galán)</td> <td class="tcr">20,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Velez (Galán)</td> <td class="tcr">15,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Among the smaller towns which deserve mention are Ambalema +on the upper Magdalena, celebrated for its tobacco and cigars; +Buenaventura (<i>q.v.</i>); Chaparral (9000), a market town of Tolima +in the valley of the Saldaña, with coal, iron and petroleum in +its vicinity; Honda (6000), an important commercial centre at +the head of navigation on the lower Magdalena; Girardot, a +railway centre on the upper Magdalena; and Quibdó, a small +river town at the head of navigation on the Atrato.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The railway problem in Colombia is one +of peculiar difficulty. The larger part of the inhabited and +productive districts of the republic is situated in the mountainous +departments of the interior, and is separated from the coast by +low, swampy, malarial plains, and by very difficult mountain +chains. These centres of production are also separated from +each other by high ridges and deep valleys, making it extremely +difficult to connect them by a single transportation route. The +one common outlet for these districts is the Magdalena river, +whose navigable channel penetrates directly into the heart of +the country. From Bogotá the Spaniards constructed two +partially-paved highways, one leading down to the Magdalena +in the vicinity of Honda, while the other passed down into the +upper valley of the same river in a south-westerly direction, over +which communication was maintained with Popayan and other +settlements of southern Colombia and Ecuador. This highway +was known as the <i>camino real</i>. Political independence and +misrule led to the abandonment of these roads, and they are now +little better than the bridle-paths which are usually the only +means of communication between the scattered communities +of the Cordilleras. In some of the more thickly settled and +prosperous districts of the Eastern Cordillera these bridle paths +have been so much improved that they may be considered +reasonably good mountain roads, the traffic over them being +that of pack animals and not of wheeled vehicles. Navigation +on the lower Magdalena closely resembles that of the Mississippi, +the same type of light-draft, flat-bottomed steamboat being used, +and similar obstacles and dangers to navigation being encountered. +There is also the same liability to change its channel, +as shown in the case of Mompox, once an important and prosperous +town of the lower plain situated on the main channel, +now a decaying, unimportant place on a shallow branch 20 m. +east of the main river. Small steamers also navigate the lower +Cauca and Nechi rivers, and a limited service is maintained on +the upper Cauca.</p> + +<p>With three exceptions all the railway lines of the country +lead to the Magdalena, and are dependent upon its steamship +service for transportation to and from the coast. In 1906, +according to an official statement, these lines were: (1) The +Barranquilla and Savanilla (Puerto Colombia), 17½ m. in length; +(2) the Cartagena and Calamar, 65 m.; (3) the La Dorada & +Arancaplumas (around the Honda rapids), 20½ m.; (4) the +Colombian National, from Girardot to Facatativá, 80 m., of +which 48½ m. were completed in 1906; (5) the Girardot to +Espinal, 13½ m., part of a projected line running south-west from +Girardot; (6) the Sabana railway, from Bogotá to Facatativá, +25 m.; (7) the Northern, from Bogotá to Zipaquirá, 31 m.; +(8) the Southern, from Bogotá to Sibaté, 18 m.; and (9) the +Puerto Berrio & Medellin, about 78 m. long, of which 36 are +completed. The three lines which do not connect with the +Magdalena are: (1) the Cúcuta and Villamazar, 43½ m., the +latter being a port on the Zulia river near the Venezuelan +frontier; (2) the Santa Marta railway, running inland from that +port through the banana-producing districts, with 41½ m. in +operation in 1907; and (3) the Buenaventura and Cali, 23 m. +in operation inland from the former. This gives a total extension +of 383 m. in 1906, of which 226 were built to connect with steamship +transportation on the Magdalena, 49 to unite Bogotá with +neighbouring localities, and 108 to furnish other outlets for +productive regions. There is no system outlined in the location +of these detached lines, though in 1905-1908 President Reyes +planned to connect them in such a way as to form an extensive +system radiating from the national capital. Tramway lines +were in operation in Bogotá, Barranquilla and Cartagena in 1907.</p> + +<p>The telegraph and postal services are comparatively poor, +owing to the difficulty of maintaining lines and carrying mails +through a rugged and uninhabited tropical country. The total +length of telegraph lines in 1903 was 6470 m., the only cable +connexion being at Buenaventura, on the Pacific coast. All +the principal Caribbean ports and department capitals are +connected with Bogotá, but interruptions are frequent because +of the difficulty of maintaining lines through so wild a country.</p> + +<p>There are only five ports, Buenaventura, Barranquilla, Cartagena, +Santa Marta and Rio Hacha, which are engaged in foreign +commerce, though Tumaco and Villamazar are favourably +situated for carrying on a small trade with Ecuador and Venezuela. +Colombia has no part in the carrying trade, however, +her merchants marine in 1905 consisting of only one steamer +of 457 tons and five sailing vessels of 1385 tons. Aside from these, +small steamers are employed on some of the small rivers with +barges, called “bongoes,” to bring down produce and carry back +merchandise to the inland trading centres. The coasting trade +is insignificant, and does not support a regular service of even +the smallest boats. The foreign carrying trade is entirely in the +hands of foreigners, in which the Germans take the lead, with +the British a close second. The Caribbean ports are in frequent +communication with those of Europe and the United States.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—The larger part of the Colombian population is +engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Maize, wheat and +other cereals are cultivated on the elevated plateaus, with the fruits +and vegetables of the temperate zone, and the European in Bogotá +is able to supply his table very much as he would do at home. The +plains and valleys of lower elevation are used for the cultivation +of coffee and other sub-tropical products, the former being produced +in nearly all the departments at elevations ranging from 3500 to +6500 ft. This industry has been greatly prejudiced by civil wars, +which not only destroyed the plantations and interrupted transportation, +but deprived them of the labouring force essential to +their maintenance and development. It is estimated that the +revolutionary struggle of 1899-1903 destroyed 10% of the able-bodied +agricultural population of the Santa Marta district, and this +estimate, if true, will hold good for all the inhabited districts of the +Eastern Cordillera. The best coffee is produced in the department of +Cundinamarca in the almost inaccessible districts of Fusagasagá +and La Palma. Tolima coffee is also considered to be exceptionally +good. The department of Santander, however, is the largest producer, +and much of its output in the past has been placed upon the +market as “Maracaibo,” the outlet for this region being through +the Venezuelan port of that name. Coffee cultivation in the Santa +Marta region is receiving much attention on account of its proximity +to the coast.</p> + +<p>The tropical productions of the lower plains include, among +others, many of the leading products of the world, such as cacáo, +cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco, and bananas, with others destined wholly +for home consumption, as yams, cassava and arracacha. Potatoes +are widely cultivated in the temperate and sub-tropical regions, +and sweet potatoes in the sub-tropical and tropical. <span class="correction" title="amended from Athough">Although</span> it is +found growing wild, cacáo is cultivated to a limited extent, and the +product is insufficient for home consumption. Cotton is cultivated +only on a small scale, although there are large areas suitable for the +plant. The staple product is short, but experiments have been +initiated in the Santa Marta region to improve it. Sugar cane is +another plant admirably adapted to the Colombian lowlands, but +it is cultivated to so limited an extent that the sugar produced is +barely sufficient for home consumption. Both cultivation and +manufacture have been carried on in the old time way, by the +rudest of methods, and the principal product is a coarse brown sugar, +called <i>panela</i>, universally used by the poorer classes as an article of +food and for making a popular beverage. Antiquated refining +processes are also used in the manufacture of an inferior white +sugar, but the quantity produced is small, and it is unable to compete +with beet-sugar from Germany. A considerable part of the sugar-cane +produced is likewise devoted to the manufacture of <i>chicha</i> +(rum), the consumption of which is common among the Indians +and half-breeds of the Andean regions.</p> + +<p>Rice is grown to a very limited extent, though it is a common +article of diet and the partially submerged lowlands are naturally +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span> +adapted to its production. Tobacco was cultivated in New Granada +and Venezuela in colonial times, when its sale was a royal monopoly +and its cultivation was restricted to specified localities. The +Colombian product is best known through the Ambalema, Girardot, +and Palmira tobacco, especially the Ambalema cigars, which are +considered by some to be hardly inferior to those of Havana, but the +plant is cultivated in other places and would probably be an important +article of export were it possible to obtain labourers for its +cultivation. Banana cultivation for commercial purposes is a +comparatively modern industry, dating from 1892 when the first +recorded export of fruit was made. Its development is due to the +efforts of an American fruit-importing company, which purchased +lands in the vicinity of Santa Marta for the production of bananas +and taught the natives that the industry could be made profitable. +A railway was built inland for the transportation of fruit to Santa +Marta, and is being extended toward the Magdalena as fast as new +plantations are opened. The growth of the industry is shown in the +export returns, which were 171,891 bunches for 1892, and 1,397,388 +bunches for 1906, the area under cultivation being about 7000 acres +in the last-mentioned year. Yams, sweet potatoes, cassava and +arracacha are chiefly cultivated for domestic needs, but in common +with other fruits and vegetables they give occupation to the small +agriculturalists near the larger towns.</p> + +<p>The pastoral industry dates from colonial times and engages the +services of a considerable number of people, but its comparative +importance is not great. The open plains, “mesas,” and plateaus +of the north support large herds of cattle, and several cattle ranches +have been established on the Meta and its tributaries. Live cattle, +to a limited extent, are exported to Cuba and other West Indian +markets, but the chief produce from this industry is hides. The +department of Santander devotes considerable attention to horse-breeding. +Goats are largely produced for their skins, and in some +localities, as in Cauca, sheep are raised for their wool. Swine are +common to the whole country, and some attention has been given +to the breeding of mules.</p> + +<p><i>Minerals.</i>—The mineral resources of Colombia are commonly +believed to be the principal source of her wealth, and this because of +the precious metals extracted from her mines since the Spanish +invasion. The estimate aggregate for three and a half centuries is +certainly large, but the exact amount will probably never be known, +because the returns in colonial times were as defective as those of +disorderly independence have been. Humboldt and Chevalier +estimated the total output down to 1845 at £1,200,000, which +Professor Soetbeer subsequently increased to £169,422,750. A +later Colombian authority, Vicente Restrepo, whose studies of gold +and silver mining in Colombia have been generally accepted as conclusive +and trustworthy, after a careful sifting of the evidence on +which these two widely diverse conclusions were based and an +examination of records not seen by Humboldt and Soetbeer, reaches +the conclusion that the region comprised within the limits of the +republic, including Panama, had produced down to 1886 an aggregate +of £127,800,000 in gold and £6,600,000 in silver. This aggregate he +distributes as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">16th century</td> <td class="tcr">£10,600,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">17th  ”</td> <td class="tcr">34,600,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">18th  ”</td> <td class="tcr">41,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">19th  ”</td> <td class="tcr">41,600,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">According to his computations the eight Colombian departments, +omitting Panama, had produced during this period in gold and +silver:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Antioquia</td> <td class="tcr">£50,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cauca</td> <td class="tcr">49,800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tolima</td> <td class="tcr">10,800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Santander</td> <td class="tcr">3,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bolívar</td> <td class="tcr">1,400,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cundinamarca</td> <td class="tcr">360,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Magdalena</td> <td class="tcr">200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Boyacá</td> <td class="tcr">40,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">£115,600,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Three-fourths of the gold production, he estimates, was derived +from alluvial deposits. Large as these aggregates are, it will be +seen that the annual production was comparatively small, the +highest average, that for the 19th century, being less than £500,000 +a year. Toward the end of the 19th century, after a decline in +production due to the abolition of slavery and to civil wars, increased +interest was shown abroad in Colombian mining operations. +Medellin, the capital of Antioquia, is provided with an electrolytic +refining establishment, several assaying laboratories, and a mint. +The department of Cauca is considered to be the richest of the +republic in mineral deposits, but it is less conveniently situated +for carrying on mining operations. Besides this, the extreme +unhealthiness of its most productive regions, the Chocó and Barbacoas +districts on the Pacific slope, has been a serious obstacle to +foreign enterprise. Tolima is also considered to be rich in gold and +(especially) silver deposits. East of the Magdalena the production +of these two metals has been comparatively small. In compensation +the famous emerald mines of Muzo and Coscuez are situated in an +extremely mountainous region north of Bogotá and near the town of +Chiquinaquirá, in the department of Boyacá. The gems are found +in a matrix of black slate in what appears to be the crater of a +volcano, and are mined in a very crude manner. The mines are +owned by the government. The revenue was estimated at £96,000 +for 1904. Platinum is said to have been discovered in Colombia in +1720, and has been exported regularly since the last years of the 18th +century. It is found in many parts of the country, but chiefly in the +Chocó and Barbacoas districts, the annual export from the former +being about 10,000 in value. Of the bulkier and less valuable minerals +Colombia has copper, iron, manganese, lead, zinc and mercury. Coal +is also found at several widely-separated places, but is not mined. +There are also indications of petroleum in Tolima and Bolívar. +These minerals, however, are of little value to the country because +of their distance from the seaboards and the costs of transportation. +Salt is mined at Zipaquirá, near Bogotá, and being a government +monopoly, is a source of revenue to the national treasury.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures.</i>—The Pradera iron works, near Bogotá, carry on +some manufacturing (sugar boilers, agricultural implements, &c.) +in connexion with their mining and reducing operations. Pottery +and coarse earthenware are made at Espinal, in Tolima, where +the natives are said to have had a similar industry before the Spanish +conquest. There are woollen mills at Popayan and Pasto, and small +cigar-making industries at Ambalema and Palmira. Hat-making +from the “jipijapa” fibre taken from the <i>Carludovica</i> palm is a +domestic industry in many localities, and furnishes an article of +export. Friction matches are made from the vegetable wax extracted +from the <i>Ceroxylon</i> palm, and are generally used throughout the +interior. Rum and sugar are products of a crude manufacturing +industry dating from colonial times. A modern sugar-mill and +refinery at Sincerin, 28 m. from Cartagena, was the first of its kind +erected in the republic. It is partially supported by the government, +and the concession provides that the production of sugar shall not +be less than 2,600,000 ℔ per annum.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—In the Barranquilla customs returns for 1906 the +imports were valued at $6,787,055 (U.S. gold), on which the import +duties were $4,333,028, or an average rate of 64%. According to a +statistical summary issued in 1906 by the U.S. Bureau of Statistics, +entitled “Commercial America in 1905,” the latest official return +to the foreign trade of Colombia was said to be that of 1898, which +was: imports 11,083,000 <i>pesos</i>, exports 19,158,000 <i>pesos</i>. Uncertainty +in regard to the value of the <i>peso</i> led the compiler to omit +the equivalents in U.S. gold, but according to foreign trade returns +these totals represent gold values, which at 4s. per peso are: +imports £2,216,600, exports £3,831,600. In his annual message to +congress on the 1st of April 1907, President Reyes stated that the +imports for 1904 were $14,453,000, and the exports $12,658,000, +presumably U.S. gold, as the figures are taken from the <i>Monthly +Bulletin</i> of the Bureau cf American Republics (July 1907). An +approximate equivalent would be: imports £3,011,000, exports +£2,637,000; which shows a small increase in the first and a very +large decrease in the second. The imports include wheat flour, rice, +barley, prepared foods, sugar, coal, kerosene, beer, wines and liquors, +railway equipment, machinery and general hardware, fence wire, +cotton and other textiles, drugs, lumber, cement, paper, &c., while +the exports comprise coffee, bananas, hides and skins, tobacco, +precious metals, rubber, cabinet woods, divi-divi, dye-woods, +vegetable ivory, Panama hats, orchids, vanilla, &c.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Government.</i>—The government of Colombia is that of a +centralized republic composed of 15 departments, 1 federal +district, and 4 intendencias (territories). It is divided into +three co-ordinate branches, legislative, executive and judicial, +and is carried on under the provisions of the constitution of 1886, +profoundly modified by the amendments of 1905. Previous to +1886, the departments were practically independent, but under +the constitution of that year the powers of the national government +were enlarged and strengthened, while those of the departments +were restricted to purely local affairs. The departments +are provided with biennial departmental assemblies, but their +governors are appointees of the national executive.</p> + +<p>The legislative branch consists of a senate and chamber of +deputies, which meets at Bogotá biennially (after 1908) on +February 1st for an ordinary session of ninety days. The Senate +is composed of 48 members—3 from each department chosen by +the governor and his departmental council, and 3 from the +federal district chosen by the president himself and two of his +cabinet ministers. Under this arrangement the president +practically controls the choice of senators. Their term of office +is four years, and is renewed at the same time and for the same +period as those of the lower house. The chamber is composed +of 67 members, elected by popular suffrage in the departments, +on the basis of one representative for each 50,000 of population. +The intendencias are represented by one member each, who is +chosen by the intendant, his secretary, and 3 citizens elected +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span> +by the municipal council of the territorial capital. As the +constituent assembly which amended the constitution, according +to the president’s wishes in 1905, was to continue in office until +1908 and to provide laws for the regulation of elections and other +public affairs, it appeared that the president would permit no +expression of popular dissent to interfere with his purpose to +establish a dictatorial régime in Colombia similar to the one +in Mexico.</p> + +<p>The executive power is vested in a president chosen by Congress +for a period of four years. The first presidential period, +dating from the 1st of January 1905, was for ten years, and no +restriction was placed upon the choice of President Rafael Reyes +to succeed himself. The constituent assembly gave the president +exceptional powers to deal with all administrative matters. +He is assisted by a cabinet of six ministers, interior, foreign +affairs, finance, war, public instruction and public works, who +are chosen and may be removed by himself. The office of vice-president +is abolished, and the president is authorized to choose +a temporary substitute from his cabinet, and in case of his death +or resignation his successor is chosen by the cabinet or the +governor of a department who happens to be nearest Bogotá at +the time. The president is authorized to appoint the governors +of departments, the intendants of territories, the judges of the +supreme and superior courts, and the diplomatic representatives +of the republic. His salary, as fixed by the 1905 budget, is +£3600 a year, and his cabinet ministers receive £1200 each. +The council of state is abolished and the senate is charged with +the duty of confirming executive appointments.</p> + +<p>The judicial branch of the government, like the others, has +been in great measure reorganized. It consists of a supreme +court of seven members at Bogotá, and a superior court in each +judicial district. There are various inferior courts also, including +magistrates or <i>jueces de paz</i>, but their organization and +functions are loosely defined and not generally understood +outside the republic. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction +in judicial matters, and original jurisdiction in impeachment +trials and in matters involving constitutional interpretation. +Under the constitution of 1886 the judges of the higher courts +were appointed for life, but the reforms of 1905 changed their +tenure to five years for the supreme court and four years for the +superior courts, the judges being eligible for re-appointment.</p> + +<p>The departments, which are administered by governors representing +the national executive, are permitted to exercise +restricted legislative functions relating to purely local affairs. +Municipal councils are also to be found in the larger towns. The +governor is assisted by a departmental council consisting of his +secretaries and the president of the Corte de Cuentas, which +places the political administration of the department under the +direct control of the president at Bogotá.</p> + +<p>The strength of the army is determined annually by congress, +but every able-bodied citizen is nominally liable to military +service. Its peace footing in 1898 was 1000 men. After the war +of 1899-1903 its strength was successively reduced to 10,000 +and 5000, a part of this force being employed in the useful +occupation of making and repairing public roads. The navy +in 1906 consisted of only three small cruisers on the Caribbean +coast, and two cruisers, two gunboats, one troopship and two +steam launches on the Pacific. There was also one small gunboat +on the Magdalena.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Education.</i>—Although Bogotá was reputed to be an educational +centre in colonial times, so slight an influence did this exert upon +the country that Colombia ended the 19th century with no effective +public school system, very few schools and colleges, and fully 90% +of illiteracy in her population. This is due in great measure to the +long reign of political disorder, but there are other causes as well. +As in Chile, the indifference of the ruling class to the welfare of the +common people is a primary cause of their ignorance and poverty, +to which must be added the apathy, if not opposition, of the Church. +Under such conditions primary schools in the villages and rural +districts were practically unknown, and the parish priest was the +only educated person in the community. Nominally there was a +school system under the supervision of the national and departmental +governments, but its activities were limited to the larger towns, +where there were public and private schools of all grades. There were +universities in Bogotá and Medellin, the former having faculties +of letters and philosophy, jurisprudence and political science, +medicine and natural sciences, and mathematics and engineering, +with an attendance of 1200 to 1500 students. The war of 1899-1903 +so completely disorganized this institution that only one faculty, +medicine and natural sciences, was open in 1907. There were also +a number of private schools in the larger towns, usually maintained +by religious organizations. The reform programme of President +Reyes included a complete reorganization of public instruction, to +which it is proposed to add normal schools for the training of teachers, +and agricultural and technical schools for the better development +of the country’s material resources. The supreme direction of this +branch of the public service is entrusted to the minister of public +instruction, and state aid is to be extended to the secondary, as well +as to the normal, technical and professional schools. The secondary +schools receiving public aid, however, have been placed in charge of +religious corporations of the Roman Catholic Church. The expenditure +on account of public instruction, which includes schools of +all grades and descriptions, is unavoidably small, the appropriation +for the biennium 1905-1906 being only £167,583. The school and +college attendance for 1906, according to the president’s review of +that year, aggregated 218,941, of whom 50,691 were in Antioquia, +where the whites are more numerous than in any other department; +4916 in Atlantico, which includes the city of Barranquilla, and in +which the negro element preponderates; and only 12,793 in the +federal district and city of Bogotá where the <i>mestizo</i> element is +numerous. Although primary instruction is gratuitous it is not +compulsory, and these figures clearly demonstrate that school +privileges have not been extended much beyond the larger towns. +The total attendance, however, compares well with that of 1897, +which was 143,096, although it shows that only 5% of the population, +approximately, is receiving instruction.</p> + +<p><i>Religion.</i>—The religious profession of the Colombian people is +Roman Catholic, and is recognized as such by the constitution, +but the exercise is permitted of any other form of worship which is +not contrary to Christian morals or to the law. There is one Protestant +church in Bogotá, but the number of non-Catholics is small and +composed of foreign residents. There has been a long struggle +between liberals and churchmen in Colombia, and at one time the +latter completely lost their political influence over the government, +but the common people remained loyal to the Church, and the upper +classes found it impossible to sever the ties which bound them to it. +The constitution of 1861 disestablished the Church, confiscated a +large part of its property, and disfranchised the clergy, but in 1886 +political rights were restored to the latter and the Roman Catholic +religion was declared to be the faith of the nation. The rulers of the +Church have learned by experience, however, that they can succeed +best by avoiding partisan conflicts, and the archbishop of Bogotá +gave effect to this in 1874 by issuing an edict instructing priests +not to interfere in politics. The Church influence with all classes is +practically supreme and unquestioned, and it still exercises complete +control in matters of education. The Colombian hierarchy consists +of an archbishop, residing at Bogotá, 10 bishops, 8 vicars-general, +and 2170 priests. There were also in 1905 about 750 members of 10 +monastic and religious orders. There were 270 churches and 312 +chapels in the republic. Each diocese has its own seminary for the +training of priests.</p> + +<p><i>Finance.</i>—In financial matters Colombia is known abroad chiefly +through repeated defaults in meeting her bonded indebtedness, +and through the extraordinary depreciation of her paper currency. +The public revenues are derived from import duties on foreign +merchandise, from export duties on national produce, from internal +taxes and royalties on liquors, cigarettes and tobacco, matches, +hides and salt, from rentals of state emerald mines and pearl fisheries, +from stamped paper, from port dues and from postal and telegraph +charges. The receipts and expenditure are estimated for biennial +periods, but it has not been customary to publish detailed results. +Civil wars have of course been a serious obstacle, but it was announced +by President Reyes in 1907 that the revenues were increasing. +For the two years 1905 and 1906 the revenues were estimated +to produce (at $5 to the £1 sterling) £4,203,823, the expenditures +being fixed at the same amount. The expenditures, however, did +not include a charge of £424,000, chiefly due on account of war claims +and requisitions. During the first year of this period the actual +receipts, according to the council of the corporation of foreign +bondholders, were $9,149,591 gold (£1,829,918) and the payments +$7,033,317 gold (£1,406,663). It was expected by the government +that the 1906 revenues would largely exceed 1905, but the expectation +was not fully realized, chiefly, it may be assumed, because of the +inability of an impoverished people to meet an increase in taxation. +An instance of this occurred in the promising export of live cattle to +Cuba and Panama, which was completely suppressed in 1906 because +of a new export tax of $3 gold per head. Of the expenditures about +one-fourth is on account of the war department.</p> + +<p>The foreign debt, according to the 1896 arrangement with the +bondholders which was renewed in 1905, is £2,700,000, together +with unpaid interest since 1896 amounting to £351,000 more. +Under the 1905 arrangement the government undertook to pay the +first coupons at 2½% and succeeding ones at 3%, pledging 12 to +15% of the customs receipts as security. The first payments were +made according to agreement, and it was believed in 1907 that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span> +succeeding ones, together with one-half of the unpaid interest since +1896, would also be met. It is worthy of note that this debt, principal +and accumulated interest, exceeded six and a half millions sterling +in 1873, and that the bondholders surrendered about 60% of the +claim in the hope of securing the payment of the balance. It is also +worthy of note that Panama refused to assume any part of this debt +without a formal recognition of her independence by Colombia, +and even then only a sum proportionate to her population. The +internal debt of Colombia in June 1906 was as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Consolidated</td> <td class="tcl">5,476,887 dollars silver,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Floating </td> <td class="tcl">2,345,658 dollars gold.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Whether or not this included the unpaid war claims was not stated.</p> + +<p><i>Money.</i>—The monetary system, which has been greatly complicated +by the use of two depreciated currencies, silver and paper, has +been undergoing a radical reform since 1905, the government proposing +to redeem the depreciated paper and establish a new uniform currency +on a gold basis. The paper circulation in 1905 exceeded 700,000,000 +<i>pesos</i>. The issue began in 1881 through the Banco Nacional de +Colombia, its value then being equal to that of the silver coinage. +Political troubles in 1884-1885 led to a suspension of cash payments +in 1885, and in 1886 Congress made the notes inconvertible and of +forced circulation. In 1894 the Banco Nacional ceased to exist as a +corporation, and thenceforward the currency was issued for account +of the national treasury. On October 16, 1899—the outstanding +circulation then amounting to 46,000,000 <i>pesos</i>,—the government +decreed an unlimited issue to meet its expenditures in suppressing +the revolution, and later on the departments of Antioquia, Bolívar, +Cauca, and Santander were authorized to issue paper money for +themselves. This suicidal policy continued until February 28, 1903, +when, according to an official statement, the outstanding paper +circulation was:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Pesos.  </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">National government issues</td> <td class="tcr">600,398,581 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Department of Antioquia</td> <td class="tcr">35,938,495.60</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  ”  ” Bolívar</td> <td class="tcr">18,702,100 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  ”  ” Cauca</td> <td class="tcr">44,719,688.70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">  ”  ” Santander</td> <td class="tcr">750,000 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">——————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">700,598,865.30</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">So great was the depreciation of this currency that before the end +of the war 100 American gold dollars were quoted at 22,500 <i>pesos</i>. +The declaration of peace brought the exchange rate down to the +neighbourhood of 10,000, where it remained, with the exception of a +short period during the Panama Canal negotiations, when it fell to +6000. This depreciation (10,000) was equivalent to a loss of 99% +of the nominal value of the currency, a paper <i>peso</i> of 100 <i>centavos</i> +being worth only one centavo gold. International commercial +transactions were based on the American gold dollar, which was +usually worth 100 <i>pesos</i> of this depreciated currency. Even at this +valuation, the recognized outstanding circulation (for there had been +fraudulent issues as well) amounted to more than £1,400,000. In +1903 Congress adopted a gold dollar of 1.672 grammes weight .900 +fine (equal to the U.S. gold dollar) as the monetary standard created +a redemption bureau for the withdrawal of the paper circulation, +prohibited the further issue of such currency, and authorized free +contracts in any currency. Previous to that time the law required +all contracts to specify payments in paper currency. Certain rents +and taxes were set aside for the use of the redemption bureau, and +a nominally large sum has been withdrawn from circulation through +this channel. On the 1st of January 1906, another monetary act +came into operation, with additional provisions for currency redemption +and improvement of the monetary system. A supplementary +act of 1906 also created a new national banking institution, +called the Banco Central, which is made a depository of the public +revenues and is charged with a considerable part of their administration, +including payments on account of the foreign debt and the +conversion of the paper currency into coin. The new law likewise +reaffirmed the adoption of a gold dollar of 1.672 grammes .900 fine +as the unit of the new coinage, which is:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Gold</i>:—</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Double condor</td> <td class="tcl">= 20 dollars.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Condor</td> <td class="tcl">= 10  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Half condor</td> <td class="tcl">=  5  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Dollar (mon. unit)</td> <td class="tcl">= 100 cents.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Silver</i>:—</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Half dollar</td> <td class="tcl">= 50 cents.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Peseta</td> <td class="tcl">= 20  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Real</td> <td class="tcl">= 10  ”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Nickel</i>:—5 cents.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Bronze</i>:—2 cents and 1 cent.</td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The silver coinage (.900 fine) is limited to 10%, and the nickel and +bronze coins to 2% of the gold coinage. The new customs tariff, +which came into force at the same time, was an increase of 70% +on the rates of 1904, and provided that the duties should be paid in +gold, or in paper at the current rate of exchange. This measure +was designed to facilitate the general resumption of specie payments.</p> + +<p><i>Weights and Measures.</i>—The metric system of weights and +measures has been the legal standard in Colombia since 1857, but its +use is confined almost exclusively to international trade. In the +interior and in all domestic transactions the old Spanish weights +and measures are still used—including the Spanish <i>libra</i> of 1.102 ℔ +avoirdupois, the <i>arroba</i> of 25 <i>libras</i> (12½ kilogrammes), the quintal of +100 <i>libras</i> (50 kilog.), the <i>carga</i> of 250 <i>libras</i> (125 kilogs.), the <i>vara</i> of +80 centimetres, and the <i>fanega</i>. The litre is the standard liquid +measure.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div> + +<p class="center1"><span class="sc">History</span></p> + +<p>The coast of Colombia was one of the first parts of the American +continent visited by the Spanish navigators. Alonso de Ojeda +touched at several points in 1499 and 1501; and Columbus +himself visited Veragua, Portobello, and other places in his last +voyage in 1502. In 1508 Ojeda obtained from the Spanish crown +a grant of the district from Cape Vela westward to the Gulf of +Darien, while the rest of the country from the Gulf of Darien to +Cape Gracias-a-Dios was bestowed on his fellow-adventurer, +Nicuessa. The two territories designated respectively Nueva +Andalucia and Castella de Oro were united in 1514 into the +province of Tierra-firma, and entrusted to Pedro Arias de +Avila. In 1536-1537 an expedition under Gonzalo Jimenez +de Quesada made their way from Santa Marta inland by the +river Magdalena, and penetrated to Bogotá, the capital of the +Muiscas or Chibchas. Quesada gave to the country the name +of New Granada.</p> + +<p>By the middle of the century the Spanish power was fairly +established, and flourishing communities arose along the coasts, +and in the table-lands of Cundinamarca formerly occupied by the +Muiscas. For the better government of the colony the Spanish +monarch erected a presidency of New Granada in 1564, which +continued till 1718, when it was raised to the rank of a viceroyalty. +In the following year, however, the second viceroy, +D. Jorge Villalonga, Count de la Cueva, expressing his opinion +that the maintenance of this dignity was too great a burden on the +settlers, the viceroyalty gave place to a simple presidency. In +1740 it was restored, and it continued as long as the Spanish +authority, including within its limits not only the present +Colombia, but also Venezuela and Ecuador. An insurrection +against the home government was formally commenced in 1811, +and an incessant war against the Spanish forces was waged till +1824.</p> + +<p>In 1819 the great national hero, Bolivar (<i>q.v.</i>), effected a union +between the three divisions of the country, to which was given the +title of the Republic of Colombia; but in 1829 Venezuela withdrew, +and in 1830, the year of Bolivar’s death, Quito or Ecuador +followed her example. The Republic of New Granada was +founded on the 21st of November 1831; and in 1832 a constitution +was promulgated, and the territory divided into eighteen +provinces, each of which was to have control of its local affairs. +The president was to hold office for four years; and the first on +whom the dignity was bestowed was General Francisco de +Paula Santander. His position, however, was far from enviable; +for the country was full of all the elements of unrest and contention. +One of his measures, by which New Granada became +responsible for the half of the debts of the defunct republic of +Colombia, gave serious offence to a large party, and he was +consequently succeeded not, as he desired, by José Maria Obando, +but by a member of the opposition, José Ignacio de Marquez. +This gave rise to a civil war, which lasted till 1841, and not only +left the country weak and miserable, but afforded an evil precedent +which has since been too frequently followed. The contest +terminated in favour of Marquez, and he was succeeded in May +1841 by Pedro Alcantara Herran, who had assisted to obtain the +victory. In 1840 the province of Cartagena had seceded, and the +new president had hardly taken office before Panama and +Veragua also declared themselves independent, under the title +of the State of the Isthmus of Panama. Their restoration was, +however, soon effected; the constitution was reformed in 1843; +education was fostered, and a treaty concluded with the English +creditors of the republic. Further progress was made under +General Tomas de Mosquera from 1845 to 1848; a large part of +the domestic debt was cleared off, immigration was encouraged, +and free trade permitted in gold and tobacco. The petty war +with Ecuador, concluded by the peace of Santa Rosa de Carchi, +is hardly worthy of mention. From 1849 to 1852 the reins were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span> +in the hands of General José Hilario Lopez, a member of the +democratic party, and under him various changes were effected +of a liberal tendency. In January 1852 slavery was entirely +abolished. The next president was José Maria Obando, but his +term of office had to be completed by vice-presidents Obaldia +and Mallarino.</p> + +<p>In 1853 an important alteration of the constitution took place, +by which the right was granted to every province to declare +itself independent, and to enter into merely federal connexion +with the central republic, which was now known as the Granadine +Confederation. In 1856 and 1857 Antioquia and Panama took +advantage of the permission. The Conservative party carried +their candidate in 1857, Mariano Ospino, a lawyer by profession; +but an insurrection broke out in 1859, which was fostered by the +ex-president Mosquera, and finally took the form of a regular +civil war. Bogotá was captured by the democrats in July 1861, +and Mosquera assumed the chief power. A congress at Bogotá +established a republic, with the name of the United States +of Colombia, adopted a new federal constitution, and made +Mosquera dictator. Meanwhile the opposite party was victorious +in the west; and their leader, Julio Arboleda, formed an alliance +with Don Garcia Moreno, the president of Ecuador. He was +assassinated, however, in 1862; and his successor, Leonardo +Canal, came to terms with Mosquera at Cali. The dictatorship +was resigned into the hands of a convention (February 1863) +at Rio Negro, in Antioquia; a provisional government was +appointed, a constitution was drawn up, and Mosquera elected +president till 1864. An unsuccessful attempt was also made to +restore the union between the three republics of the former +federation. The presidency of Manuel Murillo Toro (1864-1866) +was disturbed by various rebellions, and even Mosquera, who +next came to the helm, found matters in such a disorganized +condition that he offered to retire. On the refusal of his +resignation, he entered into a struggle with the majority in the +congress, and ultimately resorted to an adjournment and the +unconstitutional arrest of 68 of the senators and representatives. +To the decree of impeachment published by the congress he +replied by a notice of dissolution and a declaration of war; but +he soon found that the real power was with his opponents, who +effected his arrest, and condemned him first to two years’ imprisonment, +but afterwards by commutation to two years’ exile. +The presidency of Santos Gutierrez (1868-1870) was disturbed +by insurrections in different parts of the republic, the most +important of which was that in Panama, where the most absolute +disorganization prevailed. Under his successor, General E. +Salgar, a Liberal candidate elected in opposition to General +Herran, a treaty was finally concluded with the United States +in connexion with an interoceanic canal, a bank was established at +Bogotá, and educational reforms instituted. Manuel Murillo Toro +(1872-1874) and Santiago Perez (1874-1876) saw the country +apparently acquiring constitutional equilibrium, and turning +its energies to the development of its matchless resources.