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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 6
+       "Cockaigne" to "Columbus, Christopher"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 1, 2010 [EBook #31855]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 6 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript.
+
+(2) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(3) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(4) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article COCKBURN, ALICIA: "Robert Chambers states that the ballad
+      was written on the occasion of a great commercial disaster which
+      ruined the fortunes of some Selkirkshire lairds." 'commercial'
+      amended from 'commerical'.
+
+    Article COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT: "From Westminster school Charles
+      Abbot passed to Christ Church, Oxford, at which he gained the
+      chancellor's medal for Latin verse as well as the Vinerian
+      scholarship." Superfluous round bracket after 'scholarship'.
+
+    Article COLOGNE: "The foundation of the present cathedral was then
+      laid by Conrad of Hochstaden (archbishop from 1238 to 1261)."
+      '1238' amended from '1288'.
+
+    Article COLOMBIA: "Sotara (15,420 ft.), Huila (over 18,000 ft.),
+      Tolima (18,432 ft.)" Missing round bracket before 'over 18,000'.
+
+    Article COLOMBIA: "Although it is found growing wild, cacáo is
+      cultivated to a limited extent, and the product is insufficient for
+      home consumption." 'Although' amended from 'Athough'.
+
+    Article COLORADO: "Melons are to some extent exported, and peaches
+      also; the musk-melons of the Arkansas valley (Rocky Ford
+      Canteloupes) being in demand all over the United States."
+      'Canteloupes' amended from 'Canteloups'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VI, SLICE VI
+
+     Cockaigne to Columbus, Christopher
+
+
+
+
+Articles in This Slice:
+
+
+  COCKAIGNE, LAND OF                  COLEPEPER, JOHN COLEPEPER
+  COCKATOO                            COLERAINE
+  COCKATRICE                          COLERIDGE, HARTLEY
+  COCKBURN, ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND    COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE
+  COCKBURN, ALICIA                    COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR
+  COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE                COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR
+  COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS              COLERIDGE, SARA
+  COCKER, EDWARD                      COLET, JOHN
+  COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT           COLET, LOUISE
+  COCKERILL, WILLIAM                  COLEUS
+  COCKERMOUTH                         COLFAX, SCHUYLER
+  COCK-FIGHTING                       COLIC
+  COCK LANE GHOST                     COLIGNY, GASPARD DE
+  COCKLE, SIR JAMES                   COLIMA (coast state of Mexico)
+  COCKLE                              COLIMA (city of Mexico)
+  COCKNEY                             COLIN, ALEXANDRE
+  COCK-OF-THE-ROCK (bird)             COLL
+  COCK-OF-THE-ROCK (enclosed place)   COLLAERT, HANS
+  COCKROACH                           COLLAR
+  COCK'S-COMB                         COLLATERAL
+  COCKTON, HENRY                      COLLATIA
+  COCKX                               COLLATION
+  COCOA                               COLLÉ, CHARLES
+  COCO DE MER                         COLLECTIVISM
+  COCOMA                              COLLECTOR
+  COCO-NUT PALM                       COLLE DI VAL D' ELSA
+  COCYTUS                             COLLEGE
+  COD                                 COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO
+  CODA                                COLLETER
+  CODE                                COLLETTA, PIETRO
+  CODE NAPOLÉON                       COLLEY, SIR GEORGE POMEROY
+  CODIAEUM                            COLLIER, ARTHUR
+  CODICIL                             COLLIER, JEREMY
+  CODILLA                             COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE
+  CODINUS, GEORGE                     COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON
+  COD-LIVER OIL                       COLLIN D'HARLEVILLE, JEAN FRANÇOIS
+  CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER             COLLING, ROBERT
+  CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD              COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD
+  CODRUS                              COLLINGWOOD (city of  Australia)
+  CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK             COLLINGWOOD (town of Canada)
+  CO-EDUCATION                        COLLINS, ANTHONY
+  COEFFETEAU, NICOLAS                 COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON
+  COEHOORN, MENNO                     COLLINS, MORTIMER
+  COELENTERA                          COLLINS, WILLIAM (English poet)
+  COELLO, ALONSO SANCHEZ              COLLINS, WILLIAM (English painter)
+  COELLO, ANTONIO                     COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE
+  COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES         COLLODION
+  COEN, JAN PIETERSZOON               COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE
+  COENACULUM                          COLLUSION
+  COENWULF                            COLLYER, ROBERT
+  COERCION                            COLMAN, SAINT
+  COEUR, JACQUES                      COLMAN, GEORGE
+  COEUR D'ALÊNE                       COLMAN, SAMUEL
+  COFFEE                              COLMAR
+  COFFER                              COLNE
+  COFFERDAM                           COLOCYNTH
+  COFFEYVILLE                         COLOGNE
+  COFFIN                              COLOMAN
+  COG                                 COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD
+  COGERS HALL                         COLOMBES
+  COGHLAN, CHARLES FRANCIS            COLOMBEY
+  COGNAC                              COLOMBIA
+  COGNITION                           COLOMBIER, PIERRE BERTRAND DE
+  COGNIZANCE                          COLOMBO
+  COHEN                               COLON (city of Panama)
+  COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS              COLON (town of Cuba)
+  COHN, GUSTAV                        COLON (intestine)
+  COHOES                              COLONEL
+  COHORT                              COLONIAL OFFICE
+  COIF                                COLONNA (Roman family)
+  COIMBATORE                          COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO
+  COIMBRA                             COLONNA, VITTORIA
+  COÍN                                COLONNADE
+  COIN                                COLONSAY
+  COINAGE OFFENCES                    COLONY
+  COIR                                COLOPHON (ancient city of Ionia)
+  COIRE                               COLOPHON (paragraph in manuscripts)
+  COKE, SIR EDWARD                    COLORADO
+  COKE, SIR JOHN                      COLORADO RIVER (stream of Argentine)
+  COKE, THOMAS                        COLORADO RIVER (stream of U.S.A.)
+  COKE                                COLORADO SPRINGS
+  COL                                 COLOSSAE
+  COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE              COLOSSAL CAVERN
+  COLBERT DE CROISSY, CHARLES         COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE
+  COLBURN, HENRY                      COLOSSUS
+  COLBURN, ZERAH                      COLOUR
+  COLBY, THOMAS FREDERICK             COLOURS, MILITARY
+  COLCHAGUA                           COLOUR-SERGEANT
+  COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT           COLOURS OF ANIMALS
+  COLCHESTER (town of England)        COLSTON, EDWARD
+  COLCHESTER (township of Vermont)    COLT, SAMUEL
+  COLCHICUM                           COLT'S-FOOT
+  COLCHIS                             COLUGO
+  COLCOTHAR                           COLUMBA, SAINT
+  COLD                                COLUMBAN
+  COLDEN, CADWALLADER                 COLUMBANI, PLACIDO
+  COLD HARBOR                         COLUMBARIUM
+  COLDSTREAM                          COLUMBIA (city of Missouri)
+  COLDWATER                           COLUMBIA (borough of Pennsylvania)
+  COLE, SIR HENRY                     COLUMBIA (city of South Carolina)
+  COLE, THOMAS                        COLUMBIA (city of Tennessee)
+  COLE, TIMOTHY                       COLUMBIA RIVER
+  COLE, VICAT                         COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
+  COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS            COLUMBINE (dancer)
+  COLEMANITE                          COLUMBINE (plant)
+  COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM               COLUMBITE
+  COLENSO (village of Natal)          COLUMBIUM
+  COLEOPTERA                          COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER
+
+
+
+
+COCKAIGNE (COCKAYNE), LAND OF (O. Fr. _Coquaigne_, mod. Fr. _cocagne_,
+"abundance," from Ital. _Cocagna_; "as we say 'Lubberland,' the
+epicure's or glutton's home, the land of all delights, so taken in
+mockerie": Florio), an imaginary country, a medieval Utopia where life
+was a continual round of luxurious idleness. The origin of the Italian
+word has been much disputed. It seems safest to connect it, as do Grimm
+and Littré, ultimately with Lat. _coquere_, through a word meaning
+"cake," the literal sense thus being "The Land of Cakes." In Cockaigne
+the rivers were of wine, the houses were built of cake and barley-sugar,
+the streets were paved with pastry, and the shops supplied goods for
+nothing. Roast geese and fowls wandered about inviting folks to eat
+them, and buttered larks fell from the skies like manna. There is a
+13th-century French _fabliau_, _Cocaigne_, which was possibly intended
+to ridicule the fable of the mythical Avalon, "the island of the Blest."
+The 13th-century English poem, _The Land of Cockaygne_, is a satire on
+monastic life. The term has been humorously applied to London, and by
+Boileau to the Paris of the rich. The word has been frequently confused
+with Cockney (q.v.).
+
+  See D. M. Méon, _Fabliaux et contes_ (4 vols., 1808), and F. J.
+  Furnivall, _Early English Poems_ (Berlin, 1862).
+
+
+
+
+COCKATOO (_Cacatuidae_), a family of parrots characterized among Old
+World forms by their usually greater size, by the crest of feathers on
+the head, which can be raised or depressed at will, and by the absence
+of green in their coloration. They inhabit the Indian Archipelago, New
+Guinea and Australia, and are gregarious, frequenting woods and feeding
+on seeds, fruits and the larvae of insects. Their note is generally
+harsh and unmusical, and although they are readily tamed when taken
+young, becoming familiar, and in some species showing remarkable
+intelligence, their powers of vocal imitation are usually limited. Of
+the true cockatoos (_Cacatua_) the best known is the sulphur-crested
+cockatoo (_Cacatua galerita_), of a pure white plumage with the
+exception of the crest, which is deep sulphur yellow, and of the ear and
+tail coverts, which are slightly tinged with yellow. The crest when
+erect stands 5 in. high. These birds are found in Australia in flocks
+varying from 100 to 1000 in number, and do great damage to newly-sown
+grain, for which reason they are mercilessly destroyed by farmers. They
+deposit their eggs--two in number, and of a pure white colour--in the
+hollows of decayed trees or in the fissures of rocks, according to the
+nature of the locality in which they reside. This is one of the species
+most usually kept in Europe as a cage bird. Leadbeater's Cockatoo
+(_Cacatua Leadbeateri_), an inhabitant of South Australia, excels all
+others in the beauty of its plumage, which consists in great part of
+white, tinged with rose colour, becoming a deep salmon colour under the
+wings, while the crest is bright crimson at the base, with a yellow spot
+in the centre and white at the tip. It is exceedingly shy and difficult
+of approach, and its note is more plaintive while less harsh than that
+of the preceding species. In the cockatoos belonging to the genus
+_Calyptorhynchus_ the general plumage is black or dark brown, usually
+with a large spot or band of red or yellow on the tail. The largest of
+these is known as the funereal cockatoo (_Calyptorhynchus funereus_),
+from the lugubrious note or call which it utters, resembling the two
+syllables Wy--la--, the native name of the species. It deposits its eggs
+in the hollows of the large gum-trees of Australia, and feeds largely on
+the larvae of insects, in search of which it peels off the bark of
+trees, and when thus employed it may be approached closely. The
+cockateel (_Calopsittacus novaehollandiae_), the only species in the
+family smaller than a pigeon, and with a long pointed tail, is a common
+aviary bird, and breeds freely in captivity.
+
+
+
+
+COCKATRICE, a fabulous monster, the existence of which was firmly
+believed in throughout ancient and medieval times,--descriptions and
+figures of it appearing in the natural history works of such writers as
+Pliny and Aldrovandus, those of the latter published so late as the
+beginning of the 17th century. Produced from a cock's egg hatched by a
+serpent, it was believed to possess the most deadly powers, plants
+withering at its touch, and men and animals dying poisoned by its look.
+It stood in awe, however, of the cock, the sound of whose crowing
+killed it, and consequently travelers were wont to take this bird with
+them in travelling over regions supposed to abound in cockatrices. The
+weasel alone among mammals was unaffected by the glance of its evil eye,
+and attacked it at all times successfully; for when wounded by the
+monster's teeth it found a ready remedy in rue--the only plant which the
+cockatrice could not wither. This myth reminds one of the real contests
+between the weasel-like mungoos of India and the deadly cobra, in which
+the latter is generally killed. The term "cockatrice" is employed on
+four occasions in the English translation of the Bible, in all of which
+it denotes nothing more than an exceedingly venomous reptile; it seems
+also to be synonymous with "basilisk," the mythical king of serpents.
+
+
+
+
+COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND, 10th Bart. (1802-1880), lord chief
+justice of England, was born on the 24th of December 1802, of ancient
+Scottish stock. He was the son of Alexander, fourth son of Sir James
+Cockburn, 6th baronet, his three uncles, who had successively held the
+title, dying without heirs. His father was British envoy extraordinary
+and minister plenipotentiary to the state of Columbia, and married
+Yolande, daughter of the vicomte de Vignier. Young Alexander was at one
+time intended for the diplomatic service, and frequently during the
+legal career which he ultimately adopted he was able to make
+considerable use of the knowledge of foreign languages, especially
+French, with which birth and early education had equipped him. He was
+educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, of which he was elected a fellow,
+and afterwards an honorary fellow. He entered at the Middle Temple in
+1825, and was called to the bar in 1829. He joined the western circuit,
+and for some time such practice as he was able to obtain lay at the
+Devon sessions, quarter sessions at that time affording an opening and a
+school of advocacy to young counsel not to be found anywhere fifty years
+later. In London he had so little to do that only the persuasion of
+friends induced him to keep his London chambers open. Three years after
+his call to the bar, however, the Reform Bill was passed, and the
+petitions which followed the ensuing general election gave rise to a
+large number of new questions for the decision of election committees,
+and afforded an opening of which he promptly availed himself. The
+decisions of the committees had not been reported since 1821, and with
+M. C. Rowe, another member of the western circuit, Cockburn undertook a
+new series of reports. They only published one volume, but the work was
+well done, and in 1833 Cockburn had his first parliamentary brief.
+
+In 1834 Cockburn was well enough thought of to be made a member of the
+commission to inquire into the state of the corporations of England and
+Wales. Other parliamentary work followed; but he had ambition to be more
+than a parliamentary counsel, and attended diligently on his circuit,
+besides appearing before committees. In 1841 he was made a Q.C., and in
+that year a charge of simony, brought against his uncle, William, dean
+of York, enabled him to appear conspicuously in a case which attracted
+considerable public attention, the proceedings taking the form of a
+motion for prohibition duly obtained against the ecclesiastical court,
+which had deprived Dr Cockburn of his office. Not long after this, Sir
+Robert Peel's secretary, Edward Drummond, was shot by the crazy
+Scotsman, Daniel M'Naughten, and Cockburn, briefed on behalf of the
+assassin, not only made a very brilliant speech, which established the
+defence of insanity, but also secured the full publicity of a long
+report in the _Morning Chronicle_ of the 6th of March 1843. Another
+well-known trial in which he appeared a year later was that of _Wood_ v.
+_Peel_ (_The Times_, 2nd and 3rd of July 1844), the issue being in form
+to determine the winner of a bet (the Gaming Act was passed in the
+following year) as to the age of the Derby winner Running Rein--in
+substance to determine, if possible, the vexed question whether Running
+Rein was a four-year-old or a three-year-old when he was racing as the
+latter. Running Rein could not be produced by Mr Wood, and Baron
+Alderson took a strong view of this circumstance, so that Cockburn found
+himself on the losing side, while his strenuous advocacy of his client's
+cause had led him into making, in his opening speech, strictures on
+Lord George Bentinck's conduct in the case which had better have been
+reserved to a later stage. He was, however, a hard fighter, but not an
+unfair one--a little irritable at times, but on the whole a courteous
+gentleman, and his practice went on increasing.
+
+In 1847 he decided to stand for parliament, and was elected without a
+contest Liberal M.P. for Southampton. His speech in the House of Commons
+on behalf of the government in the Don Pacifico dispute with Greece
+commended him to Lord John Russell, who appointed him solicitor-general
+in 1850 and attorney-general in 1851, a post which he held till the
+resignation of the ministry in February 1852. During the short
+administration of Lord Derby which followed, Sir Frederic Thesiger was
+attorney-general, and Cockburn was engaged against him in the case of
+_R._ v. _Newman_, on the prosecution of Achilli. This was the trial of a
+criminal information for libel filed against John Henry Newman, who had
+denounced a scandalous and profligate friar named Achilli, then
+lecturing on Roman Catholicism in England. Newman pleaded justification;
+but the jury who heard the case in the Queen's Bench, with Lord Campbell
+presiding, found that the justification was not proved except in one
+particular: a verdict which, together with the methods of the judge and
+the conduct of the audience, attracted considerable comment. The verdict
+was set aside, and a new trial ordered, but none ever took place. In
+December 1852, under Lord Aberdeen's ministry, Cockburn became again
+attorney-general, and so remained until 1856, taking part in many
+celebrated trials, such as the Hopwood Will Case in 1855, and the
+Swynfen Will Case, but notably leading for the crown in the trial of
+William Palmer of Rugeley in Staffordshire--an ex-medical man who had
+taken to the turf, and who had poisoned a friend of similar pursuits
+named Cook with strychnine, in order to obtain money from his estate by
+forgery and otherwise. Cockburn made an exhaustive study of the medical
+aspects of the case, and the prisoner's comment when convicted after a
+twelve days' trial was, alluding to the attorney-general's advocacy, "It
+was the riding that did it." In 1854 Cockburn was made recorder of
+Bristol. In 1856 he became chief justice of the common pleas. He
+inherited the baronetcy in 1858. In 1859 Lord Campbell became
+chancellor, and Cockburn became chief justice of the Queen's Bench,
+continuing as a judge for twenty-four years and dying in harness. On
+Friday, the 19th of November 1880, he tried causes with special juries
+at Westminster; on Saturday, the 20th, he presided over a court for the
+consideration of crown cases reserved; he walked home, and on that night
+he died of _angina pectoris_ at his house in Hertford Street.
+
+Sir Alexander Cockburn earned and deserved a high reputation as a judge.
+He was a man of brilliant cleverness and rapid intuition rather than of
+profound and laboriously cultivated intellect. He had been a great
+advocate at the bar, with a charm of voice and manner, fluent and
+persuasive rather than learned; but before he died he was considered a
+good lawyer, some assigning his unquestioned improvement in this respect
+to his frequent association on the bench with Blackburn. He had
+notoriously little sympathy with the Judicature Acts. Many were of
+opinion that he was inclined to take an advocate's view of the cases
+before him, making up his mind as to their merits prematurely and, in
+consequence, wrongly, as well as giving undue prominence to the views
+which he so formed; but he was beyond doubt always in intention, and
+generally in fact, scrupulously fair. It is not necessary to enumerate
+the many _causes célèbres_ at which Sir Alexander Cockburn presided as a
+judge. It was thought that he went out of his way to arrange that they
+should come before him, and his successor, Lord Coleridge, writing in
+1881 to Lord Bramwell, to make the offer that he should try the murderer
+Lefroy as a last judicial act before retiring, added, "Poor dear
+Cockburn would hardly have given you such a chance." Be this as it may,
+Cockburn tried all cases which came before him, whether great or small,
+with the same thoroughness, courtesy and dignity, so that no counsel or
+suitor could complain that he had not been fully heard in a matter in
+which the issues were seemingly trivial; while he certainly gave great
+attention to the elaboration of his judgments and charges to juries. He
+presided at the Tichborne trial at Bar, lasting 188 days, of which his
+summing-up occupied eighteen.
+
+The greatest public occasion on which Sir Alexander Cockburn acted,
+outside his usual judicial functions, was that of the "Alabama"
+arbitration, held at Geneva in 1872, in which he represented the British
+government, and dissented from the view taken by the majority of the
+arbitrators, without being able to convince them. He prepared, with Mr
+C. F. Adams, the representative of the United States, the English
+translation of the award of the arbitrators, and published his reasons
+for dissenting in a vigorously worded document which did not meet with
+universal commendation. He admitted in substance the liability of
+England for the acts of the "Alabama," but not on the grounds on which
+the decision of the majority was based, and he held England not liable
+in respect of the "Florida" and the "Shenandoah."
+
+In personal appearance Sir Alexander Cockburn was of small stature, but
+great dignity of deportment. He was fond of yachting and of sport, and
+was engaged in writing a series of articles on the "History of the Chase
+in the Nineteenth Century" at the time of his death. He was fond, too,
+of society, and was also throughout his life addicted to frivolities not
+altogether consistent with advancement in a learned profession, or with
+the positions of dignity which he successively occupied. At the same
+time he had a high sense of what was due to and expected from his
+profession; and his utterance upon the limitations of advocacy, in his
+speech at the banquet given in the Middle Temple Hall to M. Berryer, the
+celebrated French advocate, may be called the classical authority on the
+subject. Lord Brougham, replying for the guests other than Berryer, had
+spoken of "the first great duty of an advocate to reckon everything
+subordinate to the interests of his client." The lord chief justice,
+replying to the toast of "the judges of England," dissented from this
+sweeping statement, saying, amid loud cheers from a distinguished
+assembly of lawyers, "The arms which an advocate wields he ought to use
+as a warrior, not as an assassin. He ought to uphold the interests of
+his clients _per fas_, not _per nefas_. He ought to know how to
+reconcile the interests of his clients with the eternal interests of
+truth and justice" (_The Times_, 9th of November 1864). Sir Alexander
+Cockburn was never married, and the baronetcy became extinct at his
+death.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_The Times_, 22nd of November 1880; _Law Journal_; _Law
+  Times_; _Solicitors' Journal_, 27th of November 1880; _Law Magazine_,
+  new series, vol. xv. p. 193, 1851; Ashley's _Life of Lord Palmerston_;
+  Nash's _Life of Lord Westbury_; "Reminiscences of Lord Chief Justice
+  Coleridge," by Lord Russell of Killowen, in the _North American
+  Review_, September 1894; _The Greville Memoirs_; Croker's
+  _Correspondence and Diaries_; Justin M'Carthy's _History of Our Own
+  Times_; Serjeant Ballantine's _Experiences; Bench and Bar_, by
+  Serjeant Robinson; Fairchild's _Life of Lord Bramwell_; Manson's
+  _Builders of Our Law_; Burke's _Peerage_, ed. 1879; Foster's
+  _Peerage_, 1880.
+
+
+
+
+COCKBURN, ALICIA, or ALISON (1713-1794), Scottish poet, authoress of one
+of the most exquisite of Scottish ballads, the "Flowers of the Forest,"
+was the daughter of Robert Rutherfurd of Fairnalee, Selkirkshire, and
+was born on the 8th of October 1713. There are two versions of this
+song,--the one by Mrs Cockburn, the other by Jean Elliot (1727-1805) of
+Minto. Both were founded on the remains of an ancient Border ballad. Mrs
+Cockburn's--that beginning "I've seen the smiling of Fortune
+beguiling"--is said to have been written before her marriage in 1731,
+though not published till 1765. Anyhow, it was composed many years
+before Jean Elliot's sister verses, written in 1756, beginning, "I've
+heard them liltin' at our ewe-milkin'." Robert Chambers states that the
+ballad was written on the occasion of a great commercial disaster which
+ruined the fortunes of some Selkirkshire lairds. Later biographers,
+however, think it probable that it was written on the departure to
+London of a certain John Aikman, between whom and Alison there appears
+to have been an early attachment. In 1731 Alison Rutherfurd was married
+to Patrick Cockburn of Ormiston. After her marriage she knew all the
+intellectual and aristocratic celebrities of her day. In the memorable
+year 1745 she vented her Whiggism in a squib upon Prince Charlie, and
+narrowly escaped being taken by the Highland guard as she was driving
+through Edinburgh in the family coach of the Keiths of Ravelston, with
+the parody in her pocket. Mrs Cockburn was an indefatigable
+letter-writer and a composer of parodies, squibs, toasts and
+"character-sketches"--then a favourite form of composition--like other
+wits of her day; but the "Flowers of the Forest" is the only thing she
+wrote that possesses great literary merit. At her house on Castle-hill,
+and afterwards in Crichton Street, she received many illustrious
+friends, among whom were Mackenzie, Robertson, Hume, Home, Monboddo, the
+Keiths of Ravelston, the Balcarres family and Lady Anne Barnard, the
+authoress of "Auld Robin Gray." As a Rutherfurd she was a connexion of
+Sir Walter Scott's mother, and was her intimate friend. Lockhart quotes
+a letter written by Mrs Cockburn in 1777, describing the conduct of
+little Walter Scott, then scarcely six years old, during a visit which
+she paid to his mother, when the child gave as a reason for his liking
+for Mrs Cockburn that she was a "virtuoso like himself." Mrs Cockburn
+died on the 22nd of November 1794.
+
+  See her _Letters and Memorials_..., with notes by T. Craig Brown
+  (1900).
+
+
+
+
+COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE, Bart. (1772-1853), British admiral, second son of
+Sir James Cockburn, Bart., and uncle of Lord Chief Justice Cockburn, was
+born in London. He entered the navy in his ninth year. After serving on
+the home station, and in the East Indies and the Mediterranean, he
+assisted, as captain of the "Minerve" (38) at the blockade of Leghorn in
+1796, and fought a gallant action with the Spanish frigate "Sabina" (40)
+which he took. He was present at the battle of Cape St Vincent. In 1809,
+in command of the naval force on shore, he contributed greatly to the
+reduction of Martinique, and signed the capitulation by which that
+island was handed over to the English; for his services on this occasion
+he received the thanks of the House of Commons. After service in the
+Scheldt and at the defence of Cadiz he was sent in 1811 on an
+unsuccessful mission for the reconciliation of Spain and her American
+colonies. He was made rear-admiral in 1812, and in 1813-14, as second in
+command to Warren, he took a prominent part in the American War,
+especially in the capture of Washington. Early in 1815 he received the
+order of the Bath, and in the autumn of the same year he carried out, in
+the "Northumberland" (74), the sentence of deportation to St Helena
+which had been passed upon Bonaparte. In 1818 he received the Grand
+Cross of his order, and was made a lord of the admiralty; and the same
+year he was returned to parliament for Portsmouth. He was promoted to
+the rank of vice-admiral in 1819, and to that of admiral in 1837; he
+became senior naval lord in 1841, and held office in that capacity till
+1846. From 1827 he was a privy councillor. In 1851 he was made admiral
+of the fleet, and in 1852, a year before his death, inherited the family
+baronetcy from his elder brother, being himself succeeded by his brother
+William, dean of York, who died in 1858.
+
+  See O'Byrne, _Naval Biography_; W. James, _Naval History_;
+  _Gentleman's Magazine_ for 1853.