</p> + +<p>The election for the presidential term 1876-1878 resulted in +favour of Aquiles Parra, who was succeeded in April 1878 by +General Julian Trujillo. His administration was marked by a +strong effort to place the financial position of the government +on a more satisfactory footing, and the internal indebtedness +was substantially reduced during his rule. In April 1880 Señor +Rafael Nuñez acceded to the presidency. During his term of +office revolutionary disturbances occurred in the provinces of +Cauca and Antioquia, but were suppressed with no great difficulty. +Provision was made in 1880 for a settlement of the +boundary dispute with Costa Rica, and in July of that year the +federal Congress authorized the formation of a naval squadron. +A movement was now set afoot in favour of a confederation of +the three republics of Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela on the +basis of the original conditions existing after the expulsion of +Spanish authority, and a resolution was passed by the chamber +of deputies to that effect. The opposition shown by Venezuela +and Ecuador to this project prevented any definite result from +being achieved. In April 1882 Señor Francisco J. Laldua became +president, but his death occurring a year later, General José +Eusebio Otalora was nominated to exercise the executive power +for the unexpired portion of the term. In 1883 the dispute in +connexion with the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela +was submitted by the two governments to the arbitration of +Alphonso XII., king of Spain, and a commission of five members +was appointed to investigate the merits of the respective claims. +The decision in this dispute was finally given by the queen regent +of Spain on the 16th of March 1891. In April 1884 Señor Rafael +Nuñez was again proclaimed president of the republic in his +absence abroad. Pending his return the administration was +left in the hands of General Campo Serrano and General Eliseo +Payan. The Liberal party had been instrumental in the re-election +of Nuñez, and looked for a policy in conformity with +their views and political convictions. President Nuñez had no +sooner returned to Colombia than the Liberals discovered that +his political opinions had changed and had become strongly +Conservative. Discontent at this condition of affairs soon +spread. Nuñez from motives of ill-health did not openly assume +the presidential office, but from his house near Cartagena he +practically directed the government of the republic. The Liberals +now began to foment a series of revolutionary movements, and +these led in 1885 to a civil war extending over the departments +of Boyaca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena and Panama. General +Reyes and General Velez were the two principal leaders of the +revolt. In order to protect the passage of the traffic across the +Isthmus of Panama during these disturbed times detachments of +United States marines were landed at Panama and Colon, in +accordance with the terms of the concession under which the +railway had been constructed. After a number of defeats the +leaders of the revolt surrendered in August 1885, and on the +5th of September following peace was officially proclaimed. +Nuñez, who had meanwhile assumed the presidential duties, +now brought about a movement in favour of a fresh Act of +Constitution for Colombia, and a new law to that effect was +finally approved and promulgated on 4th August 1886. Under +the terms of this act the federal system of government for +Colombia was abolished, the states becoming departments, the +governors of these political divisions being appointed by the +president of the republic. Each department has a local legislative +assembly elected by the people. The national congress is constituted +of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The +Senate is composed of twenty-seven members elected for six +years, one-third retiring every two years, three of whom are +nominated by each of the nine departments. The House of +Representatives comprises members elected for four years by +universal suffrage, each department forming a constituency and +returning one member for every 50,000 inhabitants. Congress +convenes every two years. The presidential term of office under +the new act was fixed at six years in place of the two years +formerly prevailing. The judiciary was irremovable, and trial +by jury was allowed for criminal offences. Capital punishment +was re-established, and the press was made responsible for +matter published. The unlicensed trade in arms and ammunition +thitherto existing was prohibited. Previous to 1886 the crime +of murder was only punishable by 10 years’ imprisonment, a +sentence which in practice was reduced to two-thirds of that +term; slander and libel were formerly offences which the law +had no power to restrain, and no responsibility attached to +seditious publications.</p> + +<p>After the promulgation of this new Act of Constitution +President Nuñez was proclaimed as president of the republic for +the term ending in 1892. He was unable, however, in consequence +of ill-health, to reside at Bogotá and discharge the +presidential duties, and consequently in August 1888 Señor +Cárlos Holguin was designated to act for him. In 1892 President +Nuñez was again elected to the presidency for a term of six years, +his continued ill-health, however, forcing him to place the active +performance of his duties in the hands of the vice-president, +Señor Miguel Caro. In 1895 the Liberals made another attempt +to seize the government of the country, but the movement was +suppressed without any very great difficulty. In this same year +Nuñez died, and Vice-President Caro became the actual president, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span> +an office he had practically filled during the three previous years. +In 1898 Señor M. A. Sanclemente, a strong Conservative, and +supported by the Church party, was elected to the presidency +for the period ending in 1904. In October 1899 the Liberals +organized another revolutionary outbreak for the purpose of +trying to wrest the power from Conservatives, but this attempt +had no better success than the movements of 1885 and 1895. +In January 1900, however, Vice-President José Marroquin seized +upon the government, imprisoned President Sanclemente (who +died in prison in March 1902), and another period of disturbance +began. The rebels were defeated in May in a desperate battle +at Cartagena; and continuous fighting went on about Panama, +where British marines had to be landed to protect foreign +interests. As the year 1900 advanced, the conflict went on with +varying success, but the government troops were generally +victorious, and in August Vice-President Marroquin was recognized +as the acting head of the executive, with a cabinet under +General Calderon. In 1901 the rebellion continued, and severe +fighting took place about Colon. Further complications arose +in August, when trouble occurred between Colombia and Venezuela. +On the one hand, there were grounds for believing that +the Clericals and Conservatives in both countries were acting +together; and, on the other, it was expected that President +Castro of Venezuela would not be sorry to unite his own countrymen, +and to divert their attention from internal affairs, by a war +against Colombia. The Colombian revolutionary leaders had +made use of the Venezuelan frontier as a base of operations, and +the result was an invasion of Venezuelan territory by Colombian +government troops, an incident which at once caused a diplomatic +quarrel. The United States government in September offered its +good offices, but President Castro refused them, and the state +of affairs became gradually more menacing. Meanwhile both +Panama and Colon were seriously threatened by the rebel forces, +who in November succeeded in capturing Colon by surprise. +The situation was complicated by the fact that the railway traffic +on the Isthmus was in danger of interruption, and on the capture +of Colon it became necessary for the American, British and +French naval authorities to land men for the protection of the +railway and of foreign interests.</p> + +<p>On the 18th of September the Venezuelans, who had entered +Colombia, were totally routed near La Hacha, and after fierce +fighting the insurgents at Colon were compelled to surrender +on the 29th of November. But the Civil War was not yet ended. +For another eight months it was to continue, causing immense +damage to property and trade, and the loss of tens of thousands +of lives. In many towns and villages the male population was +almost entirely destroyed. Not till June 1903 was internal peace +finally restored. In the autumn of that same year Colombia, +exhausted and half ruined, was to suffer a further severe loss +in the secession of Panama.</p> + +<p>The abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty in 1901, and the +failure of the second French company to construct a canal +between Colon and Panama (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Panama Canal</a></span>) had, after many +hesitations, induced the United States government to abandon +the Nicaragua route and decide on adopting that of Panama. +Negotiations were set on foot with Colombia, and an arrangement—under +what was known as the Hay-Herran treaty—was made +to the following effect. Colombia agreed (1) to the transfer of +the rights, under the concession, of the French company to the +United States; (2) to cede, on a hundred years’ lease, a right of +way for the canal, and a strip of land 5m. broad on either side +of the waterway, and the two ports of Colon and Panama. The +United States agreed to pay Colombia (1) £2,000,000 down in +cash, and, ten years later, an annual rental of £50,000, and further +a share of the price paid to the French company, <i>i.e.</i> £8,000,000, +in which Colombia held 50,000 shares. This treaty was signed +by the plenipotentiaries and ratified by the United States Senate. +The Colombian Congress, however, refused to ratify the treaty +on the ground that when the negotiations had taken place the +country was in a state of siege, really in the hope of securing a +larger money payment. The adjournment took place on the 31st +of October. On the 3rd of November a revolution broke out at +Panama, and the state seceded from Colombia and declared itself +to be an independent republic. This opportune revolution was +no doubt fomented by persons interested in the carrying through +of the United States scheme for piercing the isthmus, but their +task was one that presented no difficulties, for the isthmian +population had been in a state of perennial insurrection against +the central government for many years. Whoever may have +instigated the rising, this much is certain, that American warships +prevented the Colombian troops from landing to suppress the +revolt. On the 7th of November the United States government +formally recognized the independence of the republic of Panama +(<i>q.v.</i>). The other powers in succession likewise recognized the +new state; the recognition of Great Britain was given on the +26th of December. Colombia thus sacrificed a great opportunity +of obtaining, by the ratification of the Hay-Herran treaty, such a +pecuniary recompense for the interest in the territory through +which the canal was to be constructed as would have gone far +to re-establish her ruined financial credit.</p> + +<p>In 1904 the troubled term of President Marroquin came to an +end, and by the narrowest of majorities General Rafael Reyes was +elected in his place. He had been sent as a special envoy to +Washington to protest against the recognition of Panama, and +to attempt to revive the Hay-Herran treaty, and to secure +favourable terms for Colombia in the matter of the canal. He +failed to do so, but it was recognized that he had discharged +his difficult task with great skill and ability. On his accession +to office as president he found the country exhausted and +disorganized, more especially in the department of finance, and +the congress was on the whole hostile to him. Finding himself +hampered in his efforts to reform abuses, the president dissolved +the congress, and summoned a national constituent and legislative +assembly to meet on the 15th of March 1905, and with its +aid proceeded to modify the constitution.</p> + +<p>Having personal acquaintance with the success of the rule of +President Porfirio Diaz in Mexico, General Reyes determined to +set about the regeneration of Colombia by similar methods. His +tenure of the presidency was extended to a term of ten years from +the 1st of January 1905, and the restriction as to re-election +at the end of that term was withdrawn, other alterations being +made in the constitution with the effect of placing General Reyes +really in the position of a dictator. He soon proved that he had +the ability and the integrity of purpose to use his great opportunity +for the benefit of his country. His firm and masterful +government and wise measures did much to allay the spirit of +unrest which had so long been the bane of Colombia, and though +an attempt at assassination was made in the spring of 1906, the +era of revolution appeared to be over.</p> + +<p>The chief foreign treaties entered into by Colombia in the last +quarter of the 19th century were:—(1) A treaty with Great +Britain, signed on the 27th of October 1888, for the extradition +of criminals; (2) a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation +with Italy, signed on the 27th of October 1892; (3) two protocols +with Italy, signed respectively on the 24th of May and on the +25th of August 1886, in connexion with the affair of the Italian +subject Cerruti; (4) a consular convention with Holland, +signed on the 20th of July 1881; (5) a treaty of peace and +friendship with Spain, signed on the 30th of January 1881; +(6) a convention with Spain for the reciprocal protection of +intellectual property; (7) a concordat with the Vatican, signed +on the 31st of December 1887; (8) an agreement with the +Vatican, signed on the 20th of August 1892, in connexion with +ecclesiastical jurisdiction; (9) an agreement with the republic +of San Salvador, signed on the 24th of December 1880, in regard +to the despatch of a delegate to an international congress; (10) +a treaty of peace, friendship and commerce with Germany, +signed on the 23rd of July 1892; (11) a treaty with the republic +of Costa Rica, signed in 1880, for the delimitation of the +boundary; (12) the postal convention, signed at Washington, on +the 4th of July 1891; (13) a convention with Great Britain, signed +on the 31st of July 1896, in connexion with the claim of Messrs +Punchard, M‘Taggart, Lowther & Co.; (14) a treaty of friendship, +commerce and navigation with Peru, signed on the 6th of August +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span> +1898; (15) an extradition treaty with Peru, signed on the 6th +of August 1898; (16) a treaty of peace, friendship and defensive +alliance with Venezuela, signed on the 21st of November +1896, and on the same date a treaty regulating the frontier +commerce.</p> +<div class="author">(G. E.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—C. E. Akers, <i>A History of South America, 1854-1904</i> +(New York, 1905); J. J. Borda, <i>Compendio de historia de +Colombia</i> (Bogotá, 1890); Salvador Roldan Camacho, <i>Notas de +viaje</i> (Bogotá, 1890), and <i>Escritos varios</i> (Bogotá, 1892); Dr Alfred +Hettner, <i>Reisen in den colombianischen Anden</i> (Leipzig, 1888); +Angel Lemos, <i>Compendio de geografia de la Républica de Colombia</i> +(Medellin, 1894); Albert Millican, <i>Travels and Adventures of an +Orchid Hunter</i> (London, 1891); J. M. Cordovez Mauro, <i>Reminiscencias +Santafé y Bogotá</i> (Bogotá, 1899); Norris and Laird (Bureau +of Navigation), <i>Telegraphic Determination of Longitudes in Mexico, +Central America, the West Indies, and on the North Coast of South +America</i> (Washington, 1891); R. Nuñez and H. Jalhay, <i>La République +de Colombia, géographie, histoire, &c.</i> (Bruxelles, 1893); +J. M. Q. Otero, <i>Historia Patria</i> (Bogotá, 1891); Lisimaco Palaü, +<i>La Républica de Colombia</i> (1893); M. Paz and F. Perez, <i>Atlas +geográfico e histórico de la República de Colombia</i> (1893); R. S. +Pereira, <i>Les États Unis de Colombia</i> (Paris, 1883); Felipe Perez, +<i>Geografia general, fisica y politica de los Estados Unidos de Colombia</i> +(Bogotá, 1883); F. Loraine Petrie, <i>The Republic of Colombia</i> (London, +1906); Elisée Réclus, <i>Geografia de Colombia</i> (Bogotá, 1893); W. +Reiss and A. Stübel, <i>Reisen in Südamerika. Geologische Studien in der +Republik Colombia</i> (Berlin, 1893); Ernesto Restrepo, <i>Ensayo +etnografico y arqueologico de la provincia de los Quimbayas</i> (Bogotá, +1892), and <i>Estudios sobre los aborigines de Colombia</i> (Bogotá, 1892); +Vicente Restrepo, <i>Estudio sobre las minas de oro y plata de Colombia</i> +(Bogotá, 1888, translated by C. W. Fisher, New York, 1886); +W. L. Scruggs, <i>The Colombian and Venezuelan Republics</i> (London, +1899; Boston, 1900); W. Sievers, <i>Reisen in der Sierra Nevada de +Santa Marta</i> (Leipzig, 1887); F. J. Vergara y Velasco, <i>Nueva geografia +de Colombia</i> (Bogotá, 1892); Frank Vincent, <i>Around and About South +America</i> (New York, 1890); R. G. Watson, <i>Spanish and Portuguese +South America during the Colonial Period</i> (2 vols., London, 1884).</p> + +<p>See also the diplomatic and consular reports of Great Britain +and the United States; publications of the International Bureau of +American Republics (Washington, D.C.); Bureau of Statistics, <i>Commercial +America in 1905</i> (Washington, 1906).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1j" id="Footnote_1j" href="#FnAnchor_1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See A. Hettner and G. Linck, “Beiträge zur Geologie und +Petrographie der columbianischen Anden,” <i>Zeits. deutsch. geol. Ges.</i> +vol. xl. (1888), pp. 204-230; W. Sievers, “Die Sierra Nevada de +Santa Marta und die Sierra de Perijá,” <i>Zeits. Ges. Erdk. Berlin</i>, +vol. xxiii. (1888), pp. 1-158 and p. 442, Pls. i. and iii.; A. Hettner, +“Die Kordillere von Bogotá,” <i>Peterm. Mitt.</i>, Ergänzungsheft 104 +(1892), and “Die Anden des westlichen Columbiens,” <i>Peterm. Mitt.</i> +(1893), pp. 129-136; W. Reiss and A. Stübel, <i>Reisen in Süd America. +Geologische Studien in der Republik Colombia</i> (Berlin, 1892-1899),—a +good geological bibliography will be found in part ii. of this +work.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOMBIER, PIERRE BERTRAND DE<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1299-1361), French +cardinal and diplomatist, was born at Colombier in Ardèche. +He was nephew and namesake of Cardinal Pierre Bertrand of +Annonay. After a careful juristic education he was successively +advocate at the parlement of Paris, intendant of the council +of the count of Nevers (1321), and counsellor-clerk to the parlement +(1329). Having taken holy orders, he became dean of +St Quentin in 1330, and was employed to negotiate the marriage +of the duke of Normandy, the future king John the Good of +France, with the daughter of the king of Bohemia. In 1335 he +became bishop of Nevers, in 1339 of Arras, and contributed +to bring the county of Flanders into the kingdom of France. +Created cardinal priest of St Susanna in 1344, he was employed +by the pope on important missions, notably to negotiate peace or +an armistice between France and England. Having become +bishop of Ostia in 1353, he was sent next year to Charles IV. +of Germany, and induced him to come to Italy to be crowned +emperor at Rome, 1355. In 1356 he went to France to try to +arrange a peace with England, and died in 1361 at the priory of +Montaud near Avignon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Mazon, <i>Essai historique sur l’état du Vivarais pendant la +guerre de cent ans</i> (Paris, 1889), with references there.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOMBO<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span>, the capital and principal seaport of Ceylon, situated +on the west coast of the island. Pop. (1901) 154,691. +Colombo stands to the south of the mouth of the river Kelani. +The coast-land is here generally low-lying, but broken by slight +eminences. The great artificial harbour, enclosed by breakwaters, +is bounded on the south by a slight promontory. This +is occupied by the quarter of the city known as the Fort, from +the former existence of a fort founded by the Portuguese and +reconstructed by the Dutch. In 1869 the governor, Sir Hercules +Robinson (afterwards Lord Rosmead), obtained authority to +demolish the fortifications, which were obsolete for purposes of +defence, and required 6000 men to man them properly. The +levelling of the walls and filling up of the moat made the Fort +much more accessible and healthy, and since then it has become +the business centre of the city. Here are situated Queen’s +House, the governor’s residence; the secretariat or government +offices, and other government buildings, such as the fine general +post office and the customs house. Here also are most of the +principal hotels, which have a peculiarly high reputation among +European hotels in the East. A lofty tower serves as the principal +lighthouse of the port and also as a clock-tower. On +the south side of the Fort are extensive barracks. The old +banqueting-hall of the Dutch governors is used as the garrison +church of St Peter.</p> + +<p>To the north-east of the Fort, skirting the harbour, are the +Pettah, the principal native quarter, the districts of Kotahena +and Mutwall, and suburbs beyond. In this direction the principal +buildings are the Wolfendahl church, a massive Doric +building of the Dutch (1749); the splendid Roman Catholic +cathedral of St Lucia (completed in 1904); and St Thomas’s +College (1851), which follows the lines of an English public school. +Close to this last is the Anglican cathedral of Christ Church. +The Kotahena temple is the chief Buddhist temple in Colombo.</p> + +<p>To the north-east of the Fort is the Lake, a ramifying sheet of +fresh water, which adds greatly to the beauty of the site of +Colombo, its banks being clothed with luxuriant foliage and +flowers. The narrow isthmus between this lake and the sea, +south of the Fort, is called Galle Face, and is occupied chiefly by +promenades and recreation grounds. The peninsula enclosed +by two arms of the Lake is known as Slave Island, having been +the site of a slave’s prison under the Dutch. South-east of this +is the principal residential quarter of Colombo, with the circular +Victoria Park as its centre. To the east of the park a series of +parallel roads, named after former British governors, are lined +with beautiful bungalows embowered in trees. This locality +is generally known as the Cinnamon Gardens, as it was formerly +a Dutch reserve for the cultivation of the cinnamon bush, many +of which are still growing here. In the park is the fine Colombo +Museum, founded by Sir William Gregory; and near the neighbouring +Campbell Park are the handsome buildings of a number +of institutions, such as Wesley College, and the General, Victoria +Memorial Eye and other hospitals. South of Victoria Park is +the Havelock racecourse. Among educational establishments +not hitherto mentioned are the Royal College, the principal +government institution, the government technical college and +St Joseph’s Roman Catholic college. Most of the town is lighted +by gas, and certain quarters with electric light, and electric +tramways have been laid over several miles of the city roads. +The water-supply is drawn from a hill region 30 m. distant.</p> + +<p>Under British rule Colombo has shared in the prosperity brought +to the island by the successive industries of coffee and tea-planting. +At the height of the coffee-growing enterprise 20,000 +men, women and children, chiefly Sinhalese and Tamils, found +employment in the large factories and stores of the merchants +scattered over the town, where the coffee was cleaned, prepared, +sorted and packed for shipment. Tea, on the contrary, is prepared +and packed on the estates; but there is a considerable +amount of work still done in the Colombo stores in sorting, +blending and repacking such teas as are sold at the local public +sales; also in dealing with cacao, cardamoms, cinchona bark +and the remnant still left of the coffee industry. But it is to its +position as one of the great ports of call of the East that Colombo +owes its great and increasing importance. A magnificent breakwater, +4200 ft. long, the first stone of which was laid by the prince +of Wales in 1875, was completed in 1884. This breakwater +changed an open roadstead into a harbour completely sheltered +on the most exposed or south-west side; but there was still +liability in certain months to storms from the north-west and +south-east. Two additional arms were therefore constructed, +consisting of a north-east and north-west breakwater, leaving +two openings, one 800 ft. and the other 700 ft. wide, between +the various sections. The area enclosed is 660 acres. A first-class +graving-dock, of which the Admiralty bore half the cost, +has also been added. These improvements caused Galle to be +abandoned as a port of call for steamers in favour of Colombo, +while Trincomalee has been abandoned as a naval station. The +port has assumed first-class importance, mail steamers calling +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span> +regularly as well as men-of-war and the mercantile marine of +all nations; and it is now one of the finest artificial harbours +in the world. The extension of railways also has concentrated +the trade of the island upon the capital, and contributed to its +rise in prosperity.</p> + +<p>Colombo was originally known as the Kalantotta or Kalany +ferry. By the Arabs the name was changed to Kolambu, and +the town was mentioned by Ibn Batuta in 1346 as the largest +and finest in Serendib. In 1517 the Portuguese effected a settlement, +and in 1520 they fortified their port and bade defiance +to the native besiegers. In 1586 the town was invested by Raja +Singh, but without success. On its capture by the Dutch in +1656 it was a flourishing colony with convents of five religious +orders, churches and public offices, inhabited by no fewer than +900 noble families and 1500 families dependent on mercantile or +political occupations. In 1796 it was surrendered to the British.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLON<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (formerly known as <span class="sc">Aspinwall</span>), a city of the +Republic of Panama, on the Atlantic coast, in the Bay of Limon, +and 47 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Panama. Pop. (1908) +about 3000, consisting largely of Jamaica negroes and natives of +mixed Spanish, Indian and African descent. It is served by the +Panama railway, which crosses the Isthmus of Panama from +ocean to ocean. Colon has a deep, though poorly sheltered +harbour, and is either the terminus or a place of call for seven +lines of steamships. It thus serves as an entrepôt for much of +the commerce between Atlantic and Pacific ports, and between +the interior towns of Central and South America and the cities +of Europe and the United States. The city lies on the west side +of the low island of Manzanillo, is bordered on the landward +sides by swamp, and consists mainly of unimposing frame houses +and small shops. The most attractive parts are the American +quarter, where the employés of the Panama railway have their +homes, and the old French quarter, where dwelt the French +officers during their efforts to build the canal. In this last +district, near the mouth of the old canal, stands a fine statue of +Christopher Columbus, the gift of the empress Eugénie in 1870. +Here also stands the mansion erected and occupied by Ferdinand +de Lesseps during his residence on the isthmus. With the +exception of railway shops, there are no important industrial +establishments.</p> + +<p>Colon dates its origin from the year 1850, when the island of +Manzanillo was selected as the Atlantic terminus of the Panama +railway. The settlement was at first called Aspinwall, in honour +of William H. Aspinwall (1807-1875), one of the builders of the +railway; but some years afterwards its name was changed +by legislative enactment to Colon, in honour of Christopher +Columbus, who entered Limon Bay in 1502. The original name, +however, survived among the English-speaking inhabitants for +many years after this change. With the completion of the +railway in 1855, the town supplanted Chagres (<i>q.v.</i>) as the +principal Atlantic port of the isthmus. Later it acquired +increased importance through its selection by de Lesseps as the +site for the Atlantic entrance to his canal. During the revolution +of 1885 it was partly burned and was rebuilt on a somewhat +larger plan. As the city has always been notoriously unhealthful, +the United States, on undertaking the construction of the +Panama Canal (<i>q.v.</i>), became interested in preventing its becoming +a centre of infection for the Canal Zone, and by the treaty +of November 1903 secured complete jurisdiction in the city and +harbour over all matters relating to sanitation and quarantine, +and engaged to construct a system of waterworks and sewers +in the municipality, which had been practically completed in +1907. The United States government has also opened a port +at Cristobal, within the Canal Zone.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLON<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span>, a town of Matanzas province, Cuba, on the railway +between Matanzas and Santa Clara, and the centre of a rich +sugar-planting country. Pop. (1907) 7124.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLON<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span>, (1) (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolon">κόλον</span>, miswritten and mispronounced as +<span class="grk" title="kôlon">κῶλον</span>, the term being taken from <span class="grk" title="kolos">κόλος</span>, curtailed), in anatomy, +that part of the greater intestine which extends from the caecum +to the rectum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alimentary Canal</a></span>). (2.) (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kôlon">κῶλον</span>, a +member or part), originally in Greek rhetoric a short clause +longer than the “comma,” hence a mark (:), in punctuation, +used to show a break in construction greater than that marked +by the semicolon (;), and less than that marked by the period or +full stop. The sign is also used in psalters and the like to mark +off periods for chanting. The word is applied in palaeography +to a unit of measure in MSS., amounting in length to a hexameter +line.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLONEL<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (derived either from Lat. <i>columna</i>, Fr. <i>colonne</i>, +column, or Lat. <i>corona</i>, a crown), the superior officer of a regiment +of infantry or cavalry; also an officer of corresponding rank in +the general army list. The colonelcy of a regiment formerly +implied a proprietary right in it. Whether the colonel commanded +it directly in the field or not, he always superintended +its finance and interior economy, and the emoluments of the +office, in the 18th century, were often the only form of pay +drawn by general officers. The general officers of the 17th and +18th centuries were invariably colonels of regiments, and in this +case the active command was exercised by the lieutenant-colonels. +At the present day, British general officers are often, +though not always, given the colonelcy of a regiment, which +has become almost purely an honorary office. The sovereign, +foreign sovereigns, royal princes and others, hold honorary +colonelcies, as colonels-in-chief or honorary colonels of many +regiments. In other armies, the regiment being a fighting unit, +the colonel is its active commander; in Great Britain the +lieutenant-colonel commands in the field the battalion of infantry +and the regiment of cavalry. Colonels are actively employed in +the army at large in staff appointments, brigade commands, &c. +extra-regimentally. Colonel-general, a rank formerly used in +many armies, still survives in the German service, a colonel-general +(<i>General-Oberst</i>) ranking between a general of infantry, +cavalry or artillery, and a general field marshal (<i>General-Feldmarschall</i>). +Colonels-general are usually given the honorary +rank of general field marshal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLONIAL OFFICE<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span>, the department of the administration +of the United Kingdom which deals with questions affecting the +various colonial possessions of the British crown. The department +as it now exists is of comparatively modern creation, dating +only from 1854. The affairs of the English colonies began to +assume importance at the Restoration, and were at first entrusted +to a committee of the privy council, but afterwards transferred +to a commission created by letters patent. From 1672 to 1675 +the council for trade was combined with this commission, but +in the latter year the colonies were again placed under the control +of the privy council. This arrangement continued until 1695, +when a Board of Trade and Plantations was created; its duty, +however, was confined to collecting information and giving +advice when required. The actual executive work was performed +by the secretary of state for the southern department, who was +assisted, from 1768 to 1782, by a secretary of state for the +colonies. Both the Board of Trade and Plantations and the +additional secretary were abolished in 1782, and the executive +business wholly given over to the home office. In 1794 a third +secretary of state was reappointed, and in 1801 this secretary +was designated as secretary of state for war and the colonies. +In 1854 the two offices were separated, and a distinct office of +secretary of state for the colonies created.</p> + +<p>The secretary of state for the colonies is the official medium +of communication with colonial governments; he has certain +administrative duties respecting crown colonies, and has a right +of advising the veto of an act of a colonial legislature—this veto, +however, is never exercised in the case of purely local statutes. +He is assisted by a permanent and a parliamentary under-secretary +and a considerable clerical staff.</p> + +<p>As reorganized in 1907 the colonial office consists of three +chief departments: (1) the Dominions Department, dealing +with the affairs of the self-governing over-sea dominions of the +British crown, and of certain other possessions geographically +connected with those dominions; (2) the Colonial Department, +dealing with the affairs of crown colonies and protectorates; +(3) the General Department, dealing with legal, financial and +other general business. In addition to these three departments, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span> +standing committees exist to take a collective view of such +matters as contracts, concessions, mineral and other leases, +and patronage.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLONNA<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span>, a noble Roman family, second only to the Gaetani +di Sermoneta in antiquity, and first of all the Roman houses in +importance. The popes Marcellinus, Sixtus III., Stephen IV. +and Adrian III. are said to have been members of it, but the +authentic pedigree of the family begins with Pietro, lord of +Columna, Palestrina and Paliano (about 1100), probably a +brother of Pope Benedict IX. His great grandson Giovanni had +two sons, respectively the founders of the Colonna di Paliano +and Colonna di Sciarra lines. The third, or Colonna-Romano +line, is descended from Federigo Colonna (1223). In the 12th +century we find the Colonna as counts of Tusculum, and the +family was then famous as one of the most powerful and turbulent +of the great Roman clans; its feuds with the Orsini and the +Gaetani are a characteristic feature of medieval Rome and the +Campagna; like the other great nobles of the Campagna the +Colonna plundered travellers and cities, and did not even spare +the pope himself if they felt themselves injured by him. +Boniface VIII. attempted to break their power, excommunicated +them in 1297, and confiscated their estates. He proclaimed a +crusade against them and captured Palestrina, but they afterwards +revenged themselves by besieging him at Anagni, and +Sciarra Colonna laid violent hands on His Holiness, being with +difficulty restrained from actually murdering him (1303). In +1347 the Colonna, at that time almost an independent power, +were defeated by Cola di Rienzi, but soon recovered. Pope +Martin V. (1417-1431) was a Colonna, and conferred immense +estates on his family, including Marino, Frascati, Rocca di Papa, +Nettuno, Palinao, &c., in the Campagna, and other fiefs in +Romagna and Umbria. Their goods were frequently confiscated +and frequently given back, and the house was subject to many +changes of fortune; during the reign of Pope Alexander VI. +they were again humbled, but they always remained powerful +and important, and members of the family rose to eminence as +generals, prelates and statesmen in the service of the Church +or other powers. In the war of 1522 between France and Spain +there were Colonna on both sides, and at the battle of Lepanto +(1571) Marc Antonio Colonna, who commanded the papal +contingent, greatly distinguished himself. A detailed record +of the Colonna family would be a history of Rome. To-day +there are three lines of Colonna: (1) Colonna di Paliano, with +two branches, the princes and dukes of Paliano, and the princes +of Stigliano; (2) Colonna di Sciarra, with two branches, Colonna +di Sciarra, princes of Carbagnano, and Barberini-Colonna, +princes of Palestrina; and (3) Colonna-Romano. The Colonna +palace, one of the finest in Rome, was begun by Martin V. and +contains a valuable picture and sculpture gallery.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i> (Berlin, 1868), +containing an elaborate account of the family; F. Gregorovius, +<i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i> (Stuttgart, 1872); <i>Almanack de Gotha</i>. (L. V.*)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (<i>circa</i> 1637-1695), Italian +musician, was born in Bologna about 1637 and died in the +same city on the 28th of November 1695. He was a pupil of +Filippuzzi in Bologna, and of Abbatini and Benevoli in Rome, +where for a time he held the post of organist at S. Apollinare. +A dated poem in praise of his music shows that he began to +distinguish himself as a composer in 1659. In that year he was +chosen organist at S. Petronio in Bologna, where on the 1st of +November 1674 he was made chapel-master. He also became +president of the Philharmonic Academy of Bologna. Most of +Colonna’s works are for the church, including settings of the +psalms for three, four, five and eight voices, and several masses +and motets. He also composed an opera, under the title <i>Amilcare</i>, +and an oratorio, <i>La Profezia d’ Eliseo</i>. The emperor Leopold +I. received a copy of every composition of Colonna, so that +the imperial library in Vienna possesses upwards of 83 +church compositions by him. Colonna’s style is for the most +part dignified, but is not free from the inequalities of style +and taste almost unavoidable at a period when church music +was in a state of transition, and had hardly learnt to combine +the gravity of the old style with the brilliance of the new.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLONNA, VITTORIA<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1490-1547), marchioness of Pescara, +Italian poet, daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, grand constable of +the kingdom of Naples, and of Anna da Montefeltro, was born at +Marino, a fief of the Colonna family. Betrothed when four years +old at the instance of Ferdinand, king of Naples, to Ferrante +de Avalos, son of the marquis of Pescara, she received the +highest education and gave early proof of a love of letters. Her +hand was sought by many suitors, including the dukes of Savoy +and Braganza, but at nineteen, by her own ardent desire, she +was married to de Avalos on the island of Ischia. There the +couple resided until 1511, when her husband offered his sword +to the League against the French. He was taken prisoner at +the battle of Ravenna (1512) and conveyed to France. During +the months of detention and the long years of campaigning +which followed, Vittoria and Ferrante corresponded in the most +passionate terms both in prose and verse. They saw each other +but seldom, for Ferrante was one of the most active and brilliant +captains of Charles V.; but Vittoria’s influence was sufficient +to keep him from joining the projected league against the +emperor after the battle of Pavia (1525), and to make him refuse +the crown of Naples offered to him as the price of his treason. +In the month of November of the same year he died of his +wounds at Milan. Vittoria, who was hastening to tend him, +received the news of his death at Viterbo; she halted and turned +off to Rome, and after a brief stay departed for Ischia, where she +remained for several years. She refused several suitors, and +began to produce those <i>Rime spirituali</i> which form so distinct +a feature in her works. In 1529 she returned to Rome, and spent +the next few years between that city, Orvieto, Ischia and other +places. In 1537 we find her at Ferrara, where she made many +friends and helped to establish a Capuchin monastery at the +instance of the reforming monk Bernardino Ochino, who afterwards +became a Protestant. In 1539 she was back in Rome, +where, besides winning the esteem of Cardinals Reginald Pole +and Contarini, she became the object of a passionate friendship +on the part of Michelangelo, then in his sixty-fourth year. The +great artist addressed some of his finest sonnets to her, made +drawings for her, and spent long hours in her society. Her +removal to Orvieto and Viterbo in 1541, on the occasion of her +brother Ascanio Colonna’s revolt against Paul III., produced +no change in their relations, and they continued to visit and +correspond as before. She returned to Rome in 1544, staying +as usual at the convent of San Silvestro, and died there on the +25th of February 1547.</p> + +<p>Cardinal Bembo, Luigi Alamanni and Baldassare Castiglione +were among her literary friends. She was also on intimate terms +with many of the Italian Protestants, such as Pietro Carnesecchi, +Juan de Valdes and Ochino, but she died before the +church crisis in Italy became acute, and, although she was an +advocate of religious reform, there is no reason to believe that +she herself became a Protestant. Her life was a beautiful one, +and goes far to counteract the impression of the universal corruption +of the Italian Renaissance conveyed by such careers +as those of the Borgia. Her amatory and elegiac poems, which +are the fruits of a sympathetic and dainty imitative gift rather +than of any strong original talent, were printed at Parma in +1538; a third edition, containing sixteen of her <i>Rime Spirituali</i>, +in which religious themes are treated in Italian, was published +at Florence soon afterwards; and a fourth, including a still +larger proportion of the pious element, was issued at Venice in +1544.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A great deal has been written about Vittoria Colonna, but perhaps +the best account of her life is A. Luzio’s <i>Vittoria Colonna</i> (Modena, +1885); A. von Reumont’s <i>Vita di Vittoria Colonna</i> (Italian corrected +edit., Turin, 1883) is also excellent; F. le Fèvre’s <i>Vittoria Colonna</i> +(Paris, 1856) is somewhat inaccurate, but T. Roscoe’s <i>Vittoria +Colonna</i> (London, 1868) may be recommended to English readers; +P. E. Visconti’s <i>Le Rime di Vittoria Colonna</i> (Rome, 1846) deals with +her poems.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLONNADE<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span>, in architecture, a range of columns (Ital. +<i>colonna</i>) in a row. When extended so as to enclose a temple, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span> +it is called a peristyle, and the same term applies when round +an open court, as in the houses at Pompeii. When projecting +in front of a building, it is called a portico, as in the Pantheon +at Rome and the National Gallery in London. When enclosed +between wings, as in Perrault’s façade to the Louvre, it is +correctly described as a colonnade. Colonnades lined the streets +of the towns in Syria and Asia Minor, and they were largely +employed in Rome.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLONSAY<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span>, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, +Scotland, 10 m. S. of the Ross of Mull. It is 7½ m. long by +3 m. broad. The highest point is Carnan Eoin (470 ft.). Towards +the middle of the island lies Loch Fada, nearly 2 m. long but +very narrow, and there are two other small lakes and a few +streams. The coast-line, with frequent beautiful sandy reaches, +is much indented, the chief bays being Kiloran, Kilchattan and +Staosunaig. On the north-western coast the cliffs are particularly +fine. To the south, separated by a strait that is fordable at low +water, lies the isle of <span class="sc">Oronsay</span>, 2¼ m. long by 2¾ m. wide. Both +islands contain a number of ecclesiastical remains, standing +stones, and some beautiful sculptured crosses. They are named +after Columba and Oran, who are said to have stopped here after +they left Ireland. There is regular communication between +Scalasaig and Glasgow and the Clyde ports. The golf-course at +Kilchattan lends a touch of modernity to these remote islands. +Near Scalasaig a granite obelisk has been erected to the memory +of Sir Duncan M‘Neill (1794-1874), a distinguished Scottish +lawyer, who took the title of Lord Colonsay when he became +a lord of appeal. The soil of both islands is fertile, potatoes +and barley being raised and cattle pastured. Population: +Colonsay (1901), 301; Oronsay (1901), 12.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLONY<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (Lat. <i>colonia</i>, from <i>colonus</i>, a cultivator), a term +most commonly used to denote a settlement of the subjects of +a sovereign state in lands beyond its boundaries, owning no +allegiance to any foreign power, and retaining a greater or less +degree of dependence on the mother country. The founding +and the growth of such communities furnish matter for an interesting +chapter in the history as well of ancient as of modern +civilization; and the regulation of the relations between the +parent state and its dependencies abroad gives rise to important +problems alike in national policy and in international economics.