+
+
+
+
+COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS (1779-1854), Scottish judge, with the style of
+Lord Cockburn, was born in Edinburgh on the 26th of October 1779. His
+father, a keen Tory, was a baron of the Scottish court of exchequer, and
+his mother was connected by marriage with Lord Melville. He was educated
+at the high school and the university of Edinburgh; and he was a member
+of the famous Speculative Society, to which Sir Walter Scott, Brougham
+and Jeffrey belonged. He entered the faculty of advocates in 1800, and
+attached himself, not to the party of his relatives, who could have
+afforded him most valuable patronage, but to the Whig or Liberal party,
+and that at a time when it held out few inducements to men ambitious of
+success in life. On the accession of Earl Grey's ministry in 1830 he
+became solicitor-general for Scotland. In 1834 he was raised to the
+bench, and on taking his seat as a judge in the court of session he
+adopted the title of Lord Cockburn. Cockburn's forensic style was
+remarkable for its clearness, pathos and simplicity; and his
+conversational powers were unrivalled among his contemporaries. The
+extent of his literary ability only became known after he had passed his
+seventieth year, on the publication of his biography of Lord Jeffrey in
+1852, and from the _Memorials of his Time_, which appeared posthumously
+in 1856. He died on the 26th of April 1854, at his mansion of Bonaly,
+near Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+COCKER, EDWARD (1631-1675), the reputed author of the famous
+_Arithmetick_, the popularity of which has added a phrase ("according to
+Cocker") to the list of English proverbialisms, was an English engraver,
+who also taught writing and arithmetic. He is credited with the
+authorship and execution of some fourteen sets of copy slips, one of
+which, _Daniel's Copy-Book, ingraven by Edward Cocker, Philomath_
+(1664), is preserved in the British Museum. Pepys, in his _Diary_, makes
+very favourable mention of Cocker, who appears to have displayed great
+skill in his art. _Cocker's Arithmetick_, the fifty-second edition of
+which appeared in 1748, and which has passed through about 112 editions
+in all, was not published during the lifetime of its reputed author, the
+first impression bearing date of 1678. Augustus de Morgan in his
+_Arithmetical Books_ (1847) adduces proofs, which may be held to be
+conclusive, that the work was a forgery of the editor and publisher,
+John Hawkins; and there appears to be no doubt that the _Decimal
+Arithmetic_ (1684), and the _English Dictionary_ (second edition, 1715),
+issued by Hawkins under Cocker's name, are forgeries also. De Morgan
+condemns the _Arithmetick_ as a diffuse compilation from older and
+better works, and dates "a very great deterioration in elementary works
+on arithmetic" from the appearance of the book, which owed its celebrity
+far more to persistent puffing than to its merits. He pertinently
+adds,--"This same Edward Cocker must have had great reputation, since a
+bad book under his name pushed out the good ones."
+
+
+
+
+COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT (1788-1863), British architect, was born in
+London on the 28th of April 1788. After a preliminary training in his
+profession, he went abroad in 1810 and studied the great architectural
+remains of Greece, Italy and Asia Minor. At Aegina, Phigalia and other
+places of interest, he conducted excavations on a large scale, enriching
+the British Museum with many fine fragments, and adding several valuable
+monographs to the literature of archaeology. Elected in 1829 an
+associate of the Royal Academy, he became a full member in 1836, and in
+1839 he was appointed professor of architecture. On Sir John Soane's
+death in 1837 Cockerell was appointed architect of the Bank of England,
+and carried out the alterations that were judged to be necessary in that
+building. In addition to branch banks at Liverpool and Manchester he
+erected in 1840 the new library at Cambridge, and in 1845 the university
+galleries at Oxford, as well as the Sun and the Westminster Fire Offices
+in Bartholomew Lane and in the Strand; and he was joint architect of the
+London & Westminster Bank, Lothbury, with Sir W. Tite. On the death of
+Henry Lonsdale Elmes in 1847, Cockerell was selected to finish the St
+George's Hall, Liverpool. Cockerell's best conceptions were those
+inspired by classic models; his essays in the Gothic--the college at
+Lampeter, for instance, and the chapel at Harrow--are by no means so
+successful. His thorough knowledge of Gothic art, however, can be seen
+from his writings, _On the Iconography of Wells Cathedral_, and _On the
+Sculptures of Lincoln and Exeter Cathedrals_. In his _Tribute to the
+Memory of Sir Christopher Wren_ (1838) he published an interesting
+collection of the whole of Wren's works drawn to one scale.
+
+
+
+
+COCKERILL, WILLIAM (1759-1832), Anglo-French inventor and machinist, was
+born in England in 1759. He went to Belgium as a simple mechanic, and in
+1799 constructed at Verviers the first wool-carding and wool-spinning
+machines on the continent. In 1807 he established a large machine
+workshop at Liége. Orders soon poured in on him from all over Europe,
+and he amassed a large fortune. In 1810 he was granted the rights of
+naturalization by Napoleon I., and in 1812 handed over the management of
+his business to his youngest son, JOHN COCKERILL (1790-1840).
+
+Thanks to his own energy and ability, aided by the influence of King
+William I. of the Netherlands, John Cockerill largely extended his
+father's business. King William secured him a site at Seraing, where he
+built large works, including an iron-foundry and blast furnace. The
+construction of the Belgian railways in 1834 gave a great impetus to
+these works, branches of which had already been opened in France,
+Germany and Poland. In 1838 Cockerill met with a carriage accident which
+nearly proved fatal, and the prospect of his loss resulted in the credit
+of the firm being so badly shaken that in 1839 it was compelled to go
+into liquidation, the liabilities being estimated at 26 millions of
+francs, the assets at 18 millions. This reverse, however, was only
+temporary. John Cockerill had practically concluded negotiations to
+construct the Russian government railways, when his constitution,
+undermined by overwork, broke down. He died at Warsaw on the 19th of
+June 1840. The iron works, among the largest in Europe, are still
+carried on under the name of La Société Cockerill at seraing (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+COCKERMOUTH, a market town in the Cockermouth parliamentary division of
+Cumberland, England, 27 m. S.W. of Carlisle, on the Cockermouth, Keswick
+& Penrith, the London & North Western, and the Maryport & Carlisle
+railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5355. It is pleasantly situated
+on the river Derwent, at the junction of the Cocker, outlying hills of
+the Lake District sheltering it on the north, east and south. The castle
+has remains of Norman work in the keep, and other ancient portions
+(including the gateway) of later date, but is in part modernized as a
+residence. The grammar school was founded in 1676. The county industrial
+school is established in the town. The industries include the
+manufacture of woollens and confectionery, tanning and engineering, and
+there is a considerable agricultural trade. There are coal mines in the
+neighbourhood. A statue was erected in 1875 to the sixth earl of Mayo,
+who represented the borough (abolished in 1885) from 1857 to 1868. There
+is a Roman fort a mile west of the town, at Papcastle.
+
+Cockermouth (_Cokermuth_, _Cokermue_) was made the head of the honour or
+barony of Allerdale when that barony was created and granted to Waltheof
+in the early part of the 12th century. At a later date the honour of
+Allerdale was frequently called the honour of Cockermouth. Waltheof
+probably built the castle, under the shelter of which the town grew up.
+Although it never received any royal charter, the earliest records
+relating to Cockermouth mention it as a borough. In 1295 it returned two
+members to parliament and then not again until 1640. By the
+Representation of the People Act of 1867 the representation was reduced
+to one member, and by the Redistribution Act of 1885 it was
+disfranchised. In 1221 William de Fortibus, earl of Albemarle, was
+granted a Saturday market, which later in the year was transferred to
+Monday, the day on which it has continued to be held ever since. The
+Michaelmas Fair existed in 1343, and an inquisition dated 1374 mentions
+two horse-fairs on Whit-Monday and at Michaelmas. In 1638 Algernon
+Percy, earl of Northumberland, obtained a grant of a fair every
+Wednesday from the first week in May till Michaelmas. The chief sources
+of revenue in Norman times were the valuable fisheries and numerous
+mills.
+
+
+
+
+COCK-FIGHTING, or COCKING, the sport of pitting game-cocks to fight, and
+breeding and training them for the purpose. The game-fowl is now
+probably the nearest to the Indian jungle-fowl (_Gallus ferrugineus_),
+from which all domestic fowls are believed to be descended. The sport
+was popular in ancient times in India, China, Persia and other eastern
+countries, and was introduced into Greece in the time of Themistocles.
+The latter, while moving with his army against the Persians, observed
+two cocks fighting desperately, and, stopping his troops, inspired them
+by calling their attention to the valour and obstinacy of the feathered
+warriors. In honour of the ensuing victory of the Greeks cock-fights
+were thenceforth held annually at Athens, at first in a patriotic and
+religious spirit, but afterwards purely for the love of the sport.
+Lucian makes Solon speak of quail-fighting and cocking, but he is
+evidently referring to a time later than that of Themistocles. From
+Athens the sport spread throughout Greece, Asia Minor and Sicily, the
+best cocks being bred in Alexandria, Delos, Rhodes and Tanagra. For a
+long time the Romans affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but
+ended by adopting it so enthusiastically that Columella (1st century
+A.D.) complained that its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in
+betting at the pit-side. The cocks were provided with iron spurs
+(_tela_), as in the East, and were often dosed with stimulants to make
+them fight more savagely.
+
+From Rome cocking spread northwards, and, although opposed by the
+Christian church, nevertheless became popular in Great Britain, the Low
+Countries, Italy, Germany, Spain and her colonies. On account of adverse
+legislation cocking has practically died out everywhere excepting in
+Spain, countries of Spanish origin and the Orient, where it is still
+legal and extremely popular. It was probably introduced into England by
+the Romans before Caesar's time. William Fitz-Stephen first speaks of it
+in the time of Henry II. as a sport for school-boys on holidays, and
+particularly on Shrove Tuesday, the masters themselves directing the
+fights, or mains, from which they derived a material advantage, as the
+dead birds fell to them. It became very popular throughout England and
+Wales, as well as in Scotland, where it was introduced in 1681.
+Occasionally the authorities tried to repress it, especially Cromwell,
+who put an almost complete stop to it for a brief period, but the
+Restoration re-established it among the national-pastimes. Contemporary
+apologists do not, in the 17th century, consider its cruelty at all, but
+concern themselves solely with its justification as a source of
+pleasure. "If Leviathan took his sport in the waters, how much more may
+Man take his sport upon the land?" From the time of Henry VIII., who
+added the famous Royal Cock-pit to his palace of Whitehall, cocking was
+called the "royal diversion," and the Stuarts, particularly James I. and
+Charles II., were among its most enthusiastic devotees, their example
+being followed by the gentry down to the 19th century. Gervase Markham
+in his _Pleasures of Princes_ (1614) wrote "Of the Choyce, Ordring,
+Breeding and Dyeting of the fighting-Cocke for Battell," his quaint
+directions being of the most explicit nature. When a cock is to be
+trained for the pit he must be fed "three or foure daies only with old
+Maunchet (fine white bread) and spring water." He is then set to spar
+with another cock, "putting a payre of hots upon each of their heeles,
+which Hots are soft, bumbasted roules of Leather, covering their spurs,
+so that they cannot hurt each other.... Let them fight and buffet one
+another a good space." After exercise the bird must be put into a
+basket, covered with hay and set near the fire. "Then let him sweate,
+for the nature of this scowring is to bring away his grease, and to
+breed breath, and strength." If not killed in the fight, "the first
+thing you doe, you shall search his wounds, and as many as you can find
+you shall with your mouth sucke the blood out of them, then wash them
+with warm salt water,... give him a roule or two, and so stove him up as
+hot as you can."
+
+Cocking-mains usually consisted of fights between an agreed number of
+pairs of birds, the majority of victories deciding the main; but there
+were two other varieties that aroused the particular ire of moralists.
+These were the "battle royal," in which a number of birds were "set,"
+i.e. placed in the pit, at the same time, and allowed to remain until
+all but one, the victor, were killed or disabled; and the "Welsh main,"
+in which eight pairs were matched, the eight victors being again paired,
+then four, and finally the last surviving pair. Among London cock-pits
+were those at Westminster, in Drury Lane, Jewin Street and Birdcage Walk
+(depicted by Hogarth). Over the royal pit at Whitehall presided the
+king's cockmaster. The pits were circular in shape with a matted stage
+about 20 ft. in diameter and surrounded by a barrier to keep the birds
+from falling off. Upon this barrier the first row of the audience
+leaned. Hardly a town in the kingdom was without its cockpit, which
+offered the sporting classes opportunities for betting not as yet
+sufficiently supplied by horse-racing. With the growth of the latter
+sport and the increased facilities for reaching the racing centres,
+cocking gradually declined, especially after parliament passed laws
+against it, so that gentlemen risked arrest by attending a main.
+
+Among the best-known devotees of the sport was a Colonel Mordaunt, who,
+about 1780, took a number of the best English game-cocks to India. There
+he found the sport in high favour with the native rulers and his birds
+were beaten. Perhaps the most famous main in England took place at
+Lincoln in 1830 between the birds of Joseph Gilliver, the most
+celebrated breeder, or "feeder," of his day, and those of the earl of
+Derby. The conditions called for seven birds a side, and the stakes were
+5000 guineas the main and 1000 guineas each match. The main was won by
+Gilliver by five matches to two. His grandson was also a breeder, and
+the blood of his cocks still runs in the best breeds of Great Britain
+and America. Another famous breeder was Dr Bellyse of Audlem, the
+principal figure in the great mains fought at Chester during race-week
+at the beginning of the 19th century. His favourite breed was the white
+pile, and "Cheshire piles" are still much-fancied birds. Others were
+Irish brown-reds, Lancashire black-reds and Staffordshire duns.
+
+In Wales, as well as some parts of England, cocking-mains took place
+regularly in churchyards, and in many instances even inside the churches
+themselves. Sundays, wakes and church festivals were favourite occasions
+for them. The habit of holding mains in schools was common from the 12th
+to about the middle of the 19th century. When cocking was at its height,
+the pupils of many schools were made a special allowance for purchasing
+fighting-cocks, and parents were expected to contribute to the expenses
+of the annual main on Shrove Tuesday, this money being called
+"cockpence." Cock-fighting was prohibited by law in Great Britain in
+1849.
+
+Cocking was early introduced into America, though it was always frowned
+upon in New England. Some of the older states, as Massachusetts, forbade
+it by passing laws against cruelty as early as 1836, and it is now
+expressly prohibited in Canada and in most states of the Union, or is
+repressed by general laws for the prevention of cruelty to animals.
+
+Cocks are fought at an age of from one to two years. "Heeling," or the
+proper fastening of the spurs, and "cutting out," trimming the wings at
+a slope, and cutting the tail down by one-third of its length and
+shortening the hackle and rump feathers, are arts acquired by
+experience. The comb is cut down close, so as to offer the least
+possible mark for the hostile bird's bill. The cock is then provided
+with either "short heels," spurs 1½ in. or less in length, or with "long
+heels," from 2 to 2½ in. in length. The training of a cock for the pit
+lasts from ten days to a month or more, during which time the bird is
+subjected to a rigid diet and exercise in running and sparring. The
+birds may not be touched after being set down in the pit, unless to
+extricate them from the matting. Whenever a bird refuses to fight longer
+he is set breast to breast with his adversary in the middle of the pit,
+and if he then still refuses to fight he is regarded as defeated. Among
+the favourite breeds may be mentioned the "Irish gilders," "Irish
+Grays," "Shawlnecks," "Gordons," "Eslin Red-Quills," "Baltimore
+Topknots," "Dominiques," "War-horses" and "Claibornes."
+
+  Cock-fighting possesses an extensive literature of its own. See
+  Gervase Markham, _Pleasures of Princes_ (London, 1614); Blain, _Rural
+  Sports_ (London, 1853); "Game Cocks and Cock-Fighting," _Outing_, vol.
+  39; "A Modest Commendation of Cock-Fighting," _Blackwood's Magazine_,
+  vol. 22; "Cock-Fighting in Schools," _Chambers' Magazine_, vol. 65.
+
+
+
+
+COCK LANE GHOST, a supposed apparition, the vagaries of which attracted
+extraordinary public attention in London during 1762. At a house in Cock
+Lane, Smithfield, tenanted by one Parsons, knockings and other noises
+were said to occur at night varied by the appearance of a luminous
+figure, alleged to be the ghost of a Mrs Kent who had died in the house
+some two years before. A thorough investigation revealed that Parsons'
+daughter, a child of eleven, was the source of the disturbance. The
+object of the Parsons family seems to have been to accuse the husband of
+the deceased woman of murdering her, with a view to blackmail. Parsons
+was prosecuted and condemned to the pillory. Among the crowds who
+visited the house was Dr Johnson, who was in consequence made the
+object of a scurrilous attack by the poet Charles Churchill in "The
+Ghost."
+
+  See A. Lang, _Cock Lane and Common Sense_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+COCKLE, SIR JAMES (1819-1895), English lawyer and mathematician, was
+born on the 14th of January 1819. He was the second son of James Cockle,
+a surgeon, of Great Oakley, Essex. Educated at Charterhouse and Trinity
+College, Cambridge, he entered the Middle Temple in 1838, practising as
+a special pleader in 1845 and being called in 1846. Joining the midland
+circuit, he acquired a good practice, and on the recommendation of Chief
+Justice Sir William Erle he was appointed chief justice of Queensland in
+1863. He received the honour of knighthood in 1869, retired from the
+bench, and returned to England in 1879.
+
+Cockle is more remembered for his mathematical and scientific
+investigations than as a lawyer. Like many young mathematicians he
+attacked the problem of resolving the higher algebraic equations,
+notwithstanding Abel's proof that a solution by radicles was impossible.
+In this field Cockle achieved some notable results, amongst which is his
+reproduction of Sir William R. Hamilton's modification of Abel's
+theorem. Algebraic forms were a favourite object of his studies, and he
+discovered and developed the theory of criticoids, or differential
+invariants; he also made contributions to the theory of differential
+equations. He displayed a keen interest in scientific societies. From
+1863 to 1879 he was president of the Queensland Philosophical Society
+(now incorporated in the Royal Society of Queensland); on his return to
+England he became associated with the London Mathematical Society, of
+which he was president from 1886 to 1888, and the Royal Astronomical
+Society, serving as a member of the council from 1888 to 1892. He died
+in London on the 27th of January 1895.
+
+  A volume containing his scientific and mathematical researches made
+  during the years 1864-1877 was presented to the British Museum in 1897
+  by his widow. See the obituary notice by the Rev. R. Harley in _Proc.
+  Roy. Soc._ vol. 59.
+
+
+
+
+COCKLE, in zoology, a mollusc (_Cardium_) of the class Lamellibranchia
+(q.v.). A very large number of species of _Cardium_ have been
+distinguished by conchologists. Besides the common species _Cardium
+edule_, two others occur in Britain, but are not sufficiently common to
+be of commercial importance. One of these is _C. echinatum_, which is
+larger than the common species, reaching 3 in. in diameter, and
+distinguished by the presence of spines along the ribs of the shell. The
+other is _C. norvegicum_, which is also somewhat larger than _C. edule_,
+is longer dorso-ventrally than broad, and is only faintly ribbed.
+
+The two valves of the shell of the common cockle are similar to each
+other, and somewhat circular in outline. The beak or umbo of each valve
+is prominent and rounded, and a number of sharp ridges and furrows
+radiate from the apex to the free edge of the shell, which is crenated.
+The ligament is external, and the hinge carries cardinal teeth in each
+valve. The interior of the shell is remarkable for the absence of pearly
+lustre on its interior surface. The colour externally is reddish or
+yellowish. The pallial line, which is the line of attachment of the
+mantle parallel to the edge of the shell, is not indented by a sinus at
+the posterior end. In the entire animal the posterior end projects
+slightly more than the anterior from the region of the umbones.
+
+The animal possesses two nearly equal adductor muscles. The edges of the
+mantle are united posteriorly except at the anal and branchial
+apertures, which are placed at the ends of two very short siphons or
+tubular prolongations of the mantle; the siphons bear a number of short
+tentacles, and many of these are furnished with eye-spots. The foot is
+very large and powerful; it can be protruded from the anterior aperture
+between the mantle edges, and its outer part is bent sharply forwards
+and terminates in a point. By means of this muscular foot the cockle
+burrows rapidly in the muddy sand of the sea-shore, and it can also when
+it is not buried perform considerable leaps by suddenly bending the
+foot. The foot has a byssus gland on its posterior surface.
+
+On either side of the body between the mantle and the foot are two flat
+gills each composed of two lamellae. _Cardium_ belongs to the order of
+Lamellibranchia in which the gills present the maximum of complexity,
+the original vertical filaments of which they are composed being united
+by interfilamentar and interlamellar junctions. In other respects the
+anatomy of the cockle presents no important differences from that of a
+typical Lamellibranch. The sexes are distinct, and the generative
+opening is on the side of the body above the edge of the inner lamella
+of the inner gill. The eggs are minute, and pass out into the sea-water
+through the dorsal or exhalent siphon. The breeding season is April, May
+and June. The larva for a time swims freely in the sea-water, having a
+circlet of cilia round the body in front of the mouth, forming the
+velum. The shell is developed on the dorsal surface behind the velum,
+the foot on the opposite or ventral surface behind the mouth. After a
+few days, when the mantle bearing the shell valves has developed so much
+as to enclose the whole body, the young cockle sinks to the bottom and
+commences to follow the habits of the adult. The usual size of the
+cockle in its shell is from 1 to 2 in. in breadth.
+
+The common cockle is regularly used as food by the poorer classes. It
+occurs in abundance on sandy shores in all estuaries. At the mouth of
+the Thames the gathering of cockles forms a considerable industry,
+especially at Leigh. On the coast of Lancashire also the fishery, if it
+may be so called, is of considerable importance. The cockles are
+gathered by the simple process of raking them from the sand, and they
+are usually boiled and extracted from their shells before being sent to
+market. The cockle is liable to the same suspicion as the oyster of
+conveying the contamination of typhoid fever where the shores are
+polluted, but as it is boiled before being eaten it is probably less
+dangerous.     (J. T. C.)
+
+
+
+
+COCKNEY, a colloquial name applied to Londoners generally, but more
+properly confined to those born in London, or more strictly still to
+those born within the sound of the bells of St Mary-le-Bow church. The
+origin of the word has been the subject of many guesses, from that in
+John Minsheu's lexicon, _Ductor in linguas_ (1617), which gives the tale
+of the town-bred child who, on hearing a horse neigh, asked whether a
+"cock neighed" too, to the confusion of the word with the name of the
+Utopia, the land of Cockaigne (q.v.). The historical examination of the
+various uses of "Cockney," by Sir James Murray (see _Academy_, 10th of
+May 1890, and the _New English Dictionary_, s.v.) clearly shows the true
+derivation. The earliest form of the word is _cokenay_ or _cokeney_,
+i.e. the _ey_ or egg, and _coken_, genitive plural of "cock," "cocks'
+eggs" being the name given to the small and malformed eggs sometimes
+laid by young hens, known in German as _Hahneneier_. An early quotation,
+in Langland's _Piers Plowman_, A. vii. 272, gives the combination of
+"cokeneyes" and bacon to make a "collop," or dish of eggs and bacon. The
+word then applied to a child overlong nursed by its mother, hence to a
+simpleton or milksop. Thus in Chaucer, _Reeve's Tale_, the word is used
+with _daf_, i.e. a fool. The particular application of the name as a
+term of contempt given by country folk to town-bred people, with their
+dandified airs and ignorance of country ways and country objects, is
+easy. Thus Robert Whittington or Whitinton (_fl._ 1520), speaks of the
+"cokneys" in such "great cytees as London, York, Perusy" (Perugia),
+showing the general use of the word. It was not till the beginning of
+the 17th century that "cockney" appears to be confined to the
+inhabitants of London.
+
+The so-called "Cockney" accent or pronunciation has varied in type. In
+the first part of the 19th century, it was chiefly characterized by the
+substitution of a _v_ for a _w_, or vice versa. This has almost entirely
+disappeared, and the chief consonantal variation which exists is perhaps
+the change of _th_ to _f_ or _v_, as in "fing" for thing, or "favver"
+for father. This and the vowel-sound change from _ou_ to _ah_, as in
+"abaht" for "about," are only heard among the uneducated classes, and,
+together with other characteristic pronunciations, phrases and words,
+have been well illustrated in the so-called "coster" songs of Albert
+Chevalier. The most marked and widely-prevalent change of vowel sound is
+that of _ei_ for _ai_, so that "daily" becomes "dyly" and "may" becomes
+"my." This is sometimes so marked that it almost amounts to incapacity
+to distinguish the vowels _a_ and _i_, and is almost universal in large
+classes of the population of London. The name of the "Cockney School of
+Poetry" was applied in 1817 to the literary circle of which Leigh Hunt
+was the principal representative, though Keats also was aimed at. The
+articles in _Blackwood's Magazine_, in which the name appeared, have
+generally, but probably wrongly, been attributed to John Gibson
+Lockhart.
+
+
+
+
+COCK-OF-THE-ROCK, the familiar name of the birds of the genus Rupicola
+(subfamily Rupicolinae) of the Cotingas (allied to the Manakins, q.v.),
+found in the Amazon valley. They are about the size of a pigeon, with
+orange-coloured plumage, a pronounced crest, and orange-red flesh, and
+build their nests on rock. The skins and feathers are highly valued for
+decoration.
+
+
+
+
+COCKPIT, the term originally for an enclosed place in which the sport of
+cock-fighting (q.v.) was carried on. On the site of an old cockpit
+opposite Whitehall in London was a block of buildings used from the 17th
+century as offices by the treasury and the privy council, for which the
+old name survived till the early 19th century. The name was given also
+to a theatre in London, built in the early part of the 17th century on
+the site of Drury Lane theatre. As the place where the wounded in battle
+were tended, or where the junior officers consorted, the term was also
+formerly applied to a cabin used for these purposes on the lower deck of
+a man-of-war.
+
+
+
+
+COCKROACH[1] (_Blattidae_), a family of orthopterous insects,
+distinguished by their flattened bodies, long thread-like antennae, and
+shining leathery integuments. Cockroaches are nocturnal creatures,
+secreting themselves in chinks and crevices about houses, issuing from
+their retreats when the lights are extinguished, and moving about with
+extraordinary rapidity in search of food. They are voracious and
+omnivorous, devouring, or at least damaging, whatever comes in their
+way, for all the species emit a disagreeable odour, which they
+communicate to whatever article of food or clothing they may touch.
+
+The common cockroach (_Stilopyga orientalis_) is not indigenous to
+Europe, but is believed to have been introduced from the Levant in the
+cargoes of trading vessels. The wings in the male are shorter than the
+body; in the female they are rudimentary. The eggs, which are 16 in
+number, are deposited in a leathery capsule fixed by a gum-like
+substance to the abdomen of the female, and thus carried about till the
+young are ready to escape, when the capsule becomes softened by the
+emission of a fluid substance. The larvae are perfectly white at first
+and wingless, although in other respects not unlike their parents, but
+they are not mature insects until after the sixth casting of the skin.
+
+The American cockroach (_Periplaneta americana_) is larger than the
+former, and is not uncommon in European seaports trading with America,
+being conveyed in cargoes of grain and other food produce. It is very
+abundant in the Zoological Gardens in London, where it occurs in
+conjunction with a much smaller imported species _Phyllodromia
+germanica_, which may also be seen in some of the cheaper restaurants.
+
+In both of these species the females, as well as the males, are winged.
+
+In addition to these noxious and obtrusive forms, England has a few
+indigenous species belonging to the genus _Ectobia_, which live under
+stones or fallen trees in fields and woods. The largest known species is
+the drummer of the West Indies (_Blabera gigantea_), so called from the
+tapping noise it makes on wood, sufficient, when joined in by several
+individuals, as usually happens, to break the slumbers of a household.
+It is about 2 in. long, with wings 3 in. in expanse, and forms one of
+the most noisome and injurious of insect pests. Wingless females of many
+tropical species present a close superficial resemblance to woodlice;
+and one interesting apterous form known as _Pseudoglomeris_, from the
+East Indies, is able to roll up like a millipede.
+
+The best mode of destroying cockroaches is, when the fire and lights
+are extinguished at night, to lay some treacle on a piece of wood afloat
+on a broad basin of water. This proves a temptation to the vermin too
+great to be resisted. The chinks and holes from which they issue should
+also be filled up with unslaked lime, or painted with a mixture of borax
+and heated turpentine.
+
+  See generally Miall and Denny, _The Structure and Life History of the
+  Cockroach_ (1887); G. H. Carpenter, _Insects: their Structure and
+  Life_ (1899); Charles Lester Marlatt, _Household Insects_ (U.S.
+  Department of Agriculture, revised edition, 1902); Leland Ossian
+  Howard, _The Insect Book_ (1902).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word is a corruption of Sp. _cucaracha_. In America it is
+    commonly abbreviated to "roach."
+
+
+
+
+COCK'S-COMB, in botany, a cultivated form of _Celosia cristata_ (natural
+order Amarantaceae), in which the inflorescence is monstrous, forming a
+flat "fasciated" axis bearing numerous small flowers. The plant is a
+low-growing herbaceous annual, bearing a large, comb-like, dark red,
+scarlet or purplish mass of flowers. Seeds are sown in March or April in
+pans of rich, well-drained sandy soil, which are placed in a hot-bed at
+65° to 70° in a moist atmosphere. The seedlings require plenty of light,
+and when large enough to handle are potted off and placed close to the
+glass in a frame under similar conditions. When the heads show they are
+shifted into 5-in. pots, which are plunged to their rims in ashes or
+coco-nut fibre refuse, in a hot-bed, as before, close to the glass; they
+are sparingly watered and more air admitted. The soil recommended is a
+half-rich sandy loam and half-rotten cow and stable manure mixed with a
+dash of silver sand. The other species of _Celosia_ cultivated are _C.
+pyramidalis_, with a pyramidal inflorescence, varying in colour in the
+great number of varieties, and _C. argentea_, with a dense white
+inflorescence. They require a similar cultural treatment to that given
+for _C. cristata_.
+
+
+
+
+COCKTON, HENRY (1807-1853), English humorous novelist, was born in
+London on the 7th of December 1807. He published a number of volumes,
+but is best known as the author of _Valentine Vox, the Ventriloquist_
+(1840) and _Sylvester Sound, the Somnambulist_ (1844). He died at Bury
+St Edmunds on the 26th of June 1853.
+
+
+
+
+COCKX (or COCK), HIERONYMUS [JEROME] (1510-1570), Flemish painter and
+engraver, was born at Antwerp, and in 1545 was admitted to the Gild of
+St Luke as a painter. It is as an engraver, however, that he is famous,
+a number of portraits and subject-pictures by him, and reproductions of
+Flemish masters, being well known. His brother Matthys (1505-1552) was
+also a painter.
+
+
+
+
+COCOA,[1] more properly CACAO, a valuable dietary substance yielded by
+the seeds of several small trees belonging to the genus _Theobroma_, of
+the natural order Sterculiaceae. The whole genus, which comprises twelve
+species, belongs to the tropical parts of the American continent; and
+although the cocoa of commerce is probably the produce of more than one
+species, by far the greatest and most valuable portion is obtained from
+_Theobroma Cacao_. The generic name is derived from [Greek: theos] (god)
+and [Greek: broma] (food), and was bestowed by Linnaeus as an indication
+of the high appreciation in which he held the beverage prepared from the
+seeds, which he considered to be a food fit for the gods.
+
+The common cacao tree is of low stature, seldom exceeding 25 ft. in
+height, but it is taller in its native forests than it is in cultivated
+plantations. The leaves are large, smooth, and glossy, elliptic-oblong
+and tapering in form, growing principally at the ends of branches, but
+sometimes springing directly from the main trunk. The flowers are small,
+and occur in numerous clusters on the main branches and the trunk, a
+very marked peculiarity which gives the matured fruit the appearance of
+being artificially attached to the tree. Generally only a single fruit
+is matured from each cluster of flowers. When ripe the fruit or "pod" is
+elliptical-ovoid in form, from 7 to 10 in. in length and from 3 to 4½
+in. in diameter. It has a hard, thick, leathery rind of a rich
+purplish-yellow colour, externally rough and marked with ten very
+distinct longitudinal ribs or elevations. The interior of the fruit has
+five cells, in each of which is a row of from 5 to 12 seeds embedded in
+a soft delicately pink acid pulp. Each fruit thus contains from 20 to 50
+or more seeds, which constitute the raw cacao or "cacao beans" of
+commerce.
+
+[Illustration: Branch of Cocoa Tree, with Fruit in section, much
+reduced.]
+
+The tree appears to have been originally a native of the coast lands of
+the Gulf of Mexico and tropical South America as far south as the basin
+of the Amazon; but it can be cultivated in suitable situations within
+the 25th parallels of latitude. It flourishes best within the 15th
+parallels, at elevations ranging from near the sea-level up to about
+2000 ft. in height. It is now cultivated in Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala,
+Nicaragua, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, New Granada, Venezuela, Surinam,
+Guiana, and in many of the West Indian islands, particularly in
+Trinidad, San Domingo, Grenada, Cuba, Porto Rico and Jamaica. Away from
+America it has been introduced, and is cultivated on a large scale in
+West Africa, Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies.
+
+_History._--The value of cacao was appreciated in its native country
+before the discovery of America by Europeans. The Spaniards found in use
+in Mexico a beverage known by the Aztec name of _chocolath_, from
+_choco_ (cacao) and _lath_ (water). W. H. Prescott records that the
+emperor Montezuma of Mexico was "exceedingly fond of it ... no less than
+50 jars or pitchers being prepared for his own daily consumption; 2000
+more were allowed for that of his household." Bags of cacao containing a
+specified number of beans were also a recognized form of currency in the
+country. The product was early introduced into Spain, and thence to
+other parts of Europe. The _Public Advertiser_ (London) of June 16,
+1657, contains an announcement that "In Bishopgate St., in Queen's Head
+Alley, at a Frenchman's house, is an excellent West India drink, called
+chocolate, to be sold, where you may have it ready at any time, and also
+unmade at reasonable rates." Chocolate was a very fashionable beverage
+in the early part of the 18th century.
+
+_Cultivated Varieties._--Numerous varieties of the cacao, i.e. of
+_Theobroma Cacao_, are recognized in cultivation. According to Dr P.
+Preuss, who has travelled extensively in the cacao producing countries
+of the world studying this crop, it is impossible to embody in a single
+table the characteristics of the world's varieties. A separate
+classification is needed for almost each country. In 1882 the Trinidad
+forms were classified by Sir D. Morris. This table was later revised by
+Mr J. H. Hart, and more recently Mr R. H. Lock studied the Ceylon
+varieties. As the Ceylon cacaos were obtained mainly from Trinidad, and
+as Mr Lock's results agree substantially with those of Sir D. Morris,
+they serve to illustrate the distinguishing characteristics of the West
+Indian and Ceylon forms. The main divisions are as follows:--
+
+  1. _Criollo._--Pods relatively thin-walled and soft, rough, pointed at
+  apex. The seeds or beans are plump and of pale colour. The ripe pods
+  may be either red (colorado) or yellow (amarillo).
+
+  2. _Forastero._--Pods relatively thick-walled and hard. The seeds vary
+  in colour from pale to deep purple. Various varieties are recognized,
+  such as cundeamor, amelonado, liso, calabacillo, differing in shape,
+  colour and character of beans, &c., and of each of these again there
+  may be a colorado and amarillo sub-variety. Of special interest is
+  calabacillo, a variety with a smooth, small pod, and deep purple
+  beans. It is considered by some to be sufficiently distinct to form a
+  third type equivalent to criollo or forastero. Others again would
+  raise amelonado to the rank of a distinct type. Of the above
+  calabacillo is the hardiest and yields the least valuable beans;
+  criollo is the most delicate and yields beans of the highest value,
+  whilst forastero is intermediate in both respects. In general pale
+  coloured beans are less bitter and more valuable than purple beans.
+  Both, however, may occur in the same pod.
+
+_Alligator_, or _lagarto cacao_, is the common name of a variety
+cultivated in Nicaragua, Guatemala, &c. Its pods are distinctly
+five-angled and beset with irregular, warty protuberances. Some regard
+it as a distinct species, _T. pentagona_, but others only as a variety
+of _T. Cacao_. Its produce is of high value.
+
+_T. bicolor_, indigenous to Central America, is another species of some
+interest. It bears small, hard woody pods about 6 in. long and 3 in. in
+diameter, with curious surface markings. The beans possess a fetid odour
+and a bitter flavour and are known as "tiger cacao." It is not likely to
+become of great commercial importance, although consumed locally where
+found. "_Cacao bianco_" and "_pataste_" are other names for this
+species.
+
+_Cultivation and Preparation._--Cacao requires for its successful
+cultivation a deep, well-watered and yet well-drained soil, shelter from
+strong winds, and a thoroughly tropical climate, with a mean annual
+temperature of about 80° F., a rainfall of from 50 to 100 or more in.,
+and freedom from long droughts. Young plants are grown from seed, which
+may either be sown directly in the positions the future trees are to
+occupy, varying according to local circumstances from 6 to 25 ft. apart
+in all directions, or raised in nurseries and transplanted later. The
+latter course is desirable when it is necessary to water and otherwise
+tend the seedlings. However raised, the young plants require to be
+shaded, and this is usually done by planting bananas, cassava or other
+useful crops between the rows of cacao. In some countries, but not in
+all, permanent shade trees are planted amongst the cacao. Various
+leguminous trees are commonly used, e.g. the coral tree (_Erythrina_
+spp.) sometimes known as _bois immortel_ and _madre del cacao_ or mother
+of cocoa, _Albizzia Lebbek_, _Pithecolobium Saman_, &c. The various
+rubber trees have been employed with success. Wind belts are also
+necessary in exposed situations.
+
+Cacao comes into bearing when about five years old, the small pink
+flowers and the succeeding large pods being borne directly on the trunk
+and main branches. The pods are carefully picked when ripe, broken open,
+and the slimy mass of contained seeds and their enveloping mucilaginous
+pulp extracted. The "beans" are next fermented or "sweated," often in
+special houses constructed for the purpose, or by placing them in heaps
+and covering with leaves or earth, or in baskets, barrels, &c., lined
+with banana leaves. During fermentation the beans should be stirred once
+daily or oftener. The time of fermentation varies from one to twelve or
+even more days. Pale-coloured beans usually require less time than the
+deep purple and bitter kinds. The method adopted also considerably
+modifies the time required. The process of fermenting destroys the
+mucilage; the seeds lose to some degree their bitter flavour and their
+colour also changes: the pale criollo seeds, for example, developing a
+cinnamon-brown colour. The "fracture" of the beans also
+characteristically alters. Fermentation is not universally practised;
+the purple colour and bitter taste of unfermented cacao being wanted in
+some markets.
+
+After the fermentation is completed the beans may or may not be washed,
+opinion as to the desirability of this process varying in different
+countries. In any case, however, they have to be dried and cured. When
+climatic conditions are favourable this is commonly done by spreading
+the beans in thin layers on barbecues, or stone drying floors, or
+otherwise exposing them to the sun. Sliding roofs or other means of
+rapidly affording shelter are desirable in case of showers, excessive
+heat, and also for protection at night. Artificial drying is now often
+resorted to and various patterns of drying houses are in use.
+
+The appearance of the beans may often be improved by "claying," a very
+slight coating of red earth or clay being added. Polishing the beans
+also gives them a brighter appearance, removes mildew, and remnants of
+dried mucilage, &c. This may be done by "dancing the cacao," i.e.
+treading a heap with the bare feet, or by the use of special polishing
+machines. The cacao is now ready for shipment, and is usually packed in
+bags. Hamburg is the chief port in the world for cacao. Until quite
+recently, however, this position was held by Havre, which is now second
+in Europe. New York imports about the same amount as Havre. London
+follows next in importance.
+
+_Cacao-producing Countries._--In the following table the production in
+tons (of 1000 kilos = 2205 lb) of the principal producing countries,
+arranged under continents, is given for 1905 and 1901. During this
+period the total world's production has increased by about 40%, as
+indicated in the summary below. Study of the table will show where the
+increase has taken place, but attention is directed especially to the
+rapid development in West Africa.
+
+    _America._
+                                    1905 (tons).  1901 (tons).
+  Ecuador                              21,128      22,896
+  Brazil                               21,091      18,324
+  Trinidad                             20,018      11,943
+  San Domingo                          12,785       6,850
+  Venezuela                            11,700       7,860
+  Grenada                               5,456       4,865
+  Cuba and Porto Rico                   3,000       1,750
+  Haiti                                 2,343       1,950
+  Surinam                               1,612       3,163
+  Jamaica                               1,484       1,350
+  French West Indies                    1,200         825
+  St. Lucia                               700         765
+  Dominica                                597         ..
+                                      -------     -------
+  Total, America                      103,114      82,541
+
+
+    _Africa._
+                                    1905 (tons).  1901 (tons).
+  San Thomé                            25,379      16,983
+  Gold Coast and Lagos                  5,666         997
+  Cameroons                             1,185         528
+  Congo Free State                        195         ..
+                                      -------     -------
+  Total, Africa                        32,425      18,508
+
+
+    _Asia._
+                                    1905 (tons).  1901 (tons).
+  Ceylon                                 3543        2697
+  Dutch East Indies                      1492        1277
+                                        -----       -----
+  Total, Asia                            5035        3974
+  Other countries                         800         700
+
+
+    _World's Production._
+                                    1905 (tons).  1901 (tons).
+  Tropical America and West Indies    103,114      82,541
+  West Africa                          32,425      18,508
+  Asia                                  5,035       3,974
+  Other countries                         800         700
+                                      -------     -------
+  Total                               141,374     105,723
+
+_Composition._--The relative weights of the various parts of a whole
+cacao pod are given thus by Prof. J. B. Harrison for British Guiana
+specimens:--
+
+                                    Calabacillo.  Forastero.
+  Husk                                  80.59       89.87
+  Pulp                                   7.61        4.23
+  Cuticles of the beans                  1.77        0.50
+  Kernels of the beans                  10.03        5.40
+                                      -------     -------
+                                       100.00      100.00
+
+The husk is composed mainly of water and cellulose woody tissue, with
+their usual mineral constituents, and has a low manurial value. The pulp
+contains sugars which become converted into alcohol during fermentation.
+Fibrous elements and water compose about six-tenths of the cuticles,
+which also contain approximately: albuminoids (6%), alkaloids (2%), fat
+(2%), sugars (6%), starch (7%), colouring matter (4%), tartaric acid
+(3%) and small quantities of various mineral constituents. The average
+composition of the kernels, according to Payen, is:--
+
+                                Per cent.
+  Fat (cacao butter)               50
+  Starch                           10
+  Albuminoids                      20
+  Water                            12
+  Cellulose                         2
+  Mineral matter                    4
+  Theobromine                       2
+  Colouring matter (cacao-red)   trace
+                                 -------
+                                  100.00
+
+_Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate._--The beans are cleaned and sorted
+to remove foreign bodies of all kinds and also graded into sizes to
+secure uniformity in roasting. The latter process is carried out in
+rotating iron drums in which the beans are heated to a temperature of
+about 260° to 280° F., and results in developing the aroma, partially
+converting the starch into dextrin, and eliminating bitter constituents.
+The beans also dry and their shells become crisp. In the next process
+the beans are gently crushed and winnowed, whereby the light shells are
+removed, and after removal by sifting of the "germs" the beans are left
+in the form of the irregular cocoa-nibs occasionally seen in shops.
+Cocoa-nibs may be infused with water and drunk, but for most people the
+beverage is too rich, containing the whole of the cacao-fat or
+cacao-butter. This fat is extracted from the carefully ground nibs by
+employing great hydraulic pressure in heated presses. The fat exudes and
+solidifies. When fresh it is yellowish-white, but becomes quite white on
+keeping. It is very valuable for pharmaceutical purposes and is a
+constituent of many pomades. With care it can be kept for a long time
+without going rancid.
+
+After the extraction of the fat the resulting mass is ground to a fine
+powder when it is ready for use in the ordinary way. Many preparations
+on the market are of course not pure cocoa but contain admixtures of
+various starchy and other bodies.
+
+The shells of the beans separated by the winnowing process contain
+theobromine, and their infusion with water is sometimes used as a
+substitute for coffee, under the name "miserabile." More recently they
+have been put to good account as a cattle food.
+
+In the preparation of chocolate the preliminary processes of cleaning,
+sorting, roasting and removing the shells, and grinding the nibs, are
+followed as for cocoa. The fat, however, is not extracted, but sugar,
+and sometimes other materials also, are added to the ground pasty mass,
+together with suitable flavouring materials, as for example vanilla. The
+greatest care is taken in the process and elaborate grinding and mixing
+machinery employed. The final result is a semi-liquid mass which is
+moulded into the familiar tablets or other forms in which chocolate
+comes on the market.
+
+Cocoa as a beverage has a similar action to tea and coffee, inasmuch as
+the physiological properties of all three are due to the alkaloids and
+volatile oils they contain. Tea and coffee both contain the alkaloid
+caffeine, whilst cocoa contains theobromine. In tea and coffee, however,
+we only drink an infusion of the leaves or seeds, whilst in cocoa the
+whole material is taken in a state of very fine suspension, and as the
+preceding analysis indicates, the cocoa bean, even with the fat
+extracted, is of high nutritive value.
+
+_Cacao-consuming Countries._--The principal cacao-consuming countries
+are indicated below, which gives the imports into the countries named
+for 1905. These figures, as also those on production, are taken from
+_Der Gordian_.
+
+                             Tons (1000 kilos).
+  United States of America       34,958
+  Germany                        29,663
+  France                         21,748
+  United Kingdom                 21,106
+  Holland                        19,295
+  Spain                           6,102
+  Switzerland                     5,218
+  Belgium                         3,019
+  Austria Hungary                 2,668
+  Russia                          2,230
+  Denmark                         1,125
+  Italy                             971
+  Sweden                            900
+  Canada                            700
+  Australia                         600
+  Norway, Portugal and Finland      692
+                                -------
+                         Total  150,995
+
+During recent years the use of cocoa has increased rapidly in some
+countries. The following table gives the increase per cent in
+consumption in 1905 over that in 1901 for the five chief consumers:--
+
+                            Per cent.
+  United States                70
+  Germany                      61
+  France                       21
+  United Kingdom               11
+  Holland                      34
+
+     (A. B. R.; W. G. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] As a matter of nomenclature it is unfortunate that the corrupt
+    form "cocoa," from a confusion with the coco-nut (q.v.), has become
+    stereotyped. When introduced early in the 18th century it was as a
+    trisyllable _co-co-a_, a mispronunciation of _cacao_ or _cocoa_, the
+    Spanish adaptation from the Mexican _cacauatl_.
+
+
+
+
+COCO DE MER, or DOUBLE COCO-NUT, a palm, _Lodoicea Sechellarum_, which
+is a native of the Seychelles Islands. The flowers are borne in enormous
+fleshy spadices, the male and female on distinct plants. The fruits,
+which are among the largest known, take ten years to ripen; they have a
+fleshy and fibrous envelope surrounding a hard nut-like portion which is
+generally two-lobed, suggesting a large double coco-nut. The contents of
+the nut are edible as in the coco-nut. The empty fruits (after
+germination of the seed) are found floating in the Indian Ocean, and
+were known long before the palm was discovered, giving rise to various
+stories as to their origin.
+
+
+
+
+COCOMA, or CUCAMAS, a tribe of South American Indians living on the
+Marañon and lower Huallaga rivers, Peru. In 1681, at the time of the
+Jesuit missionaries' first visit, they had the custom of eating their
+dead and grinding the bones to a powder, which was mixed with a
+fermented liquor and drunk. When expostulated with by the Jesuits they
+said "it was better to be inside a friend than to be swallowed up by the
+cold earth." They are a provident, hard-working people, partly
+Christianized, and bolder than most of the civilized Indians. Their
+languages show affinity to the Tupi-Guarani stock.
+
+
+
+
+COCO-NUT[1] PALM (_Cocos nucifera_), a very beautiful and lofty
+palm-tree, growing to a height of from 60 to 100 ft., with a cylindrical
+stem which attains a thickness of 2 ft. The tree terminates in a crown
+of graceful waving pinnate leaves. The leaf, which may attain to 20 ft.
+in length, consists of a strong mid-rib, whence numerous long acute
+leaflets spring, giving the whole the appearance of a gigantic feather.
+The flowers are arranged in branching spikes 5 or 6 ft. long, enclosed
+in a tough spathe, and the fruits mature in bunches of from 10 to 20.
+The fruits when mature are oblong, and triangular in cross section,
+measuring from 12 to 18 in. in length and 6 to 8 in. in diameter. The
+fruit consists of a thick external husk or rind of a fibrous structure,
+within which is the ordinary coco-nut of commerce. The nut has a very
+hard, woody shell, enclosing the nucleus or kernel, the true seed,
+within which again is a milky liquid called coco-nut milk. The palm is
+so widely disseminated throughout tropical countries that it is
+impossible to distinguish its original habitat. It flourishes with equal
+vigour on the coast of the East Indies, throughout the tropical islands
+of the Pacific, and in the West Indies and tropical America. It,
+however, attains its greatest luxuriance and vigour on the sea shore,
+and it is most at home in the innumerable small islands of the Pacific
+seas, of the vegetation of which it is eminently characteristic. Its
+wide distribution, and its existence in even the smallest coral islets
+of the Pacific, are due to the character of the fruit, which is
+eminently adapted for distribution by sea. The fibrous husk renders the
+fruit light and the leathery skin prevents water-logging. The seed will
+germinate readily on the sea-shore, the seedling growing out through the
+soft germ-pore on the upper end of the hard nut. The fruits dropping
+into the sea from trees growing on any shores would be carried by tides
+and currents to be cast up and to vegetate on distant coasts.
+
+The coco-nut palm, being the most useful of its entire tribe to the
+natives of the regions in which it grows, and furnishing many valuable
+and important commercial products, is the subject of careful cultivation
+in many countries. On the Malabar and Coromandel coasts of India the
+trees grow in vast numbers; and in Ceylon, which is peculiarly well
+suited for their cultivation, it is estimated that twenty millions of
+the trees flourish. The wealth of a native in Ceylon is estimated by his
+property in coco-nut trees, and Sir J. Emerson Tennent noted a law case
+in a district court in which the subject in dispute was a claim to the
+2520th part of ten of the precious palms. The cultivation of coco-nut
+plantations in Ceylon was thus described by Sir J. E. Tennent. "The
+first operation in coco-nut planting is the formation of a nursery, for
+which purpose the ripe nuts are placed in squares containing about 400
+each; these are covered an inch deep with sand and seaweed or soft mud
+from the beach, and watered daily till they germinate. The nuts put down
+in April are sufficiently grown to be planted out before the rains of
+September, and they are then set out in holes 3 ft. deep and 20 to 30
+ft. apart.... Before putting in the young plant it is customary to bed
+the roots with soft mud and seaweed, and for the first two years they
+must be watered and protected from the glare of the sun under shades
+made of the plaited fronds of the coco-nut palm, or the fan-like leaves
+of the palmyra." The palm begins to bear fruit from the fifth to the
+seventh year of its age, each stock carrying from 5 to 30 nuts, the tree
+maturing on an average 60 nuts yearly.
+
+The uses to which the various parts of the coco-nut palm are applied in
+the regions of their growth are almost endless. The nuts supply no
+inconsiderable proportion of the food of the natives, and the milky
+juice enclosed within them forms a pleasant and refreshing drink. The
+juice drawn from the unexpanded flower spathes forms "toddy," which may
+be boiled down to sugar, or it is allowed to ferment and is distilled,
+when it yields a spirit which, in common with a like product from other
+sources, is known as "arrack." As in other palms, the young bud cut out
+of the top of the tree forms an esculent vegetable, "palm cabbage." The
+trunk yields a timber (known in European commerce as porcupine wood)
+which is used for building, furniture, firewood, &c.; the leaves are
+plaited into cajan fans and baskets, and used for thatching the roofs of
+houses; the shell of the nut is employed as a water-vessel; and the
+external husk or rind yields the coir fibre, with which are fabricated
+ropes, cordage, brushes, &c. The coco-nut palm also furnishes very
+important articles of external commerce, of which the principal is
+coco-nut oil. It is obtained by pressure or boiling from the kernels,
+which are first broken up into small pieces and dried in the sun, when
+they are known as copperah or _copra_. It is estimated that 1000
+full-sized nuts will yield upwards of 500 lb. of copra, from which 25
+gallons of oil should be obtained. The oil is a white solid substance at
+ordinary temperatures, with a peculiar, rather disagreeable odour, from
+the volatile fatty acids it contains, and a mild taste. Under pressure
+it separates into a liquid and a solid portion, the latter,
+coco-stearin, being extensively used in the manufacture of candles.
+Coco-nut oil is also used in the manufacture of marine soap, which forms
+a lather with sea-water. Coir is also an important article of commerce,
+being in large demand for the manufacture of coarse brushes, door mats
+and woven coir-matting for lobbies and passages. A considerable quantity
+of fresh nuts is imported, chiefly from the West Indies, into Britain
+and other countries; they are familiar as the reward of the popular
+English amusement of "throwing at the coco-nuts"; and the contents are
+either eaten raw or used as material for cakes, &c., or sweetmeats
+("coker-nut").