</p> + +<p>It was mainly the spirit of commercial enterprise that led the +Phoenicians to plant their colonies upon the islands and along +the southern coast of the Mediterranean; and even beyond the +Pillars of Hercules this earliest great colonizing race left enduring +traces of its maritime supremacy. Carthage, indeed, chief of the +Phoenician settlements, sent forth colonies to defend her conquests +and strengthen her military power; and these sub-colonies +naturally remained in strict subjection to her power, +whereas the other young Phoenician states assumed and asserted +entire independence.</p> + +<p>In this latter respect the Greek colonies resembled those of +the Phoenicians. From a very early period the little civic communities +of Greece had sent forth numerous colonizing streams. +At points so far asunder as the Tauric Chersonese, Cyrene and +Massilia were found prosperous centres of Greek commercial +energy; but the regions most thickly peopled by settlers of Greek +descent were the western seaboard of Asia Minor, Sicily and the +southern parts of the Italian peninsula. Nor were the least +prosperous communities those which were sprung from earlier +colonies. The causes that led to the foundation of the Greek +colonies were very various. As in Phoenicia, pressure created +by the narrow limits of the home country coincided with an +adventurous desire to seek new sources of wealth beyond seas; +but very many Greek emigrations were caused by the expulsion +of the inhabitants of conquered cities, or by the intolerable +domination of a hated but triumphant faction within the native +state. The polity of the new community, often founded in +defiance of the home authorities, might either be a copy of that +just left behind or be its direct political antithesis. But wherever +they went, and whether, as apparently in Asia Minor, Greek +blood was kept free from barbaric mixture, or whether, as in +Magna Graecia and Sicily, it was mingled with that of the +aboriginal races, the Greek emigrants carried with them the +Hellenic spirit and the Hellenic tongue; and the colonies fostered, +not infrequently more rapidly and more brilliantly than at home, +Greek literature, Greek art and Greek speculation. The relation +to be preserved towards the mother states was seldom or never +definitely arranged. But filial feeling and established custom +secured a measure of kindly sympathy, shown by precedence +yielded at public games, and by the almost invariable abstinence +of the colony from a hostile share in wars in which the mother +city was engaged.</p> + +<p>The relation of Rome to her colonies was altogether different. +No Roman colony started without the sanction and direction of +the public authority; and while the <i>Colonia Romano</i> differed +from the <i>Colonia Latina</i> in that the former permitted its members +to retain their political rights intact, the colony, whether planted +within the bounds of Italy or in provinces such as Gaul or +Britain, remained an integral part of the Roman state. In the +earlier colonies, the state allotted to proposing emigrants from +amongst the needy or discontented class of citizens portions of +such lands as, on the subjection of a hostile people, the state +took into its possession as public property. At a later time, +especially after the days of Sulla, the distribution of the territories +of a vanquished Roman party was employed by the +victorious generals as an easy means of satisfying the claims of +the soldiery by whose help they had triumphed. The Roman +colonies were thus not merely valuable as <i>propugnacula</i> of the +state, as permanent supports to Roman garrisons and armies, but +they proved a most effective means of extending over wide +bounds the language and the laws of Rome, and of inoculating +the inhabitants of the provinces with more than the rudiments +of Roman civilization.</p> + +<p>The occupation of the fairest provinces of the Roman empire +by the northern barbarians had little in common with colonization. +The Germanic invaders came from no settled state; they +maintained loosely, and but for a short while, any form of +brotherhood with the allied tribes. A nearer parallel to Greek +colonization may be found in Iceland, whither the adherents of +the old Norse polity fled from the usurpation of Harold Haarfager; +and the early history of the English pale in Ireland +shows, though not in orderliness and prosperity, several points of +resemblance to the Roman colonial system.</p> + +<p>Though both Genoese and Venetians in their day of power +planted numerous trading posts on various portions of the +Mediterranean shores, of which some almost deserve the name +of colonies, the history of modern colonization on a great scale +opens with the Spanish conquests in America. The first Spanish +adventurers came, not to colonize, but to satisfy as rapidly as +possible and by the labour of the enslaved aborigines, their +thirst for silver and gold. Their conquests were rapid, but the +extension of their permanent settlements was gradual and slow. +The terrible cruelty at first exercised on the natives was restrained, +not merely by the zeal of the missionaries, but by effective +official measures; and ultimately home-born Spaniards and +Creoles lived on terms of comparative fairness with the Indians +and with the half-breed population. Till the general and successful +revolt of her American colonies, Spain maintained and employed +the latter directly and solely for what she conceived to +be her own advantage. Her commercial policy was one of most +irrational and intolerable restriction and repression; and till the +end of Spanish rule on the American continent, the whole +political power was retained by the court at Madrid, and +administered in the colonies by an oligarchy of home-bred +Spaniards.</p> + +<p>The Portuguese colonization in America, in most respects +resembling that of Spain, is remarkable for the development +there given to an institution sadly prominent in the history +of the European colonies. The nearness of Brazil to the coast of +Africa made it easy for the Portuguese to supply the growing +lack of native labour by the wholesale importation of purchased +or kidnapped Africans.</p> + +<p>Of the French it is admitted that in their colonial possessions +they displayed an unusual faculty for conciliating the prejudices +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span> +of native races, and even for assimilating themselves to the +latter. But neither this nor the genius of successive governors +and commanders succeeded in preserving for France her once +extensive colonies in Canada or her great influence in India. +In Algeria and West Africa the French government has not +merely found practical training schools for her own soldiers, +but by opening a recruiting field amongst the native tribes it +has added an available contingent to the French army.</p> + +<p>The Dutch took early a leading share in the carrying trade +of the various European colonies. They have still extensive +colonies in the East Indian Archipelago, as well as possessions +in the West Indies. The Danish dependencies in the Antilles +are but trifling in extent or importance.</p> + +<p>It is the English-speaking race, however, that has shown the +most remarkable energy and capacity for colonization. The +English settlements in Virginia, New England, New York, New +Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, +North Carolina, and Georgia had, between the first decade of +the 17th and the seventh decade of the 18th century, developed +into a new nation, the United States of America. It is unnecessary +here to deal with the development of what have since been the +two great independent branches of the English-speaking people—those +of the United States (<i>q.v.</i>) and of the British Empire (<i>q.v.</i>), +as their history is given elsewhere. But the colonizing genius +which, with the British Isles as centre, has taken up the “white +man’s burden” in all quarters of the globe, is universally recognized. +In the problems of government raised by the organization +of the British dominions beyond the seas the system of colonization +has been developed to an extent unknown under any other +national flag.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOPHON<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span>, an ancient city of Ionia, situated inland about +15 m. N. of Ephesus. Its port was at Notium or New Colophon. +The site, now called <i>Tracha</i> (only recognized towards the end of +the 19th century), lies near Diermendere, 5 m. S. of Develikeui +station on the Smyrna-Aidin railway, and about 2 m. from the +farms and hamlet of Malkajik. It is almost entirely under +cultivation, and there is little to be seen but remains of the walls +and certain tumuli. Rich tombs, however, have been found +beside the old roads leading to it, and the site is usually regarded +as a particularly promising one for excavation, since Colophon +was a very flourishing city in the great period of Ionia and had +declined and been largely superseded by Notium before the +Roman age. The common belief, however, that it had no +existence after the time of Lysimachus is not borne out by the +remains on the site. Founded by Andracmon of Pylos, it was +at the acme of its prosperity in the 8th and 7th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +up to the epoch of its sack by Gyges of Lydia in 665. It claimed +to have produced Homer, but its greatest genuine literary name +was Mimnermus. It seems to have been ruled by a rich aristocracy +which provided a famous troop of horse; and, from the +Greek saying, usually supposed to refer to the decisive effect +of the final charge of this troop in battle, the word <i>colophon</i> has +come to be used for the final note appended to old printed books, +containing date, &c. In 287 Lysimachus transferred a part of +the population to his new city at Ephesus. Though an Ionian +colony Colophon did not share in the common festival of the +<i>Apaturia</i> and seems to have been isolated for some reason among +its neighbours, with one of whom, Ephesus, it was constantly +at enmity. The forts by which Ephesus protected itself against +Colophonian invasion are still to be seen on the hills north of +the Caystrus.</p> + +<p>Notium or New Colophon contained the important shrine of +the Clarian Apollo, whose site has recently been identified with +probability by Th. Makridy Bey during excavations conducted +for the Ottoman museum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Schuchardt in <i>Athen. Mitteil.</i> (1886); W. M. Ramsay, +<i>Hist. Geog. of Asia Minor</i> (addenda) (1890).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOPHON<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span>, a final paragraph in some manuscripts and +many early printed books (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Book</a></span>), giving particulars as to +authorship, date and place of production, &c. Before the invention +of printing, a scribe when he had finished copying a book +occasionally added a final paragraph at the end of the text in +which he recorded the fact, and (if he were so minded) expressed +his thankfulness to God, or asked for the prayers of readers. In +the famous Bodleian MS. 264 of the <i>Roman d’Alexandre</i> there is +an unusually full note of this kind recording the completion of the +copy on the 18th of December 1338 and ending—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> + +<p>“Explicit iste liber, scriptor sit crimine liber,</p> +<p class="i05">Christus scriptorem custodiat ac det honorem.”</p> + +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Both in manuscripts and also in early printed books authors +made use of such a final paragraph for expressing similar feelings. +Thus the Guillermus who made a famous collection of sermons +on the gospels for Sundays and saints’ days records its completion +in 1437 and submits it to the correction of charitable readers, and +Sir Thomas Malory notes that his <i>Morte d’Arthur</i> “was ended +the ix yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the fourth,” and bids +his readers “praye for me whyle I am on lyue that God sende +me good delyuerance, and whan I am deed I praye you all praye +for my soule.” So again Jacobus Bergomensis records that his +<i>Supplementum Chronicarum</i> was finished “anno salutis nostre +1483. 3º Kalendas Julii in ciuitate Bergomi: mihi vero a +natiuitate quadragesimo nono,” and in the subsequent editions +which he revised brings both the year and his own age up to +date. Before printing was invented, however, such paragraphs +were exceptional, and many of the early printers, notably +Gutenberg himself, were content to allow their books to go out +without any mention of their own names. Fust and Schoeffer, +on the other hand, printed at the end of their famous psalter of +1457 the following paragraph in red ink:—<i>Presens spalmorum (sic +for psalmorum) codex venustate capitalium decoratus Rubricationibusque +sufficienter distinctus, Adinuentione artificiosa imprimendi +ac caracterizandi absque calami vlla exaracione sic effigiatus, +Et ad eusebiam dei industrie est consummatus, Per Iohannem +fust ciuem maguntinum, Et Petrum Schoffer de Gernszheim Anno +domini Millesimo. cccc. lvii In vigilia Assumpcionis</i>. Similar +paragraphs in praise of printing and of Mainz as the city where +the art was brought to perfection appear in most of the books +issued by the partners and after Fust’s death by Schoeffer alone, +and were widely imitated by other printers. In their Latin Bible +of 1462 Fust and Schoeffer added a device of two shields at the +end of the paragraph, and this addition was also widely copied. +Many of these final paragraphs give information of great value +for the history of printing; many also, especially those to the +early editions of the classics printed in Italy, are written in +verse. As the practice grew up of devoting a separate leaf or +page to the title of a book at its beginning, the importance of +these final paragraphs slowly diminished, and the information +they gave was gradually transferred to the title-page. Complete +title-pages bearing the date and name of the publishers are found +in most books printed after 1520, and the final paragraph, if +retained at all, was gradually reduced to a bare statement of the +name of the printer. From the use of the word in the sense +of a “finishing stroke,” such a final paragraph as has been described +is called by bibliographers a “colophon” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolophôn">κολοφών</span>), +but at what period this name for it was first used has not been +ascertained. It is quite possibly not earlier than the 18th +century. (For origin see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar184">Colophon</a></span> [city].)</p> +<div class="author">(A. W. Po.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLORADO<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span>, a state of the American union, situated between +41° and 37° N. lat. and 102° and 109° W. long., bounded N. by +Wyoming and Nebraska, E. by Nebraska and Kansas, S. by +Oklahoma and New Mexico, and W. by Utah. Its area is +103,948 sq. m. (of which 290 are water surface). It is the seventh +largest state of the Union.</p> + +<p><i>Physiography.</i>—Colorado embraces in its area a great variety +of plains, mountains and plateaus. It lies at the junction of the +Great Plains—which in their upward slant to the westward attain +an average elevation of about 4000 ft. along the east boundary +of the state—with the Rocky Mountains, to the west of which is +a portion of the Colorado Plateau. These are the three physiographic +provinces of the state (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>, section +<i>Geology</i>, ad fin., for details of structure). The last-named +includes a number of lofty plateaus—the Roan or Book, Uncompahgre, +&c., which form the eastern continuation of the +high plateaus of Utah—and covers the western quarter of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span> +state. Its eastern third consists of rich, unbroken plains. On +their west edge lies an abrupt, massive, and strangely uniform +chain of mountains, known in the neighbourhood of Colorado +Springs as the Rampart Range, and in the extreme north as the +Front Range, and often denominated as a whole by the latter +name. The upturning of the rocks of the Great Plains at the +foot of the Front Range develops an interesting type of topography, +the harder layers weathering into grotesquely curious +forms, as seen in the famous Garden of the Gods at the foot of +Pike’s Peak. Behind this barrier the whole country is elevated +2000 ft. or so above the level of the plains region. In its lowest +portions just behind the front ranges are the natural “parks”—great +plateaus basined by superb enclosing ranges; and to +the west of these, and between them, and covering the remainder +of the state east of the plateau region, is an entanglement of +mountains, tier above tier, running from north to south, buttressed +laterally with splendid spurs, dominated by scores of magnificent +peaks, cut by river valleys, and divided by mesas and plateaus. +These various chains are known by a multitude of local names. +Among the finest of the chains are the Rampart, Sangre de +Cristo, San Juan, Sawatch (Saguache) and Elk ranges. The +first, like the other ranges abutting from north to south upon +the region of the prairie, rises abruptly from the plain and has +a fine, bold outline. It contains a number of fine summits +dominated by Pike’s Peak (14,108 ft.). Much more beautiful +as a whole is the Sangre de Cristo range. At its southern end +are Blanca Peak (14,390) and Old Baldy (14,176, Hayden), both +in Costilla county; to the northward are Rito Alto Peak (12,989, +Wheeler), in Custer county, and many others of almost equal +height and equal beauty. The mountains of the south-west +are particularly abrupt and jagged. Sultan Mountain (13,366, +Hayden), in San Juan county, and Mt. Eolus (14,079), in La Plata +county, dominate the fine masses of the San Juan ranges; and +Mt. Sneffels (14,158, Hayden), Ouray county, and Uncompahgre +Peak (14,289), Hinsdale county, the San Miguel and Uncompahgre +ranges, which are actually parts of the San Juan. Most +magnificent of all the mountains of Colorado, however, are the +Sawatch and adjoining ranges in the centre of the state. The +former (the name is used a little loosely) consists of almost +a solid mass of granite, has an average elevation of probably +13,000 ft., presents a broad and massive outline, and has a +mean breadth of 15 to 20 m. Mt. Ouray (13,956 ft.), in Chaffee +county, may be taken as the southern end, and in Eagle county, +the splendid Mount of the Holy Cross (14,170)—so named from +the figure of its snow-filled ravines—as the northern. Between +them lie: in Chaffee county, Mt. Shavano (14,239, Hayden), +Mt. Princeton (14,196, Hayden), Mt. Yale (14,187, Hayden), +Mt. Harvard (14,375, Hayden), and La Plata Peak (14,342); +in Pitkin county, Grizzly Peak (13,956, Hayden); in Lake +county, Elbert Peak (14,421), and Massive mountain (14,424), +the highest peak in the state; on the boundary between Summit +and Park counties, Mt. Lincoln (14,297, Hayden); and, in +Summit county, Mt. Fletcher (14,265). The Elk range is geologically +interesting for the almost unexampled displacement of +the strata of which it is composed, and the apparent confusion +which has thence arisen. Among the most remarkable of its +separate summits, which rise superbly in a crescent about Aspen, +are North Italian Peak (13,225), displaying the red, white and +green of Italy’s national colours, White Rock Mountain (13,532), +Mt. Owen (13,102), Teocalli Mountain (13,220), Snow Mass +(13,970, Hayden) and Maroon (14,003, Hayden) mountains, +Castle Peak (14,259), Capitol Mountain (13,997, Hayden), +Pyramid Peak (13,885, Hayden), Taylor Peak (13,419), and +about a dozen other summits above 12,000 ft. A few miles +to the north and north-east of the Mount of the Holy Cross are +Red Mountain (13,333, Wheeler), in Eagle county, Torrey Peak +(14,336, Hayden) and Gray’s Peak (14,341, Hayden), in Summit +county, Mt. Evans (14,330, Hayden), in Clear Creek county, and +Rosalie Peak (13,575), in Park county; a little farther north, +in Gilpin, Grand and Clear Creek counties, James Peak (13,283, +Hayden), and, in Boulder county, Long’s Peak (14,271, Hayden). +Many fine mountains are scattered in the lesser ranges of the +state. Altogether there are at least 180 summits exceeding +12,000 ft. in altitude, more than 110 above 13,000 and about +40 above 14,000.</p> + +<p>Cirques, valley troughs, numberless beautiful cascades, sharpened +alpine peaks and ridges, glacial lakes, and valley moraines +offer everywhere abundant evidence of glacial action, which has +modified profoundly practically all the ranges. The Park Range +east of Leadville, and the Sawatch Range, are particularly fine +examples. Much of the grandest scenery is due to glaciation.</p> + +<p>One of the most remarkable orographical features of the state +are the great mountain “parks”—North, Estes, Middle, South +and San Luis—extending from the northern to the southern +border of the state, and lying (with the exception of Middle Park) +just east of the continental divide. These “parks” are great +plateaus, not all of them level, lying below the barriers of surrounding +mountain chains. North Park, the highest of all, is a +lovely country of meadow and forest. Middle Park is not level, +but is traversed thickly by low ranges like the Alleghanies; in +the bordering mountain rim are several of the grandest mountain +peaks and some of the most magnificent scenery of the state. +Estes Park is small, only 20 m. long and never more than 2 m. +broad; it is in fact the valley of Thompson Creek. Its surface +is one of charming slopes, and by many it is accounted among +the loveliest of Colorado valleys. Seven ranges lie between it +and the plains. South Park is similarly quiet and charming in +character. Much greater than any of these is San Luis Park. +The surface is nearly as flat as a lake, and it was probably at one +time the bed of an inland sea. In the centre there is a long +narrow lake fed by many streams. It has no visible outlet, but +is fresh. The San Luis Park, which runs into New Mexico, is +traversed by the Rio Grande del Norte and more than a dozen +of its mountain tributaries. These parks are frequented by +great quantities of large game, and—especially the North and +Middle—are famous hunting-grounds. They are fertile, too, and +as their combined area is something like 13,000 sq. m. they are +certain to be of great importance in Colorado’s agricultural +development.</p> + +<p>The drainage system of the state is naturally very complicated. +Eleven topographical and climatic divisions are recognized by +the United States Weather Bureau within its borders, including +the several parks, the continental divide, and various river +valleys. Of the rivers, the North Platte has its sources in North +Park, the Colorado (the Gunnison and Grand branches) in Middle +Park, the Arkansas and South Platte in South Park—where +their waters drain in opposite directions from Palmer’s Lake—the +Rio Grande in San Luis Park. Three of these flow east and +south-east to the Missouri, Mississippi and the Gulf; but +the waters of the Colorado system flow to the south-west into +the Gulf of California. Among the other streams, almost countless +in number among the mountains, the systems of the Dolores, +White and Yampa, all in the west, are of primary importance. +The scenery on the head-waters of the White and Bear, the upper +tributaries of the Gunnison, and on many of the minor rivers of +the south-west is wonderfully beautiful. The South Platte falls +4830 ft. in the 139 m. above Denver; the Grand 3600 ft. in the +224 m. between the mouth of the Gunnison and the Forks; the +Gunnison 6477 ft. in 200 m. to its mouth (and save for 16 m. +never with a gradient of less than 10 ft.); the Arkansas 7000 ft. +in its 338 m. west of the Kansas line. Of the smaller streams +the Uncompahgre falls 2700 ft. in 134 m., the Las Animas 7190 +ft. in 113 m., the Los Pinos 4920 ft. in 75 m., the Roaring Fork +5923 ft. in 64 m., the Mancos 5000 ft. in 62 m., the La Plata +3103 ft. in 43 m., the Eagle 4293 ft. in 62 m., the San Juan 3785 +in 303, the Lake Fork of the Gunnison 6047 in 59. The canyons +formed in the mountains by these streams are among the glories +of Colorado and of America. The grandest are the Toltec Gorge +near the Southern boundary line, traversed by the railway +1500 ft. above the bottom; the Red Gorge and Rouge Canyon +of the Upper Grand, and a splendid gorge 16 m. long below the +mouth of the Eagle, with walls 2000-2500 ft. in height; the +Grand Canyon of the Arkansas (8 m.) above Canyon City, with +granite walls towering 2600 ft. above the boiling river at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span> +Royal Gorge; and the superb Black Canyon (15 m.) of the +Gunnison and the Cimarron. But there are scores of others +which, though less grand, are hardly less beautiful. The exquisite +colour contrasts of the Cheyenne canyons near Colorado +Springs, Boulder Canyon near the city of the same name, Red +Cliff and Eagle River Canyons near Red Cliff, Clear Creek Canyon +near Denver—with walls at places 1000 ft. in height—the +Granite Canyon (11 m.) of the South Platte west of Florissant, +and the fine gorge of the Rio de las Animas (1500 ft.), would be +considered wonderful in any state less rich in still more marvellous +scenery. One peculiar feature of the mountain landscapes +are the mines. In districts like that of Cripple Creek their +enormous ore “dumps” dot the mountain flanks like scores +of vast ant-hills; and in Eagle River canyon their mouths, like +dormer windows into the granite mountain roof, may be seen +2000 ft. above the railway.</p> + +<p>Many parts of the railways among the mountains are remarkable +for altitude, construction or scenery. More than a dozen +mountain passes lie above 10,000 ft. Argentine Pass (13,000 +ft.), near Gray’s Peak, is one of the highest wagon roads of the +world; just east of Silverton is Rio Grande Pass, about 12,400 +ft. above sea-level, and in the Elk Mountains between Gunnison +and Pitkin counties is Pearl Pass (12,715 ft.). Many passes +are traversed by the railways, especially the splendid scenic +route of the Denver and Rio Grande. Among the higher passes +are Hoosier Pass (10,309 ft.) in the Park Range, and Hayden +Divide (10,780) and Veta Pass (9390); both of these across the +Sangre de Cristo range; the crossing of the San Miguel chain +at Lizard Head Pass (10,250) near Rico; of the Uncompahgre +at Dallas Divide (8977) near Ouray; of the Elk and Sawatch +ranges at Fremont (11,320), Tennessee (10,229), and Breckenridge +(11,470) passes, and the Busk Tunnel, all near Leadville; +and Marshall Pass (10,846) above Salida. Perhaps finer than +these for their wide-horizoned outlooks and grand surroundings +are the Alpine Tunnel under the continental divide of the Lower +Sawatch chain, the scenery of the tortuous line along the +southern boundary in the Conejos and San Juan mountains, +which are crossed at Cumbres (10,003 ft.), and the magnificent +scenery about Ouray and on the Silverton railway over the +shoulder of Red Mountain (attaining 11,235 ft.). Notable, too, +is the road in Clear Creek Canyon—where the railway track coils +six times upon itself above Georgetown at an altitude of +10,000 ft.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate of Colorado is exceptional for regularity +and salubrity. The mean annual temperature for the state is +about 46°. The mean yearly isothermals crossing the state are +ordinarily 35° to 50° or 55° F. Their course, owing to the complex +orography of the state, is necessarily extremely irregular, +and few climatic generalizations can be made. It can be said, +however, that the south-east is the warmest portion of the state, +lying as it does without the mountains; that the north-central +region is usually coldest; that the normal yearly rainfall for the +entire state is about 15.5 in., with great local variations (rarely +above 27 in.). Winds are constant and rather high (5 to 10 m.), +and for many persons are the most trying feature of the climate. +Very intense cold prevails of course in winter in the mountains, +and intense heat (110° F. or more in the shade) is often experienced +in summer, temperatures above 90° being very +common. The locality of least annual thermometric range is +Lake Moraine (10,268 ft. above the sea)—normally 91° F.; at +other localities the range may be as great as 140°, and for the +whole state of course even greater (155° or slightly more). The +lowest monthly mean in 16 years (1887-1903) was 17.30. Nevertheless, +the climate of Colorado is not to be judged severe, and +that of the plains region is in many ways ideal. In the lowlands +the snow is always slight and it disappears almost immediately, +even in the very foothills of the mountains, as at Denver or +Colorado Springs. However hot the summer day, its night is +always cool and dewless. Between July and October there is +little rain, day after day bringing a bright and cloudless sky. +Humidity is moderate (annual averages for Grand Junction, +Pueblo, Denver and Cheyenne, Wyo., for 6 <span class="sc">A.M.</span> about 50 to 66; +for 6 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> 33 to 50); it is supposed to be increasing with the +increasing settlement of the country. Sunshine is almost +continuous, and splendidly intense. The maximum number of +“rainy” days (with a rainfall of more than 0.01 in.) rarely +approaches 100 at the most unfortunate locality; for the whole +state the average of perfectly “clear” days is normally above +50%, of “partly cloudy” above 30, of “cloudy” under 20, +of “rainy” still less. At Denver, through 11 years, the actual +sunlight was 70% of the possible; many other points are even +more favoured; very many enjoy on a third to a half of the days +of the year above 90% of possible sunshine. All through the +year the atmosphere is so dry and light that meat can be preserved +by the simplest process of desiccation. “An air more +delicious to breathe,” wrote Bayard Taylor, “cannot anywhere +be found; it is neither too sedative nor too exciting, but has that +pure, sweet, flexible quality which seems to support all one’s +happiest and healthiest moods.” For asthmatic and consumptive +troubles its restorative influence is indisputable. +Along with New Mexico and Arizona, Colorado has become +more and more a sanitarium for the other portions of the Union. +Among the secondary hygienic advantages are the numerous +mineral wells.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—The life zones of Colorado are simple in +arrangement. The boreal embraces the highest mountain +altitudes; the transition belts it on both sides of the continental +divide; the upper Sonoran takes in about the eastern +half of the plains region east of the mountains, and is represented +further by two small valley penetrations from Utah. Timber is +confined almost wholly to the high mountain sides, the mountain +valleys and the parks being for the most part bare. Nowhere +is the timber large or dense. The timber-line on the mountains +is at about 10,000 ft., and the snow line at about 11,000. It is +supposed that the forests were much richer before the settlement +of the state, which was followed by reckless consumption and +waste, and the more terrible ravages of fire. In 1872-1876 the +wooded area was estimated at 32% of the state’s area. It is +certainly much less now. The principal trees, after the yellow +and lodgepole pines, are the red-fir, so-called hemlock and cedar, +the Engelmann spruce, the cottonwood and the aspen (<i>Populus +tremuloides</i>). In 1899 Federal forest reserves had been created, +aggregating 4849 sq. m. in extent, and by 1910 this had been +increased to 24,528 sq. m. The reserves cover altitudes of 7000 +to 14,000 ft. The rainfall is ample for their needs, but no other +reserves in the country showed in 1900 such waste by fire and +pillage. The minor flora of the country is exceedingly rich. +In the plains the abundance of flowers, from spring to autumn, +is amazing.</p> + +<p>Large game is still very abundant west of the continental +divide. The great parks are a favourite range and shelter. +Deer and elk frequent especially the mountains of the north-west, +in Routt and Rio Blanco counties, adjoining the reservations +of the Uncompahgre (White River Ute) and Uintah-Ute +Indians—from whose depredations, owing to the negligence +of Federal officials, the game of the state has suffered enormous +losses. The bison have been exterminated. Considerable bands +of antelope live in the parks and even descend to the eastern +plains, and the mule-deer, the most common of large game, is +abundant all through the mountains of the west. Grizzly or +silver-tip, brown and black bears are also abundant in the same +region. Rarest of all is the magnificent mountain sheep. Game +is protected zealously, if not successfully, by the state, and it was +officially estimated in 1898 that there were then probably 7000 +elk, as many mountain sheep, 25,000 antelope and 100,000 deer +within its borders (by far the greatest part in Routt and Rio +Blanco counties). Fish are not naturally very abundant, but +the mountain brooks are the finest home for trout, and these +as well as bass, cat-fish and some other varieties have been +used to stock the streams.</p> + +<p><i>Soil.</i>—The soils of the lowlands are prevailing sandy loams, +with a covering of rich mould. The acreage of improved lands +in 1900 was returned by the federal census as 2,273,968, three +times as much being unimproved; the land improved constituted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span> +3.4% of the state’s area. The lands available for agriculture +are the lowlands and the mountain parks and valleys.</p> + +<p>Speaking generally, irrigation is essential to successful cultivation, +but wherever irrigation is practicable the soil proves +richly productive. Irrigation ditches having been exempted +from taxation in 1872, extensive systems of canals were soon +developed, especially after 1880. The Constitution of Colorado +declares the waters of its streams the property of the state, +and a great body of irrigation law and practice has grown up +about this provision. The riparian doctrine does not obtain in +Colorado. In no part of the semi-arid region of the country are +the irrigation problems so diverse and difficult. In 1903 there +were, according to the governor, 10 canals more than 50 m. in +length, 51 longer than 20 m., and hundreds of reservoirs. In +1899 there were 7374 m. of main ditches. The average annual +cost of water per acre was then estimated at about 79 cents. +The acres under ditch in 1902 were greater (1,754,761) than in +any other state; and the construction cost of the system was +then $14,769,561 (an increase of 25.6% from 1899 to 1902). +There are irrigated lands in every county. Their area increased +8.9% in 1899-1902, and 80.9% from 1890 to 1900; in the +latter year they constituted 70.9% of the improved farm-land +of the state, as against 48.8 in 1890. The land added to the +irrigated area in the decade was in 1890 largely worthless public +domain; its value in 1900 was about $29,000,000. As a result +of irrigation the Platte is often dry in eastern Colorado in the +summer, and the Arkansas shrinks so below Pueblo that little +water reaches Kansas. The water is almost wholly taken from +the rivers, but underflow is also utilized, especially in San Luis +Park. The South Platte is much the most important irrigating +stream. Its valley included 660,495 acres of irrigated land in +1902, no other valley having half so great an area. The diversion +of the waters of the Arkansas led to the bringing of a suit against +Colorado by Kansas in the United States Supreme Court in 1902, +on the ground that such diversion seriously and illegally lessened +the waters of the Arkansas in Kansas. In 1907 the Supreme +Court of the United States declared that Colorado had diverted +waters of the Arkansas, but, since it had not been shown that +Kansas had suffered, the case was dismissed, without prejudice +to Kansas, should it be injured in future by diversion of water +from the river. The exhaustion, or alleged exhaustion, by +irrigation in Colorado of the waters of the Rio Grande has raised +international questions of much interest between Mexico and +the United States, which were settled in 1907 by a convention +pledging the United States to deliver 60,000 acre-feet of water +annually in the bed of the Rio Grande at the Acequia Madre, just +above Juarez, in case of drought this supply being diminished +proportionately to the diminution in the United States. As a +part of the plans of the national government for reclamation of +land in the arid states, imposing schemes have been formulated +for such work in Colorado, including a great reservoir on the +Gunnison. One of the greatest undertakings of the national +reclamation service is the construction of 77 m. of canal and of +a six-mile tunnel, beneath a mountain, between the canyon of +the Gunnison and the valley of the Uncompahgre, designed to +make productive some 140,000 acres in the latter valley.</p> + +<p>Apart from mere watering, cultivation is in no way intensive. +One of the finest farming regions is the lowland valley of the +Arkansas. It is a broad, level plain, almost untimbered, given +over to alfalfa, grains, vegetables and fruits. Sugar-beet culture +has been found to be exceptionally remunerative in this valley +as well as in those of the South Platte and Grand rivers. The +growth of this interest has been since 1899 a marked feature in +the agricultural development of the state; and in 1905, 1906 +and 1907 the state’s product of beets and of sugar was far greater +than that of any other state; in 1907, 1,523,303 tons of beets +were worked—more than two-fifths of the total for the United +States. There are various large sugar factories (in 1903, 9, and +in 1907, 16), mainly in the north; also at Grand Junction and in +the Arkansas valley. The total value of all farm property increased +between 1880 and 1900 from $42,000,000 to $161,045,101 +and 45.9% from 1890 to 1900. In the latter year $49,954,311 +of this was in live-stock (increase 1890-1900, 121.1%), the +remaining value in land with improvements and machinery. +The total value of farm products in 1899 was $33,048,576; of +this sum 97% was almost equally divided between crop products +and animal products, the forests contributing the remainder. +Of the various elements in the value of all farm produce as shown +by the federal census of 1900, live-stock, hay and grains, and +dairying represented 87.2%. The value of cereals ($4,700,271)—of +which wheat and oats represent four-fifths—is much +exceeded by that of hay and forage ($8,159,279 in 1899). Wheat +culture increased greatly from 1890 to 1900. Flour made from +Colorado wheat ranks very high in the market. As a cereal-producing +state Colorado is, however, relatively unimportant; +nor in value of product is its hay and forage crop notable, except +that of alfalfa, which greatly surpasses that of any other state. +In 1906 the state produced 3,157,136 bushels of Indian corn, +valued at $1,578,568; 8,266,538 bushels of wheat, valued at +$5,373,250; 5,962,394 bushels of oats, valued at $2,683,077; +759,771 bushels of barley, valued at $410,276; 43,580 bushels +of rye, valued at $24,405; and 1,596,542 tons of hay, valued at +$15,167,149. The value of vegetable products, of fruits, and of +dairy products was, relatively, equally small (only $7,346,415 +in 1899). Natural fruits are rare and practically worthless. +Apples, peaches, plums, apricots, pears, cherries and melons +have been introduced. The best fruit sections are the Arkansas +valley, and in the western and south-western parts of the state. +Melons are to some extent exported, and peaches also; the +musk-melons of the Arkansas valley (Rocky Ford <span class="correction" title="amended from canteloups">Canteloupes</span>) +being in demand all over the United States. The fruit industry +dates practically from 1890. The dairy industry is rapidly +increasing. In the holdings of neat cattle (1,453,971) and +sheep (2,045,577) it ranked in 1900 respectively seventeenth and +tenth among the states of the Union; in 1907, according to the +<i>Yearbook</i> of the Department of Agriculture, there were in the +state 1,561,712 neat cattle and 1,677,561 sheep. Stock-raising +has always been important. The parks and mountain valleys are +largely given over to ranges. The native grasses are especially +adapted for fodder. The grama, buffalo and bunch varieties +cure on the stem, and furnish throughout the winter an excellent +ranging food. These native grasses, even the thin bunch varieties +of dry hills, are surprisingly nutritious, comparing very favourably +with cultivated grasses. Large areas temporarily devoted +to cultivation with poor success, and later allowed to revert to +ranges, have become prosperous and even noted as stock country. +This is true of the sandhill region of eastern Colorado. The grass +flora of the lowlands is not so rich in variety nor so abundant +in quality as that of high altitudes. Before the plains were +fenced large herds drifted to the south in the winter, but now +sufficient hay and alfalfa are cut to feed the cattle during the +storms, which at longest are brief. An account of Colorado +agriculture would not be complete without mentioning the +depredations of the grasshopper, which are at times extraordinarily +destructive, as also of the “Colorado Beetle” (<i>Doryphora +decemlineata</i>), or common potato-bug, which has extended +its fatal activities eastward throughout the prairie states.</p> + +<p><i>Minerals.</i>—Colorado is pre-eminently a mineral region, and +to this fact it owes its colonization. It possesses unlimited +supplies, as yet not greatly exploited, of fine building stones, +some oil and asphalt, and related bituminous products, a few +precious and semi-precious stones (especially tourmalines, +beryls and aquamarines found near Canyon near the Royal +Gorge of the Arkansas river), rare opalized and jasperized +wood (in the eastern part of the El Paso county), considerable +wealth of lead and copper, enormous fields of bituminous coal, +and enormous wealth of the precious metals. In the exploitation +of the last there have been three periods: that before the discovery +of the lead-carbonate silver ores of Leadville in 1879, in +which period gold-mining was predominant; the succeeding years +until 1894, in which silver-mining was predominant; and the +period since 1894, in which gold has attained an overwhelming +primacy. The two metals are found in more than 50 counties, +San Miguel, Gilpin, Boulder, Clear Creek, Lake, El Paso and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span> +Teller being the leading producers. The Cripple Creek field in +the last-named county is one of the most wonderful mining +districts, past or present, of America. Leadville, in Lake county, +is another. The district about Silverton (product 1870-1900 +about $35,000,000, principally silver and lead, and mostly after +1881) has also had a remarkable development; and Creede, in +the years of its brief prosperity, was a phenomenal silver-field. +From 1858 up to and including 1904 the state produced, according +to the State Bureau of Mines (whose statistics have since +about 1890 been brought into practical agreement with those +of the national government) a value of no less than $889,203,323 +in gold, silver, lead, copper and zinc at market prices. +(If the value of silver be taken at coinage value this total +becomes vastly greater.) The yield of gold was $353,913,695-$229,236,997 +from 1895 to 1904; of silver, $386,455,463-$115,698,366 +from 1889 to 1893; of lead, $120,742,674—its +importance beginning in 1879; of copper, $17,879,446-$8,441,783 +from 1898 to 1904; and of zinc, $10,212,045—all +this from 1902 to 1904. Silver-mining ceased to be highly +remunerative beginning with the closing of the India mints and +repeal of the Sherman Law in 1893; since 1900 the yield has +shown an extraordinary decrease—in 1905 it was $6,945,581, +and in 1907 $7,411,652—and it is said that as a result of the +great fall in the market value of the metal the mines can now +be operated only under the most favourable conditions and by +exercise of extreme economy. In Lake county, for example, +very much of the argentiferous ore that is too low for remunerative +extraction (limit 1903 about $12.00 per ton) is used for +fluxes.<a name="FnAnchor_1k" id="FnAnchor_1k" href="#Footnote_1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The copper output was of slight importance until 1889—$1,457,749 +in 1905, and $1,544,918 in 1907; and that of +zinc was nil until 1902, when discoveries made it possible to +rework for this metal enormous dumps of waste material about +the mines, and in 1906 the zinc output was valued at $5,304,884. +Lead products declined with silver, but a large output of low +ores has continued at Leadville, and in 1905 the product was +valued at $5,111,570, and in 1906 at $5,933,829. Up to 1895 +the gold output was below ten million dollars yearly; from +1898 to 1904 it ran from 21.6 to 28.7 millions. In 1897 the +product first exceeded that of California. In 1907 the value +was $20,826,194. Silver values ran, in the years 1880-1902, from +11.3 to 23.1 million dollars; and the quantities in the same years +from 11.6 to 26.3 million ounces. In 1907 it was 11,229,776 oz., +valued at $7,411,652. Regarding again the total combined +product of the above five metals, its growth is shown by these +figures for its value in the successive periods indicated: 1858-1879, +$77,380,140; 1879-1888, $220,815,709; 1889-1898, +$322,878,362; 1899-1904, $268,229,112. From 1900 to 1903 +Colorado produced almost exactly a third of the total gold and +silver (market value) product of the entire country.</p> + +<p>In addition, iron ores (almost all brown hematite) occur +abundantly, and all material for making steel of excellent +quality. But very little iron is mined, in 1907 only 11,714 long +tons, valued at $21,085. Of much more importance are the +manganiferous and the silver manganiferous ores, which are +much the richest of the country. Their product trebled from +1889 to 1903; and in 1907 the output of manganiferous ores +amounted to 99,711 tons, valued at $251,207. A small amount +is used for spiegeleisen, and the rest as a flux.</p> + +<p>The stratified rocks of the Great Plains, the Parks, and the +Plateaus contain enormous quantities of coal. The coal-bearing +rocks are confined to the Upper Cretaceous, and almost wholly +to the Laramie formation. The main areas are on the two +flanks of the Rockies, with two smaller fields in the Parks. The +east group includes the fields of Canyon City (whose product is +the ideal domestic coal of the western states), Raton and the +South Platte; the Park group includes the Cones field and the +Middle Park; the west group includes the Yampa, La Plata +and Grand River fields—the last prospectively (not yet actually) +the most valuable of all as to area and quality. About three-fifths +of all the coal produced in the state comes from Las Animas +and Huerfano counties. In 1901 about a third and in 1907 nearly +two-fifths of the state’s output came from Las Animas county. +The Colorado fields are superior to those of all the other Rocky +Mountain states in area, and in quality of product. In 1907 +Colorado ranked seventh among the coal-producing states of the +Union, yielding 10,790,236 short tons (2.2% of the total for the +United States). The total includes every variety from typical +lignite to typical anthracite. The aggregate area of beds is +estimated by the United States Geological Survey at 18,100 +sq. m. (seventh in rank of the states of the Union); and the accessible +coal, on other authority, at 33,897,800,000 tons. The +industry began in 1864, in which year 500 tons were produced. +The product first exceeded one million tons in 1882, two in 1888, +three in 1890, four in 1893, five in 1900. From 1897 to 1902 +the yield almost doubled, averaging 5,267,783 tons (lignite, semi-bituminous, +bituminous, and a steady average production of +60,038 tons of anthracite). About one-fifth of the total product +is made into coke, the output of which increased from 245,746 +tons in 1890 to 1,421,579 tons (including a slight amount from +Utah) in 1907; in 1907 the coke manufactured in Colorado +(and Utah) was valued at $4,747,436. Colorado holds the same +supremacy for coal and coke west of the Mississippi that Pennsylvania +holds for the country as a whole. The true bituminous +coal produced, which in 1897 was only equal to that of the +lignitic and semi-bituminous varieties (1.75 million tons), had +come by 1902 to constitute three-fourths (5.46 million tons) +of the entire coal output. Much of the bituminous coal, especially +that of the Canyon City field, is so hard and clean as to be +little less desirable than anthracite; it is the favoured coal for +domestic uses in all the surrounding states.</p> + +<p>Petroleum occurs in Fremont and Boulder counties. There +have been very few flowing wells. The product increased from +76,295 barrels in 1887 to above 800,000 in the early ’nineties; +it fell thereafter, averaging about 493,269 barrels from 1899 +to 1903; in 1905 the yield was 376,238 barrels; and in 1907, +331,851 barrels. In 1905 the state ranked eleventh, in 1907 +twelfth, in production of petroleum. It is mostly refined at +Florence, the centre of the older field. The Boulder district +developed very rapidly after 1902; its product is a high-grade +illuminant with paraffin base. Asphalt occurs in the high north +rim of Middle Park (c. 10,000 ft.). Tungsten is found in wolframite +in Boulder county. In 1903 about 37,000 men were +employed in the mines of Colorado. Labour troubles have +been notable in state history since 1890.</p> + +<p>Mineral springs have already been mentioned. They are +numerous and occur in various parts of the state. The most +important are at Buena Vista, Ouray, Wagon Wheel Gap, +Poncha or Poncho Springs (90°-185° F.), Canyon City, Manitou, +Idaho Springs and Glenwood Springs (120°-140° F., highly +mineralized). The last three places, all beautifully situated—the +first at the base of Pike’s Peak, the second in the Clear Creek +Canyon, and the third at the junction of the Roaring Fork with +the Grand river—have an especially high repute. In 1904 it was +competently estimated that the mineral yield and agricultural +yield of the state were almost equal—somewhat above +$47,000,000 each.<a name="FnAnchor_2k" id="FnAnchor_2k" href="#Footnote_2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1900 only 4.6% of the population were engaged in manufactures. +They are mainly dependent on the mining industry. +There are many large smelters and reduction plants in the state, +most of them at Denver, Leadville, Durango and Pueblo; at +the latter place there are also blast-furnaces, a steel plant and +rolling mills. Use is made of the most improved methods of +treating the ore. The cyanide process, introduced about 1890, +is now one of the most important factors in the utilization of +low-grade and refractory gold and silver ores. The improved +dioxide cyanide process was adopted about 1895. The iron +and steel product—mainly at Pueblo—is of great importance, +though relatively small as compared with that of some other +states. Nevertheless, the very high rank in coal and iron +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span> +interests of the state among the states west of the Mississippi, +the presence of excellent manganiferous ores, a central position +for distribution, and much the best railway system of any mountain +state, indicate that Colorado will almost certainly eventually +entirely or at least largely control the trans-Mississippi +market in iron and steel. The Federal census of 1900 credited +the manufacturing establishments of the state with a capital +of $62,825,472 and a product of $102,830,137 (increase 1890-1900, +142.1%); of which output the gold, silver, lead and +copper smelted amounted to $44,625,305. Of the other products, +iron and steel ($6,108,295), flouring and grist-mill +products ($4,528,062), foundry and machine-shop products +($3,986,985), steam railway repair and construction work +($3,141,602), printing and publishing, wholesale slaughtering +and meat packing, malt liquors, lumber and timber, and coke +were the most important. The production of beet sugar is +relatively important, as more of it was produced in Colorado in +1905 than in any other state; in 1906 334,386,000 ℔ (out of +a grand total for the United States of 967,224,000 ℔) were +manufactured here; the value of the product in 1905 was +$7,198,982, being 29.2% of the value of all the beet sugar +produced in the United States in that year.<a name="FnAnchor_3k" id="FnAnchor_3k" href="#Footnote_3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Railways.</i>—On the 1st of January 1909 there were 5403.05 m. +of railway in operation. The Denver Pacific, built from Cheyenne, +Wyoming, reached Denver in June 1870, and the Kansas Pacific, +from Kansas City, in August of the same year. Then followed +the building of the Denver & Rio Grande (1871), to which the +earlier development of the state is largely due. The great Santa +Fé (1873), Burlington (1882), Missouri Pacific (1887) and Rock +Island (1888) systems reached Pueblo, Denver and Colorado +Springs successively from the east. In 1888 the Colorado Midland +started from Colorado Springs westward, up the Ute Pass, +through the South Park to Leadville, and thence over the continental +divide to Aspen and Glenwood Springs. The Colorado & +Southern, a consolidation of roads connecting Colorado with the +south, has also become an important system.</p> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The population of the state in 1870 was 39,864; +in 1880, 194,327<a name="FnAnchor_4k" id="FnAnchor_4k" href="#Footnote_4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a>; in 1890, 413,249; in 1900, 539,700; +and in 1910, 799,024. Of the 1900 total, males constituted +54.7%, native born 83.1%. The 10,654 persons of coloured +race included 1437 Indians and 647 Chinese and Japanese, the +rest being negroes. Of 185,708 males twenty-one or more years +of age 7689 (4.1%) were illiterate (unable to write), including +a fourth of the Asiatics, a sixth of the Indians, one-nineteenth +of the negroes, one in twenty-four of the foreign born, and one +in 147.4 of the native born. Of 165 incorporated cities, towns +and villages, 27 had a population exceeding 2000, and 7 a +population of above 5000. The latter were Denver (133,859), +Pueblo (28,137), Colorado Springs (21,085), Leadville (12,455), +Cripple Creek (10,147), Boulder (6150) and Trinidad (5345). +Creede, county-seat of Mineral county, was a phenomenal silver +camp from its discovery in 1891 until 1893; in 1892 it numbered +already 7000 inhabitants, but the rapid depreciation of silver +soon thereafter caused most of its mines to be closed, and in 1910 +the population was only 741. Grand Junction (pop. in 1910, +7754) derives importance from its railway connexions, and from +the distribution of the fruit and other products of the irrigated +valley of the Grand river. Roman Catholics are in the majority +among church adherents, and Methodists and Presbyterians most +numerous of the Protestant denominations. The South Ute +Indian Reservation in the south of the state is the home of the +Moache, Capote and Wiminuche Utes, of Shoshonean stock.</p> + +<p><i>Administration.</i>—The first and only state constitution was +adopted in 1876. It requires a separate popular vote on any +amendment—though as many as six may be (since 1900) voted +on at one election. Amendments have been rather freely +adopted. The General Assemblies are biennial, sessions limited +to 90 days (45 before 1884); state and county elections are held +at the same time (since 1902). A declared intention to become +a United States citizen ceased in 1902 to be sufficient qualification +for voters, full citizenship (with residence qualifications) +being made requisite. An act of 1909 provides that election +campaign expenses shall be borne “only by the state and by +the candidates,” and authorized appropriations for this purpose. +Full woman suffrage was adopted in 1893 (by a majority of +about 6000 votes). Women have served in the legislature and +in many minor offices; they are not eligible as jurors. The +governor may veto any separate item in an appropriation +bill. The state treasurer and auditor may not hold office during +two consecutive terms. Convicts are deprived of the privilege +of citizenship only during imprisonment. County government is +of the commissioner type. There is a State Voter’s League +similar to that of Illinois.</p> + +<p>In 1907 the total bonded debt of the state was $393,500; the +General Assembly in 1906 authorized the issue of $900,000 worth +of bonds to fund outstanding military certificates of indebtedness +incurred in suppressing insurrections at Cripple Creek and +elsewhere in 1903-1904. The question of issuing bonds for all +outstanding warrants was decided to be voted on by the people +in November 1908. Taxation has been very erratic. From +1877 to 1893 the total assessment rose steadily from $3,453,946 +to $238,722,417; it then fell at least partly owing to the depreciation +in and uncertain values of mining property, and from +1894 to 1900 fluctuated between 192.2 and 216.8 million dollars; +in 1901 it was raised to $465,874,288, and fluctuated in the +years following; the estimated total assessment for 1907 was +$365,000,000.</p> + +<p>Of charitable and reformatory institutions a soldiers’ and +sailors’ home (1889) is maintained at Monte Vista, a school for +the deaf and blind (1874) at Colorado Springs, an insane asylum +(1879) at Pueblo, a home for dependent and neglected children +(1895) at Denver, an industrial school for girls (1887) near +Morrison, and for boys (1881) at Golden, a reformatory (1889) +at Buena Vista, and a penitentiary (1868) at Canyon City. +Denver was one of the earliest cities in the country to institute +special courts for juvenile offenders; a reform that is widening +in influence and promise. The parole system is in force in the +state reformatory; and in the industrial school at Golden (for +youthful offenders) no locks, bars or cells are used, the theory +being to treat the inmates as “students.” The state has a +parole law and an indeterminate-sentence law for convicts.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img style="border:0; width:680px; height:505px" + src="images/img722.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> +<p class="noind f90"><a href="images/img722a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p>The public school system of Colorado dates from 1861, when +a school law was passed by the Territorial legislation; this law +was superseded by that of 1876, which with subsequent amendments +is still in force. In expenditure for the public schools +per capita of total population from 1890 to 1903 Colorado was +one of a small group of leading states. In 1906 there were +187,836 persons of school age (from 6 to 21) in the state, and of +these 144,007 were enrolled in the schools; the annual cost of +education was $4.34 per pupil. In 1902-1903, 92.5% of persons +from 5 to 18 years of age were enrolled in the schools. The +institutions of the state are: the University of Colorado, at +Boulder, opened 1877; the School of Mines, at Golden (1873); +the Agricultural College, at Fort Collins (1870); the Normal +School (1891) at Greeley; and the above-mentioned industrial +schools. All are supported by special taxes and appropriations—the +Agricultural College receiving also the usual aid from the +federal government. Experiment stations in connexion with the +college are maintained at different points. Colorado College +(1874) at Colorado Springs, Christian but not denominational, +and the University of Denver, Methodist, are on independent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span> +foundations. The United States maintains an Indian School at +Grand Junction.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—According as one regards the Louisiana purchase +as including or not including Texas to the Rio Grande (in the +territorial meaning of the state of Texas of 1845), one may say +that all of Colorado east of the meridian of the head of the Rio +Grande, or only that north of the Arkansas and east of the +meridian of its head, passed to the United States in 1803. At +all events the corner between the Rio Grande and the Arkansas +was Spanish from 1819 to 1845, when it became American +territory as a part of the state of Texas; and in 1850, by a +boundary arrangement between that state and the federal +government, was incorporated in the public domain. The +territory west of the divide was included in the Mexican cession +of 1848. Within Colorado there are pueblos and cave dwellings +commemorative of the Indian period and culture of the south-west. +Coronado may have entered Colorado in 1540; there +are also meagre records of indisputable Spanish explorations +in the south in the latter half of the 18th century (friars Escallante +and Dominguez in 1776). In 1806 Zebulon M. Pike, +mapping the Arkansas and Red rivers of the Louisiana Territory +for the government of the United States, followed the Arkansas +into Colorado, incidentally discovering the famous peak that +bears his name. In 1819 Major S. H. Long explored the valleys +of the South Platte and Arkansas, pronouncing them uninhabited +and uncultivable (as he also did the valley of the Missouri, +whence the idea of the “Great American Desert”). His +work also is commemorated by a famous summit of the Rockies. +There is nothing more of importance in Colorado annals until +1858. From 1804 to 1854 the whole or parts of Colorado were +included, nominally, under some half-dozen territories carved +successively out of the Trans-Mississippi country; but not one of +these had any practical significance for an uninhabited land. In +1828 (to 1832) a fortified trading post was established near La +Junta in the Arkansas valley on the Santa Fé trail; in 1834-1836 +several private forts were erected on the Platte; in 1841 the +first overland emigrants to the Pacific coast crossed the state, +and in 1846-1847 the Mormons settled temporarily at the old +Mexican town of Pueblo. John C. Frémont had explored the +region in 1842-1843 (and unofficially in later years for railway +routes), and gave juster reports of the country to the world than +his predecessors. Commerce was tributary in these years to the +(New) Mexican town of Taos.</p> + +<p>Colorado was practically an unknown country when in 1858 +gold was discovered in the plains, on the tributaries of the South +Platte, near Denver. In 1859 various discoveries were made +in the mountains. The history of Denver goes back to this time. +Julesburg, in the extreme north-east corner, at the intersection +of the Platte valley and the overland wagon route, became +transiently important during the rush of settlers that followed. +Emigration from the East was stimulated by the panic and hard +times following 1857. During 1860, 1861 and 1862 there was +a continuous stream of immigration. Denver (under its present +name), Black Hawk, Golden, Central City, Mount Vernon and +Nevada City were all founded in 1859; Breckenridge, Empire, +Gold Hill, Georgetown and Mill City date from 1860 and 1861. +The political development of the next few years was very complicated. +“Arapahoe County,” including all Colorado, was +organized as a part of Kansas Territory in 1858; but a delegate +was also sent to Congress to work for the admission of an independent +territory (called “Jefferson”). At the same time, +early in 1860, a movement for statehood was inaugurated, a +constitution being framed and submitted to the people, who +rejected it, adopting later in the year a constitution of territorial +government. Accordingly the Territory of Jefferson arose, +assuming to rule over six degrees of latitude (37°-43°) and eight +of longitude (102°-110°). Then there was the Kansas territorial +government also, and under this a full county organization was +maintained. Finally, peoples’ court, acting wholly without +reference to Kansas, and with no more than suited them (some +districts refusing taxes) to the local “provisional” legislature, +secured justice in the mining country. The provisional legislature +of the Territory of Jefferson maintained a wholly illegal +but rather creditable existence somewhat precariously and +ineffectively until 1861. Its acts, owing to the indifference of +the settlers, had slight importance. Some, such as the first +charter of Denver, were later re-enacted under the legal territorial +government, organized by the United States in February 1861. +Colorado City was the first capital, but was soon replaced by +Golden, which was the capital from 1862 until 1868, when Denver +was made the seat of government (in 1881 permanently, by vote +of the people). In 1862 some Texas forces were defeated by +Colorado forces in an attempt to occupy the territory for the +Confederacy. From 1864 to 1870 there was trouble with the +Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians. A sanguinary attack on an +Indian camp in Kiowa county in 1864 is known as the Sand +Creek Massacre. In 1867 the Republican party had prepared +for the admission of Colorado as a state, but the enabling act was +vetoed by President Johnson, and statehood was not gained +until 1876. Finally, under a congressional enabling act of the +3rd of March 1875, a constitution was framed by a convention +at Denver (20th of December 1875 to 14th of March 1876) and +adopted by the people on the 1st of July 1876. The admission +of Colorado to the Union was thereupon proclaimed on the 1st +of August 1876.</p> + +<p>From this time on the history of the state was long largely +that of her great mining camps. After 1890 industrial conditions +were confused and temporarily set greatly backward +by strikes and lockouts in the mines, particularly in 1894, 1896-1897 +and 1903-1904, several times threatening civil war and +necessitating the establishment of martial law. Questions of +railways, of franchises, union scales and the recognition of the +union in contracts, questions of sheep and cattle interests, +politics, civic, legal and industrial questions, all entered into +the economic troubles of these years. The Colorado “labour +wars” were among the most important struggles between labour +and capital, and afforded probably the most sensational episodes +in the story of all labour troubles in the United States in these +years. A state board of arbitration was created in 1896, but +its usefulness was impaired by an opinion of the state attorney-general +(in 1901) that it could not enforce subpoenas, compel +testimony or enforce decisions. A law establishing an eight-hour +day for underground miners and smelter employees (1899) +was unanimously voided by the state supreme court, but in 1902 +the people amended the constitution and ordered the general +assembly to re-enact the law for labourers in mines, smelters and +dangerous employments. Following the repeal of the Sherman +Law and other acts and tendencies unfavourable to silver coinage +in 1893 and thereafter, the silver question became the dominant +issue in politics, resulting in the success of the Populist-Democratic +fusion party in three successive elections, and permanently +and greatly altering prior party organizations.</p> + +<p>The governors of Colorado have been as follows:—</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Territorial.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">W. Gilpin</td> <td class="tcc rb">1861</td> <td class="tcl">E. M. McCook</td> <td class="tcc">1869</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">J. Evans</td> <td class="tcc rb">1862</td> <td class="tcl">S. H. Elbert</td> <td class="tcc">1873</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">A. Cummings</td> <td class="tcc rb">1865</td> <td class="tcl">E. M. McCook</td> <td class="tcc">1874</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">A. C. Hunt</td> <td class="tcc rb">1867</td> <td class="tcl">J. L. Routt</td> <td class="tcc">1875</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="center1"><i>State.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">J. L. Routt</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1876</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">F. W. Pitkin</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td> <td class="tcl">1879</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">J. B. Grant</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td> <td class="tcl">1883</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">B. H. Eaton</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1885</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">A. Adams</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td> <td class="tcl">1887</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">J. A. Cooper</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1890</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">J. L. Routt</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td> <td class="tcl">1891</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">D. H. Waite</td> <td class="tcl">Populist</td> <td class="tcl">1893</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">A. W. M’Intire</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1895</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">A. Adams</td> <td class="tcl">Dem.-Populist</td> <td class="tcl">1897</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">C. S. Thomas</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td> <td class="tcl">1899</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">J. B. Orman</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td> <td class="tcl">1901</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">J. H. Peabody</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1903</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">A. Adams</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td> <td class="tcl">1905<a name="FnAnchor_5k" id="FnAnchor_5k" href="#Footnote_5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Jesse F. M’Donald</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1905<a name="FnAnchor_5ka" id="FnAnchor_5ka" href="#Footnote_5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Henry A. Buchtel</td> <td class="tcl">  ”</td> <td class="tcl">1907</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">John H. Shafroth</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td> <td class="tcl">1909</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—For <i>topography and general description</i>: Hayden +and assistants, reports on <i>Colorado</i>, U.S. Department of the Interior, +Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (13 vols., +1867-1878), various reports, especially annual report for 1874; +Captain J. C. Frémont, <i>Report of the Exploring Expedition to the +Rocky Mountains in 1842</i>, published 1845 as Congressional document +28th Congress, 2nd Session, House Executive Document No. 166, +and various other editions. Other early exploring reports are: +<i>The Expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike ... Through Louisiana +Territory and in New Spain in the Years 1805-6-7</i>, edited by E. Coues +(3 vols., New York, 1895); <i>Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh +to the Rocky Mountains, 1819-20, under the Command of Major S. H. +Long; compiled ... by Edwin James</i> (3 vols., London; 2 vols., +Philadelphia, 1823); Captain H. Stansbury, <i>Exploration of the +Valley of the Great Salt Lake</i> (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1852; also as +Senate Executive Document No. 3, 32nd Congress Special Session); +Francis Parkman, <i>The California and Oregon Trail</i> (New York, +1849; revised ed., Boston, 1892),—a narrative of personal experience, +as are the two following books: Bayard Taylor, <i>Colorado; +A Summer Trip</i> (New York, 1867); Samuel Bowles, <i>The Switzerland +of America, A Summer Vacation in Colorado</i> (Springfield, Mass., +1869); F. Fossett, <i>Colorado; A Historical, Descriptive and Statistical +Work on the Rocky Mountain Gold and Silver Region</i> (Denver, 1878; +New York, 1879, 2nd ed., 1880).</p> + +<p>On <i>fauna and flora</i>: United States Biological Survey, <i>Bulletins</i> +(especially No. 10), &c.; the <i>Biennial Report</i> of the State Game and +Fish Commissioner; United States Geological Survey, <i>10th Annual +Report</i>, pt. v., and 20th A.R., pt. 5, and various publications of the +United States Forestry Division for forest and forest reserves; +Porter and Coulter, <i>Synopsis of the Flora of Colorado</i> (1879); and +scattered papers in scientific periodicals. On <i>climate</i>: United States +Department of Agriculture, <i>Colorado Climate and Crop Service</i> +(monthly). On <i>soil and agriculture</i>: <i>Annual Report</i> of the State +Board of Agriculture (since 1878), of the State Agricultural College, +Agricultural Experiment Station (since 1887), and of the State +Board of Horticulture; <i>Biennial Report</i> of the State Board of Land +Commissioners (since 1879); publications of the United States +Department of Agriculture, various bulletins on agrostology, water +supply and irrigation, &c. (See Department bibliographies); +United States Census, 1900 (States), <i>Bulletin</i> 177, “Agriculture in +Colorado” (Special), <i>Bulletin</i> 16, “Irrigation in the United States” +(1902), &c.; United States Geological Survey, various materials, +consult bibliographies in its Bulletins 100, 177, 215, 301, &c. On +<i>manufactures</i>: publications of United States Census, 1900, and the +special census of manufactures, 1905. On <i>mineral industries</i>: +United States Geological Survey, <i>Annual Report</i>, annual volume +on “Mineral Resources”; also the annual <i>Mineral Industry</i> (Rothwell’s +New York-London); Colorado State Bureau of Mines, +<i>Biennial Report</i>, Inspector of Coal Mines, <i>Biennial Report</i> (since +1883-1884); and an enormous quantity of information in the +publications of the United States Geological Survey. For labour +troubles see below. On <i>railways</i>, see annual <i>Statistics of Railways</i> +of the United States Interstate Commerce Commission, and Poor’s +Manual (Annual, New York). <i>Rivers</i>, see <i>Index to Reports of the +Chief of Engineers</i>, United States Army (3 vols., 1900, covering +1866-1900); publications United States Geological Survey. On +<i>population</i>: United States Census, 1900. <i>Administration</i>: J. W. +Mills’ <i>Annotated Statutes of the State of Colorado ...</i> (2 vols., +Denver, 1891; vol. iii. 1896); Helen L. Sumner, <i>Equal Suffrage in +Colorado</i> (New York, 1909,); J. E. Snook, <i>Colorado History and +Government</i> (Denver, 1904), is a reliable school epitome.</p> + +<p>On <i>history</i>: F. L. Paxson, “A Preliminary Bibliography of +Colorado History,” being vol. iii., No. 3, of <i>University of Colorado +Studies</i> (June 1906); H. H. Bancroft, <i>History of ... Nevada, +Colorado and Wyoming, 1540-1888</i> (San Francisco, 1890); on +<i>labour conditions and troubles</i> consult: <i>Reports</i> of the State Bureau +of Labour Statistics (since 1892); <i>Annual Reports</i> of the State Board +of Arbitration (since 1898); publications of United States Bureau +of Labour (bibliographies); also especially Senate Document 122, +58th Congress, 3rd Session, covering the years 1880-1904. See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cripple Creek</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leadville</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1k" id="Footnote_1k" href="#FnAnchor_1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The market value of silver varied in the years 1870-1885 from +$1.32 to $1.065 an ounce; 1886-1893, $0.995 to $0.782; 1894-1904, +$0.630 to $0.5722.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2k" id="Footnote_2k" href="#FnAnchor_2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The mineral yield for 1907, according to <i>The Mineral Resources +of the United States</i>, 1907, amounted to $71,105,128.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3k" id="Footnote_3k" href="#FnAnchor_3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The special census of manufactures of 1905 was concerned only +with the manufacturing establishments of the state conducted under +the so-called factory system. The capital invested in such establishments +was $107,663,500, and the product was valued at $100,143,999. +The corresponding figures for 1900 reduced to the same standard +for purposes of comparison were $58,172,865 and $89,067,879. +Thus during the five years the capital invested in factories increased +85.1%, and the factory product 12.4%. The increase in product +would undoubtedly have been much greater but for the labour +disturbances (described later in the article), which occurred during +this interval. Of the total product in 1905 more than four-fifths +were represented by the smelting of lead, copper and zinc ores, +the manufacture of iron and steel, the production of coke, and the +refining of petroleum. The value of the flour and grist-mill product +was $5,783,421.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4k" id="Footnote_4k" href="#FnAnchor_4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Census figures before 1890 do not include Indians on reservations.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5k" id="Footnote_5k" href="#FnAnchor_5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Adams was inaugurated on the 10th of January, having been +elected on the return of the vote, which had been notoriously corrupted +in Denver and elsewhere. The Republican legislature, after +investigating the election and upon receiving from Peabody a written +promise that he would resign in twenty-four hours, declared on the +16th of March that Peabody was elected. His resignation on the +17th of March made Lieutenant-Governor M’Donald governor of the +state.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLORADO RIVER<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span>, a stream in the south of the Argentine +Republic. It has its sources on the eastern slopes of the Andes +in the lat. of the Chilean volcano Tinguiririca (about 34° 48′ S.), +and pursues a general E.S.E. course to the Atlantic, where +it discharges through several channels of a delta extending +from lat. 39° 30′ to 39° 30′ S. Its total length is about 620 m., +of which about 200 m. from the coast up to Pichemahuida is +navigable for vessels of 7 ft. draft. It has been usually described +as being formed by the confluence of the Grande and Barrancas, +but as the latter is only a small stream compared with the +Grande it is better described as a tributary, and the Grande as +a part of the main river under another name. After leaving the +vicinity of the Andes the Colorado flows through a barren, arid +territory and receives no tributary of note except the Curaco, +which has its sources in the Pampa territory and is considered +to be part of the ancient outlet of the now closed lacustrine basin +of southern Mendoza. The bottom lands of the Colorado in its +course across Patagonia are fertile and wooded, but their area +is too limited to support more than a small, scattered population.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLORADO RIVER<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span>, a stream in the south-west of the United +States of America, draining a part of the high and arid plateau +between the Rocky mountains and the Sierra Nevada in California. +The light rainfall scarcely suffices over much of the +river’s course to make good the loss by evaporation from the +waters drained from mountain snows at its source. Its headwaters +are known as the Green river, which rises in north-west +Wyoming and after a course of some 700 m. due south unites +in south-east Utah with the Grand river, flowing down from +Colorado, to form the main trunk of the Colorado proper. The +Green cuts its way through the Uinta mountains of Wyoming; +then flowing intermittently in the open, it crosses successive +uplifts in a series of deep gorges, and flows finally at the foot of +canyon walls 1500 ft. high near its junction with the Grand.</p> + +<p>The Colorado in its course below the junction has formed +a region that is one of the most wonderful of the world, not only +for its unique and magnificent scenery, but also because it affords +the most remarkable example known of the work of differential +weathering and erosion by wind and water and the exposure +of geologic strata on an enormous scale. Above the Paria the +river flows through scenery comparatively tame until it reaches +the plateau of the Marble Canyon, some 60 m. in length. The +walls here are at first only a few score of feet in height, but +increase rapidly to almost 5000 ft. At its southern end is the +Little Colorado. Above this point eleven rivers with steep +mountain gradients have joined either the Green or the Grand +or their united system. The Little Colorado has cut a trench +1800 ft. deep into the plateau in the last 27 m. as it approaches +the Colorado, and empties into it 2625 ft. above the sea. Here +the Colorado turns abruptly west directly athwart the folds +and fault line of the plateau, through the Grand Canyon (<i>q.v.</i>) +of the Colorado, which is 217 m. long and from 4 to 20 m. wide +between the upper cliffs. The walls, 4000 to 6000 ft. high, drop +in successive escarpments of 500 to 1600 ft., banded in splendid +colours, toward the gloomy narrow gorge of the present river. +Below the confluence of the Virgin river of Nevada the Colorado +abruptly turns again, this time southward, and flows as the +boundary between Arizona and California and in part between +Arizona and Nevada, and then through Mexican territory, some +450 m. farther to the Gulf of California. Below the Black +Canyon the river lessens in gradient, and in its lower course flows +in a broad sedimentary valley—a distinct estuarine plain extending +northward beyond Yuma—and the channel through much +of this region is bedded in a dyke-like embankment lying above +the flood-plain over which the escaping water spills in time of +flood. This dyke cuts off the flow of the river to the remarkable +low area in southern California known as the Salton Sink, or +Coahuila Valley, the descent to which from the river near Yuma +is very much greater than the fall in the actual river-bed from +Yuma to the gulf. In the autumn of 1904, the diversion flow +from the river into a canal heading in Mexican territory a few +miles below Yuma, and intended for irrigation of California +south of the Sink, escaped control, and the river, taking the canal +as a new channel, recreated in California a great inland sea—to +the bed of which it had frequently been turned formerly, for +example, in 1884 and 1891—and for a time practically abandoned +its former course through Mexican territory to the Gulf +of California. But it was effectively dammed in the early part +of 1907 and returned to its normal course, from which, however, +there was still much leakage to Salton Sea; in July 1907 the +permanent dam was completed. From the Black Canyon to the +sea the Colorado normally flows through a desert-like basin, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span> +to the west of which, in Mexico, is Laguna Maquata (or Salada), +lying in the so-called Pattie Basin, which was formerly a part +of the Gulf of California, and which is frequently partially +flooded (like Coahuila Valley) by the delta waters of the Colorado. +Of the total length of the Colorado, about 2200 m., 500 m. or +more from the mouth are navigable by light steamers, but +channel obstacles make all navigation difficult at low water, +and impossible about half the year above Mojave. The whole +area drained by the river and its tributaries is about 225,000 +sq. m.; and it has been estimated by Major J. W. Powell that +in its drainage basin there are fully 200,000 sq. m. that have +been degraded on an average 6000 ft. It is still a powerful +eroding stream in the canyon portion, and its course below the +canyons has a shifting bed much obstructed by bars built of +sediment carried from the upper course. The desert country +toward the mouth is largely a sandy or gravelly aggradation +plain of the river. The regular floods are in May and June. +Others, due to rains, are rare. The rise of the water at such +times is extraordinarily rapid. Enormous drift is left in the +canyons 30 or 40 ft. above the normal level. The valley near +Yuma is many miles wide, frequently inundated, and remarkably +fertile; it is often called the “Nile of America” from its +resemblance in climate, fertility, overflows and crops. These +alluvial plains are covered with a dense growth of mesquite, +cottonwood, willow, arrowwood, quelite and wild hemp. Irrigation +is essential to regular agriculture. There is a fine delta +in the gulf. The Colorado is remarkable for exceedingly high +tides at its mouth and for destructive bores.</p> + +<p>In 1540, the second year that Spaniards entered Arizona, +they discovered the Colorado. Hernando de Alarcon co-operating +with F. V. de Coronado, explored with ships the Gulf of +California and sailed up the lower river; Melchior Diaz, marching +along the shores of the gulf, likewise reached the river; and +Captain Gárcia López de Cárdenas, marching from Zuñi, reached +the Grand Canyon, but could not descend its walls. In 1604 +Juan de Oñate crossed Arizona from New Mexico and descended +the Santa Maria, Bill Williams and Colorado to the gulf. The +name Colorado was first applied to the present Colorado Chiquito, +and probably about 1630 to the Colorado of to-day. But up +to 1869 great portions of the river were still unknown. James +White, a miner, in 1867, told a picturesque story (not generally +accepted as true) of making the passage of the Grand Canyon +on the river. In 1869, and in later expeditions, the feat was +accomplished by Major J. W. Powell. There have been since +then repeated explorations and scientific studies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. E. Dutton, “Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon,” <i>U.S. +Geological Survey, Monograph II</i>. (1882); J. W. Powell, <i>Exploration +of the Colorado River</i> (Washington, 1875), and <i>Canyons of the Colorado</i> +(Meadville, Pa. 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, <i>Romance of the Colorado +River</i> (New York, 1902), and <i>Canyon Voyage</i> (1908); G. W. James, +<i>Wonders of the Colorado Desert</i> (2 vols., Boston, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLORADO SPRINGS<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of El Paso +county, Colorado, U.S.A., about 75 m. S. of Denver. Pop. +(1890) 11,140; (1900) 21,085, of whom 2300 were foreign-born; +(1910) 29,078. The city is served by the Atchison, Topeka +& Santa Fè, the Denver & Rio Grande, the Chicago, Rock Island +& Pacific (of which the city is a terminus), the Colorado & +Southern, the Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek District (controlled +by the Colorado & Southern), and the Colorado Midland +railways, of which the first three are continental systems. +Continuous on the west with Colorado Springs is Colorado City +(pop. in 1900, 2914), one of the oldest settlements of Colorado, +and the first capital (1861). Colorado Springs is superbly +situated where the Rocky Mountains rise from the great plains +of the prairie states, surrounded on all sides by foothills save +in the south-east, where it is open to the prairie. To the south +of the mesa (tableland) on which it lies is the valley of Fountain +Creek. To the west is the grand background of the canyon-riven +Rampart range, with Pike’s Peak (<i>q.v.</i>) dominating a half-dozen +other peaks (among them Cameron Cone, Mt. Rosa, Cheyenne +Mt.) 9000 to 12,000 ft. in height. Monument Creek traverses +the city. The streets are of generous width (100-140 ft.), and are +well shaded by trees. There are several fine parks. The city is +the seat of a state asylum for the deaf, dumb and blind, of a +printers’ home for union men, which was endowed in 1892 by +Anthony J. Drexel and George W. Childs, and of Colorado +College (1874), one of the leading educational institutions of +the Rocky Mountain states, and the oldest institution for higher +education in the state. The college is coeducational and non-sectarian. +In 1908 it had a permanent endowment of about +$425,000, a faculty of 46 and 607 students; the library contained +40,000 bound volumes and as many pamphlets. The +departments of the institution are a college of arts; schools of +engineering (1903), music, and (1906) forestry; and the Cutler +Academy, a preparatory school under the control of the college. +In 1905 Gen. W. J. Palmer (1836-1909) and W. A. Bell gave to +the college Manitou Park, a tract of forest land covering about +13,000 acres and situated about 20 m. from Colorado Springs.</p> + +<p>Bright sunshine and a pleasant climate (mean annual temperature +about 48° F., rainfall 14 in., falling almost wholly from +April to September, relative humidity 59), combined with +beautiful scenery, have made the city a favourite health resort +and place of residence. Land deeds for city property have +always excluded saloons. The municipality owns and operates +the water system, water being drawn from lakes near Pike’s +Peak. The scenery about the city is remarkable. Manitou +(6100-6300 ft.) a popular summer resort, lies about 6 m. (by +rail) north-west of Colorado Springs, in a glen at the opening +of Ute Pass (so-named because it was formerly used by the Ute +Indians), with the mountains rising from its edge. Its springs +of soda and iron belong to the class of weak compound carbonated +soda waters. In the neighbourhood are the Cave of the +Winds, the Grand Caverns, charming glens, mountain lakes and +picturesque canyons; and the Garden of the Gods (owned by +the city)—approached between two tremendous masses of red +rock 330 ft. high, and strewn (about 500 acres) with great rocks +and ridges of brightly coloured sandstone, whose grotesque shapes +and fantastic arrangement have suggested a playground of +superhuman beings. At the southern end of the Rampart +range is Cheyenne Mt. (9407 ft.), on whose slope was buried +Helen Hunt Jackson (“H.H.”), who has left many pictures of +this country in her stories. The two Cheyenne Canyons, with +walls as high as 1000 ft. and beautiful falls, and the road +over the mountain side toward Cripple Creek, afford exquisite +views. Monument Park (10 m. N.) is a tract of fantastically +eroded sandstone rocks, similar to those in the Garden of the +Gods.</p> + +<p>In 1859 a winter mining party coming upon the sunny valley +near the present Manitou, near the old Fontaine-qui-Bouille, +settled “El Dorado.” Colorado City is practically on the same +site. In 1870, as part of the town development work of the +Denver & Rio Grande railway, of which General W. J. Palmer +was the president, a land company founded Colorado Springs. +In 1872 Manitou (first La Fontaine) was founded. Colorado +Springs was laid out in 1871, was incorporated in 1872, and was +first chartered as a city in 1878. A new charter (May 1909) +provided for the recall of elective officials. A road over the Ute +Pass to South Park and Leadville was built, and at one time +about 12,000 horses and mules were employed in freighting to +the Leadville camps. The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway +reached the city in 1888. The greatest part of the Cripple +Creek mining properties is owned in Colorado Springs, where the +exchange is one of the greatest in the world.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOSSAE<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span>, once the great city of south-west Phrygia, was +situated on rising ground (1150 ft.) on the left bank of the +Lycus (<i>Churuk Su</i>), a tributary of the Maeander, at the upper +end of a narrow gorge 2½ m. long, where the river runs between +cliffs from 50 to 60 ft. high. It stood on the great trade route +from Sardis to Celaenae and Iconium, and was a large, prosperous +city (Herod, vii. 30; Xenophon, <i>Anab.</i> i. 2, § 6), until it was +ruined by the foundation of Laodicea in a more advantageous +position. The town was celebrated for its wool, which was +dyed a purple colour called <i>colossinus</i>. Colossae was the seat +of an early Christian church, the result of St Paul’s activity +at Ephesus, though perhaps actually founded by Epaphras. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span> +The church, to which St Paul wrote a letter, was mainly composed +of mingled Greek and Phrygian elements deeply imbued +with fantastic and fanatical mysticism. Colossae lasted until +the 7th and 8th centuries, when it was gradually deserted under +pressure of the Arab invasions. Its place was taken by Khonae +(<i>Khonas</i>)—a strong fortress on a rugged spur of Mt. Kadmus, +3 m. to the south, which became a place of importance during +the wars between the Byzantines and Turks, and was the +birthplace of the historian, Nicetas Khoniates. The worship of +angels alluded to by St Paul (Col. ii. 18), and condemned in the +4th century by a council at Laodicea, reappears in the later +worship of St Michael, in whose honour a celebrated church, +destroyed by the Seljuks in the 12th century, was built on the +right bank of the Lycus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir W. M. Ramsay, <i>Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia</i>, vol. i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOSSAL CAVERN<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span>, a cave in Kentucky, U.S.A., the main +entrance of which is at the foot of a steep hill beyond Eden +Valley, and 1½ m. from Mammoth Cave. It is connected with +what has long been known as the Bed Quilt Cave. Several +entrances found by local explorers were rough and difficult. +They were closed when the property was bought in 1896 by the +Louisville & Nashville railway and a new approach made as +indicated on the accompanying map. From the surface to the +floor is 240 ft.; under Chester Sandstone and in the St Louis +Limestone. Fossil corals fix the geological age of the rock. +The temperature is uniformly 54° Fahr., and the atmosphere +is optically and chemically pure. Lovely incrustations alternate +with queer and grotesque figures. There are exquisite gypsum +rosettes and intricately involved helictites.</p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:520px; height:650px" + src="images/img726.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Tremendous forces have been at work, suggesting earthquakes +and eruptions; but really all is due to the chemical and mechanical +action of water. The so-called “Ruins of Carthage” fill a +hall 400 ft. long by 100 ft. wide and 30 ft. high, whose flat roof +is a vast homogeneous limestone block. Isolated detached +blocks measure from 50 to 100 ft. in length. Edgar Vaughan +and W. L. Marshall, civil engineers, surveyed every part of the +cave. Vaughan’s Dome is 40 ft. wide, 300 ft. long, and 79 ft. +high. Numerous other domes exist, and many deep pits. The +grandest place of all is the Colossal Dome, which used to be +entered only from the apex by windlass and a rope reaching +135 ft. to the floor. This is now used only for illumination by +raising and lowering a fire-basket. The present entrance is by a +gateway buttressed by alabaster shafts, one of which, 75 ft. +high, is named Henry Clay’s Monument. The dome walls arise +in a series of richly tinted rings, each 8 or 10 ft. thick, and each +fringed by stalactites. The symmetry is remarkable, and the +reverberations are strangely musical. The Pearly Pool, in a +chamber near a pit 86 ft. deep, glistens with countless cave +pearls. The route beyond is between rows of stately shafts, +and ends in a copious chalybeate spring. Blind flies, spiders, +beetles and crickets abound; and now and then a blind crawfish +darts through the waters; but as compared with many caverns +the fauna and flora are not abundant. It is conjectured, not +without some reason, that there is a connexion, as yet undiscovered, +between the Colossal and the Mammoth caves. It +seems certain that Eden Valley, which now lies between them, +is a vast “tumble-down” of an immense cavern that formerly +united them into one.</p> +<div class="author">(H. C. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span>, the twelfth book of the +New Testament, the authorship of which is ascribed to the +Apostle Paul. Colossae, like the other Phrygian cities of +Laodicea and Hierapolis, had not been visited by Paul, but owed +its belief in Jesus Christ to Epaphras, a Colossian, who had been +converted by Paul, perhaps in Ephesus, and had laboured not +only in his native city but also in the adjacent portions of the +Lycus valley,—a Christian in whom Paul reposed the greatest +confidence as one competent to interpret the gospel of whose +truth Paul was convinced (i. 7; iv. 12, 13). This Epaphras, +like the majority of the Colossians, was a Gentile. It is probable, +however, both from the letter itself and from the fact that +Colossae was a trade centre, that Jews were there with their +synagogues (cf. also Josephus, <i>Ant.</i> xii. 149). And it is further +probable that some of the Gentiles, who afterwards became +Christians, were either Jewish proselytes or adherents who paid +reverence to the God of the Jews. At all events, the letter +indicates a sensitiveness on the part of the Christians not only +to oriental mysticism and theosophy (cf. Sir W. M. Ramsay, +<i>Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia</i>, and <i>Church in the Roman +Empire</i>), but also to the Judaism of the Diaspora.</p> + +<p>Our first definite knowledge of the Colossian Church dates +from the presence of Epaphras in Rome in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 62-64 (or <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +56-58), when Paul was a prisoner. He arrived with news, +perhaps with a letter (J. R. Harris, <i>Expositor</i>, Dec. 1898, pp. +404 ff.), touching the state of religion in Colossae. Paul learns, +to his joy, of their faith, hope and love; of the order and stability +of their faith; and of their reception of Christ Jesus the Lord +(i. 4, 8; ii. 5-7). He sees no sign of an attack upon him or his +gospel. On the contrary, loyalty to him and sympathy with +him in his sufferings are everywhere manifest (i. 9, 24; ii. 2; +iv. 8); and the gospel of Christ is advancing here as elsewhere +(i. 6). At the same time he detects a lack of cheerfulness and a +lack of spiritual understanding in the Church. The joy of the +gospel, expressing itself in songs and thanksgivings, is damped +(iii. 15, 16), and, above all, the message of Christ does not +dwell richly enough in them. Though the believers know the +grace of God they are not filled with a knowledge of his will, +so that their conduct is lacking in that strength and joy and +perfection, that richness of the fulness of knowledge expected +of those who had been made full in Christ (i. 6, 9-11, 28; ii. +2, 7, 10). The reason for this, Paul sees, is the influence of the +claim made by certain teachers in Colossae that the Christians, +in order to attain unto and be assured of <i>full</i> salvation, must +supplement Paul’s message with their own fuller and more +perfect wisdom, and must observe certain rites and practices +(ii. 16, 21, 23) connected with the worship of angels (ii. 18, 23) +and elementary spirits (ii. 8, 20).</p> + +<p>The origin and the exact nature of this religious movement +are alike uncertain. (1) If it represents a type of syncretism as +definite as that known to have existed in the developed gnostic +systems of the 2nd century, it is inconceivable that Paul should +have passed it by as easily as he did. (2) As there is no reference +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span> +to celibacy, communism and the worship of the sun, it is improbable +that the movement is identical with that of the Essenes. +(3) The phenomena might be explained solely on the basis of +Judaism (von Soden, Peake). Certainly the asceticism and +ritualism might so be interpreted, for there was among the Jews +of the Dispersion an increasing tendency to asceticism, by way +of protest against the excesses of the Gentiles. The reference +in ii. 23 to severity of the body may have to do with fasting +preparatory to seeing visions (cf. <i>Apoc. Baruch</i>, xxi. 1, ix. 2, +v. 7). Even the worship of angels, not only as mediators of +revelation and visions, but also as cosmical beings, is a well-known +fact in late Judaism (<i>Apoc. Bar.</i> lv. 3; <i>Ethiopic Enoch</i>, +lx. 11, lxi. 10; Col. ii. 8, 20; Gal. iv. 3). As for the word +“philosophy” (ii. 8), it is not necessary to take it in the technical +Greek sense when the usage of Philo and Josephus permits a +looser meaning. Finally the references to circumcision, <i>paradosis</i> +(ii. 8) and <i>dogmata</i> (ii. 20), directly suggest a Jewish origin. +If we resort solely to Judaism for explanation, it must be a +Judaism of the Diaspora type. (4) The difficulty with the last-mentioned +position is that it under-estimates the speculative +tendencies of the errorists and ignores the direct influence of +oriental theosophy. It is quite true that Paul does not directly +attack the speculative position, but rather indicates the practical +dangers inherent therein (the denial of the supremacy of Christ +and of full salvation through Him); he does not say that the +errorists hold Christ to be a mere angel or an aeon, or that words +like <i>pleroma</i> (borrowed perhaps from their own vocabulary) +involve a rigorous dualism. Yet his characterization of the +movement as an arbitrary religion (ii. 23), a philosophy which +is empty deceit (ii. 8), according to elemental spirits and not +according to Christ, and a higher knowledge due to a mind +controlled by the flesh (ii. 18); his repeated emphasis on Christ, +as supreme over all things, over men and angels, agent in creation +as well as in redemption, in whom dwelt bodily the fulness of the +Godhead; and his constant stress upon knowledge,—all these +combine to reveal a speculation real and dangerous, even if +naïve and regardless of consequences, and to suggest (with +Jülicher and McGiffert) that in addition to Jewish influence there +is also the direct influence of Oriental mysticism.</p> + +<p>To meet the pressing need in Colossae, Paul writes a letter +and entrusts it to Tychichus, who is on his way to Colossae with +Onesimus, Philemon’s slave (iv. 7, 9). (On the relation of this +letter to Ephesians and to the letter to be sent from Laodicea +to Colossae, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ephesians, Epistle to the</a></span>.) His attitude is +prophylactic, rather than polemic, for the “philosophy” has +not as yet taken deep root. His purpose is to restore in the +hearts of the readers the joy of the Spirit, by making them see +that Christ fulfils every need, and that through faith in Him +and love from faith, the advance is made unimpeded unto the +perfect man. He will eliminate foreign accretions, that the +gospel of Christ may stand forth in its native purity, and that +Christ Himself may in all things have the pre-eminence.</p> + +<p>The letter begins with a thanksgiving to God for the spiritual +growth of the Colossians, and continues with a prayer for their +fuller knowledge of the divine will, for a more perfect Christian +life, and for a spirit of thanksgiving, seeing that it is God who +guarantees their salvation in Christ (i. 1-14). It is Christ who +is supreme, not angels, for He is the agent in creation; and it +is solely on the basis of faith in Him, a faith expressing itself in +love, that redemption is appropriated, and not on the basis of +any further requirements such as ascetic practices and the +worship of angels (i. 15-23). It is with a full message that Paul +has been entrusted, the message of Christ, who alone can lead +to all the riches of fulness of knowledge. And for this adequate +knowledge the readers should be thankful (i. 23—ii. 7). Again +he urges, that since redemption is in Christ alone, and that, too, +full redemption and on the basis of faith alone, the demand for +asceticism and meaningless ceremonies is folly, and moreover +robs Christ, in whom dwells the divine fulness, of His rightful +supremacy (ii. 8-23). And he exhorts them as members of the +Body of Christ to manifest their faith in Christian love, particularly +in their domestic relations and in their contact with non-Christians +(iii. i-iv. 6). He closes by saying that Tychichus +will give them the news. Greetings from all to all (iv. 7-18).</p> + +<p>A letter like this, clear cut in its thought, teeming with ideas +emanating from an unique religious experience, and admirably +adjusted to known situations, bears on the face of it the marks +of genuineness even without recourse to the unusually excellent +external attestation. It is not strange that there is a growing +consensus of opinion that Paul is the author. With the critical +renaissance of the early part of the 19th century, doubts were +raised as to the genuineness of the letter (<i>e.g.</i> by E. T. Mayerhoff, +1838). Quite apart from the difficulties created by the Tübingen +theory, legitimate difficulties were found in the style of the letter, +in the speculation of the errorists, and in the theology of the +author. (1) As to style, it is replied that if there are peculiarities +in <i>Colossians</i>, so also in the admittedly genuine letters, <i>Romans</i>, +<i>Corinthians</i>, <i>Galatians</i>. Moreover, if <i>Philippians</i> is Pauline, so +also the stylistically similar <i>Colossians</i> (cf. von Soden). (2) As +to the speculation of the errorists, it is replied that it is explicable +in the lifetime of Paul, that some of the elements of it may have +their source in pre-Christian Jewish theories, and that recourse +to the developed gnosticism of the 2nd century is unnecessary. +(3) As to the Christology of the author, it is replied that it does +not go beyond what we have already in Paul except in emphasis, +which itself is occasioned by the circumstances. What is implicit +in <i>Corinthians</i> is explicit in <i>Colossians</i>. H. J. Holtzmann +(1872) subjected both <i>Colossians</i> and <i>Ephesians</i> to a rigorous +examination, and found in <i>Colossians</i> at least a nucleus of +Pauline material. H. von Soden (1885), with well-considered +principles of criticism, made a similar examination and found a +much larger nucleus, and later still, (1893), in his commentary, +reduced the non-Pauline material to a negligible minimum. +Harnack, Jülicher and McGiffert, however, agree with Lightfoot, +Weiss, Zahn (and early tradition) in holding that the letter is +wholly Pauline—a position which is proving more and more +acceptable to contemporary scholarship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—In addition to the literature already mentioned, +see the articles of Sanday on “Colossians” and Robertson on +“Ephesians” in Smith’s <i>Bible Dictionary</i> (2nd ed., 1893), and the +article of A. Jülicher on “Colossians and Ephesians” in the +<i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i> (1899); the Introductions of H. J. Holtzmann +(1892), B. Weiss (1897), Th. Zahn (1900) and Jülicher (1906); +the histories of the apostolic age by C. von Weizsäcker (1892), +A. C. M’Giffert (1897) and O. Pfleiderer (<i>Urchristentum</i>, 1902); +and the commentaries of J. B. Lightfoot (1875), H. von Soden (1893) +T. K. Abbott (1897), E. Haupt (1902), Peake (1903) and P. Ewald +(1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. E. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOSSUS<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span>, in antiquity a term applied generally to statues of +great size (hence the adjective “colossal”), and in particular to +the bronze statue of the sun-god Helios in Rhodes, one of the +wonders of the world, made from the spoils left by Demetrius +Poliorcetes when he raised the siege of the city. The sculptor was +Chares, a native of Lindus, and of the school of Lysippus, under +whose influence the art of sculpture was led to the production of +colossal figures by preference. The work occupied him twelve +years, it is said, and the finished statue stood 70 cubits high. It +stood near the harbour (<span class="grk" title="epi limeni">ἐπὶ λιμένι</span>), but at what point is not +certain. When, and from what grounds, the belief arose that +it had stood across the entrance to the harbour, with a beacon +light in its hand and ships passing between its legs, is not known, +but the belief was current as early as the 16th century. The +statue was thrown down by an earthquake about the year +224 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; then, after lying broken for nearly 1000 years, the +pieces were bought by a Jew from the Saracens, and probably +reconverted into instruments of war.</p> + +<p>Other Greek colossi were the Apollo of Calamis; the Zeus +and Heracles of Lysippus; the Zeus at Olympia, the Athena +in the Parthenon, and the Athena Promachos on the Acropolis—all +the work of Pheidias.</p> + +<p>The best-known Roman colossi are: a statue of Jupiter on +the Capitol; a bronze statue of Apollo in the Palatine library; +and the colossus of Nero in the vestibule of his Golden House, +afterwards removed by Hadrian to the north of the Colosseum, +where the basement upon which it stood is still visible (Pliny, +<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiv. 18).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOUR<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (Lat. <i>color</i>, connected with <i>celare</i>, to hide, the root +meaning, therefore, being that of a covering). The visual apparatus +of the eye enables us to distinguish not only differences of +form, size and brilliancy in the objects looked upon, but also +differences in the character of the light received from them. +These latter differences, familiar to us as differences in <i>colour</i>, +have their physical origin in the variations in wave-length (or +frequency) which may exist in light which is capable of exciting +the sensation of vision. From the physical point of view, light +of a <i>pure colour</i>, or homogeneous light, means light whose +undulations are mathematically of a simple character and which +cannot be resolved by a prism into component parts. All the +visible pure colours, as thus defined, are to be found in the +spectrum, and there is an infinite number of them, corresponding +to all the possible variations of wave-length within the limits +of the visible spectrum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spectroscopy</a></span>). On this view, there +is a strict analogy between variations of <i>colour</i> in light and +variations of <i>pitch</i> in sound, but the visible spectrum contains +a range of frequency extending over about one octave only, +whereas the range of audibility embraces about eleven octaves.</p> + +<p>Of all the known colours it might naturally be thought that +white is the simplest and purest, and, till Sir Isaac Newton’s +time, this was the prevailing opinion. Newton, however, showed +that white light could be decomposed by a prism into the spectral +colours red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet; the +colours appearing in this order and passing gradually into each +other without abrupt transitions. White is therefore not a +simple colour, but is merely the colour of sunlight, and probably +owes its apparently homogeneous character to the fact that it is +the average colour of the light which fills the eye when at rest. +The colours of the various objects which we see around us are +not due (with the exception of self-luminous and fluorescent +bodies) to any power possessed by these objects of creating the +colours which they exhibit, but merely to the exercise of a +selective action on the light of the sun, some of the constituent +rays of the white light with which they are illuminated being +absorbed, while the rest are reflected or scattered in all directions, +or, in the case of transparent bodies, transmitted. White light +is thus the basis of all other colours, which are derived from it +by the suppression of some one or more of its parts. A red +flower, for instance, absorbs the blue and green rays and most +of the yellow, while the red rays and usually some yellow are +scattered. If a red poppy is illuminated successively by red, +yellow, green and blue light it will appear a brilliant red in the +red light, yellow in the yellow light, but less brilliant if the red +colour is pure; and black in the other colours, the blackness being +due to the almost complete absorption of the corresponding +colour.</p> + +<p>Bodies may be classified as regards colour according to the +nature of the action they exert on white light. In the case +of ordinary opaque bodies a certain proportion of the incident +light is irregularly reflected or scattered from their surfaces. A +white object is one which reflects nearly all the light of all colours; +a black object absorbs nearly all. A body which reflects only +a portion of the light, but which exhibits no predominance in +any particular hue, is called <i>grey</i>. A white surface looks grey +beside a similar surface more brilliantly illuminated.</p> + +<p>The next class is that of most transparent bodies, which owe +their colour to the light which is transmitted, either directly +through, or reflected back again at the farther surface. A body +which transmits all the visible rays equally well is said to be +colourless; pure water, for example, is nearly quite colourless, +though in large masses it appears bluish-green. A translucent +substance is one which partially transmits light. Translucency +is due to the light being scattered by minute embedded particles +or minute irregularities of structure. Some fibrous specimens +of tremolite and gypsum are translucent in the direction of the +fibres, and practically opaque in a transverse direction. Coloured +transparent objects vary in shade and hue according to their +size; thus, a conical glass filled with a red liquid commonly +appears yellow at the bottom, varying through orange up to +red at the upper part. A coloured powder is usually of a much +lighter tint than the substance in bulk, as the light is reflected +back after transmission through only a few thin layers. For +the same reason the powders of transparent substances are +opaque.</p> + +<p>Polished bodies, whether opaque or transparent, when illuminated +with white light and viewed at the proper angle, reflect +the incident light regularly and appear white, without showing +much of their distinctive colours.</p> + +<p>Some bodies reflect light of one colour and transmit that of +another; such bodies nearly always possess the properties of +<i>selective</i> or <i>metallic reflection</i> and <i>anomalous dispersion</i>. Most +of the coal-tar dyes belong to this category. Solid eosin, for +example, reflects a yellowish-green and transmits a red light. +Gold appears yellow under ordinary circumstances, but if the +light is reflected many times from the surface it appears a ruby +colour. On the other hand, a powerful beam of light transmitted +through a thin gold-leaf appears green.</p> + +<p>Some solutions exhibit the curious phenomenon of <i>dichromatism</i> +(from <span class="grk" title="di-">δι-</span>, double, and <span class="grk" title="chrôma">χρῶμα</span>, colour), that is, they +appear of one colour when viewed in strata of moderate thickness, +but of a different colour in greater thicknesses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Absorption +of Light</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The blue colour of the sky (<i>q.v.</i>) has been explained by Lord +Rayleigh as due to the scattering of light by small suspended +particles and air molecules, which is most effective in the case +of the shorter waves (blue). J. Tyndall produced similar effects +in the laboratory. The green colour of sea-water near the shore +is also due to a scattering of light.</p> + +<p>The colours of bodies which are gradually heated to white +incandescence occur in the order—red, orange, yellow, white. +This is because the longer waves of red light are first emitted, +then the yellow as well, so that orange results, then so much +green that the total effect is yellow, and lastly all the colours, +compounding to produce white. Fluorescent bodies have the +power of converting light of one colour into that of another +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fluorescence</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Besides the foregoing kinds of colorization, a body may +exhibit, under certain circumstances, a colouring due to some +special physical conditions rather than to the specific properties +of the material; such as the colour of a white object when +illuminated by light of some particular colour; the colours +seen in a film of oil on water or in mother-of-pearl, or soap-bubbles, +due to interference (<i>q.v.</i>); the colours seen through +the eyelashes or through a thin handkerchief held up to the +light, due to diffraction (<i>q.v.</i>); and the colours caused by ordinary +refraction, as in the rainbow, double refraction and polarization +(<i>qq.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Composition of Colours.</i>—It has been already pointed out +that white light is a combination of all the colours in the spectrum. +This was shown by Newton, who recombined the spectral +colours and produced white. Newton also remarks that if a +froth be made on the surface of water thickened a little with +soap, and examined closely, it will be seen to be coloured with +all the colours of the spectrum, but at a little distance it looks +white owing to the combined effect on the eye of all the colours.</p> + +<p>The question of the composition of colours is largely a physiological +one, since it is possible, by mixing colours, say red and +yellow, to produce a new colour, orange, which appears identical +with the pure orange of the spectrum, but is physically quite +different, since it can be resolved by a prism into red and yellow +again. There is no doubt that the sensation of colour-vision +is threefold, in the sense that any colour can be produced by +the combination, in proper proportions, of three standard +colours. The question then arises, what are the three primary +colours? Sir David Brewster considered that they were red, +yellow and blue; and this view has been commonly held by +painters and others, since all the known brilliant hues can be +derived from the admixture of red, yellow and blue pigments. +For instance, vermilion and chrome yellow will give an orange, +chrome yellow and ultramarine a green, and vermilion and +ultramarine a purple mixture. But if we superpose the pure +spectral colours on a screen, the resulting colours are quite +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span> +different. This is especially the case with yellow and blue, +which on the screen combine to produce white, generally with +a pink tint, but cannot be made to give green. The reason of +this difference in the two results is that in the former case we do +not get a true combination of the colours at all. When the +mixed pigments are illuminated by white light, the yellow +particles absorb the red and blue rays, but reflect the yellow +along with a good deal of the neighbouring green and orange. +The blue particles, on the other hand, absorb the red, orange +and yellow, but reflect the blue and a good deal of green and +violet. As much of the light is affected by several particles, +most of the rays are absorbed except green, which is reflected +by both pigments. Thus, the colour of the mixture is not a +mixture of the colours yellow and blue, but the remainder of +white light after the yellow and blue pigments have absorbed +all they can. The effect can also be seen in coloured solutions. +If two equal beams of white light are transmitted respectively +through a yellow solution of potassium bichromate and a blue +solution of copper sulphate in proper thicknesses, they can be +compounded on a screen to an approximately white colour; +but a single beam transmitted through both solutions appears +green. Blue and yellow pigments would produce the effect +of white only if very sparsely distributed. This fact is made use +of in laundries, where cobalt blue is used to correct the yellow +colour of linen after washing.</p> + +<p>Thomas Young suggested red, green and violet as the primary +colours, but the subsequent experiments of J. Clerk Maxwell +appear to show that they should be red, green and blue. Sir +William Abney, however, assigns somewhat different places in +the spectrum to the primary colours, and, like Young, considers +that they should be red, green and violet. All other hues can +be obtained by combining the three primaries in proper proportions. +Yellow is derived from red and green. This can be done +by superposition on a screen or by making a solution which +will transmit only red and green rays. For this purpose Lord +Rayleigh recommends a mixture of solutions of blue litmus +and yellow potassium chromate. The litmus stops the yellow +and orange light, while the potassium chromate stops the blue +and violet. Thus only red and green are transmitted, and the +result is a full compound yellow which resembles the simple +yellow of the spectrum in appearance, but is resolved into red +and green by a prism. The brightest yellow pigments are those +which give both the pure and compound yellow. Since red and +green produce yellow, and yellow and blue produce white, it +follows that red, green and blue can be compounded into +white. H. von Helmholtz has shown that the only pair of +simple spectral colours capable of compounding to white are +a greenish-yellow and blue.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:154px; height:149px" src="images/img729a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Just as musical sounds differ in pitch, loudness and quality, +so may colours differ in three respects, which Maxwell calls +<i>hue</i>, <i>shade</i> and <i>tint</i>. All hues can be produced by combining +every pair of primaries in every proportion. The addition of +white alters the tint without affecting the hue. If the colour +be darkened by adding black or by diminishing the illumination, +a variation in shade is produced. Thus the +hue red includes every variation in tint from +red to white, and every variation in shade +from red to black, and similarly for other +hues. We can represent every hue and tint +on a diagram in a manner proposed by +Young, following a very similar suggestion +of Newton’s. Let RGB (fig. 1) be an +equilateral triangle, and let the angular +points be coloured red, green and blue of such intensities +as to produce white if equally combined; and let the colour +of every point of the triangle be determined by combining +such proportions of the three primaries, that three weights +in the same proportion would have their centre of gravity +at the point. Then the centre of the triangle will be a neutral +tint, white or grey; and the middle points of the sides Y, S, P +will be yellow, greenish-blue and purple. The hue varies all +round the perimeter. The tint varies along any straight line +through W. To vary the shade, the whole triangle must be +uniformly darkened.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:103px; height:102px" src="images/img729b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>The simplest way of compounding colours is by means of +Maxwell’s colour top, which is a broad spinning-top over the +spindle of which coloured disks can be slipped (fig. 2). The disks +are slit radially so that they can be slipped partially over each +other and the surfaces exposed in any desired ratio. Three +disks are used together, and a match is obtained between these +and a pair of smaller ones mounted on the same spindle. If +any five colours are taken, two of which may be +black and white, a match can be got between them +by suitable adjustment. This shows that a relation +exists between any four colours (the black being +only needed to obtain the proper intensity) and +that consequently the number of independent +colours is three. A still better instrument for +combining colours is Maxwell’s colour box, in which the colours +of the spectrum are combined by means of prisms. Sir W. +Abney has also invented an apparatus for the same purpose, +which is much the same in principle as Maxwell’s colour box. +Several methods of colour photography depend on the fact that +all varieties of colour can be compounded from red, green and +blue in proper proportions.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:262px; height:214px" src="images/img729c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">(After Müller-Pouillet’s <i>Lehrbuch der +Physik</i>, 1897.)</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Any two colours which together give white are called <i>complementary</i> +colours. Greenish-yellow and blue are a pair of complementaries, +as already mentioned. +Any number of pairs +may be obtained by a simple +device due to Helmholtz and +represented in fig. 3. A beam +of white light, decomposed by +the prism P, is recompounded +into white light by the lens l +and focussed on a screen at f. +If the thin prism p is inserted +near the lens, any set of +colours may be deflected to +another point n, thus producing +two coloured and complementary +images of the source of light.</p> + +<p><i>Nature of White Light.</i>—The question as to whether white light +actually consists of trains of waves of regular frequency has been +discussed in recent years by A. Schuster, Lord Rayleigh and +others, and it has been shown that even if it consisted of a succession +of somewhat irregular impulses, it would still be resolved, +by the dispersive property of a prism or grating, into trains of +regular frequency. We may still, however, speak of white light +as compounded of the rays of the spectrum, provided we mean +only that the two systems are mathematically equivalent, and +not that the homogeneous trains exist as such in the original +light.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Newton’s <i>Opticks</i>, bk. i. pt. ii.; Maxwell’s <i>Scientific +Papers</i>; Helmholtz’s papers in <i>Poggendorf’s Annalen</i>; Sir G. G. +Stokes, <i>Burnett Lectures for 1884-5-6</i>; Abney’s <i>Colour Vision</i> +(1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. R. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOURS, MILITARY<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span>, the flags carried by infantry regiments +and battalions, sometimes also by troops of other arms. Cavalry +regiments and other units have as a rule standards and guidons +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flag</a></span>). Colours are generally embroidered with mottoes, +symbols, and above all with the names of battles.</p> + +<p>From the earliest time at which men fought in organized +bodies of troops, the latter have possessed some sort of insignia +visible over all the field of battle, and serving as a rallying-point +for the men of the corps and an indication of position for the +higher leaders and the men of other formed bodies. In the +Roman army the eagle, the <i>vexillum</i>, &c. had all the moral and +sentimental importance of the colours of to-day. During the +dark and the middle ages, however, the basis of military force +being the individual knight or lord, the banner, or other flag +bearing his arms, replaced the regimental colour which had +signified the corporate body and claimed the devotion of each +individual soldier in the ranks, though the original meaning of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span> +colour as a corps, not a personal distinction, was sometimes +maintained by corporate bodies (such as trade-gilds) which took +the field as such. An example is the famous <i>carroccio</i> or standard +on wheels, which was frequently brought into the field of battle +by the citizen militia of the Italian cities, and was fought for with +the same ardour as the royal standard in other medieval battles.</p> + +<p>The application of the word “colour” to such insignia, however, +dates only from the 16th century. It has been suggested +that, as the professional captain gradually ousted the nobleman +from the command of the drilled and organized companies of +foot—the man of gentle birth, of course, maintained his ascendancy +in the cavalry far longer—the leaders of such bodies, no +longer possessing coat-armour and individual banners, had +recourse to small flags of distinctive colour instead. “Colour” +is in the 16th century a common name in England and middle +Europe for the unit of infantry; in German the <i>Fähnlein</i> (colour) +of landsknechts was a strong company of more than 300 foot. +The ceremonial observances and honours paid nowadays to the +colours of infantry were in fact founded for the most part by the +landsknechts, for whom the flag (carried by their “ensign”) +was symbolical of their intense regimental life and feeling. The +now universal customs of constituting the colour guard of picked +men and of saluting the colours were in equal honour then; +before that indeed, the appearance of the personal banner of a +nobleman implied his actual presence with it, and the due +honours were paid, but the colour of the 16th century was not +the distinction of one man, but the symbol of the corporate life +and unity of the regiment, and thus the new colour ceremonial +implied the same allegiance to an impersonal regimental spirit, +which it has (with the difference that the national spirit has been +blended with the regimental) retained ever since. The old +soldier rallied to the colours as a matter of habit in the confusion +of battle, and the capture or the loss of a colour has always been +considered a special event, glorious or the reverse, in the history +of a regiment, the importance of this being chiefly sentimental, +but having as a very real background the fact that, if its colour +was lost, a regiment was to all intents and purposes dissolved +and dispersed. Frederick the Great and Napoleon always +attached the highest importance to the maintenance at all costs +of the regimental colours. Even over young troops the influence +of the colour has been extraordinary, and many generals have +steadied their men in the heat of battle by taking a regimental +colour themselves to lead the advance or to form up the troops. +Thus in the first battle of Bull Run (1861) the raw Confederate +troops were rallied under a heavy fire by General Joseph Johnston, +their commander-in-chief, who stood with a colour in his +hand until the men gathered quickly in rank and file. The archduke +Charles at Aspern (1809) led his young troops to the last +assault with a colour in his hand. Marshal Schwerin was killed +at the battle of Prague while carrying a regimental colour.</p> + +<p>In the British army colours are carried by guards and line +(except rifle) battalions, each battalion having two colours, the +king’s and the regimental. The size of the colour is 3 ft. 9 in. +by 3 ft., and the length of the stave 8 ft. 7 in. The colour has +a gold fringe and gold and crimson tassels, and bears various +devices and “battle honours.” Both colours are carried by +subaltern officers, and an escort of selected non-commissioned +officers forms the rest of the colour party. The ceremony of +presenting new colours is most impressive. The old colours +are “trooped” (see below) before being cased and taken to the +rear. The new colours are then placed against a pile of drums +and then uncased by the senior majors and the senior subalterns. +The consecration follows, after which the colours are presented +to the senior subalterns. The battalion gives a general salute +when the colours are unfurled, and the ceremony concludes with +a march past. “Trooping the colour” is a more elaborate +ceremonial peculiar to the British service, and is said to have +been invented by the duke of Cumberland. In this, the colour +is posted near the left of the line, the right company or guard +moves up to it, and an officer receives it, after which the guard +with the colour files between the ranks of the remainder from +left to right until the right of the line is reached.</p> + +<p>In the United States army the infantry regiment has two +colours, the national and the regimental. They are carried in +action.</p> + +<p>In the French army one colour (<i>drapeau</i>) is carried by each +infantry regiment. It is carried by an officer, usually a <i>sous-lieutenant</i>, +and the guard is composed of a non-commissioned +officer and a party of “first class” soldiers. Regiments which have +taken an enemy’s colour or standard in battle have their own +colours “decorated,” that is, the cross of the Legion of Honour +is affixed to the stave near the point. Battle honours are embroidered +on the white of the tricolour. The <i>eagle</i> was, in the +First and Third Empires, the infantry colour, and was so called +from the gilt eagle which surmounted the stave. The <i>chasseurs +à pied</i>, like the rifles of the British army, carry no colours, but +the battalion quartered for the time being at Vincennes carries +a colour for the whole arm in memory of the first <i>chasseurs de +Vincennes</i>. As in other countries, colours are saluted by all +armed bodies and by individual officers and men. When the +<i>drapeau</i> is not present with the regiment its place is taken by +an ordinary flag.</p> + +<p>The colours of the German infantry, foot artillery and engineers +vary in design with the states to which the corps belong +in the first instance; thus, black and white predominate in +Prussian colours, red in those of Württemberg regiments, blue +in Bavarian, and so on. The point of the colour stave is decorated +in some cases with the iron cross, in memory of the War of +Liberation and of the war of 1870. Each battalion of an infantry +regiment has its own colour, which is carried by a non-commissioned +officer, and guarded as usual by a colour party. The +colour is fastened to the stave by silver nails, and the ceremony +of driving the first nail into the stake of a new colour is one of +great solemnity. Rings of silver on the stave are engraved with +battle honours, the names of those who have fallen in action +when carrying the colour, and other commemorative names +and dates. The oath taken by each recruit on joining is sworn +on the colour (<i>Fahneneid</i>).</p> + +<p>The practice in the British army of leaving the colours behind +on taking the field dates from the battle of Isandhlwana (22nd +January 1879), in which Lieutenants Melvill and Coghill lost +their lives in endeavouring to save the colours of the 24th +regiment. In savage warfare, in which the British regular +army is more usually engaged, it is true that no particular reason +can be adduced for imperilling the colours in the field. It is +questionable, however, whether this holds good in civilized +warfare. Colours were carried in action by both the Russians +and the Japanese in the war of 1904-5, and they were supplemented +on both sides by smaller flags or camp colours. The +conception of the colour as the emblem of union, the rallying-point, +of the regiment has been mentioned above. Many hold +that such a rallying-point is more than ever required in the +modern <i>guerre de masses</i>, when a national short-service army +is collected in all possible strength on the decisive battle-field, +and that scarcely any risks or loss of life would be disproportionate +to the advantages gained by the presence of the colours. +There is further a most important factor in the problem, which +has only arisen in recent years through modern perfection in +armament. In the first stages of an attack, the colours could +remain, as in the past, with the closed reserves or line of battle, +and they would not be uncased and sent into the thick of the +fight at all hazards until the decisive assault was being delivered. +Then, it is absolutely essential, as a matter of tactics, that the +artillery (<i>q.v.</i>), which covers the assault with all the power given +it by modern science and training, should be well informed as +to the progress of the infantry. This covering fire was maintained +by the Japanese until the infantry was actually in the +smoke of their own shrapnel. With uniforms of neutral tint +the need of some means whereby the artillery officers can, at +4000 yds. range, distinguish their own infantry from that of the +enemy, is more pronounced than ever. The best troops are apt +to be unsteadied by being fired into by their own guns (<i>e.g.</i> at +Elandslaagte), and the more powerful the shell, and the more +rapid and far-ranging the fire of the guns, the more necessary it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span> +becomes to prevent such accidents. A practicable solution of +the difficulty would be to display the colours as of old, and this +course would not only have to an enhanced degree the advantages +it formerly possessed, but would also provide the simplest +means for ensuring the vitally necessary co-operation of infantry +and artillery in the decisive assault. The duty of carrying the +colours was always one of special danger, and sometimes, in the +old short-range battles, every officer who carried a flag was +shot. That this fate would necessarily overtake the bearer under +modern conditions is far from certain, and in any case the few +men on the enemy’s side who would be brave enough to shoot +accurately under heavy shell fire would, however destructive +to the colour party, scarcely inflict as much damage on the +battalion as a whole, as a dozen or more accidental shells from +the massed artillery of its own side.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOUR-SERGEANT<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span>, a non-commissioned officer of infantry, +ranking, in the British army, as the senior non-commissioned +officer of each company. He is charged with many administrative +duties, and usually acts as pay sergeant. A special duty of +the colour-sergeants of a battalion is that of attending and guarding +the colours and the officers carrying them. In some foreign +armies the colours are actually carried by colour-sergeants. +The rank was created in the British army in 1813.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLOURS OF ANIMALS.<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> Much interest attaches in modern +biology to the questions involved in the colours of animals. +The subject may best be considered in two divisions: (1) as +regards the uses of colour in the struggle for existence and in +sexual relationships; (2) as regards the chemical causation.</p> + +<p class="center1 sc">1. Bionomics</p> + +<p><i>Use of Colour for Concealment.