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The spelling "cocoa-nut," which introduces a confusion with cocoa
+    (q.v.) or cacao, is a corruption of the original Portuguese form,
+    dating from (and largely due to) Johnson's _Dictionary_. The spelling
+    "coker-nut," introduced to avoid the same ambiguity, is common in
+    England.
+
+
+
+
+COCYTUS (mod. _Vuvo_), a tributary of the Acheron, a river of Thesprotia
+(mod. _pashalik_ of Iannina), which flows into the Ionian Sea about 20
+m. N. of the Gulf of Arta. The name is also applied in Greek mythology
+to a tributary of the Acheron or of the Styx, a river in Hades. The
+etymology suggested is from [Greek: kôkuein], to wail, in allusion to
+the cries of the dead. Virgil describes it as the river which surrounds
+the underworld (_Aen._ vi. 132).
+
+
+
+
+COD, the name given to the typical fish of the family _Gadidae_, of the
+Teleostean suborder Anacanthini, the position of which has much varied
+in our classifications. Having no spines to their fins, the Gadids used,
+in Cuvierian days, to be associated with the herrings, Salmonids, pike,
+&c., in the artificially-conceived order of Malacopterygians, or
+soft-finned bony fishes. But, on the ground of their air-bladder being
+closed, or deprived of a pneumatic duct communicating with the digestive
+canal, such as is characteristic of the Malacopterygians, they were
+removed from them and placed with the flat-fishes, or _Pleuronectidae_,
+in a suborder Anacanthini, regarded as intermediate in position between
+the Acanthopterygians, or spiny-finned fishes, and the Malacopterygians.
+It has, however, been shown that the flat-fishes bear no relationship to
+the Gadids, but are most nearly akin to the John Dories (see DORY).
+
+The suborder Anacanthini is, nevertheless, maintained for the
+_Muraenolepididae_ Gadids and two related families, _Macruridae_ and
+_Muraenolepididae_, and may be thus defined:--Air-bladder without open
+duct. Parietal bones separated by the supra-occipital; prootic and
+exoccipital separated by the enlarged opisthotic. Pectoral arch
+suspended from the skull: no mesocoracoid arch. Ventral fins below or in
+front of the pectorals, the pelvic bones posterior to the clavicular
+symphysis and only loosely attached to it by ligament. Fins without
+spines; caudal fin, if present, without expanded hypural, perfectly
+symmetrical, and supported by the neural and haemal spines of the
+posterior vertebrae, and by basal bones similar to those supporting the
+dorsal and anal rays. This type of caudal fin must be regarded as
+secondary, the _Gadidae_ being, no doubt, derived from fishes in which
+the homocercal fin of the typical Teleostean had been lost.
+
+About 120 species of Gadids are distinguished, mostly marine, many being
+adapted to life at great depths; all are carnivorous. They inhabit
+chiefly the northern seas, but many abyssal forms occur between the
+tropics and in the southern parts of the Atlantic and Pacific. They are
+represented in British waters by eight genera, and about twenty species,
+only one of which, the burbot (_Lota vulgaris_), is an inhabitant of
+fresh waters. Several of the marine species are of first-rate economic
+importance. The genus _Gadus_ is characterized by having three dorsal
+and two anal fins, and a truncated or notched caudal fin. In the cod and
+haddock the base of the first anal fin is not, or but slightly, longer
+than that of the second dorsal fin; in the whiting, pout, coal-fish,
+pollack, hake, ling and burbot, the former is considerably longer than
+the latter.
+
+The cod, _Gadus morrhua_, possesses, in common with the other members of
+the genus, three dorsal and two anal fins, and a single barbel, at least
+half as long as the eye, at the chin. It is a widely-distributed
+species, being found throughout the northern and temperate seas of
+Europe, Asia and America, extending as far south as Gibraltar, but not
+entering the Mediterranean, and inhabits water from 25 to 50 fathoms
+deep, where it always feeds close to the bottom. It is exceedingly
+voracious, feeding on the smaller denizens of the ocean--fish,
+crustaceans, worms and molluscs, and greedily taking almost any bait the
+fisherman chooses to employ. The cod spawns in February, and is
+exceedingly prolific, the roe of a single female having been known to
+contain upwards of eight millions of ova, and to form more than half the
+weight of the entire fish. Only a small proportion of these get
+fertilized, and still fewer ever emerge from the egg. The number of cod
+is still further reduced by the trade carried on in roe, large
+quantities of which are used in France as ground-bait in the sardine
+fishery, while it also forms an article of human food. The young are
+about an inch in length by the end of spring, but are not fit for the
+market till the second year, and it has been stated that they do not
+reach maturity, as shown by the power of reproduction, till the end of
+their third year. They usually measure about 3 ft. in length, and weigh
+from 12 to 20 lb, but specimens have been taken from 50 to 70 lb in
+weight.
+
+As an article of food the cod-fish is in greatest perfection during the
+three months preceding Christmas. It is caught on all parts of the
+British and Irish coasts, but the Dogger Bank, and Rockall, off the
+Outer Hebrides, have been specially noted for their cod-fisheries. The
+fishery is also carried on along the coast of Norfolk and Suffolk, where
+great quantities of the fish are caught with hook and line, and conveyed
+to market alive in "well-boats" specially built for this traffic. Such
+boats have been in use since the beginning of the 18th century. The most
+important cod-fishery in the world is that which has been prosecuted for
+centuries on the Newfoundland banks, where it is not uncommon for a
+single fisherman to take over 500 of these fish in ten or eleven hours.
+These, salted and dried, are exported to all parts of the world, and
+form, when taken in connexion with the enormous quantity of fresh cod
+consumed, a valuable addition to the food resources of the human race.
+
+The air-bladder of this fish furnishes isinglass, little, if at all,
+inferior to that obtained from the sturgeon, while from the liver is
+obtained cod-liver oil, largely used in medicine as a remedy in
+scrofulous complaints and pulmonary consumption (see Cod-liver Oil).
+"The Norwegians," says Cuvier, "give cod-heads with marine plants to
+their cows for the purpose of producing a greater proportion of milk.
+The vertebrae, the ribs, and the bones in general, are given to their
+cattle by the Icelanders, and by the Kamtchatdales to their dogs. These
+same parts, properly dried, are also employed as fuel in the desolate
+steppes of the Icy Sea."
+
+At Port Logan in Wigtonshire cod-fish are kept in a large reservoir,
+scooped out of the solid rock by the action of the sea, egress from
+which is prevented by a barrier of stones, which does not prevent the
+free access of the water. These cod are fed chiefly on mussels, and when
+the keeper approaches to feed them they may be seen rising to the
+surface in hundreds and eagerly seeking the edge. They have become
+comparatively tame and familiar. Frank Buckland, who visited the place,
+states that after a little while they allowed him to take hold of them,
+scratch them on the back, and play with them in various ways. Their
+flavour is considered superior to that of the cod taken in the open sea.
+     (G. A. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CODA (Ital. for "tail"; from the Lat. _cauda_), in music, a term for a
+passage which brings a movement or a separate piece to a conclusion.
+This developed from the simple chords of a cadence into an elaborate and
+independent form. In a series of variations on a theme or in a
+composition with a fixed order of subjects, the "coda" is a passage
+sufficiently contrasted with the conclusions of the separate variations
+or subjects, added to form a complete conclusion to the whole. Beethoven
+raised the "coda" to a feature of the highest importance.
+
+
+
+
+CODE (Lat. _codex_), the term for a complete and systematic body of law,
+or a complete and exclusive statement of some portion of the law; and so
+by analogy for any system of rules or doctrine; also for an arrangement
+in telegraphy, signalling, &c., by which communications may be made
+according to rules adopted for brevity or secrecy.
+
+In jurisprudence the question of the reduction of laws to written codes,
+representing a complete and readily accessible system, is a matter of
+great historical and practical interest. Many collections of laws,
+however, which are commonly known as codes,[1] would not correspond to
+the definition given above. The Code of Justinian (see JUSTINIAN I.;
+ROMAN LAW), the most celebrated of all, is not in itself a complete and
+exclusive system of law. It is a collection of imperial constitutions,
+just as the Pandects are a collection of the opinions of jurisconsults.
+The Code and the Pandects together being, as Austin says, "digests of
+Roman law in force at the time of their conception," would, if properly
+arranged, constitute a code. Codification in this sense is merely a
+question of the _form_ of the laws, and has nothing to do with their
+goodness or badness from an ethical or political point of view.
+Sometimes codification only means the changing of unwritten into written
+law; in the stricter sense it means the changing of unwritten or
+badly-written law into law well written.
+
+The same causes which made collections of laws necessary in the time of
+Justinian have led to similar undertakings among modern peoples. The
+actual condition of laws until the period when they are consciously
+remodelled is one of confusion, contradiction, repetition and disorder;
+and to these evils the progress of society adds the burden of
+perpetually increasing legislation. Some attempt must be made to
+simplify the task of learning the laws by improving their expression and
+arrangement. This is by no means an easy task in any country, but in
+England it is surrounded with peculiar difficulties. The independent
+character of English law has prevented an attempt to do what has already
+been done for other systems which have the basis of the Roman law to
+fall back upon.
+
+The most celebrated modern code is the French. The necessity of a code
+in France was mainly caused by the immense number of separate systems of
+jurisprudence existing in that country before 1789, justifying
+Voltaire's sarcasm that a traveller in France had to change laws about
+as often as he changed horses. At first published under the title of
+_Code Civil des Français_, it was afterwards entitled the _Code
+Napoléon_ (q.v.)--the emperor Napoleon wishing to attach his name to a
+work which he regarded as the greatest glory of his reign. The code, it
+has been said, is the product of Roman and customary law, together with
+the ordinances of the kings and the laws of the Revolution. In form it
+has passed through several changes caused by the political vicissitudes
+of the country, and it has of course suffered from time to time
+important alterations in substance, but it still remains virtually the
+same in principle as it left the hands of its framers. The code has
+produced a vast number of commentaries, among which may be named those
+of A. Duranton, R. T. Troplong and J. C. F. Demolombe. The remaining
+French codes are the _Code de procédure civile_, the _Code de commerce_,
+the _Code d'instruction criminelle_ and the _Code pénal_. The merits of
+the French code have entered into the discussion on the general question
+of codification. Austin agrees with Savigny in condemning the ignorance
+and haste with which it was compiled. "It contains," says Austin, "no
+definitions of technical terms (even the most leading), no exposition of
+the _rationale_ of distinctions (even the most leading), no exposition
+of the broad principles and rules to which the narrower provisions
+expressed in the code are subordinate; hence its fallacious brevity."
+Codes modelled on the French code have, however, taken firm root in most
+of the countries of continental Europe and in other parts of the world
+as well, such as Latin America and several of the British colonies.
+
+The Prussian code (_Code Frédéric_) was published by Frederick the Great
+in 1751. It was intended to take the place of "Roman, common Saxon and
+other foreign subsidiary laws and statutes," the provincial laws
+remaining in force as before. One of the objects of the king was to
+destroy the power of the advocates, whom he hoped to render useless.
+This, with other systems of law existing in Germany, has been replaced
+by the Civil Code of 1900 (see GERMANY).
+
+The object of all these codes has been to frame a common system to take
+the place of several systems of law, rather than to restate in an exact
+and exhaustive form the whole laws of a nation, which is the problem of
+English codification. The French and Prussian codes, although they have
+been of great service in simplifying the law, have failed to prevent
+outside themselves that accumulation of judiciary and statute law which
+in England has been the chief motive for codification. A more exact
+parallel to the English problem may be found in the _Code of the State
+of New York_. The revised constitution of the state, as adopted in 1846,
+"ordered the appointment of two commissions, one to reduce into a
+written and a systematic code the whole body of the law of the state,
+and the other to revise, reform, simplify and abridge the rules and
+practice, pleadings, &c., of the courts of record." By an act of 1847,
+the state legislature declared that the body of substantive law should
+be contained in three codes--the Political, the Civil and the Penal. The
+works of both commissions, completed in 1865, filled six volumes,
+containing the Code of Civil Procedure (including the law of evidence),
+the Book of Forms, the Code of Criminal Procedure, the Political Code,
+the Penal Code and the Civil Code. In the introduction to the Civil Code
+it was claimed that in many departments of the law the codes "provided
+for every possible case, so that when a new case arises it is better
+that it should be provided for by new legislation." The New York code
+was defective in the important points of definition and arrangement. It
+formed the basis, however, of the present codes of civil and criminal
+procedure in the state of New York. Much interest has attached to the
+Penal Code drawn up by Edward Livingston (q.v.) for the state of
+Louisiana. The system consists of a Code of Crime and Punishments, a
+Code of Procedure, a Code of Evidence, a Code of Reform and Prison
+Discipline, and a Book of Definitions. "Though the state for which the
+codes were prepared," said Chief Justice Chase, "neglected to avail
+itself of the labours assigned and solicited by itself, they have
+proved, together with their introductions, a treasure of suggestions to
+which many states are indebted for useful legislation." Most of the
+other states in the United States have codes stating the law of pleading
+in civil actions, and such states are often described as code states to
+distinguish them from those adhering to the older forms of action,
+divided between those at law and those at equity. A few states have
+general codes of political and civil rights. The general drift of
+legislation and of public sentiment in the United States is towards the
+extension of the principle of codification, but the contrary view has
+been ably maintained (see J. C. Carter, _Provinces of the Written and
+the Unwritten Law_, New York, 1889).
+
+Since the time of Bentham, the codification of the law of England has
+been the dream of the most enlightened jurists and statesmen. In the
+interval between Bentham and our own time there has been an immense
+advance in the scientific study of law, but it may be doubted whether
+the problem of codification is at all nearer solution. Interest has
+mainly been directed to the historical side of legal science, to the
+phenomena of the evolution of laws as part of the development of
+society, and from this point of view the question of remodelling the law
+is one of minor interest. To Bentham the problem presented itself in the
+simplest and most direct form possible. What he proposed to do was to
+set forth a body of laws, clearly expressed, arranged in the order of
+their logical connexion, exhibiting their own _rationale_ and excluding
+all other law. On the other hand the problem has in some respects become
+easier since the time of Bentham. With the Benthamite codification the
+conception of reform in the substantive law is more or less mixed up. If
+codification had been possible in his day, it would, unless it had been
+accompanied by the searching reforms which have been effected since, and
+mainly through his influence, perhaps have been more of an evil than a
+good. The mere dread that, under the guise of codification or
+improvement in form, some change in substance may secretly be effected
+has long been a practical obstacle in the way of legal reform. But the
+law has now been brought into a state of which it may be said that, if
+it is not the best in all respects that might be desired, it is at least
+in most respects as good as the conditions of legislation will permit it
+to be. Codification, in fact, may now be treated purely as a question of
+form. What is proposed is that the law, being, as we assume, in
+substance what the nation wishes it to be, should be made as accessible
+as possible, and as intelligible as possible. These two essential
+conditions of a sound system of law are, we need hardly say, far from
+being fulfilled in England. The law of the land is embodied in thousands
+of statutes and tens of thousands of reports. It is expressed in
+language which has never been fixed by a controlling authority, and
+which has swayed about with every change of time, place and
+circumstance. It has no definitions, no rational distinctions, no
+connexion of parts. Until the passing of the Judicature Act of 1873 it
+was pervaded throughout its entire sphere by the flagrant antinomy of
+law and equity, and that act has only ordered, not executed, its
+consolidation. No lawyer pretends to know more than a fragment of it.
+Few practical questions can be answered by a lawyer without a search
+into numberless acts of parliament and reported cases. To laymen, of
+course, the whole law is a sealed book. As there are no authoritative
+general principles, it happens that the few legal maxims known to the
+public, being apprehended out of relation to their authorities, are as
+often likely to be wrong as to be right. It is hopeless to think of
+making it possible for every man to be his own lawyer, but we can at
+least try to make it possible for a lawyer to know the whole law. The
+earlier advocates of codification founded their case mainly on the evils
+of judiciary law, _i.e._ the law contained in the reported decisions of
+the judges. Bentham's bitter antipathy to judicial legislation is well
+known. Austin's thirty-ninth lecture (_Lectures_, ed. 1869) contains an
+exhaustive criticism of the tenable objections to judiciary law. All
+such law is embedded in decisions on particular cases, from which it
+must be extracted by a tedious and difficult process of induction. Being
+created for particular cases it is necessarily uncomprehensive,
+imperfect, uncertain and bulky. These are evils which are incident to
+the nature of judiciary laws. The defective form of the existing statute
+law, moreover, has also given rise to loud complaints. Year by year the
+mass of legislation grows larger, and as long as the basis of a system
+is judiciary law, it is impossible that the new statutes can be
+completely integrated therewith. The mode of framing acts of parliament,
+and especially the practice of legislating by reference to previous
+acts, likewise produce much uncertainty and disorder. Some progress has,
+however, been made by the passing from time to time of various acts
+codifying branches of law, such as the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, the
+Partnership Act 1890, the Trusts Act 1893, and the Interpretation Act
+1889.
+
+The Statute Law Revision Committee also perform a useful work in
+excising dead law from the statute-book, partly by repeal of obsolete
+and spent acts and parts of acts, and partly by pruning redundant
+preambles and words. The construction of a section of an act may depend
+on the preamble and the context, and the repeal of the preamble and
+certain parts of the act may therefore affect the construction of what
+is left. This is provided for by a clause which is said to have been
+settled by Lord Westbury. It provides (in effect) that the repeal of any
+words or expressions of enactment shall not affect the construction of
+any statute or part of a statute. The lawyer, therefore, cannot rely on
+the revised edition of the statutes alone, and it is still necessary for
+him to consult the complete act as it was originally enacted.
+
+The process of gradual codification adopted in India has been
+recommended for imitation in England by those who have had some
+experience of its working. The first of the Indian codes was the Penal
+Code (see CRIMINAL LAW), and there are also codes of civil and criminal
+procedure.
+
+Whether any attempt will ever be made to supersede this vast and
+unarranged mass by a complete code seems very doubtful. Writers on
+codification have for the most part insisted that the work should be
+undertaken as a whole, and that the parts should have relation to some
+general scheme of the law which should be settled first. The practical
+difficulties in the way of an undertaking so stupendous as the
+codification _uno coëtu_ of the whole mass of the law hardly require to
+be stated.
+
+In discussions on codification two difficulties are insisted on by its
+opponents, which have some practical interest--(1) What is to be done in
+those cases for which the code has not provided? and (2) How is new law
+to be incorporated with the code? The objection that a code will hamper
+the opinions of the court, destroy the flexibility and elasticity of the
+common law, &c., disappears when it is stated in the form of a
+proposition, that law codified will cover a smaller number of cases, or
+will be less easily adapted to new cases, than law uncodified. The
+French system ordered the judges, under a penalty, to give a decision on
+all cases, whether contemplated or not by the code, and referred them
+generally to the following sources:--(1) Équité naturelle, loi
+naturelle; (2) loi romain; (3) loi coutumier; (4) usages, exemples,
+jugements, jurisprudence; (5) droit commun; (6) principes généraux,
+maximes, doctrine, science. The Prussian code, on the other hand,
+required the judges to report new cases to the head of the judicial
+department, and they were decided by the legislative commission. No
+provision was made in either case for incorporating the new law with the
+code, an omission which Austin justly considers fatal to the usefulness
+of codification. It is absurd to suppose that any code can remain long
+without requiring substantial alteration. Cases will arise when its
+meaning must be extended and modified by judges, and every year will
+produce its quota of new legislation by the state. The courts should be
+left to interpret a code as they now interpret statutes, and provision
+should be made for the continual revision of the code, so that the new
+law created by judges or directly by the state may from time to time be
+worked into the code.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The most ancient code known, that of Khammurabi, is dealt with in
+    the article BABYLONIAN LAW.
+
+
+
+
+CODE NAPOLÉON, the first code of the French civil law, known at first as
+the _Code civil des Français_, was promulgated in its entirety by a law
+of the 30th Ventose in the year XII. (31st of March 1804). On the 3rd of
+September 1807 it received the official name of Code Napoléon, although
+the part that Napoleon took in framing it was not very important. A law
+of 1818 restored to it its former name, but a decree of the 27th of
+March 1852 re-established the title of Code Napoléon. Since the 4th of
+September 1870 the laws have quoted it only under the name of the Code
+Civil.
+
+Never has a work of legislation been more national in the exact sense of
+the word. Desired for centuries by the France of the _ancien régime_,
+and demanded by the _cahiers_ of 1789, this "code of civil laws common
+to the whole realm" was promised by the constitution of 1791. However,
+the two first assemblies of the Revolution were able to prepare only a
+few fragments of it. The preparation of a coherent plan began with the
+Convention. The _ancien régime_ had collected and adjusted some of the
+material. There was, on the one hand, a vast juridical literature which
+by eliminating differences of detail, had disengaged from the various
+French "customs" the essential part which they had in common, under the
+name of "common customary law"; on the other hand, the Roman law current
+in France had in like manner undergone a process of simplification in
+numerous works, the chief of which was that of Domat; while certain
+parts had already been codified in the _Grandes Ordonnances_, which were
+the work of d'Aguesseau. This legacy from the past, which it was desired
+to preserve within reason, had to be combined and blended with the laws
+of the Revolution, which had wrought radical reforms in the conditions
+affecting the individual, the tenure of real property, the order of
+inheritance and the system of mortgages. Cambacérès, as the
+representative of a commission of the Convention, brought forward two
+successive schemes for the Code Civil. As a member of one of the
+councils, he drew up a third under the Directory, and these projected
+forms came in turn nearer and nearer to what was to be the ultimate form
+of the code. So great was the interest centred in this work, that the
+law of the 19th Brumaire, year VIII., which, in ratification of the
+previous day's _coup d'état_ nominated provisional consuls and two
+legislative commissions, gave injunctions to the latter to draw up a
+scheme for the Code Civil. This was done in part by one of the members,
+Jacqueminot, and finally under the constitution of the year VIII., the
+completion of the work was taken in hand. The legislative machinery
+established by this constitution, defective as it was in other respects,
+was eminently suited for this task. Indeed, all projected laws emanated
+from the government and were prepared by the newly established council
+of state, which was so well recruited that it easily furnished qualified
+men, mostly veterans of the revolution, to prepare the final scheme. The
+council of state naturally possessed in its legislative section and its
+general assembly bodies both competent and sufficiently limited to
+discuss the texts efficiently. The _corps législatif_ had not the right
+of amendment, so could not disturb the harmony of the scheme. It was in
+the discussions of the general assembly of the council of state that
+Napoleon took part, in 97 cases out of 102 in the capacity of chairman,
+but, interesting as his observations occasionally are, he cannot be
+considered as a serious collaborator in this great work.
+
+Those responsible for the scheme have in the main been very successful
+in their work; they have generally succeeded in fusing the two elements
+which they had to deal with, namely ancient French law, and that of the
+Revolution. The point in which their work is comparatively weak is the
+system of hypothec (q.v.), because they did not succeed in steering a
+middle course between two opposite systems, and the law of the 23rd of
+March 1855 (_sur la transcription en matière hypothécaire_) was
+necessary to make good the deficiency. A fault frequently found with the
+Code Civil is that its general divisions show a lack of logic and
+method, but the division is practically that of the Institutes of
+Justinian, and is about as good as any other: persons, things,
+inheritance, contracts and obligations, and finally, in place of
+actions, which have no importance for French law except from the point
+of view of procedure, privileges and hypothecs, as in the ancient
+_coutumes_ of France, and prescription. It is, _mutatis mutandis_,
+practically the same division as that of Blackstone's Commentaries.
+
+Of late years other objections have been expressed; serious omissions
+have been pointed out in the Code; it has not given to personal property
+the importance which it has acquired in the course of the 19th century;
+it makes no provision for dealing with the legal relations between
+employers and employed which modern complex undertakings involve; it
+does not treat of life insurance, &c. But this only proves that it could
+not foretell the future, for most of these questions are concerned with
+economic phenomena and social relations which did not exist at the time
+when it was framed. The Code needed revising and completing, and this
+was carried out by degrees by means of numerous important laws. In 1904,
+after the celebration of the centenary of the Code Civil, an
+extra-parliamentary commission was nominated to prepare a revision of
+it, and at once began the work.
+
+The influence of the Code Civil has been very great, not only in France
+but also abroad. Belgium has preserved it, and the Rhine provinces only
+ceased to be subject to it on the promulgation of the civil code of the
+German empire. Its ascendancy has been due chiefly to the clearness of
+its provisions, and to the spirit of equity and equality which inspires
+them. Numerous more recent codes have also taken it as a model: the
+Dutch code, the Italian, and the code of Portugal; and, more remotely,
+the Spanish code, and those of the Central and South American republics.
+In the present day it is rivalled by the German civil code, which,
+having been drawn up at the end of the 19th century, naturally does not
+show the same lacunae or omissions. It is inspired, however, by a very
+different spirit, and the French code does not suffer altogether by
+comparison with it either in substance or in form.
+
+  See _Le Code Civil, livre du centenaire_ (Paris, 1904), a collection
+  of essays by French and foreign lawyers.     (J. P. E.)
+
+
+
+
+CODIAEUM, a small genus of plants belonging to the natural order
+Euphorbiaceae. One species, _C. variegatum_, a native of Polynesia, is
+cultivated in greenhouses, under the name of croton, for the sake of its
+leaves, which are generally variegated with yellow, and are often
+twisted or have the blades separated into distinct portions.
+
+
+
+
+CODICIL (Lat. _codicillus_, a little book or tablet, diminutive of
+_codex_), a supplement to a will (q.v.), containing anything which a
+testator desires to add, or which he wishes to retract, to explain or to
+alter. In English law a codicil requires to be executed with the same
+formalities as a will under the Wills Act 1837.
+
+
+
+
+CODILLA, the name given to the broken fibres which are separated from
+the flax during the scutching process. On this account it is sometimes
+termed scutching tow. Quantities of this material are used along with
+heckled tow in the production of tow yarns.
+
+
+
+
+CODINUS, GEORGE [GEORGIOS KODINOS], the reputed author of three extant
+works in Byzantine literature. Their attribution to him is merely a
+matter of convenience, two of them being anonymous in the MSS. Of
+Codinus himself nothing is known; it is supposed that he lived towards
+the end of the 15th century. The works referred to are the following:--
+
+1. _Patria_ ([Greek: Ta Patria tês Kônstantinoupoleôs]), treating of the
+history, topography, and monuments of Constantinople. It is divided
+into five sections: (_a_) the foundation of the city; (_b_) its
+situation, limits and topography; (_c_) its statues, works of art, and
+other notable sights; (_d_) its buildings; (_e_) the construction of the
+church of St Sophia. It was written in the reign of Basil II.
+(976-1025), revised and rearranged under Alexius I. Comnenus
+(1081-1118), and perhaps copied by Codinus, whose name it bears in some
+(later) MSS. The chief sources are: the _Patria_ of Hesychius Illustrius
+of Miletus, an anonymous (_c._ 750) brief chronological record ([Greek:
+Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai]), and an anonymous account ([Greek:
+diêgêsis]) of St Sophia (ed. T. Preger in _Scriptores originum
+Constantinopolitanarum_, fasc. i., 1901, to be followed by the _Patria_
+of Codinus). Procopius, _De Aedificiis_ and the poem of Paulus
+Silentiarius on the dedication of St Sophia should be read in connexion
+with this subject.
+
+2. _De Officiis_ ([Greek: Peri tôn Ophphikiôn]), a sketch, written in an
+unattractive style, of court and higher ecclesiastical dignities and of
+the ceremonies proper to different occasions. It should be compared with
+the _De Cerimoniis_ of Constantine Porphyrogenitus.
+
+3. A chronological outline of events from the beginning of the world to
+the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (called Agarenes in the MS.
+title). It is of little value.
+
+  Complete editions are (by I. Bekker) in the Bonn _Corpus scriptorum
+  Hist. Byz._ (1839-1843, where, however, some sections of the _Patria_
+  are omitted), and in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia graeca_, clvii.; see
+  also C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+COD-LIVER OIL (_Oleum Morrhuae_, or _Oleum Jecoris Aselli_), the oil
+obtained from the liver of the common cod (_Gadus morrhua_). In the
+early process for extracting the oil the livers were allowed to putrefy
+in wooden tubs, when oils of two qualities, one called "pale oil," and
+the other "light brown oil," successively rose to the surface and were
+drawn off. A third oil was obtained by heating the liver-residues to
+above the boiling-point of water, whereupon a black product, technically
+called "brown oil," separated. The modern practice consists in heating
+the perfectly fresh, cleaned livers by steam to a temperature above that
+of boiling water, or, in more recent practice, to a lower temperature,
+the livers being kept as far as possible from contact with air. The oils
+so obtained are termed "steamed-liver oils." The "pale" and "light
+brown" oils are used in pharmacy; the "brown" oil, the cod oil of
+commerce, being obtained from putrid and decomposing livers, has an
+objectionable taste and odour and is largely employed by tanners. By
+boiling the livers at a somewhat high temperature, "unracked" cod oil is
+obtained, containing a considerable quantity of "stearine"; this fat,
+which separates on cooling, is sold as "fish stearine" for soap-making,
+or as "fish-tallow" for currying. The oil when freed from the stearine
+is known as "racked oil." "Coast cod oil" is the commercial name for the
+oil obtained from the livers of various kinds of fish, _e.g._ hake,
+ling, haddock, &c. The most important centres of the cod-liver oil
+industry are Lofoten and Romsdal in Norway; the oil is also prepared in
+the United States, Canada, Newfoundland, Iceland and Russia; and at one
+time a considerable quantity was prepared in the Shetland Islands and
+along the east coast of Scotland.
+
+Cod-liver oil contains palmitin, stearin and other more complex
+glycerides; the "stearine" mentioned above, however, contains very
+little palmitin and stearin. Several other acids have been identified:
+P. M. Meyerdahl obtained 4% of palmitic acid, 20% of jecoleic acid,
+C19H36O2, and 20% of therapic acid, C17H26O2; other investigators have
+recognized jecoric acid, C18H30O2, asellic acid, C17H32O2, and
+physetoleic acid, C16H30O2, but some uncertainty attends these last
+three acids. Therapic and jecoleic acids apparently do not occur
+elsewhere in the animal kingdom, and it is probable that the therapeutic
+properties of the oil are associated with the presence of these acids,
+and not with the small amount of iodine present as was at one time
+supposed. Other constituents are cholesterol (0.46-1.32%), traces of
+calcium, magnesium, sodium, chlorine and bromine, and various aliphatic
+amines which are really secondary products, being formed by the
+decomposition of the cellular tissue.
+
+Cod-liver oil is used externally in medicine when its internal
+administration is rendered impossible by idiosyncrasy or the state of
+the patient's digestion. The oil is very readily absorbed from the skin
+and exerts all its therapeutic actions when thus exhibited. This method
+is often resorted to in the case of infants or young children suffering
+from abdominal or other forms of tuberculosis. Its only objection is the
+odour which the patient exhales. When taken by the mouth, cod-liver oil
+shares with other liver-oils the property of ready absorption. It often
+causes unpleasant symptoms, which must always be dealt with and not
+disregarded, more harm than good being done if this course is not
+followed. Fortunately a tolerance is soon established in the majority of
+cases. It has been experimentally proved that this is more readily
+absorbed than any other oil--including other liver-oils. Much attention
+has been paid to the explanation of this fact, since knowledge on this
+point might enable an artificial product, without the disadvantages of
+this oil, to be substituted for it. Very good results have been obtained
+from a preparation named "lipanin," which consists of six parts of oleic
+acid and ninety-four of pure olein. Cod-liver oil has the further
+peculiarity of being more readily oxidizable than any other oil; an
+obviously valuable property when it is remembered that the entire
+food-value of oils depends on their oxidation.
+
+Cod-liver oil may be given in all wasting diseases, and is occasionally
+valuable in cases of chronic rheumatoid arthritis; but its great
+therapeutic value is in cases of tuberculosis of whatever kind, and
+notably in pulmonary tuberculosis or consumption. Its reputation in this
+is quite inexpugnable. It is essential to remember that "in phthisis the
+key of the situation is the state of the alimentary tract," and the
+utmost care must be taken to obviate the nausea, loss of appetite and
+diarrhoea, only too easily induced by this oil. It is best to begin with
+only one dose in the twenty-four hours, to be taken just before going to
+sleep, so that the patient is saved its unpleasant "repetition" from an
+unaccustomed stomach. In general, it is therefore wise to order a double
+dose at bedtime. The oil may be given in capsules, or in the form of an
+emulsion, with or without malt-extract, or success may be obtained by
+adding, to every two drachms of the oil, ten minims of pure ether and a
+drop of peppermint oil. The usual dose, at starting, is one or two
+drachms, but the oil should be given eventually in the largest
+quantities that the patient can tolerate.
+
+
+
+
+CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER (1668-1710), British soldier and colonial
+governor, whose father was captain-general of the Leeward Isles, was
+born in the island of Barbados, West Indies, in 1668. Educated at Christ
+Church, Oxford, he was elected a fellow of All Souls, and subsequently
+served with the British forces in Flanders, being rewarded in 1695 with
+a captaincy in the Guards. In the same year he attended King William
+III. on his visit to Oxford, and, in the absence of the public orator,
+was chosen to deliver the University oration. In 1697, on the death of
+his father, he was appointed captain-general and commander-in-chief of
+the Leeward Isles. In 1703 he commanded the unsuccessful British
+expedition against Guadeloupe. After this he resigned his governorship,
+and spent the rest of his life in retirement and study on his Barbados
+estates. He died on the 7th of April 1710, bequeathing these estates to
+the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts for the
+foundation of a college in Barbados. This college, known as the
+Codrington college, was built in 1714-1742. To All Souls College,
+Oxford, he bequeathed books worth £6000 and £10,000 in money, out of
+which was built and endowed the Codrington library there.
+
+
+
+
+CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD (1770-1851), British admiral, belonged to a
+family long settled at Dodington in Gloucestershire. He was the youngest
+of three brothers, who were left orphans at an early age, and were
+educated by an uncle, Mr Bethell. Edward Codrington was sent for a short
+time to Harrow, and entered the navy in July 1783. He served on the
+American station, in the Mediterranean and at home, till he was promoted
+lieutenant on the 28th of May 1783. Lord Howe selected him to be signal
+lieutenant on the flagship of the Channel fleet at the beginning of the
+revolutionary war with France. In that capacity he served in the "Queen
+Charlotte" (100) during the operations which culminated in the battle
+of the 1st of June 1794. The notes he wrote on Barrow's account of the
+battle in his _Life of Howe_, and the reminiscences he dictated to his
+daughter, which are to be found in her memoir of him, are of great value
+for the history of the action. On the 7th of October 1794 he was
+promoted commander, and on the 6th of April 1795 attained the rank of
+post-captain and the command of the "Babet" (22). He continued to serve
+in the Channel, and was present at the action off L'Orient on the 23rd
+of June 1795. Codrington wrote notes on this encounter also, which are
+to be found in the memoir. They are able and valuable, but, like all his
+correspondence throughout his life, show that he was of a somewhat
+censorious disposition, was apt to take the worst view of the conduct of
+others, and was liable to be querulous. He next commanded the "Druid"
+(32) in the Channel and on the coast of Portugal, till she was paid off
+in 1797. Codrington now remained on shore and on half-pay for some
+years. In December 1802 he married Jane, daughter of Jasper Hall of
+Kingston, Jamaica.
+
+On the renewal of the war after the breach of the peace of Amiens he was
+appointed (May 1805) to the command of the "Orion" (74) and was attached
+to the fleet on the coast of Spain, then blockading Villeneuve in Cadiz.
+The "Orion" took a conspicuous part in the battle of Trafalgar.
+Codrington's correspondence contains much illuminative evidence as to
+the preliminaries and the events of the victory. From 1805 till 1813 he
+continued to serve first in the "Orion" and then (1808) in the "Blake"
+(74) in European waters. He was present on the Walcheren expedition, and
+was very actively employed on the Mediterranean coast of Spain in
+co-operating with the Spaniards against the French. In 1814 he was
+promoted rear-admiral, at which time he was serving on the coast of
+North America as captain of the fleet to Sir Alexander Cochrane during
+the operations against Washington, Baltimore and New Orleans. In 1815 he
+was made K.C.B., and was promoted vice-admiral on the 10th of July 1821.
+In December 1826 he was appointed to the Mediterranean command, and
+sailed on the 1st of February 1827. From that date until his recall on
+the 21st of June 1828 he was engaged in the arduous duties imposed on
+him by the Greek War of Independence, which had led to anarchy and much
+piracy in the Levant. On the 20th of October 1827 he destroyed the
+Turkish and Egyptian naval forces at Navarino (q.v.), while in command
+of a combined British, French and Russian fleet. As the battle had been
+unforeseen in England, and its result was unwelcome to the ministry of
+the day, Codrington was entangled in a correspondence to prove that he
+had not gone beyond his instructions, and he was recalled by a despatch,
+dated the 4th of June.
+
+After the battle Codrington went to Malta to refit his ships. He
+remained there till May 1828, when he sailed to join his French and
+Russian colleagues on the coast of the Morea. They endeavoured to
+enforce the evacuation of the peninsula by Ibrahim peacefully. The Pasha
+made diplomatic difficulties, and on the 25th of July the three admirals
+agreed that Codrington should go to Alexandria to obtain Ibrahim's
+recall by his father Mehemet Ali. Codrington had heard on the 22nd of
+June of his own supersession, but, as his successor had not arrived, he
+carried out the arrangement made on the 25th of July, and his presence
+at Alexandria led to the treaty of the 6th of August 1828, by which the
+evacuation of the Morea was settled. His services were recognized by the
+grant of the grand cross of the Bath, but there is no doubt that he was
+treated as a scape-goat at least to some extent. After his return home
+he was occupied for a time in defending himself, and then in leisure
+abroad. He commanded a training squadron in the Channel in 1831 and
+became admiral on the 10th of January 1837. From November 1839 to
+December 1842 he was commander-in-chief at Portsmouth. He died on the
+28th of April 1851.
+
+Sir Edward Codrington left two sons, Sir William (1804-1884), a soldier
+who commanded in the Crimea, and Sir John Henry (1808-1877), a naval
+officer, who died an admiral of the fleet.
+
+  See _Memoir of the Life of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington_, by his
+  daughter Jane, Lady Bourchier, wife of Sir T. Bourchier, R.N. (London,
+  1873).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CODRUS, in Greek legend, the last king of Athens. According to the
+story, it was prophesied at the time of the Dorian invasion of
+Peloponnesus (_c._ 1068 B.C.) that only the death of their king at the
+enemy's hands could ensure victory to the Athenians. Devoting himself to
+his country, Codrus, in the disguise of a peasant, made his way into the
+enemy's camp, and provoked a quarrel with some Dorian soldiers. He fell,
+and the Dorians, on discovering that Codrus had been slain, retreated
+homeward, despairing of success. No one being thought worthy to succeed
+Codrus, the title of king was abolished, and that of archon (q.v.)
+substituted for it.
+
+  See Lycurgus, _Leocr._ xx. [=84-87]; Justin ii. 6; Vell. Pat. i. 2;
+  Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, pt. i. ch. 18; Busolt, _Griechische
+  Geschichte_, i.
+
+
+
+
+CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK (1846-   ), American scout and showman, known
+under the name of "Buffalo Bill," was born in 1846 in Scott county,
+Iowa. He first became known as one of the riders of the "Pony Express,"
+a mail service established in the spring of 1860 by the Central Overland
+California and Pike's Peak Express Company to carry the mails overland
+from Saint Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, a distance of
+1950 m., by means of relays of ponies, each rider being expected to
+cover about 75 m. daily. Owing to the wildness of the country and the
+hostility of the Indians, both the riders and the station-keepers led
+lives of great hardship and danger. The "Pony Express" was discontinued
+in 1861 upon the completion of the Pacific Telegraph company's line, and
+young Cody became a scout and guide for the United States army. In 1863
+he formally enlisted in the 7th regiment of Kansas cavalry, in which he
+served until the close of the Civil War. In 1867 he made a contract with
+the Kansas Pacific railway to furnish its employees with buffalo meat
+while the line was being extended through the wilderness, and his name
+of "Buffalo Bill" was given him from this circumstance. In 1868-1872 he
+was again an army scout and guide, serving against the Sioux and
+Cheyennes; and in 1872 was a member of the Nebraska house of
+representatives. During the Sioux-Cheyenne War of 1876 he served in the
+5th United States Cavalry, and at the battle of Indian Creek killed the
+Cheyenne chief Yellow Hand in single combat. In 1883 he organized his
+"Wild West Show," a spectacular performance on a large scale, his first
+European tour taking place in 1887. In the Nebraska national guard he
+again served against the Sioux in 1890-1891.
+
+
+
+
+CO-EDUCATION, the term applied to the instruction and training of boys
+and girls, or of young people of both sexes, in the same school or
+institution, in the same classes and through the same courses of study.
+Examples of the thoroughgoing application of this principle can be found
+in every grade of education from the elementary school to the
+university. But the term "Co-education" is sometimes used in a wider
+sense, in order to include cases in which boys and girls, or young men
+and young women of university age, are admitted to membership of the
+same school or college but receive instruction wholly or in part in
+separate classes and in different subjects. Other variable factors in
+co-educational systems are the extent to which men and women are mixed
+on the teaching staff, and the freedom of intercourse permitted between
+pupils of the two sexes in class, in games and in other activities of
+school life. In another form of combined education (preferred by Comte,
+_Système de politique positive_, iv. 266), pupils of the two sexes are
+taught successively by the same teacher. By the English Board of
+Education, a distinction is drawn between mixed schools and dual
+schools. "Mixed schools" are those in which, for most subjects of the
+curriculum, boys and girls are taught together by the same teachers: in
+"dual schools" there are separate boys' and girls' departments under a
+single principal, but with separate entrances, classrooms and
+playgrounds for the two sexes.
+
+_History._--Co-education in early times was occasional and sporadic. For
+example, women were admitted by Plato to the inner circle of the Academy
+on terms of equality with men. The educational endowments of Teos
+provided that the professors of literature should teach both boys and
+girls. It is uncertain whether the Roman schools in classical times were
+attended by both sexes. A tombstone found at Capua represents a
+schoolmaster with a boy on one side and a girl on the other. Probably
+co-education was practised in country districts for economical reasons;
+and also in the home schools organized by wealthier families (Wilkins,
+_Roman Education_, pp. 42-43). At Charles the Great's Palace School at
+Aachen (A.D. 782 onwards), Alcuin taught together the young princes and
+their sisters, as well as grown men and women. The Humanists of the
+Renaissance made the full development of personality a chief aim of
+education, and held up literary accomplishment as a desirable mark of
+personal distinction both for men and women. This led to the scholarly
+education of girls along with boys in the home schools of some great
+families. Thus, at Mantua (1423 onwards), Vittorino da Feltre taught
+Cecilia Gonzaga with her brothers and the other boy pupils at his
+boarding-school; but there is no evidence that the latter was otherwise
+co-educational. Luther and other Reformers urged that girls as well as
+boys should be taught to read the Bible. Hence came the tendency to
+co-education of boys and girls in some elementary schools in Protestant
+lands. This tendency can be traced both in Scotland and in the northern
+parts of England. It is believed that, in the early days of New England,
+district schools in smaller American towns were open to boys and girls
+alike, but that few girls advanced beyond reading and writing (Martin,
+_Massachusetts Public School System_, p. 130). At Dorchester, Mass., it
+was left to the discretion of the elders and schoolmen whether maids
+should be taught with the boys or not; but in practice the girls seem to
+have been educated apart. In 1602 the council of Ayr, Scotland, ordained
+that the girls who were learning to read and write at the Grammar School
+should be sent to the master of the Song School, "because it is not
+seemly that sic lasses should be among the lads" (Grant, _History of the
+Burgh and Parish Schools of Scotland_, p. 526 ff.). Meriden,
+Connecticut, seems to have made common provision for the elementary
+education of boys and girls in 1678. Northampton, Mass., did the same in
+1680. Deerfield, Mass., in 1698 voted that "all families having children
+either male or female between the ages of six and ten years shall pay by
+the poll for their schooling"--presumably in the common school.
+
+Thus the beginnings of co-education in its modern organized form may be
+traced back partly to Scotland and partly to the United States. The
+co-education of boys and girls, carried through in varying degrees of
+completeness, was not uncommon in the old Endowed Schools of Scotland,
+and became more frequent as increasing attention was given to the
+education of girls. At the Dollar Institution, founded by John McNabb
+for the benefit of the poor of the parish of Dollar and shire of
+Clackmannan (date of will, 1800), boys and girls have been educated
+together in certain classes since the beginning of the school in 1818.
+In the eastern parts of the United States, where the Puritan tradition
+also prevailed, co-education struck firm root, and spread chiefly for
+reasons of convenience and economy (Dexter, _History of Education in
+United States_, p. 430). But throughout the west, co-education was
+strongly preferred in elementary and secondary schools and in
+universities on the further ground that it was believed to be more in
+accordance with the democratic principle of equal educational
+opportunity for the two sexes.
+
+It should be added, however, that the leaven of Pestalozzi's thought has
+worked powerfully both in Europe and America in favour of the idea of
+co-education. His view was that all educational institutions should, as
+far as possible, be modelled upon the analogy of the family and of the
+home. At Stanz (1798-1799) he educated together in one household boys
+and girls ranging in age from five to fifteen. At Burgdorf (1799-1804)
+his work was in part co-educational. At Yverdun (1804-1825) Pestalozzi
+established a school for girls close to his school for boys. The girls
+received instruction from some of the masters of the boys' school, and
+girls and boys met at evening worship, in short excursions and at other
+times.
+
+In England, the Society of Friends have been the pioneers of
+co-education in boarding schools, both for younger children and for
+pupils up to fifteen or sixteen years of age. The practice of the
+society, though not exclusively co-educational, has long been favourable
+to co-education, either in its complete or restricted form, as being
+more in harmony with the conditions of family life. Ackworth school was
+established by the London Yearly Meeting in 1779 for the education of
+boys and girls; but the school has never been fully co-educational, the
+boys and girls being taught separately except in a few classes. At
+Sidcot school, which was founded in 1808 by the Associated Quarterly
+Meetings in the west of England for the education of children of
+Friends, boys and girls are taught together, except in certain
+handicraft subjects. Several other co-educational schools were founded
+by the Society of Friends during the first half of the 19th century.
+
+Since that time the movement towards co-education in secondary schools
+and universities has steadily gained strength in England. It has been
+furthered by the diffusion of Pestalozzian ideas and also by the
+influence of American example. In England, private schools have made
+some of the most valuable co-educational experiments. A private boarding
+and day secondary school on co-educational lines was instituted by Mr W.
+A. Case in Hampstead in 1865. A co-educational boarding-school was
+founded in 1869 by Miss Lushington at Kingsley near Alton, Hants. In
+1873 Mr W. H. Herford began the Ladybarn school for boys and girls at
+Withington in the suburbs of Manchester. The passing of the Welsh
+Intermediate Education Act 1889 led to the establishment of a
+considerable number of new mixed or dual secondary day-schools in Wales.
+Many English teachers gained experience in these schools and
+subsequently influenced English education. The work and writings of Mr
+J. H. Badley at Bedales, Petersfield, a co-educational boarding-school
+of the first grade, gave greatly increased weight to the principle of
+co-education. Important additions have also been made to the fund of
+co-educational experience by the King Alfred's school (Hampstead),
+Keswick school, and West Heath school (Hampstead). In 1907 a Public
+Co-educational Boarding School was opened at Harpenden.
+
+Since the Education Act 1902 became law, there has been a rapid increase
+of co-educational secondary day-schools of the lower grade, under county
+or borough education authorities, in all parts of England. This increase
+is due to two chief causes, viz. (1) The co-educational tradition of
+some of the higher grade board schools, many of which have become
+secondary schools; and (2) the economy effected by establishing one
+co-educational secondary school, in place of two smaller schools for
+boys and girls separately.
+
+The idea of co-education in secondary schools has spread in several
+other European countries, especially in Holland, Norway, Sweden and
+Denmark. In Scandinavia, the new practice appears to have begun with the
+establishment of a private higher secondary school, the Palmgremska
+Samskolan, in Stockholm, in 1876. A similar school, Nya Svenska
+Läroverket, was founded upon the same model in Helsingfors, Finland, in
+1880. In Norway, the law of 1896 introduced co-education in all state
+schools. In Denmark, as in Norway, co-education was begun in private
+schools; on its proving a success there, it was introduced into the
+state schools, with two exceptions; and it is now obligatory in most
+state schools but optional in private schools (J. S. Thornton, _Schools
+Public and Private in the North of Europe_, 1907, p. 97). In Holland,
+there is now a good deal of co-education in lower secondary schools of
+the modern type. For example, at Utrecht, the state higher burgher
+school provides the same course of instruction, except in gymnastics,
+for boys and girls. At Almeloo, the municipal higher burgher school,
+though co-educational, differentiates the classes in several subjects.
+In Belgium, France, Germany and Austria, co-education, though frequent
+in elementary schools, is regarded as undesirable in secondary; but the
+movement in its favour in many parts of Germany seems to be gathering
+strength. All over Europe the Roman Catholic populations prefer the
+older ideal of separate schools for boys and girls.
+
+Co-education in colleges and universities, which began at Oberlin, Ohio,
+in 1833, was adopted almost without exception by the state universities
+throughout the west of America from 1862 onwards. Since that time the
+idea has spread rapidly throughout Europe, and the presence of women
+students at universities originally confined to men is one of the most
+striking educational facts of the age.
+
+_Co-education in the United Kingdom, (a) England and Wales._--The Board
+of Education does not possess any summary showing the number of pupils
+in mixed public elementary schools or in mixed departments of such
+schools. In 1901, out of 31,502 departments of public elementary schools
+in England and Wales, nearly half (15,504) were mixed departments, in
+which boys and girls were educated together. But as the departments were
+of unequal size, it must not be inferred from this that half the
+children in public elementary schools in that year (5,883,762) were
+receiving co-education. Of the total number of departments in public
+elementary schools in England and Wales, the percentage of mixed schools
+fell from 51.6 in 1881 to 49.4 in 1891 and 49.2 in 1901. But these
+percentages must not be taken to prove an absolute decline in the number
+of children in mixed departments.
+
+In England, out of 492 public secondary schools which were recognized by
+the Board of Education for the receipt of government grant for the
+school year ending July 31, 1905, and which contained 85,358 pupils, 108
+schools, with 21,720 pupils, were mixed; and 20 schools, with 8980
+pupils, were dual schools.
+
+Thus, of the total number of pupils in the secondary schools referred to
+above, a little over 25% were in mixed schools, and about 10% were in
+dual schools. It is not safe to assume, however, that all the mixed
+schools were completely co-educational in their work, or that the dual
+schools were not co-educational in respect of certain subjects or parts
+of the course. It should also be remembered that, besides the secondary
+schools recognized by the Board of Education for the receipt of
+government grant, there is a considerable number of great endowed
+secondary boarding-schools ("public schools" in the English use of that
+expression) which are for boys only. There are also at least 5000
+private secondary schools, of which, in 1897 (since when no
+comprehensive statistical inquiry has been made), 970, with 26,027
+pupils, were mixed schools. But the great majority of the children in
+these mixed schools were under twelve years of age. The number of boys
+and girls over twelve years of age, in the mixed private secondary
+schools which were included in the 1897 return, was only 5488.
+
+In Wales, for the school year ending July 31, 1905, out of 84
+state-aided public secondary schools, 11 were mixed and 44 were dual
+schools. The number of scholars in the Welsh schools referred to above
+was 9340. Of these, 1457, or 15%, were in mixed schools, and 5085, or
+54%, were in dual schools. The managers of dual schools in Wales have
+the power to arrange that boys and girls shall be taught together in any
+or all the classes; and, as a matter of fact, nearly all the dual
+schools are worked as mixed schools, though they appear in these figures
+under dual.
+
+_(b) Scotland._--In the public elementary schools, including the higher
+grade schools of Scotland, co-education is the almost universal rule.
+The exceptions, which for the most part are Roman Catholic or Episcopal
+Church schools, tend to diminish year by year. In 1905, out of 3843
+departments in the Scotch public elementary and higher grade schools,
+3783 were mixed. These include the infant departments. Out of the total
+number of children in the public elementary and higher grade schools,
+including infants' departments, 98.43% were receiving co-education.
+
+In the secondary schools of Scotland there has been in recent years
+little perceptible movement either towards co-education or away from it.
+What movement there is, favours the establishment of separate secondary
+schools for girls in the large centres of population. Out of 109 public
+secondary schools in Scotland in 1905-1906, 29 schools were for boys
+only and 40 schools for girls only. One school had boys and girls in
+separate departments. In the remaining 39 schools, boys and girls were
+taken together to an extent which varied with the subjects taken; but
+there was nothing of the nature of a strict separation of the sexes as
+regards the ordinary work of the school.