</i>—<i>Cryptic colouring</i> is by far the +commonest use of colour in the struggle for existence. It is +employed for the purpose of attack (<i>aggressive resemblance</i> or +<i>anticryptic colouring</i>) as well as of defence (<i>protective resemblance</i> +or <i>procryptic colouring</i>). The fact that the same method, concealment, +may be used both for attack and defence has been +well explained by T. Belt (<i>The Naturalist in Nicaragua</i>, London, +1888), who suggests as an illustration the rapidity of movement +which is also made use of by both pursuer and pursued, which is +similarly raised to a maximum in both by the gradual dying +out of the slowest through a series of generations. Cryptic +colouring is commonly associated with other aids in the struggle +for life. Thus well-concealed mammals and birds, when discovered, +will generally endeavour to escape by speed, and will +often attempt to defend themselves actively. On the other hand, +small animals which have no means of active defence, such as +large numbers of insects, frequently depend upon concealment +alone. Protective resemblance is far commoner among animals +than aggressive resemblance, in correspondence with the fact +that predaceous forms are as a rule much larger and much less +numerous than their prey. In the case of insectivorous Vertebrata +and their prey such differences exist in an exaggerated +form. Cryptic colouring, whether used for defence or attack, +may be either <i>general</i> or <i>special</i>. In <i>general resemblance</i> the +animal, in consequence of its colouring, produces the same effect +as its environment, but the conditions do not require any special +adaptation of shape and outline. General resemblance is +especially common among the animals inhabiting some uniformly +coloured expanse of the earth’s surface, such as an ocean +or a desert. In the former, animals of all shapes are frequently +protected by their transparent blue colour; on the latter, equally +diverse forms are defended by their sandy appearance. The +effect of a uniform appearance may be produced by a combination +of tints in startling contrast. Thus the black and white +stripes of the zebra blend together at a little distance, and “their +proportion is such as exactly to match the pale tint which arid +ground possesses when seen by moonlight” (F. Galton, <i>South +Africa</i>, London, 1889). <i>Special resemblance</i> is far commoner +than general, and is the form which is usually met with on the +diversified surface of the earth, on the shores, and in shallow +water, as well as on the floating masses of Algae on the surface +of the ocean, such as the Sargasso Sea. In these environments +the cryptic colouring of animals is usually aided by special +modifications of shape, and by the instinct which leads them to +assume particular attitudes. Complete stillness and the assumption +of a certain attitude play an essential part in general resemblance +on land; but in special resemblance the attitude is often +highly specialized, and perhaps more important than any other +element in the complex method by which concealment is effected. +In special resemblance the combination of colouring, shape and +attitude is such as to produce a more or less exact resemblance +to some one of the objects in the environment, such as a leaf or +twig, a patch of lichen, or flake of bark. In all cases the resemblance +is to some object which is of no interest to the enemy +or prey respectively. The animal is not hidden from view by +becoming indistinguishable from its background, as in the cases +of general resemblance, but it is mistaken for some well-known +object.</p> + +<p>In seeking the interpretation of these most interesting and +elaborate adaptations, attempts have been made along two +lines. First, it is sought to explain the effect as a result of the +direct influence of the environment upon the individual (G. L. L. +Buffon), or by the inherited effects of effort and the use and +disuse of parts (J. B. P. Lamarck). Second, natural selection +is believed to have produced the result, and afterwards maintained +it by the survival of the best concealed in each generation. +The former suggestions break down when the complex nature +of numerous special resemblances is appreciated. Thus the +arrangement of colours of many kinds into an appropriate +pattern requires the co-operation of a suitable shape and the +rigidly exact adoption of a certain elaborate attitude. The latter +is instinctive, and thus depends on the central nervous system. +The cryptic effect is due to the exact co-operation of all these +factors; and in the present state of science the only possible +hope of an interpretation lies in the theory of natural selection, +which can accumulate any and every variation which tends +towards survival. A few of the chief types of methods by which +concealment is effected may be briefly described. The colours +of large numbers of Vertebrate animals are darkest on the back, +and become gradually lighter on the sides, passing into white +on the belly. Abbott H. Thayer (<i>The Auk</i>, vol. xiii., 1896) has +suggested that this gradation obliterates the appearance of +solidity, which is due to shadow. The colour-harmony, which +is also essential to concealment, is produced because the back +is of the same tint as the environment (<i>e.g.</i> earth) bathed in the +cold blue-white of the sky, while the belly, being cold blue-white +bathed in shadow and yellow earth reflections, produces the +same effect. Thayer has made models (in the natural history +museums at London, Oxford and Cambridge) which support +his interpretation in a very convincing manner. This method +of neutralizing shadow for the purpose of concealment by +increased lightness of tint was first suggested by E. B. Poulton +in the case of a larva (<i>Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1887, p. 294) and +a pupa (<i>Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1888, pp. 596, 597), but he did +not appreciate the great importance of the principle. In an +analogous method an animal in front of a background of dark +shadow may have part of its body obliterated by the existence +of a dark tint, the remainder resembling, <i>e.g.</i>, a part of a leaf +(W. Müller, <i>Zool. Jahr. J. W. Spengel</i>, Jena, 1886). This method +of rendering invisible any part which would interfere with the +resemblance is well known in mimicry. A common aid to +concealment is the adoption by different individuals of two or +more different appearances, each of which resembles some +special object to which an enemy is indifferent. Thus the +leaf-like butterflies (<i>Kallima</i>) present various types of colour and +pattern on the under side of the wings, each of which closely +resembles some well-known appearance presented by a dead leaf; +and the common British yellow under-wing moth (<i>Tryphaena +pronuba</i>) is similarly polymorphic on the upper side of its upper +wings, which are exposed as it suddenly drops among dead +leaves. Caterpillars and pupae are also commonly <i>dimorphic</i>, +green and brown. Such differences as these extend the area +which an enemy is compelled to search in order to make a living. +In many cases the cryptic colouring changes appropriately +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span> +during the course of an individual life, either seasonally, as in the +ptarmigan or Alpine hare, or according as the individual enters +a new environment in the course of its growth (such as larva, +pupa, imago, &c.). In insects with more than one brood in the +year, <i>seasonal dimorphism</i> is often seen, and the differences are +sometimes appropriate to the altered condition of the environment +as the seasons change. The causes of change in these and +Arctic animals are insufficiently worked out: in both sets there +are observations or experiments which indicate changes from +within the organism, merely following the seasons and not +caused by them, and other observations or experiments which +prove that certain species are susceptible to the changing +external influences. In certain species concealment is effected +by the use of adventitious objects, which are employed as a +covering. Examples of this <i>allocryptic</i> defence are found in the +tubes of the caddis worms (<i>Phryganea</i>), or the objects made use +of by crabs of the genera <i>Hyas</i>, <i>Stenorhynchus</i>, &c. Such +animals are concealed in any environment. If sedentary, like +the former example, they are covered up with local materials; +if wandering, like the latter, they have the instinct to reclothe. +Allocryptic methods may also be used for aggressive purposes, +as the ant-lion larva, almost buried in sand, or the large frog +<i>Ceratophrys</i>, which covers its back with earth when waiting for +its prey. Another form of allocryptic defence is found in the +use of the colour of the food in the digestive organs showing +through the transparent body, and in certain cases the adventitious +colour may be dissolved in the blood or secreted in superficial +cells of the body: thus certain insects make use of the +chlorophyll of their food (Poulton, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> liv. 417). +The most perfect cryptic powers are possessed by those animals +in which the individuals can change their colours into any tint +which would be appropriate to a normal environment. This +power is widely prevalent in fish, and also occurs in Amphibia +and Reptilia (the chameleon affording a well-known example). +Analogous powers exist in certain Crustacea and Cephalopoda. +All these rapid changes of colour are due to changes in shape +or position of superficial pigment cells controlled by the nervous +system. That the latter is itself stimulated by light through +the medium of the eye and optic nerve has been proved in many +cases. Animals with a short life-history passed in a single +environment, which, however, may be very different in the +case of different individuals, may have a different form of +<i>variable cryptic colouring</i>, namely, the power of adapting their +colour once for all (many pupae), or once or twice (many larvae). +In these cases the effect appears to be produced through the +nervous system, although the stimulus of light probably acts on +the skin and not through the eyes. Particoloured surfaces do not +produce particoloured pupae, probably because the antagonistic +stimuli neutralize each other in the central nervous system, +which then disposes the superficial colours so that a neutral or +intermediate effect is produced over the whole surface (Poulton, +<i>Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1892, p. 293). Cryptic colouring may +incidentally produce superficial resemblances between animals; +thus desert forms concealed in the same way may gain a likeness +to each other, and in the same way special resemblances, <i>e.g.</i> +to lichen, bark, grasses, pine-needles, &c., may sometimes lead +to a tolerably close similarity between the animals which are +thus concealed. Such likeness may be called <i>syncryptic</i> or +<i>common protective</i> (or <i>aggressive</i>) <i>resemblance</i>, and it is to be +distinguished from mimicry and common warning colours, in +which the likeness is not incidental, but an end in itself. Syncryptic +resemblances have much in common with those incidentally +caused by functional adaptation, such as the mole-like +forms produced in the burrowing Insectivora, Rodentia and +Marsupialia. Such likeness may be called <i>syntechnic resemblance</i>, +incidentally produced by dynamic similarity, just as syncryptic +resemblance is produced by static similarity.</p> + +<p><i>Use of Colour for Warning and Signalling, or Sematic Coloration.</i>—The +use of colour for the purpose of warning is the exact +opposite of the one which has been just described, its object +being to render the animal conspicuous to its enemies, so that it +can be easily seen, well remembered, and avoided in future. +Warning colours are associated with some quality or weapon +which renders the possessor unpleasant or dangerous, such as +unpalatability, an evil odour, a sting, the poison-fang, &c. The +object being to warn an enemy off, these colours are also called +<i>aposematic</i>. Recognition markings, on the other hand, are +<i>episematic</i>, assisting the individuals of the same species to keep +together when their safety depends upon numbers, or easily to +follow each other to a place of safety, the young and inexperienced +benefiting by the example of the older. Episematic characters +are far less common than aposematic, and these than cryptic; +although, as regards the latter comparison, the opposite impression +is generally produced from the very fact that concealment +is so successfully attained. Warning or aposematic +colours, together with the qualities they indicate, depend, as +a rule, for their very existence upon the abundance of palatable +food supplied by the animals with cryptic colouring. Unpalatability, +or even the possession of a sting, is not sufficient defence +unless there is enough food of another kind to be obtained at the +same time and place (Poulton, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1887, p. 191). +Hence insects with warning colours are not seen in temperate +countries except at the time when insect life as a whole is most +abundant; and in warmer countries, with well-marked wet and +dry seasons, it will probably be found that warning colours are +proportionately less developed in the latter. In many species +of African butterflies belonging to the genus <i>Junonia</i> (including +<i>Precis</i>) the wet-season broods are distinguished by the more or +less conspicuous under sides of the wings, those of the dry season +being highly cryptic. Warning colours are, like cryptic, assisted +by special adaptations of the body-form, and especially by movements +which assist to render the colour as conspicuous as possible. +On this account animals with warning colours generally move +or fly slowly, and it is the rule in butterflies that the warning +patterns are similar on both upper and under sides of the wings. +Many animals, when attacked or disturbed, “sham death” (as +it is commonly but wrongly described), falling motionless to the +ground. In the case of well-concealed animals this instinct gives +them a second chance of escape in the earth or among the leaves, +&c., when they have been once detected; animals with warning +colours are, on the other hand, enabled to assume a position in +which their characters are displayed to the full (J. Portschinsky, +<i>Lepidopterorum Rossiae Biologia</i>, St Petersburg, 1890, plate i. +figs. 16, 17). In both cases a definite attitude is assumed, which +is not that of death. Other warning characters exist in addition +to colouring: thus sound is made use of by the disturbed rattlesnake +and the Indian <i>Echis</i>, &c. Large birds, when attacked, +often adopt a threatening attitude, accompanied by a terrifying +sound. The cobra warns an intruder chiefly by attitude and the +dilation of the flattened neck, the effect being heightened in some +species by the “spectacles.” In such cases we often see the +combination of cryptic and sematic methods, the animal being +concealed until disturbed, when it instantly assumes an aposematic +attitude. The advantage to the animal itself is clear: a +poisonous snake gains nothing by killing an animal it cannot eat; +while the poison does not cause immediate death, and the enemy +would have time to injure or destroy the snake. In the case of +small unpalatable animals with warning colours the enemies +would only first become aware of the unpleasant quality by +tasting and often destroying their prey; but the species would +gain by the experience thus conveyed, even though the individual +might suffer. An insect-eating animal does not come into the +world with knowledge: it has to be educated by experience, and +warning colours enable this education as to what to avoid to +be gained by a small instead of a large waste of life. Furthermore, +great tenacity of life is usually possessed by animals with +warning colours. The tissues of aposematic insects generally +possess great elasticity and power of resistance, so that large +numbers of individuals can recover after very severe treatment.</p> + +<p>The brilliant warning colours of many caterpillars attracted +the attention of Darwin when he was thinking over his hypothesis +of sexual selection, and he wrote to A. R. Wallace on the +subject (C. Darwin, <i>Life and Letters</i>, London, 1887, iii. 93). +Wallace, in reply, suggested their interpretation as warning +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span> +colours, a suggestion since verified by experiment (<i>Proc. Ent. Soc. +Lond.</i>, 1867, p. lxxx; <i>Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1869, pp. 21 and +27). Although animals with warning colours are probably but +little attacked by the ordinary enemies of their class, they have +special enemies which keep the numbers down to the average. +Thus the cuckoo appears to be an insectivorous bird which will +freely devour conspicuously coloured unpalatable larvae. The +effect of the warning colours of caterpillars is often intensified +by gregarious habits. Another aposematic use of colours and +structures is to divert attention from the vital parts, and thus +give the animal attacked an extra chance of escape. The large, +conspicuous, easily torn wings of butterflies and moths act in +this way, as is found by the abundance of individuals which may +be captured with notches bitten symmetrically out of both wings +when they were in contact. The eye-spots and “tails” so +common on the hinder part of the hind wing, and the conspicuous +apex so frequently seen on the fore wing, probably have this +meaning. Their position corresponds to the parts which are most +offen found to be notched. In some cases (<i>e.g.</i> many <i>Lycaenidae</i>) +the “tail” and eye-spot combine to suggest the appearance of +a head with antennae at the posterior end of the butterfly, the +deception being aided by movements of the hind wings. The +flat-topped “tussocks” of hair on many caterpillars look like +conspicuous fleshy projections of the body, and they are held +prominently when the larva is attacked. If seized, the “tussock” +comes out, and the enemy is greatly inconvenienced by the +fine branched hairs. The tails of lizards, which easily break off, +are to be similarly explained, the attention of the pursuer being +probably still further diverted by the extremely active movements +of the amputated member. Certain crabs similarly throw +off their claws when attacked, and the claws continue to snap +most actively. The tail of the dormouse, which easily comes off, +and the extremely bushy tail of the squirrel, are probably of use +in the same manner. Animals with warning colours often tend +to resemble each other superficially. This fact was first pointed +out by H. W. Bates in his paper on the theory of mimicry (<i>Trans. +Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xxiii., 1862, p. 495). He showed that the conspicuous, +presumably unpalatable, tropical American butterflies, +belonging to very different groups, which are mimicked by others, +also tend to resemble each other, the likeness being often remarkably +exact. These resemblances were not explained by his theory +of mimicry, and he could only suppose that they had been +produced by the direct influence of a common environment. +The problem was solved in 1879 by Fritz Müller (see <i>Proc. Ent. +Soc. Lond.</i>, 1879, p. xx.), who suggested that life is saved by this +resemblance between warning colours, inasmuch as the education +of young inexperienced enemies is facilitated. Each species +which falls into a group with common warning (<i>synaposematic</i>) +colours contributes to save the lives of the other members. It +is sufficiently obvious that the amount of learning and remembering, +and consequently of injury and loss of life involved in the +process, are reduced when many species in one place possess the +same aposematic colouring, instead of each exhibiting a different +“danger-signal.” These resemblances are often described as +“Müllerian mimicry,” as distinguished from true or “Batesian +mimicry” described in the next section. Similar synaposematic +resemblances between the specially protected groups of +butterflies were afterwards shown to exist in tropical Asia, the +East Indian Islands and Polynesia by F. Moore (<i>Proc. Zool. +Soc.</i>, 1883, p. 201), and in Africa by E. B. Poulton (<i>Report Brit. +Assoc.</i>, 1897, p. 688). R. Meldola (<i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> +x., 1882, p. 417) first pointed out and explained in the same +manner the remarkable general uniformity of colour and pattern +which runs through so many species of each of the distasteful +groups of butterflies; while, still later, Poulton (<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, +1887, p. 191) similarly extended the interpretation to the synaposematic +resemblances between animals of all kinds in the +same country. Thus, for example, longitudinal or circular +bands of the same strongly contrasted colours are found in +species of many groups with distant affinities.</p> + +<p>Certain animals, especially the Crustacea, make use of the +special defence and warning colours of other animals. Thus +the English hermit-crab, <i>Pagurus Bernhardus</i>, commonly carries +the sea-anemone, <i>Sagartia parasitica</i>, on its shell; while another +English species, <i>Pagurus Prideauxii</i>, inhabits a shell which is +invariably clothed by the flattened <i>Adamsia palliata</i>.</p> + +<p>The white patch near the tail which is frequently seen in the +gregarious Ungulates, and is often rendered conspicuous by +adjacent black markings, probably assists the individuals in +keeping together; and appearances with probably the same +interpretation are found in many birds. The white upturned +tail of the rabbit is probably of use in enabling the individuals +to follow each other readily. The difference between a typical +aposematic character appealing to enemies, and episematic +intended for other individuals of the same species, is well seen +when we compare such examples as (1) the huge banner-like +white tail, conspicuously contrasted with the black or black and +white body, by which the slow-moving skunk warns enemies of its +power of emitting an intolerably offensive odour; (2) the small +upturned white tail of the rabbit, only seen when it is likely +to be of use and when the owner is moving, and, if pursued, very +rapidly moving, towards safety.</p> + +<p><i>Mimicry</i> (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mimicry</a></span>) or <i>Pseudo-sematic Colours</i>.—The +fact that animals with distant affinities may more or less closely +resemble each other was observed long before the existing explanation +was possible. Its recognition is implied in a number +of insect names with the termination -<i>formis</i>, usually given to +species of various orders which more or less closely resemble the +stinging Hymenoptera. The usefulness of the resemblance was +suggested in Kirby and Spence’s <i>Introduction to Entomology</i>, +London, 1817, ii. 223. H. W. Bates (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. +xxiii., 1862, p. 495) first proposed an explanation of mimicry +based on the theory of natural selection. He supposed that +every step in the formation and gradual improvement of the +likeness occurred in consequence of its usefulness in the struggle +for life. The subject is of additional interest, inasmuch as it +was one of the first attempts to apply the theory of natural +selection to a large class of phenomena up to that time well known +but unexplained. Numerous examples of mimicry among +tropical American butterflies were discussed by Bates in his +paper; and in 1866 A. R. Wallace extended the hypothesis to +the butterflies of the tropical East (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xxv., +1866, p. 19); Roland Trimen (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xxvi., 1870, +p. 497) to those of Africa in 1870. The term mimicry is used in +various senses. It is often extended, as indeed it was by Bates, +to include all the superficial resemblances between animals and +any part of their environment. Wallace, however, separated the +cryptic resemblances already described, and the majority of +naturalists have followed this convenient arrangement. In +cryptic resemblance an animal resembles some object of no +interest to its enemy (or prey), and in so doing is concealed; in +mimicry an animal resembles some other animal which is +specially disliked by its enemy, or some object which is specially +attractive to its prey, and in so doing becomes conspicuous. +Some naturalists have considered mimicry to include all superficial +likenesses between animals, but such a classification would +group together resemblances which have widely different uses. +(1) The resemblance of a mollusc to the coral on which it lives, +or an external parasite to the hair or skin of its host, would be +<i>procryptic</i>; (2) that between moths which resemble lichen, +<i>syncryptic</i>; (3) between distasteful insects, <i>synaposematic</i>; (4) +between the Insectivor mole and the Rodent mole-rat, <i>syntechnic</i>; +(5) the essential element in mimicry is that it is a +false warning (pseud-aposematic) or false recognition (pseud-episematic) +character. Some have considered that mimicry +indicates resemblance to a moving object; but apart from the +non-mimetic likenesses between animals classified above, there are +ordinary cryptic resemblances to drifting leaves, swaying bits +of twig, &c., while truly mimetic resemblances are often specially +adapted for the attitude of rest. Many use the term mimicry +to include synaposematic as well as pseudo-sematic resemblances, +calling the former “Müllerian,” the latter “Batesian,” mimicry. +The objection to this grouping is that it takes little account +of the deceptive element which is essential in mimicry. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span> +synaposematic colouring the warning is genuine, in pseud-aposematic +it is a sham. The term mimicry has led to much misunderstanding +from the fact that in ordinary speech it implies +deliberate imitation. The production of mimicry in an individual +animal has no more to do with consciousness or “taking thought” +than any of the other processes of growth. Protective mimicry +is here defined as an advantageous and superficial resemblance +of one animal to another, which latter is specially defended so +as to be disliked or feared by the majority of enemies of the +groups to which both belong—a resemblance which appeals to +the sense of sight, sometimes to that of hearing, and rarely to +smell, but does not extend to deep-seated characters except +when the superficial likeness is affected by them. <i>Mutatis +mutandis</i> this definition will apply to aggressive (pseud-episematic) +resemblance. The conditions under which mimicry +occurs have been stated by Wallace:—“(1) that the imitative +species occur in the same area and occupy the same station as +the imitated; (2) that the imitators are always the more defenceless; +(3) that the imitators are always less numerous in individuals; +(4) that the imitators differ from the bulk of their +allies; (5) that the imitation, however minute, is <i>external</i> and +<i>visible</i> only, never extending to internal characters or to such +as do not affect the external appearance.” It is obvious that +conditions 2 and 3 do not hold in the case of Müllerian mimicry. +Mimicry has been explained, independently of natural selection, +by the supposition that it is the common expression of the direct +action of common causes, such as climate, food, &c.; also by +the supposition of independent lines of evolution leading to the +same result without any selective action in consequence of +advantage in the struggle; also by the operation of sexual +selection.</p> + +<p>It is proposed, in conclusion, to give an account of the broad +aspects of mimicry, and attempt a brief discussion of the theories +of origin of each class of facts (see Poulton, <i>Linn. Soc. Journ. +Zool.</i>, 1898, p. 558). It will be found that in many cases the +argument here made use of applies equally to the origin of +cryptic and sematic colours. The relationship between these +classes has been explained: mimicry is, as Wallace has stated +(<i>Darwinism</i>, London, 1889), merely “an exceptional form of +protective resemblance. “Now, protective (cryptic) resemblance +cannot be explained on any of the lines suggested above, except +natural selection; even sexual selection fails, because cryptic +resemblance is especially common in the immature stages of +insect life. But it would be unreasonable to explain mimetic +resemblance by one set of principles and cryptic by another and +totally different set. Again, it may be plausible to explain the +mimicry of one butterfly for another on one of the suggested +lines, but the resemblance of a fly or moth to a wasp is by no +means so easy, and here selection would be generally conceded; +yet the appeal to antagonistic principles to explain such closely +related cases would only be justified by much direct evidence. +Furthermore, the mimetic resemblances between butterflies are +not haphazard, but the models almost invariably belong only to +certain sub-families, the <i>Danainae</i> and <i>Acraeinae</i> in all the +warmer parts of the world, and, in tropical America, the <i>Ithomiinae</i> +and <i>Heliconinae</i> as well. These groups have the characteristics +of aposematic species, and no theory but natural +selection explains their invariable occurrence as models wherever +they exist. It is impossible to suggest, except by natural +selection, any explanation of the fact that mimetic resemblances +are confined to changes which produce or strengthen a superficial +likeness. Very deep-seated changes are generally involved, +inasmuch as the appropriate instincts as to attitude, &c., are as +important as colour and marking. The same conclusion is +reached when we analyse the nature of mimetic resemblance +and realize how complex it really is, being made up of <i>colours</i>, +both pigmentary and structural, <i>pattern</i>, <i>form</i>, <i>attitude</i> and +<i>movement</i>. A plausible interpretation of colour may be wildly +improbable when applied to some other element, and there is +<i>no</i> explanation except natural selection which can explain all +these elements. The appeal to the direct action of local conditions +in common often breaks down upon the slightest investigation, +the difference in habits between mimic and model in the +same locality causing the most complete divergence in their +conditions of life. Thus many insects produced from burrowing +larvae mimic those whose larvae live in the open. Mimetic +resemblance is far commoner in the female than in the male, a +fact readily explicable by selection, as suggested by Wallace, for +the female is compelled to fly more slowly and to expose itself +while laying eggs, and hence a resemblance to the slow-flying +freely exposed models is especially advantageous. The facts that +mimetic species occur in the same locality, fly at the same time +of the year as their models, and are day-flying species even +though they may belong to nocturnal groups, are also more or +less difficult to explain except on the theory of natural selection, +and so also is the fact that mimetic resemblance is produced +in the most varied manner. A spider resembles its model, an +ant, by a modification of its body-form into a superficial resemblance, +and by holding one pair of legs to represent antennae; +certain bugs (Hemiptera) and beetles have also gained a shape +unusual in their respective groups, a shape which superficially +resembles an ant; a Locustid (<i>Myrmecophana</i>) has the shape +of an ant painted, as it were, on its body, all other parts resembling +the background and invisible; a Membracid (Homoptera) +is entirely unlike an ant, but is concealed by an ant-like shield. +When we further realize that in this and other examples of +mimicry “the likeness is almost always detailed and remarkable, +however it is attained, while the methods differ absolutely,” we +recognize that natural selection is the only possible explanation +hitherto suggested. In the cases of aggressive mimicry an animal +resembles some object which is attractive to its prey. Examples +are found in the flower-like species of <i>Mantis</i>, which attract the +insects on which they feed. Such cases are generally described +as possessing “alluring colours,” and are regarded as examples +of aggressive (anticryptic) resemblance, but their logical position +is here.</p> + +<p><i>Colours displayed in Courtship, Secondary Sexual Characters, +Epigamic Colours.</i>—Darwin suggested the explanation of these +appearances in his theory of <i>sexual selection</i> (<i>The Descent of Man</i>, +London, 1874). The rivalry of the males for the possession of +the females he believed to be decided by the preference of the +latter for those individuals with especially bright colours, highly +developed plumes, beautiful song, &c. Wallace does not accept +the theory, but believes that natural selection, either directly +or indirectly, accounts for all the facts. Probably the majority +of naturalists follow Darwin in this respect. The subject is most +difficult, and the interpretation of a great proportion of the +examples in a high degree uncertain, so that a very brief account +is here expedient. That selection of some kind has been operative +is indicated by the diversity of the elements into which the +effects can be analysed. The most complete set of observations +on epigamic display was made by George W. and Elizabeth +G. Peckham upon spiders of the family <i>Attidae</i> (<i>Nat. Hist. Soc. +of Wisconsin</i>, vol. i., 1889). These observations afforded the +authors “conclusive evidence that the females pay close attention +to the love-dances of the males, and also that they have +not only the power, but the will, to exercise a choice among the +suitors for their favour.” Epigamic characters are often concealed +except during courtship; they are found almost exclusively +in species which are diurnal or semi-diurnal in their habits, +and are excluded from those parts of the body which move too +rapidly to be seen. They are very commonly directly associated +with the nervous system; and in certain fish, and probably +in other animals, an analogous heightening of effect accompanies +nervous excitement other than sexual, such as that due to fighting +or feeding. Although there is epigamic display in species with +sexes alike, it is usually most marked in those with secondary +sexual characters specially developed in the male. These are +an exception to the rule in heredity, in that their appearance is +normally restricted to a single sex, although in many of the +higher animals they have been proved to be latent in the other, +and may appear after the essential organs of sex have been +removed or become functionless. This is also the case in the +Aculeate Hymenoptera when the reproductive organs have been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span> +destroyed by the parasite <i>Stylops</i>. J. T. Cunningham has argued +(<i>Sexual Dimorphism in the Animal Kingdom</i>, London, 1900) that +secondary sexual characters have been produced by direct +stimulation due to contests, &c., in the breeding period, and have +gradually become hereditary, a hypothesis involving the assumption +that acquired characters are transmitted. Wallace suggests +that they are in part to be explained as “recognition characters,” +in part as an indication of surplus vital activity in the male.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—The following works may also be consulted:—T. +Eimer, <i>Orthogenesis der Schmetterlinge</i> (Leipzig, 1898); E. B. +Poulton, <i>The Colours of Animals</i> (London, 1890); F. E. Beddard, +<i>Animal Coloration</i> (London, 1892); E. Haase, <i>Researches on Mimicry</i> +(translation, London, 1896); A. R. Wallace, <i>Natural Selection and +Tropical Nature</i> (London, 1895); <i>Darwinism</i> (London, 1897); A. H. +Thayer and G. H. Thayer, <i>Concealing-Coloration in the Animal +Kingdom</i> (New York, 1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. B. P.)</div> + +<p class="center1 sc">2. Chemistry</p> + +<p>The coloration of the <i>surface</i> of animals is caused either by +<i>pigments</i>, or by a certain <i>structure</i> of the surface by means of which +the light falling on it, or reflected through its superficial transparent +layers, undergoes diffraction or other optical change. +Or it may be the result of a combination of these two causes. +It plays an important part in the relationship of the animal to +its environment, in concealment, in mimicry, and so on; the +presence of a pigment in the integument may also serve a more +direct physiological purpose, such as a respiratory function. The +coloration of birds’ feathers, of the skin of many fishes, of many +insects, is partially at least due to structure and the action of the +peculiar pigmented cells known as “chromatophores” (which +W. Garstang defines as pigmented cells specialized for the +discharge of the chromatic function), and is much better marked +when these have for their background a “reflecting layer” such +as is provided by guanin, a substance closely related to uric acid. +Such a mechanism is seen to greatest advantage in fishes. Among +these, guanin may be present in a finely granular form, causing +the light falling on it to be scattered, thus producing a white +effect; or it may be present in a peculiar crystalline form, the +crystals being known as “iridocytes”; or in a layer of closely +apposed needles forming a silvery sheet or mirror. In the iris of +some fishes the golden red colour is produced by the light +reflected from such a layer of guanin needles having to pass +through a thin layer of a reddish pigment, known as a “lipochrome.” +Again, in some lepidopterous insects a white or a +yellow appearance is produced by the deposition of uric acid or +a nearly allied substance on the surface of the wings. In many +animals, but especially among invertebrates, colouring matters +or pigments play an important rôle in surface coloration; in some +cases such coloration may be of benefit to the animal, but in +others the integument simply serves as an organ for the excretion +of waste pigmentary substances. Pigments (1) may be of direct +physiological importance; (2) they may be excretory; or (3) +they may be introduced into the body of the animal with the +food.</p> + +<p>Of the many pigments which have been described up to the +present time, very few have been subjected to elementary +chemical analysis, owing to the great difficulties attending their +isolation. An extremely small amount of pigment will give rise +to a great amount of coloration, and the pigments are generally +accompanied by impurities of various kinds which cling to them +with great tenacity, so that when one has been thoroughly +cleansed very little of it remains for ultimate analysis. Most of +these substances have been detected by means of the spectroscope, +their absorption bands serving for their recognition, but mere +identity of spectrum does not necessarily mean chemical identity, +and a few chemical tests have also to be applied before a conclusion +can be drawn. The absorption bands are referred to +certain definite parts of the spectrum, such as the Fraunhofer +lines, or they may be given in wave-lengths. For this purpose +the readings of the spectroscope are reduced to wave-lengths by +means of interpolation curves; or if Zeiss’s microspectroscope +be used, the position of bands in wave-lengths (denoted by the +Greek letter λ) may be read directly.</p> + +<p>Haemoglobin, the red colouring matter of vertebrate +blood, C<span class="su">758</span>H<span class="su">1203</span>N<span class="su">195</span>S<span class="su">3</span>FeO<span class="su">218</span>, and its derivatives haematin, +C<span class="su">32</span>H<span class="su">30</span>N<span class="su">4</span>FeO<span class="su">3</span>, and haematoporphyrin, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">18</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, are colouring +matters about which we possess definite chemical knowledge, as +they have been isolated, purified and analysed. Most of the +bile pigments of mammals have likewise been isolated and +studied chemically, and all of these are fully described in the +text-books of physiology and physiological chemistry. Haemoglobin, +though physiologically of great importance in the respiratory +process of vertebrate animals, is yet seldom used for +surface pigmentation, except in the face of white races of man or +in other parts in monkeys, &c. In some worms the transparent +skin allows the haemoglobin of the blood to be seen through the +integument, and in certain fishes also the haemoglobin is visible +through the integument. It is a curious and noteworthy fact +that in some invertebrate animals in which no haemoglobin +occurs, we meet with its derivatives. Thus haematin is found in +the so-called bile of slugs, snails, the limpet and the crayfish. +In sea-anemones there is a pigment which yields some of the +decomposition-products of haemoglobin, and associated with +this is a green pigment apparently identical with biliverdin +(C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">18</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>), a green bile pigment. Again, haematoporphyrin +is found in the integuments of star-fishes and slugs, and occurs +in the “dorsal streak” of the earth-worm <i>Lumbricus terrestris</i>, and +perhaps in other species. Haematoporphyrin and biliverdin also +occur in the egg-shells of certain birds, but in this case they are +derived from haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is said to be found as +low down in the animal kingdom as the Echinoderms, <i>e.g.</i> in +<i>Ophiactis virens</i> and <i>Thyonella gemmata</i>. It also occurs in the +blood of <i>Planorbis corneus</i> and in the pharyngeal muscles of +other mollusca.</p> + +<p>A great number of other pigments have been described; for +example, in the muscles and tissues of animals, both vertebrate +and invertebrate, are the histohaematins, of which a special +muscle pigment, myohaematin, is one. In vertebrates the latter +is generally accompanied by haemoglobin, but in invertebrates—with +the exception of the pharyngeal muscles of the mollusca—it +occurs alone. Although closely related to haemoglobin or its +derivative haemochromogen, the histohaematins are yet totally +distinct, and they are found in animals where not a trace of +haemoglobin can be detected. Another interesting pigment is +turacin, which contains about 7% of nitrogen, found by Professor +A. H. Church in the feathers of the Cape lory and other +plantain-eaters, from which it can be extracted by water +containing a trace of ammonia. It has been isolated, purified +and analysed by Professor Church. From it may be obtained +turacoporphyrin, which is identical with haematoporphyrin, and +gives the band in the ultra-violet which J. L. Soret and subsequently +A. Gamgee have found to be characteristic of haemoglobin +and its compounds. Turacin itself gives a peculiar two-banded +spectrum, and contains about 7% of copper in its molecule. +Another copper-containing pigment is haemocyanin, which in the +oxidized state gives a blue colour to the blood of various Mollusca +and Arthropoda. Like haemoglobin, it acts as an oxygen-carrier +in respiration, but it takes no part in surface coloration.</p> + +<p>A class of pigments widely distributed among plants and +animals are the lipochromes. As their name denotes, they are +allied to fat and generally accompany it, being soluble in fat +solvents. They play an important part in surface coloration, +and may be greenish, yellow or red in colour. They contain +no nitrogen. As an example of a lipochrome which has been +isolated, crystallized and purified, we may mention carotin, +which has recently been found in green leaves. Chlorophyll, +which is so often associated with a lipochrome, has been found +in some Infusoria, and in <i>Hydra</i> and <i>Spongilla</i>, &c. In some +cases it is probably formed by the animal; in other cases it may +be due to symbiotic algae, while in the gastric gland of many +Mollusca, Crustacea and Echinodermata it is derived from +food-chlorophyll. Here it is known as entero-chlorophyll. +The black pigments which occur among both vertebrate and +invertebrate animals often have only one attribute in common, +viz. blackness, for among the discordant results of analysis one +thing is certain, viz. that the melanins from vertebrate animals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span> +are not identical with those from invertebrate animals. The +melanosis or blackening of insect blood, for instance, is due to +the oxidation of a chromogen, the pigment produced being +known as a uranidine. In some sponges a somewhat similar +pigment has been noticed. Other pigments have been described, +such as actiniochrome, echinochrome, pentacrinin, antedonin, +polyperythrin (which appears to be a haematoporphyrin), the +floridines, spongioporphyrin, &c., which need no mention here; +all these pigments can only be distinguished by means of the +spectroscope.</p> + +<p>Most of the pigments are preceded by colourless substances +known as “chromogens,” which by the action of the oxygen +of the air and by other agencies become changed into the corresponding +pigments. In some cases the pigments are built up +in the tissues of an animal, in others they appear to be derived +more or less directly from the food. Derivatives of chlorophyll +and lipochromes especially, seem to be taken up from the intestine, +probably by the agency of leucocytes, in which they may +occur in combination with, or dissolved by, fatty matters and +excreted by the integument. In worms especially, the skin +seems to excrete many effete substances, pigments included. +No direct connexion has been traced between the chlorophyll +eaten with the food and the haemoglobin of blood and muscle. +Attention may, however, be drawn to the work of Dr E. Schunck, +who has shown that a substance closely resembling haematoporphyrin +can be prepared from chlorophyll; this is known as +phylloporphyrin. Not only does the <i>visible</i> spectrum of this +substance resemble that of haematoporphyrin, but the <i>invisible</i> +ultra-violet also, as shown by C. A. Schunck.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The reader may refer to E. A. Schäfer’s <i>Text-Book of Physiology</i> +(1898) for A. Gamgee’s article “On Haemoglobin, and its Compounds”; +to the writer’s papers in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i> and <i>Proc. Roy. +Soc.</i> from 1881 onwards, and also <i>Quart. Journ. Micros. Science</i> and +<i>Journ. of Physiol.</i>; to C. F. W. Krukenberg’s <i>Vergleichende physiologische +Studien</i> from 1879 onwards, and to his <i>Vorträge</i>. Miss M. I. +Newbigin collected in <i>Colour in Nature</i> (1898) most of the recent +literature of this subject. Dr E. Schunck’s papers will be found +under the heading “Contribution to the Chemistry of Chlorophyll” +in <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> from 1885 onwards; and Mr C. A. Schunck’s +paper in <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. lxiii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. A. MacM.