+
+_(c) Ireland._--In Ireland, the percentage of pupils on the rolls of
+mixed national schools (_i.e._ schools attended by boys and girls), to
+the total number of pupils on the rolls of all national schools, has
+slowly increased. In 1880 the percentage was 57.5; in 1898, 59.4; in
+1905, 60.9.
+
+The Commissioners of Intermediate Education in Ireland had on their list
+in 1906, 38 secondary schools which were classified by them as mixed
+schools. These schools were attended by 640 boys and 413 girls between
+13 and 19 years of age. The commissioners do not know to what extent the
+boys and girls in these schools received instruction in the same
+classes. As, however, the schools are small, they believe that in the
+great majority of cases the boys and girls were taught together. In one
+large school not classified as mixed, the boys (117) and girls (60) were
+taught in the same classes.
+
+_Universities and University Colleges in the United Kingdom._--Women are
+admitted as members of the universities of London, Durham, Manchester,
+Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Wales, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, St
+Andrews, Glasgow, Dublin and the Royal University of Ireland. At Oxford
+and Cambridge women are not admitted as members of the university, but
+by courtesy enjoy entrance to practically all university lectures and
+examinations. The social life of the men and women students is more
+separate in the old than in the new universities. In no grade of
+education in the United Kingdom has the principle of co-education made
+more rapid advance than in the universities. The university education of
+women began in London (Queen's College 1848, Bedford College 1849, both
+being preceded by classes in earlier years). The University of London in
+1878 decided to accept from the crown a supplemental charter making
+every degree, honour and prize awarded by the university accessible to
+students of both sexes on perfectly equal terms. By charter in 1880, the
+Victoria University (now broken up into the universities of Manchester,
+Liverpool and Leeds) received power to grant degrees to women as well as
+to men. The charter of the university of Wales (1893) provides that
+"Women shall be eligible equally with men for admittance to any degree
+which our university is authorized to confer; every office created in
+the university, and the membership of every authority constituted by the
+charter shall be open to women equally with men." In 1889 the
+Universities (Scotland) Act empowered the commissioners to make
+ordinances, enabling each university to admit women in graduation in one
+or more faculties and to provide for their instruction. At all the
+university colleges in the United Kingdom women are educated as well as
+men.
+
+_United States._--Co-education is a characteristic feature of the
+educational system of the different states of the American Union. Of
+elementary school pupils at least 96%, and of secondary school pupils
+95%, are in mixed schools. In 1903, out of a total enrolment of
+15,990,803 pupils in public elementary and secondary schools and
+training colleges, 15,387,734 were in schools attended by pupils of both
+sexes. Out of 550,600 pupils on the rolls of public secondary schools
+(high schools) in 1902, 523,300 were in co-educational schools. The same
+was true of 43% of the pupils (numbering over 100,000) in private
+secondary schools. In colleges and universities 62% of all
+undergraduates were in co-educational institutions, to which category
+thirty-four American universities belong (U.S. Commissioner of
+Education, _Report for 1903_, p. 2454). In America opinion is thus
+predominantly in favour of co-education, but there is a current of
+adverse criticism, especially among some who have had experience of
+school conditions in large cities.
+
+_General Review of the Question._--In schools for infants and younger
+children co-education is approved by all authorities. It is increasingly
+favoured on educational grounds in smaller schools for children up to 12
+or 13 years of age or thereabouts. But where elementary schools have to
+be large, separate departments for boys and girls are generally
+preferable, though mixed schools are often established for reasons of
+economy. At the other end of the educational scale, viz. in the
+universities, the co-education of men and women in the same institution
+is fast becoming the rule. This is due partly to the prohibitive cost of
+duplicating teaching staff, laboratories, libraries and other equipment,
+partly to the desire of women to qualify themselves for professional
+life by passing through the same courses of training as are prescribed
+for men. The degree, however, to which social intercourse is carried on
+between men and women students differs widely in the different
+co-educational universities. There are occasional signs, _e.g._ at
+Chicago, of a reaction against the fullest form of academic
+co-education. And it is probable that the universities will provide,
+among many courses common to men and women, some (like engineering)
+suitable for men only, and others (like advanced instruction in
+home-science, or certain courses of professional preparation for
+teachers of young children) which will rarely be attended by any but
+women. Common use of the same university institutions is compatible with
+much differentiation in courses of study and with separately organized
+forms of collegiate life. It is with regard to the part of education
+which lies between the elementary schools and the universities that the
+sharpest division of opinion upon the principle of co-education now
+exists. In Europe, with the exception of Scandinavia, those who advocate
+co-education of the sexes in secondary schools up to 18 or 19 years of
+age are at present in a distinct minority, even as regards day schools,
+and still more when they propose to apply the same principle to boarding
+schools. But the application of the co-educational principle to all
+schools alike is favoured by an apparently increasing number of men and
+women. This movement in opinion is connected with the increase in the
+number of girls desiring access to secondary schools, a demand which can
+most easily and economically be met by granting to girls access to some
+of the existing schools for boys. The co-educational movement is also
+connected with a strong view of sex equality. It is furthered by the
+rapidly increasing number of women teachers who are available for higher
+educational work. Mixed secondary schools with mixed staffs are
+spreading for reasons of economy in smaller towns and rural districts.
+In large towns separate schools are usually recommended in preference,
+but much depends upon the social tradition of the neighbourhood. Those
+who advocate co-education for boys and girls in secondary schools urge
+it mainly on the ground of its naturalness and closer conformity to the
+conditions of healthy, unselfconscious home life. They believe it to be
+a protective against uncleanness of talk and school immorality. They
+point to its convenience and economy. They welcome co-education as
+likely to bring with it a healthy radicalism in regard to the older
+tradition of studies in boys' secondary schools. They approve it as
+leading to mixed staffs of men and women teachers, and as the most
+effectual way of putting girls in a position of reasonable equality with
+boys in respect of intellectual and civic opportunity. On the other
+hand, those who oppose co-education in secondary schools rest their case
+upon the danger of the intellectual or physical overstrain of girls
+during adolescence; and upon the unequal rate of development of boys and
+girls during the secondary school period, the girls being more forward
+than the boys at first, but as a rule less able to work as hard at a
+somewhat later stage. The critics further complain that co-education is
+generally so organized that the girls' course of study is more or less
+assimilated to that of the boys, with the result that it cannot have the
+artistic and domestic character which is suitable for the majority of
+girls. Complaint is also made that the head of a co-educational school
+for pupils over the age of 10 is usually a man, though the health and
+character of girls need the care and control of a woman vested with
+complete authority and responsibility. While demurring to the view that
+co-education of the sexes would be a moral panacea, the critics of the
+system admit that the presence of the girls would exert a refining
+influence, but they believe that on the whole the boys are likely to
+gain less from co-education than the girls are likely to lose by it. In
+all these matters carefully recorded observation and experiment are
+needed, and it may well be found that co-education is best for some boys
+and for some girls, though not for all. Temperaments and dispositions
+differ. Some boys seem by nature more fitted for the kind of training
+generally given to girls; some girls are by nature fitted for the kind
+of training generally given to boys. The sex division does not mark off
+temperaments into two sharply contrasted groups. The introduction of
+girls into boys' secondary schools may remove or mitigate coarse
+traditions of speech and conduct where such persist. But it would be
+unfortunate if stiff and pedantic traditions of secondary education were
+now fixed upon girls instead of being reconsidered and modified in the
+interests of boys also. In any case, if co-education in secondary
+schools is to yield the benefits which some anticipate from it, great
+vigilance, careful selection of pupils and very liberal staffing will be
+necessary. Without these securities the results of co-education in
+secondary schools might be disappointing, disquieting or even
+disastrous.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Plato in the _Republic_ (v. 452-456) and _Laws_ (vii.
+  804-805) argues that women should share as far as possible in
+  education with men. Mary Wollstonecraft, _A Vindication of the Rights
+  of Women_ (1792), contends that "both sexes ought, not only in private
+  families but in public schools, to be educated together." J. G.
+  Spurzheim, _Principles of Education_, pp. 272-288 (Edinburgh, 1821),
+  replies to this argument. In the Board of Education _Special Reports
+  on Educational Subjects_, vol. vi. (Wyman & Sons, 1900), J. H. Badley,
+  writing on _The Possibility of Co-education in English Preparatory and
+  other Secondary Schools_, is strongly in favour. "In co-education ...
+  half-heartedness means failure. The more completely both sexes can be
+  brought together upon an equal and natural footing the less the
+  difficulties grow." In the Board of Education _Special Reports_, vol.
+  xi. (Wyman & Sons, 1902), Rev. Cecil Grant, writing on _Can American
+  Education be grafted upon the English Public School System?_ answers
+  strongly in the affirmative; co-education is recommended on eight
+  grounds:--(1) Vast economy of expenditure; (2) return to the natural
+  system; (3) discipline made easier; (4) intellectual stimulus; (5) a
+  better balance in instruction; (6) improved manners; (7) prevention of
+  extremes of masculinity or femininity; (8) a safeguard against the
+  moral danger.
+
+  _Co-education: a series of Essays_ (London, 1903), edited by Alice
+  Woods, is in favour of co-education, nine practical workers recording
+  their experience; this is one of the best books on the subject. J. H.
+  Badley's _Co-education after Fifteen: its Value and Difficulties_.
+  _Child Life_ (London, January, 1906), is candid, judicious and
+  practical. M. E. Sadler in _Reports on Secondary Education in
+  Hampshire, Derbyshire and Essex_ (1904, 1905 and 1906 respectively)
+  gives details of the curriculum of many co-educational secondary
+  schools. In the U.S. Commissioner of Education _Report for 1903_, vol.
+  i. pp. 1047-1078, Anna Tolman Smith, writing on _Co-education in the
+  Schools and Colleges of the United States_, gives an historical review
+  of the subject with bibliography (compare bibliography in _Report of
+  U.S. Commissioner of Education for 1900-1901_, pp. 1310-1325). G.
+  Stanley Hall on _Adolescence, its Psychology and its Relations to
+  Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and
+  Education_, vol. ii. chap. xvii., on Adolescent Girls and their
+  education (New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1904), is strongly against
+  co-education during adolescence. In W. Rein's _Encyklopädisches
+  Handbuch der Pädagogik_ (Langensalza, Beyer), art. "Gemeinsame
+  Erziehung für Knaben und Mädchen," K. E. Palmgren is in favour of
+  co-education (vol. iii. of 2nd ed. 1905). See also W. Rein, _Über
+  gemeinsame Erziehung von Knaben und Mädchen_ (Freiburg, 1903), and
+  _Bericht über den I. Internationalen Kongress für Schulhygiene_
+  (Nürnberg, 1904), vol. ii. pp. 140 ff., "Co-education in der höheren
+  Schulen."     (M. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+COEFFETEAU, NICOLAS (1574-1623), French theologian, poet and historian,
+was born at Saint-Calais. He entered the Dominican order and lectured on
+philosophy at Paris, being also "ordinary preacher" to Henry IV., and
+afterwards ambassador at Rome. In 1606 he was vicar-general of the
+congregation of France, and received from Marie de' Medici the revenues
+of the sees of Lombez and Saintes. He also administered the diocese of
+Metz, and was nominated to that of Marseilles in 1621, but ill-health
+obliged him here to take a coadjutor. Coeffeteau won considerable
+distinction in the controversy against the Protestant reformers and also
+wrote a _History of Rome from Augustus to Constantine_. Many of his
+theological writings were collected in one volume (Paris, 1622), and at
+the time of his death in 1623 he was engaged on a translation of the New
+Testament which is still in manuscript.
+
+
+
+
+COEHOORN, MENNO, BARON VAN (1641-1704), Dutch soldier and military
+engineer, of Swedish extraction, was born at Leeuwarden in Friesland. He
+received an excellent military and general education, and at the age of
+sixteen became a captain in the Dutch army. He took part in the defence
+of Maastricht in 1673 and in the siege of Grave in the same year, where
+the small mortars (called coehorns) invented by him caused the French
+garrison considerable trouble (Seydel, _Nachrichten über
+Festungskriege_, Leipzig, 1818). He was made a colonel for his gallant
+conduct at the battle of Seneff (1674), and was present also at the
+battles of Cassel (1677) and Saint Denis (1678).
+
+The circumstances of the time and the country turned Coehoorn's
+attention to the art of fortification, and the events of the late war
+showed him that existing methods could no longer be relied upon. His
+first published work, _Versterckinge de Vijfhoeks met alle syne
+Buytenwerken_ (Leeuwarden, 1682), at once aroused attention, and
+involved the author in a lively controversy with a rival engineer, Louys
+Paan (Leeuwarden, 1682, 1683; copies are in the library of the Dutch
+ministry of war). The military authorities were much interested in this,
+and entrusted Coehoorn with the reconstruction of several fortresses in
+the Netherlands. This task he continued throughout his career; and his
+experience in the work made him the worthy rival of his great
+contemporary Vauban. He formulated his ideas a little later in his chief
+work, _Nieuwe Vestingbouw op en natte of lage horizont_, &c.
+(Leeuwarden, 1685), in which he laid down three "systems," the
+characteristic feature of which was the multiplicity and great saliency
+of the works, which were calculated and in principle are still eminently
+suited for flat and almost marshy sites such as those of the Low
+Countries. He borrowed many of the details from the works of his Dutch
+predecessor Freytag, of Albrecht Dürer, and of the German engineer
+Speckle, and in general he aimed rather at the adaptation of his
+principles to the requirements of individual sites than at producing a
+geometrically and theoretically perfect fortress; and throughout his
+career he never hesitated to depart from his own rules in dealing with
+exceptional cases, such as that of Groningen. Subsequent editions of
+_Nieuwe Vestingbouw_ appeared in Dutch (1702, and frequently
+afterwards), English (London, 1705), French (Wesel, 1705), and German
+(Düsseldorf, 1709).
+
+From 1688 to the treaty of Ryswick Coehoorn served as a brigadier. At
+the battle of Fleurus he greatly distinguished himself, and in 1692 he
+defended Namur, a fortress of his own creation. Namur was taken by
+Vauban; but the Dutch engineer had his revenge three years later, when
+the place, on which in the meantime Vauban had lavished his skill, fell
+to his attack. Coehoorn became lieutenant-general and inspector-general
+of the Netherlands fortresses, and the high-German peoples as well as
+his own countrymen honoured him. He commanded a corps in the army of the
+duke of Marlborough from 1701 to 1703, and in the constant siege warfare
+of these campaigns in the Low Countries his technical skill was of the
+highest value. The swift reduction of the fortress of Bonn and the siege
+of Huy in 1703 were his crowning successes. At the opening of his
+following campaign he was on his way to confer with Marlborough when he
+died of apoplexy at Wijkel on the 17th of March 1704.
+
+His "first system" was applied to numerous places in Holland, notably
+Nijmwegen, Breda and Bergen-op-Zoom. Mannheim in Germany was also
+fortified in this way, while the "secondsystem" was applied to Belgrade
+and Temesvár in eastern Europe.
+
+  His son, Gosewijn Theodor van Coehoorn, wrote his life (re-edited
+  Syperstein, Leeuwarden, 1860). See also v. Zastrow, _Geschichte der
+  beständigen Befestigung_ (Leipzig, 1828); von Brese-Winiari, _Über
+  Entstehen und Wesen der neueren Befestigungsmethode_ (1844); Cosseran
+  de Villenoisy, _Essai historique sur la fortification_ (1869); Mandar,
+  _Architecture des forteresses_ (1801); Krayenhoff, _Verhandeling over
+  de erste versterkingsmanier van Coehoorn_ (Hague, 1823); Bosscha,
+  _Nederlandsche heldend te Land_ (Amsterdam, 1838); Dewez, _Histoire de
+  Belgique_ (Brussels, 1823); Ypey, _Narratio de rebus gestis Mennonis
+  Cohorni_ (1771); Hennert, _Dissertation sur la fortification
+  permanente_ (1795); Böhms, _Gründliche Anleitung zur Kriegsbaukunst_
+  (1776); _Axiomatas of allgemeene bekentnisse over de Vestinghbouw door
+  Menno Baron van Coehoorn, Uytgewerkt door E. W. Berg_ (MS. in Dutch
+  Ministry of War); Bousmard, _Essai général de fortification_ (1797);
+  also the article FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT.
+
+
+
+
+COELENTERA, a group or grade of the animal kingdom, the zoological
+importance of which has risen considerably since the time (1887) of the
+publication of the first article under that heading in the _Ency. Brit._
+(9th edit.), even though their numbers have been reduced by the
+elevation of the Sponges or Porifera to the rank of an independent
+Phylum under the title Parazoa (W. J. Sollas, 1884). For the Coelentera
+thus restricted, the term Enterocoela, in contrast to Coelomocoela (the
+old Coelomata), was suggested by E. R. Lankester (1900).
+
+From the more complex colonial Protozoa the Coelentera are readily
+separated by their possession of two distinct sets of cells, with
+diverse functions, arranged in two definite layers,--a condition found
+in no Protozoan. The old criterion by which they and other Metazoa were
+once distinguished from Protozoa, namely, the differentiation of large
+and small sexual cells from each other and from the remaining cells of
+the body, has been broken down by the discovery of numerous cases of
+such differentiation among Protozoa. The Coelentera, as contrasted with
+other Metazoa (but not Parazoa), consist of two layers of cells only, an
+outer layer or ectoderm, an inner layer or endoderm. They have hence
+been described as Diploblastica. In the remaining Metazoa certain cells
+are budded off at an early stage of development from one or both of the
+two original layers, to form later a third layer, the mesoderm, which
+lies between the ectoderm and endoderm; such forms have therefore
+received the name Triploblastica. At the same time it is necessary to
+observe that it is by no means certain that the mesoderm found in
+various groups of Metazoa is a similar or homologous formation in all
+cases. A second essential difference between Coelentera and other
+Metazoa (except Parazoa) is that in the former all spaces in the
+interior of the body are referable to a single cavity of endodermal
+origin, the "gastro-vascular cavity," often termed the coelenteron: the
+spaces are always originally continuous with one another, and are in
+almost every case permanently so. This single cavity and its lining
+serve apparently for all those functions (digestion, excretion,
+circulation and often reproduction) which in more complex organisms are
+distributed among various cavities of independent and often very diverse
+origin.
+
+In the Coelentera the ectoderm and endoderm are set apart from one
+another at a very early period in the life-history; generally either by
+delamination or invagination, processes described in the article
+EMBRYOLOGY. Between these two cell-layers a mesogloea (G. C. Bourne,
+1887) is always intercalated as a secretion by one or both of them; this
+is a gelatinoid, primitively structureless lamella, which in the first
+instance serves merely as a basal support for the cells. In many cases,
+as, for example, in the Medusae or jelly-fish, the mesogloea may be so
+thick as to constitute the chief part of the body in bulk and weight.
+The ectoderm rarely consists of more than one layer of cells: these are
+divisible by structure and function into nervous, muscular and secretory
+cells, supported by interstitial cells. The endoderm is generally also
+an epithelium one cell in thickness, the cells being digestive,
+secretory and sometimes muscular. Reproductive sexual cells may be found
+in either of these two layers, according to the class and sub-class in
+question. The mesogloea is in itself an inert non-cellular secretion,
+but the immigration of muscular and other cells into its substance, from
+both ectoderm and endoderm, gives it in many cases a strong resemblance
+to the mesoderm of Triploblastica,--a resemblance which, while probably
+superficial, may yet serve to indicate the path of evolution of the
+mesoderm.
+
+The Coelentera may thus be briefly defined as Metazoa which exhibit two
+embryonic cell-layers only,--the ectoderm and endoderm,--their
+body-cavities being referable to a single cavity or coelenteron in the
+endoderm. Their position in the animal kingdom and their main
+subdivisions may be expressed in the following table:--
+
+                  I. PROTOZOA.
+                 II. PARAZOA or PORIFERA.
+                III. METAZOA.
+                       |
+            +----------+--------------+
+            |                         |
+        Coelentera            Triploblastica
+      = Diploblastica.      (including Coelomata).
+              |
+       +------+-----------+-----------------+
+       |                  |                 |
+  Hydromedusae.       Scyphozoa.       Ctenophora.
+                          |
+                 +--------+----------+
+                 |                   |
+            Scyphomedusae.       Anthozoa.
+
+In the above-given classification, the Scyphomedusae, formerly included
+with the Hydromedusae as Hydrozoa, are placed nearer the Anthozoa. The
+reasons for this may be stated briefly.
+
+The HYDROMEDUSAE are distinguished from the Scyphozoa chiefly by
+negative characters; they have no stomodaeum, that is, no ingrowth of
+ectoderm at the mouth to form an oesophagus; they have no mesenteries
+(radiating partitions) which incompletely subdivide the coelenteron; and
+they have no concentration of digestive cells into special organs. Their
+ectodermal muscles are mainly longitudinal, their endodermal muscles are
+circularly arranged on the body-wall. Their sexual cells are (probably
+in all cases) produced from the ectoderm, and lie in those radii which
+are first accentuated in development. They typically present two
+structural forms, the non-sexual hydroid and the sexual medusoid; in
+such a case there is an alternation of generations (metagenesis), the
+hydroid giving rise to the medusoid by a sexual gemmation, the medusoid
+bearing sexual cells which develop into a hydroid. In some other cases
+medusoid develops directly from medusoid (hypogenesis), whether by
+sexual cells or by gemmation. The medusoids have a muscular velum of
+ectoderm and mesogloea only.
+
+The SCYPHOZOA have the following features in common:--They typically
+exhibit an ectodermal stomodaeum; partitions or mesenteries project into
+their coelenteron from the body-wall, and on these are generally
+concentrated digestive cells (to form mesenterial filaments, phacellae
+or gastric filaments, &c.); the external musculature of the body-wall is
+circular (except in _Cerianthus_); the internal, longitudinal; and the
+sexual cells probably always arise in the endoderm.
+
+The SCYPHOMEDUSAE, like the Hydromedusae, typically present a
+metagenesis, the non-sexual scyphistomoid (corresponding to the hydroid)
+alternating with the sexual medusoid. In other cases the medusoid is
+hypogenetic, medusoid producing medusoid. The sexual cells of the
+medusoid lie in the endoderm on interradii, that is, on the second set
+of radii accentuated in the course of development. The medusoids have no
+true velum; in some cases a structure more or less resembling this
+organ, termed a velarium, is present, permeated by endodermal canals.
+
+The ANTHOZOA differ from the Scyphomedusae in having no medusoid form;
+they all more or less resemble a sea-anemone, and may be termed
+actinioid. They are (with rare exceptions, probably secondarily
+acquired) hypogenetic, the offspring resembling the parent, and both
+being sexual. The sexual cells are borne on the mesenteries in positions
+irrespective of obvious developmental radii.
+
+The CTENOPHORA are so aberrant in structure that it has been proposed to
+separate them from the Coelentera altogether: they are, however,
+theoretically deducible from an ancestor common to other Coelentera, but
+their extreme specialization precludes the idea of any close
+relationship with the rest.
+
+As regards the other three groups, however, it is easy to conceive of
+them as derived from an ancestor, represented to-day to some extent by
+the planula-larva, which was Coelenterate in so far as it was composed
+of an ectoderm and endoderm, and had an internal digestive cavity (I. of
+the table).
+
+At the point of divergence between Scyphozoa and Hydromedusae (II. of
+the table of hypothetical descent), we may conceive of its descendant as
+tentaculate, capable of either floating (swimming) or fixation at will
+like Lucernaria to-day; and exhibiting incipient differentiation of
+myoepithelial cells (formerly termed neuro-muscular cells). At the
+parting of the ways which led, on the one hand, to modern Scyphomedusae,
+on the other to Anthozoa (III.), it is probable that the common ancestor
+was marked by incipient mesenteries and by the limitation of the sexual
+cells to endoderm. The lines of descent--II. to Hydromedusae, and III.
+to Scyphomedusae--represent periods during which the hypothetical
+ancestors II. and III., capable of either locomotion or fixation at
+will, were either differentiated into alternating generations of fixed
+sterile nutritive hydroids (scyphistomoids) and locomotor sexual
+medusoids, or abandoned the power of fixation in hypogenetic cases.
+During the period represented by the line of descent--III. to
+Anthozoa--this group abandoned its power of adult locomotion by
+swimming. During these periods were also attained those less important
+structural characters which these three groups present to-day.
+      (G. H. Fo.)
+
+  Hydromedusae.   Scyphomedusae.  Anthozoa.
+           \               |         /
+            \              |        /
+             \             |       /
+              \            |      /
+               \           |     /
+                \          |    /
+                 \         |   /
+                  \        |  /
+                   \       | /
+                    \      |/
+                     \    III.
+                      \   /
+     Ctenophora?       \ /
+             \         II.
+              \         |
+               \        |
+                \       |
+                 \      |
+                  \     |
+                   \    |
+                    \   |
+                     \  |
+                      \ |
+                       \|
+                        I.
+
+
+
+
+COELLO, ALONSO SANCHEZ (1515-1590), Spanish painter, according to some
+authorities a native of Portugal, was born, according to others, at
+Benifacio, near the city of Valencia. He studied many years in Italy;
+and returning to Spain in 1541 he settled at Madrid, and worked on
+religious themes for most of the palaces and larger churches. He was a
+follower of Titian, and, like him, excelled in portraits and single
+figures, elaborating the textures of his armours, draperies, and such
+accessories in a manner so masterly as strongly to influence Velazquez
+in his treatment of like objects. Many of his pictures were destroyed in
+the fires that consumed the Madrid and Prado palaces, but many good
+examples are yet extant, among which may be noted the portraits of the
+infantes Carlos and Isabella, now in the Madrid gallery, and the St
+Sebastian painted in the church of San Gerónimo, also in Madrid. Coello
+left a daughter, Isabella Sanchez, who studied under him, and painted
+excellent portraits.
+
+
+
+
+COELLO, ANTONIO (1610?-1652), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at
+Madrid about the beginning of the 17th century. He entered the household
+of the duke de Albuquerque, and after some years of service in the army
+received the order of Santiago in 1648. He was a favourite of Philip
+IV., who is reported to have collaborated with him; this rumour is not
+confirmed, but there is ample proof of Coello's collaboration with
+Calderón, Rojas Zorrilla, Solís and Velez de Guevara, the most
+distinguished dramatists of the age. The best of his original plays,
+_Los Empeños de seis horas_, has been wrongly ascribed to Calderón; it
+was adapted by Samuel Tuke, under the title of _The Adventures of five
+Hours_, and was described by Pepys as superior to _Othello_. It is an
+excellent example of stagecraft and animated dialogue. Coello died on
+the 20th of October 1652, shortly after his nomination to a post in the
+household of Philip IV.
+
+
+
+
+COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES. In human anatomy the body-cavity or coelom
+(Gr. [Greek: koilos], hollow) is divided into the _pericardium_, the two
+_pleurae_, the _peritoneum_ and the two _tunicae vaginales_.
+
+The _pericardium_ is a closed sac which occupies the central part of the
+thorax and contains the heart. Like all the serous membranes it has a
+visceral and a parietal layer, the former of which is closely applied to
+the heart and consists of endothelial cells with a slight fibrous
+backing: to it is due the glossy appearance of a freshly removed heart.
+The parietal layer is double; externally there is a strong fibrous
+protective coat which is continuous with the other fibrous structures in
+the neighbourhood, especially with the sheaths of the great vessels at
+the root of the heart, with prolongations of the fascia of the neck, and
+with the central tendon of the diaphragm, while internally is the serous
+layer which is reflected from the surface of the heart, where the great
+vessels enter, so that everywhere the two layers of the serous membrane
+are in contact, and the only thing within the cavity is a drop or two of
+the fluid secreted by the serous walls. When the parietal layer is laid
+open and the heart removed by cutting through the great vessels, it will
+be seen that there are two lines of reflection of the serous layer, one
+common to the aorta and pulmonary artery, the other to all the pulmonary
+veins and the two venae cavae.
+
+The _pleurae_ very closely resemble the pericardium except that the
+fibrous outer coat of the parietal layer is not nearly as strong; it is
+closely attached to the inner surface of the chest walls and mesially to
+the outer layer of the pericardium; above it is thickened by a fibrous
+contribution from the scalene muscles, and this forms the _dome of the
+pleura_ which fits into the concavity of the first rib and contains the
+apex of the lung. The reflection of the serous layer of the pleura, from
+the parietal to the visceral part, takes place at the root of the lung,
+where the great vessels enter, and continues for some distance below
+this as the _ligamentum latum pulmonis_. The upper limit of the pleural
+cavity reaches about half an inch above the inner third of the clavicle,
+while, below, it may be marked out by a line drawn from the twelfth
+thoracic spine to the tenth rib in the mid axillary line, the eighth rib
+in the nipple line, and the sixth rib at its junction with the sternum.
+There is probably very little difference in the lower level of the
+pleurae on the two sides.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of vertical median section of Abdomen.
+
+  A, Aorta.          D, Duodenum.
+  P, Pancreas.       B, Bladder.
+  I, Intestine.      St, Stomach.
+  R, Rectum.         C, Colon.
+  L, Liver.          V, Vagina.
+
+(The fine dots represent the great sac of the peritoneum, the coarse
+dots the lesser sac.)]
+
+The _peritoneum_ is a more extensive and complicated membrane than
+either the pericardium or pleura; it surrounds the abdominal and pelvic
+viscera, and, like the other sacs, has a parietal and visceral layer.
+The line of reflection of these, though a continuous one, is very
+tortuous. The peritoneum consists of a _greater_ and _lesser sac_ which
+communicate through an opening known as the _foramen of Winslow_, and
+the most satisfactory way of understanding these is to follow the
+reflections first in a vertical median (sagittal) section and then in a
+horizontal one, the body being supposed to be in the upright position.
+If a median sagittal section be studied first, and a start be made at
+the umbilicus (see fig. 1), the parietal peritoneum is seen to run
+upward, lining the anterior abdominal wall, and then to pass along the
+under surface of the diaphragm till its posterior third is reached; here
+there is a reflection on to the liver (L), forming the anterior layer of
+the _coronary ligament_ of that viscus, while the membrane now becomes
+visceral and envelops the front of the liver as far back as the
+transverse fissure on its lower surface; here it is reflected on to the
+stomach (St) forming the anterior layer of the _gastro-hepatic_ or
+_lesser omentum_. It now covers the front of the stomach, and at the
+lower border runs down as the anterior layer of an apron-like fold, the
+_great omentum_, which in some cases reaches as low as the pubes; then
+it turns up again as the posterior or fourth layer of the great omentum
+until the transverse colon (C) is reached, the posterior surface of
+which it covers and is reflected, as the posterior layer of the
+_transverse meso-colon_, to the lower part of the pancreas (P); after
+this it turns down and covers the anterior surface of the third part of
+the duodenum (D) till the posterior wall of the abdomen is reached, from
+which it is reflected on to the small intestine (I) as the anterior
+layer of the _mesentery_, a fold varying from 5 to 8 in. between its
+attachments. After surrounding the small intestine it becomes the
+posterior layer of the mesentery and so again reaches the posterior
+abdominal wall, down which it runs until the rectum (R) is reached. The
+anterior surface of this tube is covered by peritoneum to a point about
+3 in. from the anus, where it is reflected on to the uterus and vagina
+(V) in the female and then on to the bladder (B); in the male, on the
+other hand, the reflection is directly from the rectum to the bladder.
+At the apex of the bladder, after covering the upper surface of that
+organ, it is lifted off by the urachus and runs up the anterior
+abdominal wall to the umbilicus, from which the start was made. All this
+is the greater sac. The tracing of the lesser sac may be conveniently
+started at the transverse fissure of the liver, whence the membrane runs
+down to the stomach (St) as the posterior layer of the lesser omentum,
+lines the posterior surface of the stomach, passes down as the second
+layer of the great omentum and up again as the third layer, covers the
+anterior surface of the transverse colon (C) and then reaches the
+pancreas (P) as the anterior layer of the transverse mesocolon. After
+this it covers the front of the pancreas and in the middle line of the
+body runs up below the diaphragm to within an inch of the anterior layer
+of the coronary ligament of the liver; here it is reflected on to the
+top of the Spigelian lobe of the liver to form the posterior layer of
+the coronary ligament, covers the whole Spigelian lobe, and so reaches
+the transverse fissure, the starting-point.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of Horizontal Section through upper part
+of 1st Lumbar Vertebra.
+
+  A,   Aorta.         H.A, Hepatic Artery.
+  Sp,  Spleen.        K,   Kidney.
+  B.D, Bile duct.     L,   Liver.
+  V.C, Vena Cava.     St,  Stomach.
+  P,   Pancreas.      P.V, Portal Vein.
+
+The dotting of the peritoneum is as in fig. 1.]
+
+This section, therefore, shows two completely closed sacs without any
+visible communication. In the female, however, the great sac is not
+absolutely closed, for the Fallopian tubes open into it by their minute
+_ostia abdominalia_, while at the other ends they communicate with the
+cavity of the uterus and so with the vagina and exterior.
+
+A horizontal section through the upper part of the first lumbar vertebra
+will, if a fortunate one (see fig. 2), pass through the foramen of
+Winslow and show the communication of the two sacs. A starting-point may
+be made from the mid-ventral line and the parietal peritoneum traced
+round the left side of the body wall until the outer edge of the left
+kidney (K) is reached; here it passes in front of the kidney and is soon
+reflected off on to the spleen, which it nearly surrounds; just before
+it reaches the hilum of that organ, where the vessels enter, it is
+reflected on to the front of the stomach (St), forming the anterior
+layer of the _gastro-splenic omentum_; it soon reaches the lesser
+curvature of the stomach and then becomes the anterior layer of the
+lesser omentum, which continues until the bile duct (B.D) and portal
+vein (P.V) are reached at its right free extremity; here it turns
+completely round these structures and runs to the left again, as the
+posterior layer of the lesser omentum, behind the stomach (St) and then
+to the spleen (Sp) as the posterior layer of the gastro-splenic omentum.
+From the spleen it runs to the right once more, in front of the pancreas
+(P), until the inferior vena cava (V.C) is reached, and this point is
+just behind the portal vein and is the place where the lesser and
+greater sacs communicate, known as the foramen of Winslow. From this
+opening the lesser sac runs to the left, while all the rest of the
+peritoneal cavity in the section is greater sac. From the front of the
+vena cava the parietal peritoneum passes in front of the right kidney
+(K) and round the right abdominal wall to the mid-ventral line. The
+right part of this section is filled by the liver (L), which is
+completely surrounded by a visceral layer of peritoneum, and no
+reflection is usually seen at this level between it and the parietal
+layer. Some of the viscera, such as the kidneys and pancreas, are
+retro-peritoneal; others, such as the small intestines and transverse
+colon, are surrounded, except at one point where they are attached to
+the dorsal wall by a _mesentery_ or _mesocolon_ as the reflections are
+called; others again are completely surrounded, and of these the caecum
+is an example; while some, like the liver and bladder, have large
+uncovered areas, and the reflections of the membrane form ligaments
+which allow considerable freedom of movement.
+
+The _tunica vaginalis_ is the remains of a process of the peritoneum
+(_processus vaginalis_) which descends into the scrotum during foetal
+life some little time before the testis itself descends. After the
+descent of the testis the upper part usually becomes obliterated, while
+the lower part forms a serous sac which nearly surrounds the testis, but
+does not quite do so. Posteriorly the epididymis is in close contact
+with the testis, and here the visceral layer is not in contact; there
+is, however, a pocket called the _digital fossa_ which squeezes in from
+the outer side between the testis and epididymis. The parietal layer
+lines the inner wall of its own side of the scrotum.
+
+  For a full description of the topography of the serous membranes see
+  any of the standard text-books of anatomy, by Gray, Quain, Cunningham
+  or Macalister. Special details will be found in Sir F. Treves'
+  _Anatomy of the Intestinal Canal and Peritoneum_ (London, 1885); C. B.
+  Lockwood, _Hunterian Lectures on Hernia_ (London, 1889); C. Addison,
+  "Topographical Anatomy of the Abdominal Viscera in Man," _Jour.
+  Anat._, vols. 34, 35; F. Dixon and A. Birmingham, "Peritoneum of the
+  Pelvic Cavity," _Jour. Anat._ vol. 34, p. 127; W. Waldeyer, "Das
+  Becken" (1899), and "Topographical Sketch of the Lateral Wall of the
+  Pelvic Cavity," _Jour. Anat._ vol. 32; B. Moynihan, _Retroperitoneal
+  Hernia_ (London, 1899). A complete bibliography of the subject up to
+  1895 will be found in _Quain's Anatomy_, vol. 3, part 4, p. 69.
+
+[Illustration: After Young and Robinson, Cunningham's _Text-Book of
+Anatomy_.
+
+FIG. 3.--Diagram of Longitudinal Section, showing the different areas of
+the Blastodermic Vesicle.
+
+  _a_, Pericardium.                _e_, Placental area.
+  _b_, Bucco-pharyngeal area.      _d_, Entoderm.
+  _c_, Ectoderm.]
+
+_Embryology._--As the mesoderm is gradually spreading over the embryo it
+splits into two layers, the outer of which is known as the
+_somatopleure_ and lines the parietal or ectodermal wall, while the
+inner lines the entoderm and is called the _splanchnopleure_; between
+the two is the coelom. The pericardial area is early differentiated from
+the rest of the coelom and at first lies in front of the neural and
+bucco-pharyngeal area; here the mesoderm stretches right across the
+mid-line, which it does not in front and behind. As the head fold of the
+embryo is formed the pericardium is gradually turned right over, so that
+the dorsal side becomes the ventral and the anterior limit the
+posterior; this will be evident on referring to the two accompanying
+diagrams.
+
+[Illustration: After Young and Robinson, Cunningham's _Text-Book of
+Anatomy_.
+
+FIG. 4.--Diagram of a Developing Ovum, seen in Longitudinal Section.
+
+  _f_, Spinal cord.                     _i_, Brain.
+  _g_, Notochord.                       _k_, Extra embryonic coelom.
+  _h_, Dorsal wall of alimentary canal.      Other numbers as in fig. 3.]
+
+The two primitive aortae lie at first in the ventral wall of the
+pericardium, but with the folding over they come to lie in the dorsal
+wall and gradually bulge into the cavity as they coalesce to form the
+heart, so that the heart drops into the dorsal side of the pericardium
+and draws down a fold of the membrane called the _dorsal mesocardium_.
+In mammals A. Robinson (_Jour. Anat. and Phys._, xxxvii. 1) has shown
+that no ventral mesocardium exists, though in more lowly vertebrates it
+is present. Laterally the pericardial cavity communicates with the
+general cavity of the coelom, but with the growth of the Cuvierian ducts
+(see development of veins) these communications disappear. Originally
+the mesocardium runs the whole length of the pericardium from before
+backward, but later on the middle part becomes obliterated, and so the
+two separate reflections from the parietal to the visceral layer,
+already noticed, are accounted for.
+
+Just behind the pericardium and in front of the umbilicus, which at
+first are close together, the mesoderm forms a mass which is called the
+_septum transversum_, and into this the developing lungs push bag-like
+protrusions of the coelom, consisting of visceral and parietal layers,
+and these eventually lose their connexion with the rest of the coelom,
+as the diaphragm develops, and become the pleural cavities. After the
+pericardium and pleurae have been separated off the remainder of the
+coelom becomes the peritoneum. At first the stomach and intestine form a
+straight tube, which is connected to the dorsum of the embryo by a
+_dorsal mesentery_ and to the mid-ventral wall in front of the umbilicus
+by a _ventral mesentery_. Into the ventral mesentery the liver grows as
+diverticula from the duodenum, so that some of the mesentery remains as
+the _falciform ligament_ of the liver and some as the lesser omentum.
+Into the dorsal mesentery the pancreas grows, also as diverticula, from
+the duodenum, while the spleen is developed from the mesoderm contained
+in the same fold. As the stomach turns over so that its left side
+becomes ventral, the dorsal mesentery attached to it becomes pulled out,
+in such a way that part of it forms the great omentum and part the
+gastro-splenic omentum. After the caecum is formed as a diverticulum
+from the intestine it is situated close to the liver and gradually
+travels down into the right iliac fossa. This passage to the right is
+accompanied by a throwing over of the duodenal loop to the right, so
+that the right side of its mesentery becomes pressed against the dorsal
+wall of the abdomen and obliterated. This accounts for the fact that the
+pancreas and duodenum are only covered by peritoneum on their anterior
+surfaces in man. The formation of the lesser sac is due to the turning
+over of the stomach to the right, with the result that a cave, known
+sometimes as the _bursa omentalis_, is formed behind it. Originally, of
+course, the whole colon had a _dorsal mesocolon_ continuous with the
+mesentery, but in the region of the ascending and descending colon this
+usually disappears and these parts of the gut are uncovered by
+peritoneum posteriorly. The transverse mesocolon persists and at first
+is quite free from the great omentum, but later, in man, the two
+structures fuse[1] and the fourth layer of the great omentum becomes
+continuous with the posterior layer of the transverse mesocolon.
+
+  For further details see Quain's _Anatomy_ (London, 1908).
+
+_Comparative Anatomy._--In the Amphioxus the coelom is developed in the
+embryo as a series of bilateral pouches, called _enterocoeles_, from the
+sides of the alimentary canal; these are therefore entodermal in their
+origin, as in Sagitta and the Echinodermata among the invertebrates. In
+the adult the development of the atrium causes a considerable reduction
+of the coelom, represented by two dorsal coelomic canals communicating
+with a ventral canal by means of branchial canals which run down the
+outer side of the primary gill bars. Into the dorsal canals the
+nephridia open. In the intestinal region the coelom is only present on
+the left side.
+
+In the higher vertebrates (_Craniata_) the coelom is developed by a
+splitting of the mesoderm into two layers, and a pericardium is
+constricted off from the general cavity. In all cases the ova burst into
+the coelom before making their way to the exterior, and in some cases,
+_e.g._ amphioxus, lamprey (Cyclostomata), eels and mud-fish (Dipnoi),
+the sperm cells do so too. The Cyclostomata have a pair of _genital
+pores_ which lead from the coelom into the urino-genital sinus, and so
+to the exterior.
+
+In the Elasmobranch fish there is a _pericardio-peritoneal canal_
+forming a communication between these two parts of the coelom; also a
+large common opening for the two oviducts in the region of the liver,
+and two openings, called _abdominal pores_, on to the surface close to
+the cloacal aperture. In the Teleostomi (Teleostean and Ganoid fish)
+abdominal pores are rare, but in most Teleostei (bony fish) the ova pass
+directly down oviducts, as they do in Arthropods, without entering the
+peritoneal cavity; there is little doubt, however, that these oviducts
+are originally coelomic in origin. In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) abdominal
+pores are found, and probably serve as a passage for the sperm cells,
+since there are no vasa deferentia. In fishes a complete dorsal
+mesentery is seldom found in the adult; in many cases it only remains as
+a tube surrounding the vessels passing to the alimentary canal.
+
+In the Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves, one cavity acts as pleura and
+peritoneum, though in the latter the lungs are not completely surrounded
+by a serous membrane. In many lizards the comparatively straight
+intestine, with its continuous dorsal mesentery and ventral mesentery in
+the anterior part of the abdomen, is very like a stage in the
+development of the human and other mammalian embryos. In the mammalia
+the diaphragm is complete (see DIAPHRAGM) and divides the
+pleuro-peritoneal cavity into its two constituent parts. In the lower
+mammals the derivatives of the original dorsal mesentery do not undergo
+as much fusion and obliteration as they do in adult man; the ascending
+and descending mesocolon is retained, and the transverse mesocolon
+contracts no adhesion to the great omentum. It is a common thing,
+however, to find a fenestrated arrangement of the great omentum which
+shows that its layers have been completely obliterated in many places.
+
+In those animals, such as the rabbit, in which the tests are sometimes
+in the scrotum and sometimes in the abdomen, the communication between
+the peritoneum and the tunica vaginalis remains throughout life.
+
+  For further details and literature up to 1902, see R. Wiedersheim's
+  _Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1902).     (F. G. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Some authorities hold that this alteration is not brought about
+    by fusion, but by a dragging away of the posterior layer of the great
+    omentum from the dorsal wall of the abdomen.
+
+
+
+
+COEN, JAN PIETERSZOON (1587-1630), fourth governor-general of the Dutch
+East Indies, was born at Hoorn, and spent his youth at Rome in the house
+of the famous merchants the Piscatori. In 1607 he sailed from Amsterdam
+to the Indies as second commercial agent, and remained away four years.
+He had proved so capable that in 1612 he was sent out a second time at
+the head of a trading expedition. In the following year he was made a
+councillor and director-general of the East Indian trade. Afterwards he
+became president at Bantam, and on the 31st of October 1617 he was
+promoted in succession to Laurens Reaal to the post of governor-general.
+To his vigour and intrepidity the Dutch in no small measure owed the
+preservation and establishment of their empire in the East. He took and
+destroyed Jacatra, and founded on its ruins the capital of the Dutch
+East Indies, to which he gave the name of Batavia. In 1622 Coen obtained
+leave to resign his post and return to Holland, but in his absence great
+difficulties had arisen with the English at Amboina (the so-called
+massacre of Amboina), and in 1627 under pressure from the directors of
+the East India Company he again returned as governor-general to Batavia.
+In 1629 he was able to beat off a formidable attack of the sultan of
+Mataram, sometimes styled emperor of Java, upon Batavia. He died the
+following year.
+
+
+
+
+COENACULUM, the term applied to the eating-room of a Roman house in
+which the supper (_coena_) or latest meal was taken. It was sometimes
+placed in an upper storey and reached by an external staircase. The Last
+Supper in the New Testament was taken in the Coenaculum, the "large
+upper room" cited in St Mark (xiv. 15) and St Luke (xxii. 12).
+
+
+
+
+COENWULF (d. 821), king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne in 796, on
+the death of Ecgfrith, son of Offa. His succession is somewhat
+remarkable, as his direct ancestors do not seem to have held the throne
+for six generations. In 798 he invaded Kent, deposed and imprisoned
+Eadberht Præn, and made his own brother Cuthred king. Cuthred reigned in
+Kent from 798 to 807, when he died, and Coenwulf seems to have taken
+Kent into his own hands. It was during this reign that the archbishopric
+of Lichfield was abolished, probably before 803, as the Hygeberht who
+signed as an abbot at the council of Cloveshoe in that year was
+presumably the former archbishop. Coenwulf appears from the charters
+to have quarrelled with Wulfred of Canterbury, who was consecrated in
+806, and the dispute continued for several years. It was probably only
+settled at Cloveshoe in 825, when the lawsuit of Cwoenthryth, daughter
+and heiress of Coenwulf, with Wulfred was terminated. Coenwulf may
+have instigated the raid of Æthelmund, earl of the Hwicce, upon the
+accession of Ecgberht. He died in 821, and was succeeded by his brother
+Ceolwulf I.
+
+  See Earle and Plummer's edition of the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, 796,
+  819 (Oxford, 1892); W. de G. Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, 378
+  (London, 1885-1893).     (F. G. M. B.)
+
+
+
+
+COERCION (from Lat. _coercere_, to restrain), an application of moral or
+physical compulsion by which a person is forced to do or refrain from
+doing some act or set of acts apart from his own voluntary motion. Where
+the coercion is direct or positive, _i.e._ where the person is compelled
+by physical force to do an act contrary to his will,--for example, when
+a man is compelled to join a rebel army, and to serve as a soldier under
+threats of death,--his act is not legally a crime. Where the coercion is
+implied, as when a person is legally under subjection to another, the
+person coerced, having no will on the subject, is not responsible. But
+this principle is applied only within narrow limits, and does not extend
+to the command of a superior to an inferior; of a parent to a child; of
+a master to his servant or a principal to his agent. Where, however, a
+married woman commits a crime in the presence of her husband, she is
+generally presumed to have acted by his coercion, and to be entitled to
+acquittal, but this presumption does not extend to grave crimes, nor to
+those in which the principal part may be supposed to be taken by the
+woman, such as keeping a brothel. In civil matters, such as the making
+of a contract, where the law requires the free assent of the person who
+undertakes the obligation, coercion is a ground for invalidating the
+instrument.
+
+The term "coercion" is inevitably somewhat ambiguous, and depends on the
+circumstances of the case. In a political sense, the application of the
+Crimes Act of 1887 to Ireland was called "coercion" by those opposed to
+the English Unionist party and government, as being special legislation
+differing from the ordinary law applicable in the United Kingdom.
+
+
+
+
+COEUR, JACQUES (_c._ 1395-1456), founder of the trade between France
+and the Levant, was born at Bourges, in which city his father, Pierre
+Coeur, was a rich merchant. Jacques is first heard of about 1418, when
+he married Macée de Léodepart, daughter of Lambert de Léodepart, an
+influential citizen, provost of Bourges, and a former valet of John,
+duke of Berry. About 1429 he formed a commercial partnership with two
+brothers named Godard; and in 1432 he was at Damascus, buying and
+bartering, and transporting the wares of the Levant--gall-nuts, wools
+and silks, goats' hair, brocades and carpets--to the interior of France
+by way of Narbonne. In the same year he established himself at
+Montpellier, and there began those gigantic operations which have made
+him illustrious among financiers. Details are wanting; but it is certain
+that in a few years he placed his country in a position to contend not
+unsuccessfully with the great trading republics of Italy, and acquired
+such reputation as to be able, mere trader as he was, to render material
+assistance to the knights of Rhodes and to Venice herself.
+
+In 1436 Coeur was summoned to Paris by Charles VII., and made master
+of the mint that had been established in that city. The post was of vast
+importance, and the duties onerous. The country was deluged with the
+base moneys of three reigns, charged with superscriptions both French
+and English, and Charles had determined on a sweeping reform. In this
+design he was ably seconded by the merchant, who, in fact, inspired or
+prepared all the ordinances concerning the coinage of France issued
+between 1435 and 1451. In 1438 he was made steward of the royal
+expenditure; in 1441 he and his family were ennobled by letters patent.
+In 1444 he was sent as one of the royal commissioners to preside over
+the new parlement of Languedoc, a dignity he bore till the day of his
+disgrace. In 1445 his agents in the East negotiated a treaty between the
+sultan of Egypt and the knights of Rhodes; and in 1447, at his instance,
+Jean de Village, his nephew by marriage, was charged with a mission to
+Egypt. The results were most important; concessions were obtained which
+greatly improved the position of the French consuls in the Levant, and
+that influence in the East was thereby founded which, though often
+interrupted, was for several centuries a chief commercial glory of
+France. In the same year Coeur assisted in an embassy to Amadeus
+VIII., former duke of Savoy, who had been chosen pope as Felix V. by the
+council of Basel; and in 1448 he represented the French king at the
+court of Pope Nicholas V., and was able to arrange an agreement between
+Nicholas and Amadeus, and so to end the papal schism. Nicholas treated
+him with the utmost distinction, lodged him in the papal palace, and
+gave him a special licence to traffic with the infidels. From about this
+time he made large advances to Charles for carrying on his wars; and in
+1449, after fighting at the king's side through the campaign, he entered
+Rouen in his train.
+
+At this moment the great trader's glory was at its height. He had
+represented France in three embassies, and had supplied the sinews of
+that war which had ousted the English from Normandy. He was invested
+with various offices of dignity, and possessed the most colossal fortune
+that had ever been amassed by a private Frenchman. The sea was covered
+with his ships; he had 300 factors in his employ, and houses of business
+in all the chief cities of France. He had built houses and chapels, and
+had founded colleges in Paris, at Montpellier and at Bourges. The house
+at Bourges (see HOUSE, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8) was of exceptional
+magnificence, and remains to-day one of the finest monuments of the
+middle ages in France. He also built there the sacristy of the cathedral
+and a sepulchral chapel for his family. His brother Nicholas was made
+bishop of Luçon, his sister married Jean Bochetel, the king's secretary,
+his daughter married the son of the viscount of Bourges, and his son
+Jean became archbishop of Bourges. But Coeur's gigantic monopoly
+caused his ruin. Dealing in everything, money and arms, peltry and
+jewels, brocades and woollens--a broker, a banker, a farmer--he had
+absorbed the trade of the country, and merchants complained they could
+make no gains on account of "that Jacquet." He had lent money to needy
+courtiers, to members of the royal family, and to the king himself, and
+his debtors, jealous of his wealth, were eager for a chance to cause his
+overthrow.
+
+In February 1450 Agnes Sorel, the king's mistress, suddenly died.
+Eighteen months later it was rumoured that she had been poisoned, and a
+lady of the court who owed money to Jacques Coeur, Jeanne de Vendôme,
+wife of François de Montberon, and an Italian, Jacques Colonna, formally
+accused him of having poisoned her. There was not even a pretext for
+such a charge, but for this and other alleged crimes the king, on the
+31st of July 1451, gave orders for his arrest and for the seizure of his
+goods, reserving to himself a large sum of money for the war in Guienne.
+Commissioners extraordinary, the merchant's declared enemies, were
+chosen to conduct the trial, and an inquiry began, the judges in which
+were either the prisoner's debtors or the holders of his forfeited
+estates. He was accused of having paid French gold and ingots to the
+infidels, of coining light money, of kidnapping oarsmen for his galleys,
+of sending back a Christian slave who had taken sanctuary on board one
+of his ships, and of committing frauds and exactions in Languedoc to the
+king's prejudice. He defended himself with all the energy of his nature.