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLSTON, EDWARD<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1636-1721), English philanthropist, +the son of William Colston, a Bristol merchant of good position, +was born at Bristol on the 2nd of November 1636. He is generally +understood to have spent some years of his youth and manhood +as a factor in Spain, with which country his family was long +connected commercially, and whence, by means of a trade in +wines and oil, great part of his own vast fortune was to come. +On his return he seems to have settled in London, and to have +bent himself resolutely to the task of making money. In 1681, +the date of his father’s decease, he appears as a governor of +Christ’s hospital, to which noble foundation he afterwards gave +frequently and largely. In the same year he probably began to +take an active interest in the affairs of Bristol, where he is found +about this time embarked in a sugar refinery; and during the +remainder of his life he seems to have divided his attention pretty +equally between the city of his birth and that of his adoption. In +1682 he appears in the records of the great western port as advancing +a sum of £1800 to its needy corporation; in 1683 as +“a free burgess and <i>meire</i> (St Kitts) merchant” he was made a +member of the Merchant’s Hall; and in 1684 he was appointed +one of a committee for managing the affairs of Clifton. In 1685 +he again appears as the city’s creditor for about £2000, repayment +of which he is found insisting on in 1686. In 1689 he was chosen +auditor by the vestry at Mortlake, where he was residing in an +old house once the abode of Ireton and Cromwell. In 1691, on +St Michael’s Hill, Bristol, at a cost of £8000, he founded an almshouse +for the reception of 24 poor men and women, and endowed +with accommodation for “Six Saylors,” at a cost of £600, the +merchant’s almshouses in King Street. In 1696, at a cost of +£8000, he endowed a foundation for clothing and teaching 40 +boys (the books employed were to have in them “no tincture +of Whiggism”); and six years afterwards he expended a further +sum of £1500 in rebuilding the school-house. In 1708; at a cost +of £41,200, he built and endowed his great foundation on Saint +Augustine’s Back, for the instruction, clothing, maintaining +and apprenticing of 100 boys; and in time of scarcity, during +this and next year, he transmitted “by a private hand” some +£20,000 to the London committee. In 1710, after a poll of four +days, he was sent to parliament, to represent, on strictest Tory +principles, his native city of Bristol; and in 1713, after three +years of silent political life, he resigned this charge. He died +at Mortlake in 1721, having nearly completed his eighty-fifth +year; and was buried in All Saints’ church, Bristol.</p> + +<p>Colston, who was in the habit of bestowing large sums yearly +for the release of poor debtors and the relief of indigent age and +sickness, and who gave (1711) no less than £6000 to increase +Queen Anne’s Bounty Fund for the augmentation of small livings, +was always keenly interested in the organization and management +of his foundations; the rules and regulations were all +drawn up by his hand, and the minutest details of their constitution +and economy were dictated by him. A high churchman +and Tory, with a genuine intolerance of dissent and dissenters, +his name and example have served as excuses for the formation +of two political benevolent societies—the “Anchor” (founded +1769) and the “Dolphin” (founded 1749),—and also the +“Grateful” (founded 1758), whose rivalry has been perhaps +as instrumental in keeping their patron’s memory green as have +the splendid charities with which he enriched his native city +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bristol</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Garrard, <i>Edward Colston, the Philanthropist</i> (4to, Bristol, +1852); Pryce, <i>A Popular History of Bristol</i> (1861); Manchee, +<i>Bristol Charities</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLT, SAMUEL<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (1814-1862), American inventor, was born on +the 19th of July 1814 at Hartford, Connecticut, where his +father had a manufactory of silks and woollens. At the age of +ten he left school for the factory, and at fourteen, then being +in a boarding school at Amherst, Massachusetts, he made a +runaway voyage to India, during which (in 1829) he constructed +a wooden model, still existing, of what was afterwards to be the +revolver (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pistol</a></span>). On his return he learned chemistry +from his father’s bleaching and dyeing manager, and under the +assumed name “Dr Coult” travelled over the United States +and Canada lecturing on that science. The profits of two years +of this work enabled him to continue his researches and experiments. +In 1835, having perfected a six-barrelled rotating +breech, he visited Europe, and patented his inventions in London +and Paris, securing the American right on his return; and the +same year he founded at Paterson, New Jersey, the Patent +Arms Company, for the manufacture of his revolvers only. +As early as 1837 revolvers were successfully used by United +States troops, under Lieut.-Colonel William S. Harney, in +fighting against the Seminole Indians in Florida. Colt’s scheme, +however, did not succeed; the arms were not generally appreciated; +and in 1842 the company became insolvent. No revolvers +were made for five years, and none were to be had when General +Zachary Taylor wrote for a supply from the seat of war in +Mexico. In 1847 the United States government ordered 1000 +from the inventor; but before these could be produced he had +to construct a new model, for a pistol of the company’s make +could nowhere be found. This commission was the beginning +of an immense business. The little armoury at Whitneyville +(New Haven, Connecticut), where the order for Mexico was +executed, was soon exchanged for larger workshops at Hartford. +These in their turn gave place (1852) to the enormous factory +of the Colt’s Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing Company, doubled +in 1861, on the banks of the Connecticut river, within the city +limits of Hartford, where so many millions of revolvers with +all their appendages have been manufactured. Thence was +sent, for the Russian and English governments, to Tula and +Enfield, the whole of the elaborate machinery devised by Colt +for the manufacture of his pistols. Colt introduced and patented +a number of improvements in his revolver, and also invented +a submarine battery for harbour defence. He died at Hartford +on the 10th of January 1862.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLT’S-FOOT<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span>, the popular name of a small herb, <i>Tussilago +Farfara</i>, a member of the natural order Compositae, which is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span> +common in Britain in damp, heavy soils. It has a stout branching +underground stem, which sends up in March and April scapes +about 6 in. high, each bearing a head of bright yellow flowers, +the male in the centre surrounded by a much larger number of +female. The flowers are succeeded by the fruits, which bear a +soft snow-white woolly pappus. The leaves, which appear +later, are broadly cordate with an angular or lobed outline, and +are covered on the under-face with a dense white felt. The +botanical name, <i>Tussilago</i>, recalls its use as a medicine for +cough (<i>tussis</i>). The leaves are smoked in cases of asthma.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUGO,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cobego</span>, either of two species of the zoological +genus <i>Galeopithecus</i>. These animals live in the forests of the +Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippine Islands, +where they feed chiefly on leaves, and probably also on insects. +In size they may be compared with cats; the long slender +limbs are connected by a broad fold of skin extending outwards +from the sides of the neck and body, the fingers and toes are +webbed, and the hind-limbs joined by an outer membrane as in +bats. Their habits are nocturnal, and during the daytime they +cling to the trunks or limbs of trees head downwards in a state +of repose. With the approach of night their season of activity +commences, when they may be occasionally seen gliding from +tree to tree supported on their cutaneous parachute, and they +have been noticed as capable of traversing in this way a space +of 70 yds. with a descent of only about one in five. Europeans +in the East know these animals as “flying lemurs.” (See +<span class="sc">Galeopithecus</span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBA, SAINT<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (Irish, <i>Colum</i>), Irish saint, was born on the +7th of December 521, in all probability at Gartan in Co. Donegal. +His father Feidlimid was a member of the reigning family in +Ireland and was closely allied to that of Dalriada (Argyll). His +mother Eithne was of Leinster extraction and was descended +from an illustrious provincial king. To these powerful connexions +as much as to his piety and ability, he owed the immense influence +he possessed. Later lives state that the saint was also called +Crimthann (fox), and Reeves suggests that he may have had +two names, the one baptismal, the other secular. He was +afterwards known as Columkille, or Columba of the Church, +to distinguish him from others of the same name. During his +early years the Irish Church was reformed by Gildas and Finian +of Clonard, and numerous monasteries were founded which +made Ireland renowned as a centre of learning. Columba +himself studied under two of the most distinguished Irishmen +of his day, Finian of Moville (at the head of Strangford Lough) +and Finian of Clonard. Almost as a matter of course, under +such circumstances, he embraced the monastic life. He was +ordained deacon while at Moville, and afterwards, when about +thirty years of age, was raised to the priesthood. During his +residence in Ireland he founded, in addition to a number of +churches, two famous monasteries, one named Daire Calgaich +(Derry) on the banks of Lough Foyle, the other Dair-magh +(Durrow) in King’s county.</p> + +<p>In 563 he left his native land, accompanied by twelve disciples, +and went on a mission to northern Britain, perhaps on the +invitation of his kinsman Conall, king of Dalriada. Irish +accounts represent Columba as undertaking this mission in +consequence of the censure expressed against him by the clergy +after the battle of Cooldrevny; but this is probably a fabrication. +The saint’s labours in Scotland must be regarded as a manifestation +of the same spirit of missionary enterprise with which so +many of his countrymen were imbued. Columba established +himself on the island of Hy or Iona, where he erected a church +and a monastery. About the year 565 he applied himself to +the task of converting the heathen kingdom of the northern +Picts. Crossing over to the mainland he proceeded to the +residence, on the banks of the Ness, of Brude, king of the Picts. +By his preaching, his holy life, and, as his earliest biographers +assert, by the performance of miracles, he converted the king +and many of his subjects. The precise details, except in a few +cases, are unknown, or obscured by exaggeration and fiction; +but it is certain that the whole of northern Scotland was converted +by the labours of Columba, and his disciples and the +religious instruction of the people provided for by the erection +of numerous monasteries. The monastery of Iona was reverenced +as the mother house of all these foundations, and its abbots were +obeyed as the chief ecclesiastical rulers of the whole nation of +the northern Picts. There were then neither dioceses nor parishes +in Ireland and Celtic Scotland; and by the Columbite rule the +bishops themselves, although they ordained the clergy, were +subject to the jurisdiction of the abbots of Iona, who, like the +founder of the order, were only presbyters. In matters of +ritual they agreed with the Western Church on the continent, +save in a few particulars such as the precise time of keeping +Easter and manner of tonsure.</p> + +<p>Columba was honoured by his countrymen, the Scots of +Britain and Ireland, as much as by his Pictish converts, and +in his character of chief ecclesiastical ruler he gave formal +benediction and inauguration to Aidan, the successor of Conall, +as king of the Scots. He accompanied that prince to Ireland +in 575, and took a leading part in a council held at Drumceat +in Ulster, which determined once and for all the position of the +ruler of Dalriada with regard to the king of Ireland. The last +years of Columba’s life appear to have been mainly spent at +Iona. There he was already revered as a saint, and whatever +credit may be given to some portions of the narratives of his +biographers, there can be no doubt as to the wonderful influence +which he exercised, as to the holiness of his life, and as to the +love which he uniformly manifested to God and to his neighbour.</p> + +<p>In the summer of 597 he knew that his end was approaching. +On Saturday the 8th of June he was able, with the help of one +of his monks, to ascend a little hill above the monastery and +to give it his farewell blessing. Returning to his cell he continued +a labour in which he had been engaged, the transcription of the +Psalter. Having finished the verse of the 34th Psalm where it +is written, “They who seek the Lord shall want no manner of +thing that is good,” he said, “Here I must stop:—what follows +let Baithen write”; indicating, as was believed, his wish that +his cousin Baithen should succeed him as abbot. He was +present at evening in the church, and when the midnight bell +sounded for the nocturnal office early on Sunday morning he +again went thither unsupported, but sank down before the altar +and passed away as in a gentle sleep.</p> + +<p>Several Irish poems are ascribed to Columba, but they are +manifestly compositions of a later age. Three Latin hymns may, +however, be attributed to the saint with some degree of certainty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The original materials for a life of St Columba are unusually full. +The earliest biography was written by one of his successors, Cuminius, +who became abbot of Iona in 657. Much more important is the +enlargement of that work by Adamnan, who became abbot of Iona +in 679. These narratives are supplemented by the brief but most +valuable notices given by the Venerable Bede. See W. Reeves, +<i>Life of St Columba, written by Adamnan</i> (Dublin, 1857); W. F. +Skene, <i>Celtic Scotland</i>, vol. ii. “Church and Culture” (Edinburgh, +1877).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. Q.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBAN<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (543-615), Irish saint and writer, was born in +Leinster in 543, and was educated in the monastery of Bangor, +Co. Down. About the year 585 he left Ireland together with +twelve other monks, and established himself in the Vosges, among +the ruins of an ancient fortification called Anagrates, the present +Anegray in the department of Haute-Saône. His enemies accused +him before a synod of French bishops (602) for keeping Easter +according to the old British and now unorthodox way, and a more +powerful conspiracy was organized against him at the court +of Burgundy for boldly rebuking the crimes of King Theuderich +II. and the queen-mother Brunhilda. He was banished and +forcibly removed from his monastery, and with St Gall and +others of the monks he withdrew into Switzerland, where he +preached with no great success to the Suebi and Alamanni. +Being again compelled to flee, he retired to Italy, and founded +the monastery of Bobbio in the Apennines, where he remained +till his death, which took place on the 21st of November 615. +His writings, which include some Latin poems, prove him a man +of learning, and he appears to have been acquainted not only +with the Latin classics, but also with Greek, and even Hebrew.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The collected edition of St Columban’s writings was published by +Patrick Fleming in his <i>Collectanea sacra Hiberni</i> (Louvain, 1667), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span> +and reproduced by Migne, p. 4, vol. lxxxvi. (Paris, 1844). See +further, Wright’s <i>Biographia Literaria</i>. Columban’s <i>Regula Coenobitalis +cum Poenitenliali</i> is to be found in the <i>Codex Regularum</i> +(Paris, 1638). A complete bibliography is given in U. Chevallier, +<i>Répertoire des sources hist</i>. (Bio. Bibliogr.), vol. i. 990 (Paris, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBANI, PLACIDO,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> Italian architectural designer, who +worked chiefly in England in the latter part of the 18th century. +He belonged to the school of the Adams and Pergolesi, and like +them frequently designed the enrichments of furniture. He +was a prolific producer of chimney-pieces, which are often +mistaken for Adam work, of moulded friezes, and painted plaques +for cabinets and the like. There can be no question that the +English furniture designers of the end of the 18th century, and +especially the Adams, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, owed much +to his graceful, flowing and classical conceptions, although they +are often inferior to those of Pergolesi. His books are still a +valuable store-house of sketches for internal architectural +decoration. His principal works are:—<i>Vases and Tripods</i> +(1770); <i>A New Book of Ornaments, containing a variety of elegant +designs for Modern Panels, commonly executed in Stucco, Wood +or Painting, and used in decorating Principal Rooms</i> (1775); +<i>A variety of Capitals, Friezes and Corniches, and how to increase +and decrease them, still retaining their proportions</i> (1776). He +also assisted John Crunden in the production of <i>The Chimneypiece +Makers’ Daily Assistant</i> (1776).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBARIUM<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (Lat. <i>columba</i>, a dove), a pigeon-house. +The term is applied in architecture to those sepulchral chambers +in and near Rome, the walls of which were sunk with small niches +(<i>columbaria</i>) to receive the cinerary urns. Vitruvius (iv. 2) +employs the term to signify the holes made in a wall to receive +the ends of the timbers of a floor or roof.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA,<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Boone county, +Missouri, U.S.A., situated in the central part of the state, about +145 m. (by rail) W.N.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4000; (1900) +5651 (1916 negroes); (1910) 9662. Columbia is served by the +Wabash and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. It is +primarily an educational centre, is a market for grain and farm +products, and has grain elevators, a packing house, a shoe +factory and brick works. Columbia is the seat of the University +of Missouri, a coeducational state institution, established in +1839 and opened in 1841; it received no direct financial support +from the state until 1867, and its founding was due to the self-sacrifice +of the people of the county. It is now liberally supported +by the state; in 1908 its annual income was about $650,000. +In 1908 the university had (at Columbia) 200 instructors and +2419 students, including 680 women; included in its library is +the collection of the State Historical Society. The School of +Mines of the university is at Rolla, Mo.; all other departments +are at Columbia. A normal department was established in 1867 +and opened in 1868; and women were admitted to it in 1869. +The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts became a department +of the university in 1870. The law department was opened +in 1872, the medical in 1873, and the engineering in 1877. The +graduate department was established in 1896, and in 1908 a +department of journalism was organized. On the university +campus in the quadrangle is the monument of grey granite +erected over the grave of Thomas Jefferson, designed after his +own plans, and bearing the famous inscription written by him. +It was given to the university by descendants of Jefferson when +Congress appropriated money for the monument now standing +over his grave. Near the city is the farm of the agricultural +college and the experiment station. At Columbia, also, are the +Parker Memorial hospital, the Teachers College high school, +the University Military Academy, the Columbia Business +College, Christian College (Disciples) for women, established in +1851, its charter being the first granted by Missouri for the +collegiate education of Protestant women; the Bible College +of the Disciples of Christ in Missouri; and Stephens College +(under Baptist control) for women, established in 1856. The +municipality owns the water-works and the electric lighting +plant. Columbia was first settled about 1821.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> a borough of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Susquehanna river (here crossed +by a long steel bridge), opposite Wrightsville and about 81 m. +W. by N. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 10,599; (1900) 12,316, +of whom 772 were foreign-born; (1910) 11,454. It is served +by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington, +the Philadelphia & Reading, and the Northern Central railways, +and by interurban electric railways. The river here is about +a mile wide, and a considerable portion of the borough is built +on the slope of a hill which rises gently from the river-bank and +overlooks beautiful scenery. The Pennsylvania railway has +repair shops here, and among Columbia’s manufactures are silk +goods, embroidery and laces, iron and steel pipe, engines, +laundry machinery, brushes, stoves, iron toys, umbrellas, flour, +lumber and wagons; the city is also a busy shipping and trading +centre. Columbia was first settled, by Quakers, in 1726; it +was laid out as a town in 1787; and in 1814 it was incorporated. +In 1790 it was one of several places considered in Congress for +a permanent site of the national capital.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> the capital city of South Carolina, U.S.A., and +the county-seat of Richland county, on the E. bank of the +Congaree river, a short distance below the confluence of the +Saluda and the Broad rivers, about 130 m. N.W. of Charleston. +Pop. (1890) 15,353; (19O0) 21,108, of whom 9858 were negroes; +and (1910) 26,319. It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the +Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Columbia, Newberry +& Laurens railways. Columbia is picturesquely situated on the +level top of a bluff overlooking the Congaree, which falls about +36 ft. in passing by, but is navigable for the remainder of its +course. The surrounding country is devoted chiefly to cotton +culture. The state house, United States government building and +city hall are fine structures. Some of the new business houses +are ten or more storeys in height. The state penitentiary and +the state insane asylum are located here, and Columbia is an +important educational centre, being the seat of the university +of South Carolina, the Columbia College for women (Methodist +Episcopal South, 1854), the College for women (Presbyterian, +1890), and the Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1828); and +the Allen University (African Methodist Episcopal; coeducational, +1880), and the Benedict College (Baptist) for negroes. +The University of South Carolina, organized in 1801 and opened +in 1805, was known as South Carolina College in 1805-1863, +1878-1887 and 1891-1906, and as the university of South +Carolina in 1866-1877, 1888-1891 and after 1906; in 1907-1908 +it had departments of arts, science, pedagogy and law, an enrolment +of 285 students, and a faculty of 25 instructors. By +means of a canal abundant water power is furnished by the +Congaree, and the city has some of the largest cotton mills in the +world; it has, besides, foundries and machine shops and manufactories +of fertilizers and hosiery. The manufactures under +the factory system were valued at $3,133,903 in 1900 and at +$4,676,944 in 1905—a gain, greater than that of any other city +in the state, of 49.2% in five years. In the neighbourhood are +several valuable granite quarries. The municipality owns and +operates its water-works.</p> + +<p>While much of the site was still a forest the legislature, in +1786, chose it for the new capital. It was laid out in the same +year, and in 1790 the legislature first met here. Until 1805, +when it was incorporated as a village, Columbia was under the +direct government of the legislature; in 1854 it was chartered +as a city. On the morning of the 17th of February 1865 General +W. T. Sherman, on his march through the Carolinas, entered +Columbia, and on the ensuing night a fire broke out which was +not extinguished until most of the city was destroyed. The +responsibility for this fire was charged by the Confederates upon +the Federals and by the Federals upon the Confederates.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Maury county, +Tennessee, U.S.A., situated on the Duck river, in the central part +of the state, 46 m. S. of Nashville. Pop. (1890) 5370; (1900) +6052 (2716 negroes); (1910) 5754. Columbia is served by the +Louisville & Nashville, and the Nashville, Chattanooga & St +Louis railways. It is the seat of the Columbia Institute for girls +(under Protestant Episcopal control), founded in 1836, and of +the Columbia Military Academy. Columbia is in a fine farming +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span> +region; is engaged extensively in the mining and shipping +of phosphates; has an important trade in live-stock, especially +mules; manufactures cotton, lumber, flour, bricks, pumps and +woollen goods; and has marble and stone works. Columbia +was settled about 1807 and was incorporated in 1822. During +the Civil War it was the base from which General N. B. Forrest +operated in 1862-1863, and was alternately occupied by Confederate +and Federal forces during General Hood’s Nashville +campaign (November-December 1864).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA RIVER,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> a stream of the north-west United States +and south-west Canada, about 939 m. in length, draining a basin +of about 250,000 sq. m., of which 38,395 are in British Columbia; +some 105,000 sq. m. belong to the valley of the Snake and +11,700 to that of the Willamette. The source of the river is +partly in the Yellowstone country, partly near the Titon peaks, +and partly in the pine-clad mountains of British Columbia. +Some American geographers regard the head as that of the Clark +Fork, but it is most generally taken to be in British Columbia +about 80 m. north of the United States line. From this point +it runs some 150 m. to the north-west to the “Big Bend,” and +then in a great curve southward, enclosing the superb ranges of +the Selkirks, crossing the international line near the boundary +of Washington and Idaho, where it is joined by the Pend Oreille +river, or Clark Fork, already referred to. This latter river rises +in the Rocky Mountains west of Helena, Montana, falls with +a heavy slope (1323 ft. in 167 m.) to its confluence with the Flathead, +flows through Lake Pend Oreille (27 m.) in northern Idaho, +and runs in deep canyons (falling 900 ft. in 200 m.) to its junction +with the Columbia, which from this point continues almost due +south for more than 106 m. Here the Columbia is joined by the +Spokane, a large river with heavy fall, and enters the “Great +Plain of the Columbia,” an area of some 22,000 sq. m., resembling +the “parks” of Colorado, shut in on all sides by mountains: +the Moses range to the north, the Bitter Root and Cœur d’Alène +on the east, the Blue on the south, and the Cascades on the west. +The soil is rich, yielding great harvests of grain, and the mountains +rich in minerals as yet only slightly prospected. After +breaking into this basin the river turns sharply to the west and +skirts the northern mountain barrier for about 105 m. Where +it strikes the confines of the Cascades, it is joined by the +Okanogan, turns due south in the second Big Bend, and flows +about 200 m. to its junction with the Snake near Wallula.</p> + +<p>After the confluence of the Snake with the Columbia the +greater river turns west toward the Pacific. Throughout its +course to this point it may be said that the Columbia has no +flood plain; everywhere it is cutting its bed; almost everywhere +it is characterized by canyons, although above the Spokane +the valley is much broken down and there is considerable +timbered and fertile bench land. Below the Spokane the +canyon becomes more steep and rugged. From the mouth of +the Okanogan to Priests Rapids extends a superb canyon, with +precipitous walls of black columnar basalt 1000 to 3000 ft. in +height. The finest portion is below the Rock Island Rapids. +In this part of its course, along the Cascade range in the Great +Plain and at its passage of the range westward, rapids and +cascades particularly obstruct the imperfectly opened bed. +In the lower Columbia, navigation is first interrupted 160 m. +from the mouth at the Cascades, a narrow gorge across the +Cascade range 4.5 m. long, where the river falls 24 ft. in 2500; +the rapids are evaded by a canal constructed (1878-1896) by the +Federal government, and by a portage railway (1890-1891). +Fifty-three miles above this are the Dalles, a series of falls, +rapids and rock obstructions extending some 12 m. and ending +at Celilo, 115m. below Wallula, with a fall of 20 ft. There are +also impediments just below the mouth of the Snake; others +in the lower course of this river below Riparia; and almost +continuous obstructions in the Columbia above Priests Rapids. +The commerce of the Columbia is very important, especially +that from Portland, Vancouver, Astoria, and other outlets of +the Willamette valley and the lower Columbia. The grain +region of the Great Plain, the bottom-land orchards and grain +field on the plateaus of the Snake, have not since 1880 been +dependent upon the water navigation for freighting, but in their +interest costly attempts have been made to open the river below +the Snake uninterruptedly to commerce.</p> + +<p>The Columbia is one of the greatest salmon streams of the +world (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oregon</a></span>). The tonnage of deep-sea vessels in and out +over the bar at the river’s mouth from 1890-1899 was 9,423,637 +tons. From 1872-1899 the United States government expended +for improvement of the Snake and Columbia $6,925,649. The +mouth of the latter is the only deep-water harbour between +San Francisco and Cape Flattery (700 m.), and the only fresh +water harbour of the Pacific coast. To facilitate its entrance, +which, owing to bars, tides, winds, and the great discharge of +the river, has always been difficult, a great jetty has been constructed +(1885-1895, later enlarged) to scour the bars. It was +about 4.5 miles long, and in 1903 work was begun to make it 2.5 +miles longer. The tides are perceptible 150 m. above the mouth +(mean tide at Astoria <i>c.</i> 6.2 ft.), the average tidal flow at the +mouth being about 1,000,000 cub. ft. per second; while the +fresh water outflow is from 90,000 to 300,000 cub. ft. according +to the stage of water, and as high as 1,000,000 cub. ft. in time +of flood. Improvements were undertaken by the Federal government +and a state commission in 1902 in order to secure a 25-ft. +channel from Portland to the sea.</p> + +<p>In 1792, and possibly also in 1788, the river mouth was entered +by Captain Robert Gray (1755-1806) of Boston, Mass., who +named the river after his own vessel, “Columbia,” which name +has wholly supplanted the earlier name, “Oregon.” In 1804-1805 +the river was explored by Meriwether Lewis and William +Clark. Upon these discoveries the United States primarily +based its claim to the territory now embraced in the states of +Oregon and Washington.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> one of the oldest and most important +of the higher institutions of learning in the United +States, located for the most part on Morningside Heights, +New York city. It embraces Columbia College, founded as +King’s College in 1754; a school of medicine (the College of +Physicians and Surgeons) founded in 1767, in West 59th Street; +a school of law, founded in 1858; schools of applied science, +including a school of mines and schools of chemistry and engineering, +separately organized in 1896; a school of architecture, +organized in 1881; graduate schools of political science, organized +in 1880, philosophy, organized in 1890, and pure science, +organized in 1892; and a school of journalism; closely affiliated +with it are the College of Pharmacy, founded in 1829, in West +68th Street; Teachers’ College, founded in 1886, as the New +York College for the Training of Teachers, and essentially a +part of the university since 1899; and Barnard College (for +women) founded in 1889, and essentially a part of the university +since 1900. Reciprocal relations also exist between the university +and both the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant +Episcopal Church and the Union Theological Seminary, thus +practically adding to the university a theological department. +Columbia also nominates the American professors who lecture at +German universities by the reciprocal arrangement made in 1905, +the German professors lecturing in America being nominated by +the Prussian ministry of education. Women are now admitted to +all the university courses except those in law, medicine, technology +and architecture. Since 1900 a summer session has been +held for six weeks and attended largely by teachers. Teachers +and others, under the direction of the Teachers’ College, are +afforded an opportunity to pursue courses <i>in absentia</i> and so meet +some of the requirements for an academic degree or a teacher’s +diploma. All students of good ability are enabled to complete +the requirements for the bachelor’s degree together with any one +of the professional degrees by six years of study at the university. +Several courses of lectures designed especially for the public—notably +the Hewitt Lectures, in co-operation with Cooper Union—are +delivered at different places in the city and at the university.</p> + +<p>In 1908 there were in Columbia University in all departments +609 instructors and 4096 students; of these 420 were in Barnard +College, 850 were in the Teachers’ College, and 229 were in the +College of Pharmacy. The numerous University publications +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span> +include works embodying the results of original research published +by the University Press; “Studies” published in the +form of a series by each of several departments, various periodicals +edited by some members of the faculty, such as the +<i>Columbia University Quarterly</i>, the <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, +and the <i>School of Mines Quarterly</i>; and several papers or +periodicals published by the students, among which are the +<i>Columbia Spectator</i>, a daily paper, the <i>Columbia Law Review</i>, +the <i>Columbia Monthly</i> and the <i>Columbia Jester</i>.</p> + +<p>With two or three unimportant exceptions the buildings of +the university on Morningside Heights have been erected since +1896. They include, besides the several department buildings, +a library building, a university hall (with gymnasium), Earl +Hall (for social purposes), St Paul’s chapel (dedicated in 1907), +two residence halls for men, and one for women. The library +contains about 450,000 volumes exclusive of duplicates and +unbound pamphlets. The highest authority in the government +of the institution is vested in a board of twenty-four trustees, +vacancies in which are filled by co-optation; but the immediate +educational interests are directed largely by the members of the +university council, which is composed of the president of the +university, the dean and one other representative from the +faculty of each school. The institution is maintained by the +proceeds from an endowment fund exceeding $15,000,000, by +tuition fees ranging, according to the school, from $150 to $250 +for each student, and by occasional gifts for particular objects.</p> + +<p>The charter (1754) providing for the establishment of King’s +College was so free from narrow sectarianism as to name ministers +of five different denominations for ex-officio governors, and the +purpose of the institution as set forth by its first president, +Dr Samuel Johnson (1696-1772) was about as broad as that +now realised. In 1756 the erection of the first building was +begun at the lower end of Manhattan Island, near the Hudson, +and the institution prospered from the beginning. From 1776 +to 1784, during the War of Independence, the exercises of the +college were suspended and the library and apparatus were +stored in the New York city hall. In 1784 the name was changed +to Columbia College, and an act of the legislature was passed for +creating a state university, of which Columbia was to be the +basis. But the plan was not a success, and three years later, in +1787, the act was repealed and the administration of Columbia +was entrusted to a board of trustees of which the present board +is a successor. In 1857 there was an extensive re-organization +by which the scope of the institution was much enlarged, and at +the same time it was removed to a new site on Madison Avenue +between 49th and 50th Streets. From 1890 to 1895 much +centralization in its administration was effected, in 1896 the +name of Columbia University was adopted, and in the autumn +of 1897 the old site and buildings were again abandoned for new, +this time on Morningside Heights.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>A History of Columbia University</i>, by members of the faculty +(New York, 1904); and J. B. Pine, “King’s College, now Columbia +University,” in <i>Historic New York</i> (New York, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBINE<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (Ital. <i>columbina</i>, from <i>columba</i>, a dove), in +pantomime (<i>q.v.</i>) the fairy-like dancer who is courted by +Harlequin. In the medieval Italian popular comedy she was +Harlequin’s daughter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBINE,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> an erect perennial herbaceous plant known +botanically as <i>Aquilegia vulgaris</i> (natural order Ranunculaceae). +In Med. Latin it was known as <i>Columbina sc. herba</i>, the dove’s +plant. The slender stem bears delicate, long-stalked, deeply +divided leaves with blunt segments, and a loose panicle of +handsome drooping blue or white flowers, which are characterized +by having all the five petals spurred. The plant occurs wild +in woods and thickets in England and Ireland, and flowers in +early summer. It is well known in cultivation as a favourite +spring flower, in many varieties, some of which have red +flowers.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:117px; height:209px" src="images/img740.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Crystal of Columbite.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBITE,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> a rare mineral consisting of iron niobate, +FeNb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>, in which the iron and niobium are replaced by varying +amounts of manganese and tantalum respectively, the general +formula being (Fe, Mn) (Nb, Ta)<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>. It was in this mineral that +Charles Hatchett discovered, in 1801, the element niobium, +which he himself called columbium after the country (Columbia +or America) whence came the specimen in the British Museum +collection which he examined. The species has also been +called niobite. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, +and the black, opaque crystals are often very +brilliant with a sub-metallic lustre. Twinned +crystals are not uncommon, and there is a distinct +cleavage parallel to the face marked <i>b</i> in the +figure. Hardness 6; specific gravity 5.3. With +increasing amount of tantalum the specific +gravity increases up to 7.3, and members at this +end of the series are known as tantalite (FeTa<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>). +Specimens in which the iron is largely replaced +by manganese are known as manganocolumbite +or manganotantalite, according as they contain +more niobium or more tantalum. Columbite +occurs as crystals and compact masses in granite +and pegmatite at Rabenstein in Lower Bavaria, +the Ilmen Mountains in the Urals, Haddam in Connecticut, and +several other localities in the United States; also in the cryolite +of Greenland. Tantalite is from Finland, and it has recently +been found in some abundance in the deposits of cassiterite in +the tin-field of Greenbushes in the Blackwood district, Western +Australia.</p> + +<p>Dimorphous with columbite and tantalite are the tetragonal +minerals tapiolite (= skogbölite) and mossite, so that the four +form an isodimorphous group with the general formula +(Fe, Mn) (Nb, Ta)<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>. Mossite is from a pegmatite vein near +Moss in Norway, and tapiolite is from Finland. All these +minerals contain tin in small amount.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIUM,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Niobium</span> (symbol Cb or Nb, atomic weight +94), one of the metallic elements of the nitrogen group, first +detected in 1801 by C. Hatchett in a specimen of columbite +(niobite) from Massachusetts (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1802, 49). It is +usually found associated with tantalum, the chief minerals +containing these two elements being tantalite, columbite, +fergusonite and yttrotantalite; it is also a constituent of +pyrochlor, euxenite and samarskite. Columbium compounds are +usually prepared by fusing columbite with an excess of acid +potassium sulphate, boiling out the fused mass with much water, +and removing tin and tungsten from the residue by digestion +with ammonium sulphide, any iron present being simultaneously +converted into ferrous sulphide. The residue is washed, extracted +by dilute hydrochloric acid, and again well washed with +boiling water. It is then dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and +heated in order to expel silicon fluoride; finally the columbium, +tantalum and titanium fluorides are separated by the different +solubilities of their double fluorides (C. Marignac, <i>Ann. chim. +et phys.</i> 1866 [4], 8, p. 63; 1868, 13, p. 28; see also W. Gibbs, +<i>Jahresb.</i> 1864, p. 685; R. D. Hall and E. F. Smith, <i>Proc. Amer. +Philos. Soc.</i> 1905, 44, p. 177).</p> + +<p>The metal was first obtained by C. W. Blomstrand (<i>Journ. +prak. Chem.</i> 1866, 97, p. 37) by reducing the chloride with hydrogen; +it has more recently been prepared by H. Moissan by reducing +the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace (the product +obtained always contains from 2-3% of combined carbon), and +by H. Goldschmidt and C. Vautin (<i>Journ. Soc. Chem. Industry</i>, +1898, 19, p. 543) by reducing the oxide with aluminium powder. +As obtained by the reduction of the chloride, it is a steel grey +powder of specific gravity 7.06. It burns on heating in air; and +is scarcely attacked by hydrochloric or nitric acids, or by <i>aqua +regia</i>; it is soluble in warm concentrated sulphuric acid.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Columbium hydride</i>, CbH, is obtained as a greyish metallic +powder, when the double fluoride, CbF<span class="su">5</span>, 2KF, is reduced with sodium. +It burns when heated in air, and is soluble in warm concentrated +sulphuric acid. Three oxides of columbium are certainly known, +namely the <i>dioxide</i>, Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, the <i>tetroxide</i>, Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, and the <i>pentoxide</i>, +Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, whilst a fourth oxide, <i>columbium trioxide</i>, Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, has been +described by E. F. Smith and P. Maas (<i>Zeit. f. anorg. Chem.</i> 1894, +7, p. 97). <i>Columbium dioxide</i>, Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, is formed when dry potassium +columbium oxyfluoride is reduced by sodium (H. Rose, <i>Pogg. Ann.</i> +1858, 104, p. 312). It burns readily in air, and is converted into the +pentoxide when fused with acid potassium sulphate. <i>Columbium</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span> +<i>tetroxide</i>, Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span> is obtained as a black powder when the pentoxide +is heated to a high temperature in a current of hydrogen. It is unattacked +by acids. <i>Columbium pentoxide</i> (columbic acid), Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, +is obtained from columbite, after the removal of tantalum (see +above). The mother liquors are concentrated, and the double salt +of composition 2KF·CbOF<span class="su">3</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, which separates, is decomposed +by sulphuric acid, or by continued boiling with water (C. Marignac; +see also G. Krüss and L. F. Nilson, <i>Ber.</i> 1887, 20, p. 1676). It is a +white amorphous infusible powder, which when strongly heated in +sulphuretted hydrogen, yields an oxysulphide. Several hydrated +forms are known, yielding salts known as <i>columbates</i>. A <i>percolumbic +acid</i>, HCbO<span class="su">4</span>·nH<span class="su">2</span>O, has been prepared by P. Melikoff and L. Pissarjewsky +(<i>Zeit. f. anorg. Chem.</i> 1899, 20, p. 341), as a yellow amorphous +powder by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on the potassium salt, +which is formed when columbic acid is fused in a silver crucible with +eight times its weight of caustic potash (<i>loc. cit.</i>). Salts of the acid +H<span class="su">3</span>CbO<span class="su">8</span> have been described by C. W. Balke and E. F. Smith (<i>Jour. +Amer. Chem. Soc.</i> 1908, 30, p. 1637).</p> + +<p><i>Columbium trichloride</i>, CbCl<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained in needles or crystalline +crusts, when the vapour of the pentachloride is slowly passed +through a red-hot tube. When heated in a current of carbon dioxide +it forms the oxychloride CbOCl<span class="su">3</span>, and carbon monoxide. <i>Columbium +pentachloride</i>, CbCl<span class="su">5</span>, is obtained in yellow needles when a mixture +of the pentoxide and sugar charcoal is heated in a current of air-free +chlorine. It melts at 194° C. (H. Deville) and boils at 240.5° C. +It is decomposed by water, and dissolves in hydrochloric acid. +<i>Columbium oxychloride</i>, CbOCl<span class="su">3</span>, is formed when carbon tetrachloride, +and columbic acid are heated together at 440° C.: 3CCl<span class="su">4</span> + Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span> = +2CbOCl<span class="su">3</span> + 3COCl<span class="su">2</span>, and also by distilling the pentachloride, in a current +of carbon dioxide, over ignited columbic acid. It forms a white silky +mass which volatilizes at about 400° C. It deliquesces in moist air, and +is decomposed violently by water. <i>Columbium pentafluoride</i>, CbF<span class="su">5</span>, +is obtained when the pentoxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid. +It is only known in solution; evaporation of the solution yields the +pentoxide. The <i>oxyfluoride</i>, CbOF<span class="su">3</span>, results when a mixture of the +pentoxide and fluorspar is heated in a current of hydrochloric acid. +It forms many double salts with other metallic fluorides.</p> + +<p><i>Columbium oxysulphide</i>, CbOS<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained as a dark bronze +coloured powder when the pentoxide is heated to a white heat in a +current of carbon bisulphide vapour; or by gently heating the +oxychloride in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It burns when +heated in air, forming the pentoxide and sulphur dioxide.</p> + +<p><i>Columbium nitride</i>, Cb<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">5</span> (?), is formed when dry ammonia gas is +passed into an ethereal solution of the chloride. A heavy white +precipitate, consisting of ammonium chloride and columbium +nitride, is thrown down, and the ammonium chloride is removed by +washing it out with hot water, when the columbium nitride remains +as an amorphous residue (Hall and Smith, <i>loc. cit.</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Potassium fluoxy percolumbate</i>, K<span class="su">2</span>CbO<span class="su">2</span>F<span class="su">5</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, is prepared by +dissolving potassium columbium oxyfluoride in a 3% solution of +hydrogen peroxide. The solution turns yellow in colour, and, when +saturated, deposits a pasty mass of crystals. The salt separates +from solutions containing hydrofluoric acid in large plates, which +are greenish yellow in colour.</p> + +<p>The atomic weight was determined by C. Marignac (<i>Ann. chim. et +phys.</i> 1866 (4), 8, p. 16) to be 94 from the analysis of potassium +columbium oxyfluoride, and the same value has been obtained by +T. W. Richards (<i>Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.</i> 1898, 20, p. 543).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> [in Spanish <span class="sc">Cristobal Colón</span>] +(c. 1446, or perhaps rather 1451,-1506) was the eldest son of +Domenico Colombo and Suzanna Fontanarossa, and was born at +Genoa either about 1446 or in 1451, the exact date being uncertain. +His father was a wool-comber, of some small means, +who lived till 1498. According to the life of Columbus by his +son Ferdinand (a statement supported by Las Casas), young +Christopher was sent to the university of Pavia, where he +devoted himself to astronomy, geometry and cosmography. +Yet, according to the admiral’s own statement, he became a +sailor at fourteen. Evidently this statement, however, cannot +mean the abandonment of all other employment, for in 1470, +1472, and 1473 we find him engaged in trade at Genoa, following +the family business of weaving, and (in 1473) residing at the +neighbouring Savona. In 1474-1475 he appears to have visited +Chios, where he may have resided some time, returning to +Genoa perhaps early in 1476. Thence he seems to have again +set out on a voyage in the summer of 1476, perhaps bound for +England; on the 13th of August 1476, the four Genoese vessels +he accompanied were attacked off Cape St Vincent by a privateer, +one Guillaume de Casenove, surnamed Coullon or Colombo +(“Columbus”); two of the four ships escaped, with Christopher, +to Lisbon. In December 1476, the latter resumed their voyage +to England, probably carrying with them Columbus, who, after +a short stay in England, claims to have made a voyage in the +northern seas, and even to have visited Iceland about February +1477. This last pretension is gravely disputed, but it is perhaps +not to be rejected, and we may also trace the Genoese about this +time at Bristol, at Galway, and probably among the islands west +and north of Scotland. Soon after this he returned to Portugal, +where (probably in 1478) he married a lady of some rank, Felipa +Moñiz de Perestrello, daughter of Bartholomew Perestrello, a +captain in the service of Prince Henry the Navigator, and one of +the early colonists and first governor of Porto Santo. Felipa was +also a cousin of the archbishop of Lisbon at this time (1478).</p> + +<p>About 1479 Columbus visited Porto Santo, here as in Portugal +probably employing his time in making maps and charts for a +livelihood, while he pored over the logs and papers of his deceased +father-in-law, and talked with old seamen of their voyages, and +of the mystery of the western seas. About this time, too, if +not earlier, he seems to have arrived at the conclusion that much +of the world remained undiscovered, and step by step conceived +that design of reaching Asia by sailing west which was to result +<span class="sidenote">Idea of western passage to Asia.</span> +in the discovery of America. In 1474 he is said to +have corresponded with Paolo Toscanelli, the Florentine +physician and cosmographer, and to have received +from him valuable suggestions, both by map and +letter, for such a Western enterprise. (The whole of this incident +has been disputed by some recent critics.) He had perhaps +already begun his studies in a number of works, especially the +<i>Book</i> of Marco Polo and the <i>Imago Mundi</i> of Pierre d’Ailly, by +which his cosmographical and geographical conceptions were +largely moulded. His views, as finally developed and presented +to the courts of Portugal and Spain, were supported by three +principal lines of argument, derived from natural reasons, from +the theories of geographers, and from the reports and traditions +of mariners. He believed the world to be a sphere; he underestimated +its size; he overestimated the size of the Asiatic +continent. And the farther that continent extended towards +the east, the nearer it came towards Spain. Nor were these +theories the only supports of his idea. Martin Vicente, a Portuguese +pilot, was said to have found, 400 leagues to the westward +of Cape St Vincent, and after a westerly gale of many days’ +duration, a piece of strange wood, wrought, but not with iron; +Pedro Correa, Columbus’s own brother-in-law, was said to have +seen another such waif at Porto Santo, with great canes capable +of holding four quarts of wine between joint and joint, and to +have heard of two men being washed up at Flores “very broad-faced, +and differing in aspect from Christians.” West of Europe, +now and then, men fancied there hove in sight the mysterious +islands of St Brandan, of Brazil, of Antillia or of the Seven +Cities. In his northern journey, too, some vague and formless +traditions may have reached the explorer’s ear of the voyages +of Leif Ericson and Thorfinn Karlsefne, and of the coasts of +Markland and Vinland. All were hints and rumours to bid the +bold mariner sail towards the setting sun, and this he at length +determined to do.</p> + +<p>The concurrence of some state or sovereign, however, was +necessary for the success of this design. Columbus, on the +accession of John II. of Portugal, seems to have +entered the service of this country, to have accompanied +<span class="sidenote">Quest of a patron.</span> +Diego d’Azambuja to the Gold Coast, and to +have taken part in the construction of the famous fort of St +George at El Mina (1481-1482). On his return from this expedition, +he submitted to King John the scheme he had now +matured for reaching Asia by a western route across the ocean. +The king was deeply interested in the rival scheme (of an eastern +or south-eastern route round Africa to India) which had so long +held the field, which had been initiated by the Genoese in 1291, +and which had been revived, for Portugal, by Prince Henry +the Navigator; but he listened to the Genoese, and referred +him to a committee of council for geographical affairs. The +council’s report was adverse; but the king, who was yet inclined +to favour the theory of Columbus, assented to the suggestion +of the bishop of Ceuta that the plan should be carried out in +secret and without its author’s knowledge. A caravel was +despatched; but it returned after a brief absence, the sailors +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span> +having lost heart, and refused to venture farther. Upon discovering +this treachery, Columbus left Lisbon for Spain (1484), +taking with him his son Diego, the only issue of his marriage +with Felipa Moñiz, who was by this time dead. He departed +secretly;—according to some writers, to give the slip to King +John; according to others, to escape his creditors.</p> + +<p>Columbus next betook himself to the south of Spain, and +while meditating an appeal to the king of France, opened his +plans to the count (from 1491, duke) of Medina Celi. The +latter gave him great encouragement, entertained him for two +years, and even determined to furnish him with three or four +caravels, to carry out his great design. Finally, however, +being deterred by the consideration that the enterprise was +too vast for a subject, he turned his guest from the determination +he had come to of making application at the court of France, +by writing on his behalf to Queen Isabella; and Columbus +repaired to the court at Cordova at her bidding (1486).</p> + +<p>It was an ill moment for the navigator’s fortune. Castile +and Leon were in the thick of that struggle which resulted in +the final conquest of the Granada Moors; and neither Ferdinand +nor Isabella had time as yet to give due consideration to Columbus’ +proposals. The adventurer was indeed kindly received; +he was handed over to the care of Alonso de Quintanilla, whom +he speedily converted into an enthusiastic supporter of his +theory. He made many other friends, and among them Beatriz +Enriquez, the mother of his second son Fernando. But the +committee, presided over by the queen’s confessor, Fray Hernando +de Talavera, which had been appointed to consider the +new project, reported that it was vain and impracticable.</p> + +<p>From Cordova Columbus followed the court to Salamanca, +having already been introduced by Quintanilla to the notice +of the grand cardinal, Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, “the third +king of Spain”; the latter had befriended and supported the +Genoese, and apparently arranged the first interview between +him and Queen Isabella. At Salamanca prolonged discussions +took place upon the questions now raised; the Dominicans +of San Esteban entertained Columbus during the conferences +(1486-1487). In 1487 Columbus, who had been following the +court from place to place (billeted in towns as an officer of the +sovereigns, and gratified from time to time with sums of money +towards his expenses), was present at the siege of Malaga. In +1488 he was invited by the king of Portugal, his “especial +friend,” to return to that country, and was assured of protection +against arrest or proceedings of any kind (March 20): he had +probably made fresh overtures to King John shortly before; +and in the autumn of 1488 we find him in Lisbon, conferring +with his brother Bartholomew and laying plans for the future. +We have no record of the final negotiations of Columbus with +the Portuguese government, but they clearly did not issue in +anything definite, for Christopher now returned to Spain (though +not till he had witnessed the return of Bartholomew Diaz from +the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and his reception by +King John), while Bartholomew proceeded to England with a +mission to interest King Henry VII. in the Columbian schemes. +If the London enterprise was unsuccessful (as indeed it proved), +it was settled that Bartholomew should carry the same invitation +to the French court. He did so; and here he remained till +summoned to Spain in 1493. Meantime Christopher, unable +throughout 1490 to get a hearing at the Spanish court, was in +1491 again referred to a <i>junta</i>, presided over by Cardinal Mendoza; +but this <i>junta</i>, to Columbus’ dismay, once more rejected his +proposals; the Spanish sovereigns merely promised him that +when the Granada war was over, they would reconsider what +he had laid before them.</p> + +<p>Columbus was now in despair. He at once betook himself +to Huelva, a little maritime town in Andalusia, north-west of +Cadiz, with the intention of taking ship for France. He halted, +however, at the monastery of La Rabida, near Huelva, and +still nearer Palos, where he seems to have made lasting friendships +on his first arrival in Spain in January 1485, where he +especially enlisted the support of Juan Perez, the guardian, who +invited him to take up his quarters in the monastery, and +introduced him to Garcia Fernandez, a physician and student +of geography. Juan Perez had been the queen’s confessor; +he now wrote to her in urgent terms, and was summoned to her +presence; and money was sent to Columbus to bring him once +more to court. He reached Granada in time to witness the +surrender of the city (January 2, 1492), and negotiations were +resumed. Columbus believed in his mission, and stood out +for high terms; he asked for the rank of admiral at once +(“Admiral of the Ocean” in all those islands, seas, and continents +that he might discover), the vice-royalty of all he should discover, +and a tenth of the precious metals discovered within his admiralty. +These conditions were rejected, and the negotiations were again +interrupted. An interview with Mendoza appears to have +followed; but nothing came of it, and before the close of January +1492, Columbus actually set out for France. At length, however, +on the entreaty of the Queen’s confidante, the Marquesa de +Moya, of Luis de Santangel, receiver of the ecclesiastical revenues +of the crown of Aragon, and of other courtiers, Isabella was +induced to determine on the expedition. A messenger was sent +after Columbus, and overtook him near a bridge called “Pinos,” +6 m. from Granada. He returned to the camp at Santa Fé; +and on the 17th of April 1492, the agreement between him and +their Catholic majesties was signed and sealed.</p> + +<p>As his aims included not only the discovery of Cipangu or +Japan, but also the opening up of intercourse with the grand +khan of Cathay, he received a royal letter of introduction to +the latter. The town of Palos was ordered to find him two ships, +and these were soon placed at his disposal. But no crews could +be got together, in spite of the indemnity offered to criminals +and “broken men” who would serve on the expedition; and +had not Juan Perez succeeded in interesting in the cause the +Palos “magnates” Martin Alonso Pinzon and Vicente Yañez +Pinzon, Columbus’ departure had been long delayed. At last, +however, men, ships and stores were ready. The expedition +consisted of the “Santa Maria,” a decked ship of 100 tons with +a crew of 52 men, commanded by the admiral in person; and +of two caravels; the “Pinta” of 50 tons, with 18 men, under +Martin Pinzon; and the “Nina,” of 40 tons, with 18 men, +under his brother Vicente Yañez, afterwards (1499) the first to +cross the line in the American Atlantic.</p> + + + + + +<p>The adventurers numbered 88-souls; and on Friday, the 3rd +of August 1492, at eight in the morning, the little fleet weighed +anchor, and stood for the Canary Islands. An abstract +of the admiral’s diary made by Las Casas is yet +<span class="sidenote">First voyage.</span> +extant; and from it many particulars may be gleaned +concerning this first voyage. Three days after the ships had set +sail the “Pinta” lost her rudder; the admiral was in some +alarm, but comforted himself with the reflection that Martin +Pinzon was energetic and ready-witted; they had, however, +to put in at Teneriffe, to refit the caravel. On the 6th of +September they weighed anchor once more with all haste, +Columbus having been informed that three Portuguese caravels +were on the look-out to intercept him. On the 13th of September +the westerly variations of the magnetic needle were for the first +time observed; on the 15th a meteor fell into the sea at four or +five leagues distance; soon after they arrived at those vast +plains of seaweed called the Sargasso Sea; while all the time, +writes the admiral, they had most temperate breezes, the sweetness +of the mornings being especially delightful, the weather +like an Andalusian April, and only the song of the nightingale +wanting. On the 17th the men began to murmur; they were +frightened by the strange phenomena of the variation of the +compass, but the explanation Columbus gave restored their +tranquillity. On the 18th they saw many birds, and a great +ridge of low-lying cloud; and they expected to see land. On +the 20th they saw boobies and other birds, and were sure the +land must be near. In this, however, they were disappointed; +and thenceforth Columbus, who was keeping all the while a +double reckoning, one for the crew and one for himself, had great +difficulty in restraining the evil-disposed from the excesses +they meditated. On the 25th Martin Alonso Pinzon raised the +cry of land, but it proved false, as did the rumour to the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span> +effect on the 7th of October, from the “Niña.” But on the +11th the “Pinta” fished up a cane, a pole, a stick which appeared +to have been wrought with iron, and a board, while the “Niña” +sighted a branch covered with berries; “and with these signs +all of them breathed and were glad.” At ten o’clock on that +<span class="sidenote">America discovered.</span> +night Columbus himself perceived and pointed out +a light ahead, and at two in the morning of Friday, +the 12th of October 1492, Rodrigo de Triana, a sailor +aboard the “Niña,” announced the appearance of what proved +to be the New World. The land sighted was an island, called by +the Indians Guanahani, and named by Columbus San Salvador. +It is generally identified with Watling Island.</p> + +<p>The same morning Columbus landed, richly clad, and bearing +the royal banner of Spain. He was accompanied by the brothers +Pinzon, bearing banners of the Green Cross (a device of the +admiral’s), and by great part of the crew. When they all had +“given thanks to God, kneeling upon the shore, and kissed the +ground with tears of joy, for the great mercy received,” the +admiral named the island, and took solemn possession of it for +their Catholic majesties of Castile and Leon. At the same time +such of the crews as had shown themselves doubtful and mutinous +sought his pardon weeping, and prostrated themselves at his feet.</p> + +<p>Into the remaining detail of this voyage, of highest interest +as it is, it is impossible to go further. It will be enough to say +that it resulted in the discovery of the islands of Santa Maria +de la Concepcion (Rum Cay), Fernandina (Long Island), Isabella +(Crooked Island), Cuba or <i>Juana</i> (named by Columbus in honour +of the young prince of Spain), and Hispaniola, Haiti, or San +Domingo. Off the last of these the “Santa Maria” went +aground, owing to the carelessness of the steersman. No lives +were lost, but the ship had to be unloaded and abandoned; and +Columbus, who was anxious to return to Europe with the news +of his achievement, resolved to plant a colony on the island, to +build a fort out of the material of the stranded hulk, and to leave +the crew. The fort was called La Navidad; 44 Europeans were +placed in charge. On the 4th of January 1493 Columbus, who +had lost sight of Martin Pinzon, set sail alone in the “Niña” +for the east; and two days afterwards the “Pinta” joined her +sister-ship. A storm, however, separated the vessels, and it +was not until the 18th of February that Columbus reached the +island of Santa Maria in the Azores. Here he was threatened +with capture by the Portuguese governor, who could not for +some time be brought to recognize his commission. On the +24th of February, however, he was allowed to proceed, and +on the 4th of March the “Niña” dropped anchor off Lisbon. +The king of Portugal received the admiral with the highest +honours. On the 13th of March the “Niña” put out from the +Tagus, and two days afterwards, Friday, the 15th of March, +she reached Palos.</p> + +<p>The court was at Barcelona; and thither, after despatching +a letter announcing his arrival, Columbus proceeded in person. +He entered the city in a sort of triumphal procession, was received +by their majesties in full court, and, seated in their presence, +related the story of his wanderings, exhibiting the “rich and +strange” spoils of the new-found lands,—the gold, the cotton, +the parrots, the curious arms, the mysterious plants, the unknown +birds and beasts, and the Indians he had brought with +him for baptism. All his honours and privileges were confirmed +to him; the title of Don was conferred on himself and his +brothers; he rode at the king’s bridle; he was served and saluted +as a grandee of Spain. A new and magnificent scutcheon was +also blazoned for him (4th May 1493), whereon the royal castle +and lion of Castile and Leon were combined with the five anchors +of his own coat of arms. Nor were their Catholic highnesses +less busy on their own account than on that of their servant. +On the 3rd and 4th of May Alexander VI. granted bulls confirming +to the crowns of Castile and Leon all the lands discovered, +or to be discovered, west of a line of demarcation drawn 100 +leagues west of the Azores, on the same terms as those on which +the Portuguese held their colonies along the African coast. A +new expedition was got in readiness with all possible despatch, +to secure and extend the discoveries already made.</p> + +<p>After several delays the fleet weighed anchor on the 24th of +September 1493 and steered westwards. It consisted of three +great carracks (galleons) and fourteen caravels (light +frigates), having on board over 1500 men, besides the +<span class="sidenote">Second voyage.</span> +animals and materials necessary for colonization. +Twelve missionaries accompanied the expedition, under the +orders of Bernardo Buil or Boil, a Benedictine; Columbus had +been already directed (29th May 1493) to endeavour by all means +in his power to Christianize the inhabitants of the islands, to +make them presents, and to “honour them much”, while all +under him were commanded to treat them “well and lovingly,” +under pain of severe punishment. On the 13th of October the +ships, which had put in at the Canaries, left Ferro; and on +Sunday, the 3rd of November, after a single storm, “by the +goodness of God and the wise management of the admiral” an +island was sighted to the west, which was named Dominica. +Northwards from this the isles of Marigalante and Guadalupe +were next discovered and named; while on the north-western +course to La Navidad those of Montserrat, Antigua, San Martin, +Santa Cruz and the Virgin Islands were sighted, and the island +now called Porto Rico was touched at, hurriedly explored, and +named San Juan Bautista. On the 22nd of November Columbus +came in sight of Hispaniola, and sailing westward to La Navidad, +found the fort burned and the colony dispersed. He decided +on building a second fort, and coasting on 30 m. east of Monte +Cristi, he pitched on a spot where he founded the city of Isabella.</p> + +<p>The climate proved unhealthy; the colonists were greedy of +gold, impatient of control, proud, ignorant and mutinous; and +Columbus, whose inclination drew him westward, was doubtless +glad to escape the worry and anxiety of his post, and to avail +himself of the instructions of his sovereigns as to further discoveries. +On the 2nd of February 1494 he sent home, by +Antonio de Torres, that despatch to their Catholic highnesses +by which he may be said to have founded the West Indian slave +trade. He established the mining camp of San Tomaso in the +gold country of Central Hispaniola; and on the 24th of April +1494, having nominated a council of regency under his brother +Diego, and appointed Pedro Margarit his captain-general, he +again put to sea. After following the southern shore of Cuba +for some days, he steered southwards, and discovered (May 14th) +the island of Jamaica, which he named Santiago. He then +resumed his exploration of the Cuban coast, threaded his way +through a labyrinth of islets which he named the Garden of the +Queen (Jardin de la Reyna), and, after coasting westwards for +many days, became convinced that he had discovered continental +land. He therefore caused Perez de Luna, the notary, to draw +up a document to this effect (12th of June 1494), which was +afterwards taken round and signed (the admiral’s steward +witnessing) by the officers, men and boys of his three caravels, +the “Niña,” the “Cordera,” and the “San Juan.” He then +stood to the south-east, and sighted the island of Evangelista +(now Isla de los Pinos), revisited Jamaica, coasted the south of +Hispaniola, and on the 24th of September touched at and named +the island of La Mona, in the channel between Hispaniola and +Porto Rico. Thence he had intended to sail eastwards and +complete the survey of the Caribbean Archipelago; but he +was exhausted by the terrible tear and wear of mind and body +he had undergone (he says himself that on this expedition he +was three-and-thirty days almost without sleep), and on the day +following his departure from La Mona he fell into a lethargy, +that deprived him of sense and memory, and had well-nigh +proved fatal to life. At last, on the 29th of September, the little +fleet dropped anchor off Isabella, and in his new city the admiral +lay sick for five months.</p> + +<p>The colony was in a sad plight. Every one was discontented, +and many were sick, for the climate was unhealthy and there +was nothing to eat. Margarit and Boil had deserted the settlement +and fled to Spain, but ere his departure the former, in his +capacity of captain-general, had done much to outrage and +alienate the Indians. The strongest measures were necessary +to undo this mischief, and, backed by his brother Bartholomew, +Columbus proceeded to reduce the natives under Spanish sway. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span> +Alonso de Ojeda succeeded by a brilliant <i>coup de main</i> in capturing +the cacique Caonabo, and the rest submitted. Five ship-loads +of Indians were sent off to Seville (24th June 1495) to be sold as +slaves; and a tribute was imposed upon their fellows, which +must be looked upon as the origin of that system of <i>repartimientos</i> +or <i>encomiendas</i> which was afterwards to work such +mischief among the conquered. In October 1495 Juan Aguado +arrived at Isabella, with a royal commission to report on the +state of the colony; here he took up the position of a judge +of Columbus’s government; and much recrimination followed. +Columbus decided to return home; he appointed his brother +Bartholomew <i>adelantado</i> of the island; and on the 10th of March +1496 he quitted Hispaniola in the “Niña.” The vessel, after +a protracted and perilous voyage, reached Cadiz on the 11th of +June 1496, where the admiral landed, wearing the habit of a +Franciscan. He was cordially received by his sovereigns, and +a new fleet of eight vessels was put at his disposal. By royal +patent, moreover, a tract of land in Hispaniola, of 50 leagues by +20, was offered to him, with the title of duke or marquis (which he +declined); for three years he was to receive an eighth of the +gross and a tenth of the net profits on each voyage; the right +of creating a <i>mayorazgo</i> or perpetual entail of titles and estates +was granted him; and his two sons were received into Isabella’s +service as pages.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, however, the preparing of the fleet proceeded +slowly, and it was not till the 30th of May 1498 that he set +sail with his main fleet of six ships—two caravels had +already been sent on ahead. From San Lucar he +<span class="sidenote">Third voyage.</span> +steered for Porto Santo, Madeira, and Gomera, +despatching three vessels direct from the Canaries to Hispaniola. +He next proceeded to the Cape Verde Islands, which he quitted +on the 5th of July. On the 31st of the same month, being +greatly in need of water, and fearing that no land lay westwards +as he had hoped, Columbus had turned his ship’s head north, +when Alonzo Perez of Huelva saw land about 15 leagues to the +south-west. It was crowned with three hill-tops, from which +circumstance, and in fulfilment of a vow made at starting (to +name the first land discovered on this voyage in honour of the +Trinity), the admiral named it Trinidad, which name it yet bears. +On Wednesday, the 1st of August, he beheld for the first time +the mainland of South America, the continent he had sought +so long. It seemed to him but an insignificant island, and he +called it Isla Santa. Sailing westwards, next day he saw the +Gulf of Paria (named by him the Golfo de la Ballena), into which +he was borne at immense risk on the ridge of waters formed by +the meeting of the sea and the Orinoco estuaries. For several +days he coasted the continent, esteeming as islands the various +projections he saw, and naming them accordingly, nor was it +until he had realized the volume poured out by the Orinoco +that he began to perceive the truly continental character of his +last discovery. He was now anxious to revisit the colony in +Hispaniola; and after sighting Tobago, Grenada, and Margarita, +made for San Domingo, the new capital of the settlement, +where he arrived on the 31st of August. He found that affairs +had not prospered well in his absence. By the vigour and +activity of the <i>adelantado</i>, the whole island had been reduced +under Spanish sway; but under the leadership of Francisco +Roldan the malcontent settlers had risen in revolt, and Columbus +had to compromise matters in order to restore peace. Roldan +retained his office of chief justice; and such of his followers as +chose to remain in the island were gratified with <i>repartimientos</i> +of land and labour.</p> + +<p>At home, however, court favour had turned against Columbus. +For one thing, the ex-colonists were often bitterly hostile to the +admiral and his brothers. They were wont to parade their +grievances in the very court-yards of the Alhambra, to surround +the king when he came forth with complaints and reclamations, +to insult the discoverer’s young sons with shouts and jeers. +Again, the queen began to criticize severely the shipment of +Indians from the new-found lands to Spain. And once more, +there was no doubt that the colony itself, whatever the cause, +had not prospered so well as might have been desired. Ferdinand’s +support of Columbus had never been very hearty, and +his inclination to supersede the Genoese now prevailed over the +queen’s friendliness. Accordingly, on the 21st of May 1499, +Francisco Bobadilla was appointed governor and judge of +Hispaniola during royal pleasure, with authority to examine +into all complaints. Columbus was ordered to deliver up his +charge to Bobadilla, and to accept whatever the latter should +deliver him from the sovereigns. Bobadilla left Spain in June +1500, and landed in Hispaniola on the 23rd of August.</p> + +<p>Columbus, meanwhile, had restored such tranquillity as was +possible in his government. With Roldan’s help he had beaten +off an attempt on the island of the adventurer Ojeda, his old +lieutenant; the Indians were being collected into villages and +Christianized. Gold-mining was profitably pursued; in three +years, he calculated, the royal revenues might be raised to an +average of 60,000,000 reals. The arrival of Bobadilla, however, +speedily changed this state of affairs. On landing, he took +possession of the admiral’s house and summoned him and his +brothers before him. Accusations of severity, of injustice, of +venality even, were poured down on their heads, and Columbus +anticipated nothing less than a shameful death. Bobadilla put +all three in irons, and shipped them off to Spain.</p> + +<p>Alonso Vallejo, captain of the caravel in which the illustrious +prisoners sailed, still retained a proper sense of the honour and +respect due to Columbus, and would have removed the fetters; +but to this Columbus would not consent. He would wear them, +he said, until their highnesses, by whose order they had been +affixed, should order their removal; and he would keep them +afterwards “as relics and as memorials of the reward of his +service.” He did so. His son Fernando “saw them always +hanging in his cabinet, and he requested that when he died they +might be buried with him.” Whether this last wish was complied +with is not known.</p> + +<p>A heart-broken and indignant letter from Columbus to Doña +Juana de Torres, formerly nurse of the infante Don Juan, +arrived at court before the despatch of Bobadilla. It was read +to the queen, and its tidings were confirmed by communications +from Alonso Vallejo and the alcaide of Cadiz. There was a great +movement of indignation; the tide of popular and royal feeling +turned once more in the admiral’s favour. He received a large +sum to defray his expenses; and when he appeared at court, on +the 17th of December 1500, he was no longer in irons and disgrace, +but richly apparelled and surrounded with friends. He was +received with all honour and distinction. The queen is said to +have been moved to tears by the narration of his story. Their +majesties not only repudiated Bobadilla’s proceedings, but +declined to inquire into the charges that he at the same time +brought against his prisoners, and promised Columbus compensation +for his losses and satisfaction for his wrongs. A new +governor, Nicolas de Ovando, was appointed, and left San Lucar +on the 13th of February 1502, with a fleet of thirty ships, to +supersede Bobadilla. The latter was to be impeached and sent +home; the admiral’s property was to be restored; and a fresh +start was to be made in the conduct of colonial affairs. Thus +ended Columbus’s history as viceroy and governor of the new +Indies which he had presented to the country of his adoption.</p> + +<p>His hour of rest, however, was not yet come. Ever anxious +to serve their Catholic highnesses, “and particularly the queen,” +he had determined to find a strait through which he +might penetrate westwards into Portuguese Asia. +<span class="sidenote">Fourth voyage.</span> +After the usual inevitable delays his prayers were +granted, and on the 9th of May 1502, with four caravels and +150 men, he weighed anchor from Cadiz, and sailed on his fourth +and last great voyage. He first betook himself to the relief of +the Portuguese fort of Arzilla, which had been besieged by the +Moors, but the siege had been raised before he arrived. He put +to sea westwards once more, and on the 15th of June discovered +the island of Martinino (probably St Lucia). He had received +positive instructions from his sovereigns on no account to touch +at Hispaniola; but his largest caravel was greatly in need of +repairs, and he had no choice but to abandon her or disobey +orders. He preferred the latter alternative, and sent a boat +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span> +ashore to Ovando, asking for a new ship and for permission to +enter the harbour to weather a hurricane which he saw was +coming on. But his requests were refused, and he coasted the +island, casting anchor under lee of the land. Here he weathered +the storm, which drove the other caravels out to sea, and annihilated +the homeward-bound fleet, the richest that had till then +been sent from Hispaniola. Roldan and Bobadilla perished with +others of the admiral’s enemies; and Fernando Columbus, who +accompanied his father on this voyage, wrote long afterwards, +“I am satisfied it was the hand of God, for had they arrived in +Spain they had never been punished as their crimes deserved, +but rather been favoured and preferred.”</p> + +<p>After recruiting his flotilla at Azua, Columbus put in at +Jaquimo and refitted his four vessels; and on the 14th of July +1502 he steered for Jamaica. For several days the ships +wandered painfully among the keys and shoals he had named the +Garden of the Queen, and only an opportune easterly wind +prevented the crews from open mutiny. The first land sighted +(July 30th) was the islet of Guanaja, about 40 m. east of the +coast of Honduras. Here he got news from an old Indian of a +rich and vast country lying to the eastward, which he at once +concluded must be the long-sought-for empire of the grand khan. +Steering along the coast of Honduras, great hardships were +endured, but nothing approaching his ideal was discovered. +On the 12th of September Cape Gracias-a-Dios was rounded. +The men had become clamorous and insubordinate; not until +the 5th of December, however, would he tack about and retrace +his course. It now became his intention to plant a colony on the +river Veragua, which was afterwards to give his descendants a +title of nobility; but he had hardly put about when he was caught +in a storm, which lasted eight days, wrenched and strained his +crazy, worm-eaten ships severely, and finally, on Epiphany +Sunday 1503, blew him into an embouchure which he named +Belem or Bethlehem. Gold was very plentiful in this place, +and here he determined to found his settlement. By the end of +March 1503 a number of huts had been run up, and in these the +<i>adelantado</i> (Bartholomew Columbus), with 80 men, was to +remain, while Christopher returned to Spain for men and supplies. +Quarrels, however, arose with the natives; the cacique was +made prisoner, but escaped again; and before Columbus could +leave the coast he had to abandon a caravel, to take the settlers +on board, and to relinquish the enterprise of colonization. +Steering eastwards, he left a second caravel at Puerto Bello; he +thence bore northwards for Cuba, where he obtained supplies +from the natives. From Cuba he bore up for Jamaica, and there, +in the harbour of San Gloria, now St Ann’s Bay, he ran his +ships aground in a small inlet still called Don Christopher’s +Cove (June 23rd, 1503).</p> + +<p>The expedition was received with great kindness by the natives, +and here Columbus remained upwards of a year, awaiting the +return of his lieutenant Diego Mendez, whom he had despatched +to Ovando for assistance. During his critical sojourn here, the +admiral suffered much from disease and from the lawlessness of +his followers, whose misconduct had alienated the natives, and +provoked them to withhold their accustomed supplies, until he +dexterously worked upon their superstitions by prognosticating +an eclipse. Two vessels having at last arrived for his relief, +Columbus left Jamaica on the 28th of June 1504, and, after +calling at Hispaniola, set sail for Spain on the 12th of September. +After a tempestuous voyage he landed once more at San Lucar +on the 7th of November 1504.</p> + +<p>As he was too ill to go to court, his son Diego was sent thither +in his place, to look after his interests and transact his business. +Letter after letter followed the young man from Seville—one +by the hands of Amerigo Vespucci. A licence to ride on muleback +was granted him on the 23rd of February 1505; and in +the following May he was removed to the court at Segovia, and +thence again to Valladolid. On the landing of Philip and Juana +at Coruña (25th of April 1506), although “much oppressed with +the gout and troubled to see himself put by his rights,” he is +known to have sent off the <i>adelantado</i> to pay them his duty and +to assure them that he was yet able to do them extraordinary +service. The last documentary note of him is contained in a final +codicil to the will of 1498, made at Valladolid on the 19th of +May 1506. By this the old will is confirmed; the <i>mayorazgo</i> +is bequeathed to his son Diego and his heirs male, failing these +to Fernando, his second son, and failing these to the heirs male +of Bartholomew; only in case of the extinction of the male line, +direct or collateral, is it to descend to the females of the family; +and those into whose hands it may fall are never to diminish it, +but always to increase and ennoble it by all means possible. The +head of the house is to sign himself “The Admiral.” A tenth +of the annual income is to be set aside yearly for distribution +among the poor relations of the house. A chapel is founded and +endowed for the saying of masses. Beatriz Enriquez is left to the +care of the young admiral. Among other legacies is one of “half +a mark of silver to a Jew who used to live at the gate of the +Jewry, in Lisbon.” The codicil was written and signed with +the admiral’s own hand. Next day (20th of May 1506) he died.</p> + +<p>After the funeral ceremonies at Valladolid, Columbus’s remains +were transferred to the Carthusian monastery of Santa Maria de +las Cuevas, Seville, where the bones of his son Diego, the second +admiral, were also laid. Exhumed in 1542, the bodies of both +father and son were taken over sea to Hispaniola and interred +in the cathedral of San Domingo. In 1795-1796, on the cession +of that island to the French, the relics were re-exhumed and +transferred to the cathedral of Havana, whence, after the Spanish-American +War of 1898 and the loss of Cuba, they were finally +removed to Seville cathedral, where they remain. The present +heir and representative of Columbus belongs to the Larreategui +family, descendants of the discoverer through the female line, +and retains the titles of admiral and duke of Veragua.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:338px; height:223px" src="images/img745.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Columbus Cipher.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The interpretation of the seven-lettered cipher, accepting the +smaller letters of the second line as the final ones of the words, seems +to be <i>Salve Christus, Maria, Yosephus</i>. The name <i>Christopher</i> +(<i>Christoferens</i>) appears in the last line.</p> +</div> + +<p>In person Columbus was tall and shapely. The only authentic +portrait of him is that which once belonged to Paulus Jovius, and +is still in the possession of the de Orchi family (related to Jovius +by female descent) at Como. It shows us a venerable man with +clean-shaven face, thin grey hair, high forehead, sad thoughtful +eyes. It bears the inscription <i>Columbus Lygur. novi orbis repertor</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Fernando Columbus, <i>Historie del Signor Don +Fernando Colombo ... e vera relatione della vita ... dell’ Ammiraglio +D. Christoforo Colombo</i> (the Spanish original of this, written +before 1539, is lost; only the Italian version remains, first published +at Venice in 1571; a good edition appeared in London in 1867); +Bartolomé de las Casas, <i>Historia de las Indias</i>, written 1527-1561, +but first printed at Madrid in 1875, after remaining in manuscript +more than three centuries; Andres Bernandez, <i>Historia de los Reyes +Catolicos</i> (contemporary with Fernando Columbus’s <i>Historie</i>, but first +printed at Granada in 1856; best edition, Seville, 1870); Gonzalo +Fernandez Oviedo y Valdes, <i>Historia general de las Indias</i> (Seville, +1535; best edition, Madrid, 1851-1855); Peter Martyr d’Anghiera, +<i>Opus Epistolarum</i>, first published in 1530, and <i>De Orbe Novo</i> (<i>Decades</i>), +printed in 1511 and 1530; Francisco Lopez de Gomara, +<i>Historia general de las Indias</i> (Saragossa, 1552-1553, and Antwerp, +1554); Antonio de Herrera, <i>Historia general de las Indias occidentales</i> +(publication first completed in 1615, but best edition perhaps that of +1730, Madrid); Juan Bautista Muñoz, <i>Historia del Nuevo Mundo</i> +(Madrid, 1793); Martin Fernandez Navarrete, <i>Coleccion de los +Viages y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los Españoles</i> (Madrid, +1825-1837); Washington Irving, <i>History of the Life and Voyages of +Christopher Columbus</i> (London, 1827-1828); Alex. von Humboldt, +<i>Examen critique</i> (Paris, 1836-1839); R. H. Major, <i>Select Letters of</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span> +<i>Columbus</i> (London, Hakluyt Society, 1847); Fernandez Duro, +<i>Colon y Pinzon</i> (Madrid, 1883); Henry Harrisse, <i>Christophe Colomb</i> +(Paris, 1884), and <i>Christophe Colomb devant l’histoire</i> (Paris, 1892); +Justin Winsor, <i>Christopher Columbus</i> (Cambridge, Mass., 1891); +Josè Maria Asensio, <i>Cristoval Colon</i> (Barcelona, 1892); Clements +R. Markham, <i>Life of Christopher Columbus</i> (London, 1892); John +Fiske, <i>Discovery of America</i> (Boston and New York, 1892); E. J. +Payne, <i>History of the New World called America</i>, vol. i. (Oxford, +1892); Paul Gaffarel, <i>Histoire de la découverte de l’Amérique</i> (Paris, +1892); Charles I. Elton, <i>Career of Columbus</i> (London, 1892); +<i>Raccolta Colombiana</i> (1892, &c.); Sophus Ruge, <i>Columbus</i> (Berlin, +1902); John Boyd Thatcher, <i>Christopher Columbus</i> (New York, +1903-1904); Henry Vignaud, <i>La Lettre et la carte de Toscanelli</i> +(Paris, 1901), and <i>Études critiques sur la vie de Colomb avant ses +découvertes</i> (Paris, 1905); Filson Young, <i>Christopher Columbus and +the New World of his discovery</i> (London, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 6, Slice 6, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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