+His innocence was manifest; but a conviction was necessary, and in spite
+of strenuous efforts on the part of his friends, after twenty-two
+months of confinement in five prisons, he was condemned to do public
+penance for his fault, to pay the king a sum equal to about £1,000,000
+of modern money, and to remain a prisoner till full satisfaction had
+been obtained; his sentence also embraced confiscation of all his
+property, and exile during royal pleasure. On the 5th of June 1453 the
+sentence took effect; at Poitiers the shameful form of making honourable
+amends was gone through; and for nearly three years nothing is known of
+him. It is probable that he remained in prison; it is certain that his
+vast possessions were distributed among the intimates of Charles.
+
+In 1455 Jacques Coeur, wherever confined, contrived to escape into
+Provence. He was pursued; but a party, headed by Jean de Village and two
+of his old factors, carried him off to Tarascon, whence, by way of
+Marseilles, Nice and Pisa, he managed to reach Rome. He was honourably
+and joyfully received by Nicholas V., who was fitting out an expedition
+against the Turks. On the death of Nicholas, Calixtus III. continued his
+work, and named his guest captain of a fleet of sixteen galleys sent to
+the relief of Rhodes. Coeur set out on this expedition, but was taken
+ill at Chios, and died there on the 25th of November 1456. After his
+death Charles VII. showed himself well disposed to the family, and
+allowed Jacques Coeur's sons to come into possession of whatever was
+left of their father's wealth.
+
+  See the admirable monograph of Pierre Clément, _Jacques Coeur et
+  Charles VII_ (1858, 2nd ed. 1874); A. Valet de Viriville, _Charles
+  Sept et son époque_ (3 vols., 1862-1865); and Louisa Costello,
+  _Jacques Coeur, the French Argonaut_ (London, 1847).
+
+
+
+
+COEUR D'ALÊNE ("awl-heart," the French translation of the native name
+_skitswish_), a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan stock. The
+name is said to have been originally that of a chief noted for his
+cruelty. The tribe has given its name to a lake, river and range of
+mountains in Idaho, where on a reservation the survivors, some 400, are
+settled.
+
+
+
+
+COFFEE (Fr: _café_, Ger. _Kaffee_). This important and valuable article
+of food is the produce chiefly of _Coffea arabica_, a Rubiaceous plant
+indigenous to Abyssinia, which, however, as cultivated originally,
+spread outwards from the southern parts of Arabia. The name is probably
+derived from the Arabic K'h[=a]wah, although by some it has been traced
+to Kaffa, a province in Abyssinia, in which the tree grows wild.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Branch of _Coffea arabica_.]
+
+The genus _Coffea_, to which the common coffee tree belongs, contains
+about 25 species in the tropics of the Old World, mainly African.
+Besides being found wild in Abyssinia, the common coffee plant appears
+to be widely disseminated in Africa, occurring wild in the Mozambique
+district, on the shores of the Victoria Nyanza, and in Angola on the
+west coast. The coffee leaf disease in Ceylon brought into prominence
+Liberian coffee (_C. liberica_), a native of the west coast of Africa,
+now extensively grown in several parts of the world. Other species of
+economic importance are Sierra Leone coffee (_C. stenophylla_) and Congo
+coffee (_C. robusta_), both of which have been introduced into and are
+cultivated on a small scale in various parts of the tropics. _C.
+excelsa_ is another species of considerable promise.
+
+The common Arabian coffee shrub is an evergreen plant, which under
+natural conditions grows to a height of from 18 to 20 ft., with
+oblong-ovate, acuminate, smooth and shining leaves, measuring about 6
+in. in length by 2½ wide. Its flowers, which are produced in dense
+clusters in the axils of the leaves, have a five-toothed calyx, a
+tubular five-parted corolla, five stamens and a single bifid style. The
+flowers are pure white in colour, with a rich fragrant odour, and the
+plants in blossom have a lovely and attractive appearance, but the bloom
+is very evanescent. The fruit is a fleshy berry, having the appearance
+and size of a small cherry, and as it ripens it assumes a dark red
+colour. Each fruit contains two seeds embedded in a yellowish pulp, and
+the seeds are enclosed in a thin membranous endocarp (the "parchment").
+Between each seed and the parchment is a delicate covering called the
+"silver skin." The seeds which constitute the raw coffee "beans" of
+commerce are plano-convex in form, the flat surfaces which are laid
+against each other within the berry having a longitudinal furrow or
+groove. When only one seed is developed in a fruit it is not flattened
+on one side, but circular in cross section. Such seeds form "pea-berry"
+coffee.
+
+The seeds are of a soft, semi-translucent, bluish or greenish colour,
+hard and tough in texture. The regions best adapted for the cultivation
+of coffee are well-watered mountain slopes at an elevation ranging from
+1000 to 4000 ft. above sea-level, within the tropics, and possessing a
+mean annual temperature of about 65° to 70° F.
+
+The Liberian coffee plant (_C. liberica_) has larger leaves, flowers and
+fruits, and is of a more robust and hardy constitution, than Arabian
+coffee. The seeds yield a highly aromatic and well-flavoured coffee (but
+by no means equal to Arabian), and the plant is very prolific and yields
+heavy crops. Liberian coffee grows, moreover, at low altitudes, and
+flourishes in many situations unsuitable to the Arabian coffee. It grows
+wild in great abundance along the whole of the Guinea coast.
+
+_History._--The early history of coffee as an economic product is
+involved in considerable obscurity, the absence of fact being
+compensated for by a profusion of conjectural statements and mythical
+stories. The use of coffee (_C. arabica_) in Abyssinia was recorded in
+the 15th century, and was then stated to have been practised from time
+immemorial. Neighbouring countries, however, appear to have been quite
+ignorant of its value. Various legendary accounts are given of the
+discovery of the beneficial properties of the plant, one ascribing it to
+a flock of sheep accidentally browsing on the wild shrubs, with the
+result that they became elated and sleepless at night! Its physiological
+action in dissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken
+advantage of in connexion with the prolonged religious service of the
+Mahommedans, and its use as a devotional antisoporific stirred up fierce
+opposition on the part of the strictly orthodox and conservative section
+of the priests. Coffee by them was held to be an intoxicating beverage,
+and therefore prohibited by the Koran, and severe penalties were
+threatened to those addicted to its use. Notwithstanding threats of
+divine retribution and other devices, the coffee-drinking habit spread
+rapidly among the Arabian Mahommedans, and the growth of coffee and its
+use as a national beverage became as inseparably connected with Arabia
+as tea is with China.
+
+Towards the close of the 16th century the use of coffee was recorded by
+a European resident in Egypt, and about this epoch it came into general
+use in the near East. The appreciation of coffee as a beverage in Europe
+dates from the 17th century. "Coffee-houses" were soon instituted, the
+first being opened in Constantinople and Venice. In London coffee-houses
+date from 1652, when one was opened in St Michael's Alley, Cornhill.
+They soon became popular, and the role played by them in the social life
+of the 17th and 18th centuries is well known. Germany, France, Sweden
+and other countries adopted them at about the same time as Great
+Britain. In Europe, as in Arabia, coffee at first made its way into
+favour in the face of various adverse and even prohibitive restrictions.
+Thus at one time in Germany it was necessary to obtain a licence to
+roast coffee. In England Charles II. endeavoured to suppress
+coffee-houses on the ground that they were centres of political
+agitation, his royal proclamation stating that they were the resort of
+disaffected persons "who devised and spread abroad divers false,
+malicious and scandalous reports, to the defamation of His Majesty's
+government, and to the disturbance of the peace and quiet of the
+nation."
+
+Up to the close of the 17th century the world's entire, although
+limited, supply of coffee was obtained from the province of Yemen in
+south Arabia, where the true celebrated Mocha or Mokka coffee is still
+produced. At this time, however, plants were successfully introduced
+from Arabia to Java, where the cultivation was immediately taken up. The
+government of Java distributed plants to various places, including the
+botanic garden of Amsterdam. The Portuguese introduced coffee into
+Ceylon. From Amsterdam the Dutch sent the plant to Surinam in 1718, and
+in the same year Jamaica received it through the governor Sir Nicholas
+Lawes. Within a few years coffee reached the other West Indian islands,
+and spread generally through the tropics of the New World, which now
+produce by far the greater portion of the world's supply.
+
+_Cultivation and Preparation for Market._--Coffee plants are grown from
+seeds, which, as in the case of other crops, should be obtained from
+selected trees of desirable characteristics. The seeds may be sown "at
+stake," _i.e._ in the actual positions the mature plants are to occupy,
+or raised in a nursery and afterwards transplanted. The choice of
+methods is usually determined by various local considerations. Nurseries
+are desirable where there is risk of drought killing seedlings in the
+open. Whilst young the plants usually require to be shaded, and this may
+be done by growing castor oil plants, cassava (_Manihot_), maize or
+Indian corn, bananas, or various other useful crops between the coffee,
+until the latter develop and occupy the ground. Sometimes, but by no
+means always, permanent shading is afforded by special shade trees, such
+as species of the coral tree (_Erythrina_) and other leguminous trees.
+Opinions as to the necessity of shade trees varies in different
+countries; _e.g._ in Brazil and at high elevations in Jamaica they are
+not employed, whereas in Porto Rico many look on them as absolutely
+essential. It is probable that in many cases where shade trees are of
+advantage their beneficial action may be indirect, in affording
+protection from wind, drought or soil erosion, and, when leguminous
+plants are employed, in enriching the soil in nitrogen. The plants begin
+to come into bearing in their second or third year, but on the average
+the fifth is the first year of considerable yield. There may be two,
+three, or even more "flushes" of blossom in one year, and flowers and
+fruits in all stages may thus be seen on one plant. The fruits are fully
+ripe about seven months after the flowers open; the ripe fruits are
+fleshy, and of a deep red colour, whence the name of "cherry." When
+mature the fruits are picked by hand, or allowed to fall of their own
+accord or by shaking the plant. The subsequent preparation may be
+according to (1) the dry or (2) the wet method.
+
+In the dry method the cherries are spread in a thin layer, often on a
+stone drying floor, or barbecue, and exposed to the sun. Protection is
+necessary against heavy dew or rain. The dried cherries can be stored
+for any length of time, and later the dried pulp and the parchment are
+removed, setting free the two beans contained in each cherry. This
+primitive and simple method is employed in Arabia, in Brazil and other
+countries. In Brazil it is giving place to the more modern method
+described below.
+
+In the wet, or as it is sometimes called, West Indian method, the
+cherries are put in a tank of water. On large estates galvanized
+spouting is often employed to convey the beans by the help of running
+water from the fields to the tank. The mature cherries sink, and are
+drawn off from the tank through pipes to the pulping machines. Here they
+are subjected to the action of a roughened cylinder revolving closely
+against a curved iron plate. The fleshy portion is reduced to a pulp,
+and the mixture of pulp and liberated seeds (each still enclosed in its
+parchment) is carried away to a second tank of water and stirred. The
+light pulp is removed by a stream of water and the seeds allowed to
+settle. Slight fermentation and subsequent washings, accompanied by
+trampling with bare feet and stirring by rakes or special machinery,
+result in the parchment coverings being left quite clean. The beans are
+now dried on barbecues, in trays, &c., or by artificial heat if
+climatic conditions render this necessary. Recent experiments in Porto
+Rico tend to show that if the weather is unfavourable during the crop
+period the pulped coffee can be allowed to remain moist and even to malt
+or sprout without injury to the final value of the product when dried
+later. The product is now in the state known as parchment coffee, and
+may be exported. Before use, however, the parchment must be removed.
+This may be done on the estate, at the port of shipment, or in the
+country where imported. The coffee is thoroughly dried, the parchment
+broken by a roller, and removed by winnowing. Further rubbing and
+winnowing removes the silver skin, and the beans are left in the
+condition of ordinary unroasted coffee. Grading into large, medium and
+small beans, to secure the uniformity desirable in roasting, is effected
+by the use of a cylindrical or other pattern sieve, along which the
+beans are made to travel, encountering first small, then medium, and
+finally large apertures or meshes. Damaged beans and foreign matter are
+removed by hand picking. An average yield of cleaned coffee is from 1½
+to 2 lb per tree, but much greater crops are obtained on new rich lands,
+and under special conditions.
+
+  _Production._--The centre of production has shifted greatly since
+  coffee first came into use in Europe. Arabia formerly supplied the
+  world; later the West Indies and then Java took the lead, to be
+  supplanted in turn by Brazil, which now produces about three-quarters
+  of the world's supply and controls the market.
+
+  _Brazil._--Coffee planting is the chief industry of Brazil, and coffee
+  the principal export. The states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas
+  Geraes and Santos, contain the chief coffee-producing lands. The
+  annual output ranges from about 10,000,000 to 16,000,000 bags (of 120
+  lb each), whilst the world's annual consumption is more or less
+  stationary at about 16,000,000 bags. The overwhelming importance of
+  the Brazilian output is thus evident. Recently efforts have been made
+  to restrict production to maintain prices, and the Coffee Convention
+  scheme came into force in São Paulo on December 1, 1906, and in Rio de
+  Janeiro and Minas Geraes on January 1, 1907. The cultivation in
+  general is very primitive in character, periodical weeding being
+  almost all the attention the plants receive. Manuring is commonly
+  confined to mulches of the cut weeds and addition of the coffee husks.
+  New lands in São Paulo yield from 80 cwt. to 100 cwt. of cleaned
+  coffee per 1000 trees (700 go to the acre); the average yield,
+  however, is not more than 15 cwt. The plants are at their best when
+  from 10 to 15 years old, but continue yielding for 30 years or even
+  more.
+
+  _Other South American Countries._--Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
+  and to a much less degree Bolivia and Paraguay, produce coffee, the
+  annual crops of the two former countries being each of about
+  £1,500,000 in value.
+
+  _Central America._--Guatemala produces the most in this region; the
+  coffee estates are mainly controlled by Germans, who have brought them
+  to a high pitch of perfection. The crop ranges in value from about
+  £1,000,000 to £1,500,000 per annum. Costa Rica and San Salvador
+  produce about half this amount. In Nicaragua, Honduras and Panama,
+  coffee is extensively cultivated, and all export the product.
+
+  _West Indies._--Coffee is grown in most of the islands, often only for
+  local use. Haiti produces the largest amount, the annual value of the
+  crop being about £500,000. Porto Rico formerly had a flourishing
+  industry, but it has declined owing to various causes. The interior is
+  still expected to be devoted largely to coffee, and the U.S.
+  Department of Agriculture has carried out experiments to improve
+  methods and ensure the cultivation of better varieties. Jamaica
+  produces the famous Blue Mountain Coffee, which compares favourably
+  with the best coffees of the world, and also ordinary or "plain
+  grown"; the Blue Mountain is cultivated at elevations of from 3000 to
+  4500 ft. Coffee usually ranks third or fourth in value amongst the
+  exports of the island.
+
+  _Africa_, the native country of the coffees, does not now contribute
+  any important amount to the world's output. In Liberia, the Gold Coast
+  and elsewhere on the West Coast are many plantations, but the low
+  prices ruling of recent years have caused coffee to be neglected for
+  more remunerative crops. Coffee is, however, still the principal
+  export of Nyasaland (British Central Africa), where it was introduced
+  as recently as 1894. The area under coffee has been greatly reduced,
+  owing partly to more attention being paid to cotton, partly to
+  droughts and other causes. In Somaliland and Abyssinia coffee
+  cultivation is of very ancient date. Two kinds are exported, Harrari
+  and Habashi. The former compares favourably with Mocha coffee. The
+  industry could be very considerably extended. In Natal, Rhodesia, &c.,
+  coffee is grown, but not in sufficient quantity to supply the local
+  demand.
+
+  _Arabia._--The name "Mocha" is applied generally to coffee produced in
+  Arabia. Turkey and Egypt obtain the best grades. Traders from these
+  countries go to Arabia, buy the crops on the trees, and supervise its
+  picking and preparation themselves. The coffee is prepared by the "dry
+  method."
+
+
+  _India_ is the principal coffee-growing region in the British empire,
+  and produces about one-fifth of the total supply of the United
+  Kingdom. There are some 213,000 acres under coffee, mostly in southern
+  India. The official report states that the production of coffee is
+  restricted for the most part to a limited area in the elevated region
+  above the south-western coast, the coffee lands of Mysore, Coorg, and
+  the Madras districts of Malabar and the Nilgiris, comprising 86% of
+  the whole area under the plant in India. About one-half of the whole
+  coffee-producing area is in Mysore. In Burma, Assam and Bombay, coffee
+  is of minor importance. During 1904-1906 there was a reduction of the
+  area under coffee in India by 21,554 acres.
+
+  _Ceylon._--The history of coffee in Ceylon is practically that of the
+  coffee-leaf disease (see below). The Dutch introduced Arabian coffee
+  in 1720, but abandoned its cultivation later. It was revived by the
+  British, and developed very rapidly between 1836 and 1845, when there
+  was a temporary collapse owing to financial crisis in the United
+  Kingdom. In 1880 the exports of coffee were of the value of about
+  £2,784,163. Ten years later they had fallen to £430,633, owing to the
+  ravages of the coffee-leaf disease. The output continued to decrease,
+  and the value of the crop in 1906 was only £17,258. Liberian coffee,
+  which is hardier and more resistant to disease, was introduced, but
+  met with only partial success.
+
+  _Dutch East Indies._--Coffee from this source passes under the general
+  name of "Java," that island producing the greatest amount; Sumatra,
+  Borneo and the Celebes, &c., however, also contribute. The Java
+  plantations are largely owned by the government. Much of the coffee
+  from these islands is of a high quality.
+
+  _Australasia._--Coffee can be cultivated in the northern territories
+  of Australia, but comparatively little is done with this crop;
+  Queensland produces the largest amount.
+
+  _Hawaii_, &c.--In all the islands of the Hawaiian group coffee is
+  grown, but nine-tenths or more is raised in Hawaii itself, the Kona
+  district being the chief seat of production. The exports go mostly to
+  the United States, and there is also a large local consumption.
+
+  Coffee thrives well also in the Philippines and Guam.
+
+  _The World's Trade._--The following figures, from the _Year-book_ of
+  the U.S. Department of Agriculture, indicate the relative importance
+  of the coffee-exporting countries.
+
+                                   1904.                 1905.
+     Country.                 Exports coffee        Exports coffee
+                                  in lb.                in lb.
+  _America_--
+    Brazil                    1,326,027,795         1,431,328,038
+    Colombia                    130,000,000  (est.)    70,000,000
+    Venezuela                   128,000,000    "       94,370,090
+    Haiti                        81,407,346            45,244,232
+    Salvador                     75,314,003            61,822,223
+    Guatemala                    71,653,700            81,081,600
+    Mexico                       41,855,368            42,456,491
+    Costa Rica                   27,730,672            39,788,002
+    Nicaragua                    21,661,621            18,171,515
+    Porto Rico                   15,330,590
+    Jamaica                       5,781,440             9,046,464
+
+  _Asia_--
+    Dutch East Indies            77,168,254            72,864,649
+    British India                36,920,464            40,340,384
+    Singapore (port of export)   12,367,156            11,935,034
+
+  _Other countries_             216,891,567           220,132,690
+                              -------------         -------------
+                  Total       2,268,109,976         2,238,581,412
+
+  In 1906 there was an increased total of 2,680,855,878 lb, due to the
+  Brazil export rising to 1,847,367,771 lb. The aggregate value of the
+  coffee annually entering the world's markets is about £40,000,000.
+
+_Coffee Consumption._--The United States of America consume nearly one
+half of all the coffee exported from the producing countries of the
+world. This might of course be due merely to the States containing more
+coffee-drinkers than other countries, but the average consumption per
+head in the country is about 11 to 12 lb per annum, an amount equalled
+or excelled only in Norway, Sweden and Holland. Whilst one great branch
+of the Anglo-Saxon stock is near the head of the list, it is interesting
+to note that the United Kingdom and also Canada and Australia are almost
+at the foot, using only about 1 lb of coffee per head each year.
+Germany, with a consumption of about 6 to 7 lb per person per annum uses
+considerably less than a quarter of the world's commercial crop. France,
+about 5 lb per head, takes about one eighth; and Austria-Hungary, about
+2 lb, uses some one-sixteenth. Holland consumes approximately as much,
+but with a much smaller population, the Dutch using more per head than
+any other people--14 lb to 15 lb per annum. Their taste is seen also in
+the relatively high consumption in South Africa. Sweden, Belgium and the
+United Kingdom, follow next in order of total amount used.
+
+In many tropical countries much coffee is drunk, but as it is often
+produced locally exact figures are not available. The average
+consumption in the United Kingdom is about 50,000,000 lb per annum;
+about one-fifth only is produced in the British empire, and of this
+about nineteen-twentieths come from India and one-twentieth from the
+British West Indies.
+
+_Coffee-leaf Disease._--The coffee industry in Ceylon was ruined by the
+attack of a fungoid disease (_Hemileia vastatrix_) known as the Ceylon
+coffee-leaf disease. This has since extended its ravages into every
+coffee-producing country in the Old World, and added greatly to the
+difficulties of successful cultivation. The fungus is a microscopic one,
+the minute spores of which, carried by the wind, settle and germinate
+upon the leaves of the plant. The fungal growth spreads through the
+substance to the leaf, robbing the leaf of its nourishment and causing
+it to wither and fall. An infected plantation may be cleansed, and the
+fungus in its nascent state destroyed, by powdering the trees with a
+mixture of lime and sulphur, but, unless the access of fresh spores
+brought by the wind can be arrested, the plantations may be readily
+reinfected when the lime and sulphur are washed off by rain. The
+separation of plantations by belts of trees to windward is suggested as
+a check to the spread of the disease.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Coffee-leaf Disease, _Hemileia vastatrix_.
+
+  1, Part of leaf showing diseased patches.
+  2, Cluster of uredospores.
+  3, Transverse section of a diseased patch in the leaf showing the
+     hyphae of the fungus pushing between the leaf-cells and tapping
+     them for nourishment. The hyphae have broken through in the upper
+     face and are forming a cluster of spores.
+  4, Ripe uredospores.
+  5, A teleutospore.
+  6, A uredospore germinating, the germ-tube is penetrating the leaf.
+  7, Uredospore germinating.
+  u, Uredospore.
+  t, Teleutospore.
+  2-7, Highly magnified.]
+
+_Microscopic Structure._--Raw coffee seeds are tough and horny in
+structure, and are devoid of the peculiar aroma and taste which are so
+characteristic of the roasted seeds. The minute structure of coffee
+allows it to be readily recognized by means of the microscope, and as
+roasting does not destroy its distinguishing peculiarities, microscopic
+examination forms the readiest means of determining the genuineness of
+any sample. The substance of the seed, according to Dr Hassall, consists
+"of an assemblage of vesicles or cells of an angular form, which adhere
+so firmly together that they break up into pieces rather than separate
+into distinct and perfect cells. The cavities of the cells include, in
+the form of little drops, a considerable quantity of aromatic volatile
+oil, on the presence of which the fragrance and many of the active
+principles of the berry depend" (see fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Microscopic structure of Coffee.]
+
+_Physiological Action._--Coffee belongs to the medicinal or auxiliary
+class of food substances, being solely valuable for its stimulant effect
+upon the nervous and vascular system. It produces a feeling of buoyancy
+and exhilaration comparable to a certain stage of alcoholic
+intoxication, but which does not end in depression or collapse. It
+increases the frequency of the pulse, lightens the sensation of fatigue,
+and it sustains the strength under prolonged and severe muscular
+exertion. The value of its hot infusion under the rigours of Arctic cold
+has been demonstrated in the experience of all Arctic explorers, and it
+is scarcely less useful in tropical regions, where it beneficially
+stimulates the action of the skin.
+
+The physiological action of coffee mainly depends on the presence of the
+alkaloid caffeine, which occurs also in tea, Paraguay tea, and cola
+nuts, and is very similar to theobromine, the active principle in cocoa.
+The percentage of caffeine present varies in the different species of
+_Coffea_. In Arabian coffee it ranges from about 0.7 to 1.6%; in
+Liberian coffee from 1.0 to 1.5%. Sierra Leone coffee (_C. stenophylla_)
+contains from 1.52 to 1.70%; in _C. excelsa_ 1.89% is recorded, and as
+much as 1.97% in _C. canephora_. Four species have been shown by M. G.
+Bertrand to contain no caffeine at all, but instead a considerable
+quantity of a bitter principle. All these four species are found only in
+Madagascar or the neighbouring islands. Other coffees grown there
+contain caffeine as usual. Coffee, with the caffeine extracted, has also
+been recently prepared for the market. The commercial value of coffee is
+determined by the amount of the aromatic oil, caffeone, which develops
+in it by the process of roasting. By prolonged keeping it is found that
+the richness of any seeds in this peculiar oil is increased, and with
+increased aroma the coffee also yields a blander and more mellow
+beverage. Stored coffee loses weight at first with great rapidity, as
+much as 8% having been found to dissipate in the first year of keeping,
+5% in the second, and 2% in the third; but such loss of weight is more
+than compensated by improvement in quality and consequent enhancement of
+value.
+
+_Roasting._--In the process of roasting, coffee seeds swell up by the
+liberation of gases within their substance,--their weight decreasing in
+proportion to the extent to which the operation is carried. Roasting
+also develops with the aromatic caffeone above alluded to a bitter
+soluble principle, and it liberates a portion of the caffeine from its
+combination with the caffetannic acid. Roasting is an operation of the
+greatest nicety, and one, moreover, of a crucial nature, for equally by
+insufficient and by excessive roasting much of the aroma of the coffee
+is lost; and its infusion is neither agreeable to the palate nor
+exhilarating in its influence. The roaster must judge of the amount of
+heat required for the adequate roasting of different qualities, and
+while that is variable, the range of roasting temperature proper for
+individual kinds is only narrow. In continental countries it is the
+practice to roast in small quantities, and thus the whole charge is well
+under the control of the roaster; but in Britain large roasts are the
+rule, in dealing with which much difficulty is experienced in producing
+uniform torrefaction, and in stopping the process at the proper moment.
+The coffee-roasting apparatus is usually a malleable iron cylinder
+mounted to revolve over the fire on a hollow axle which allows the
+escape of gases generated during torrefaction. The roasting of coffee
+should be done as short a time as practicable before the grinding for
+use, and as ground coffee especially parts rapidly with its aroma, the
+grinding should only be done when coffee is about to be prepared.
+
+_Adulteration._--Although by microscopic, physical and chemical tests
+the purity of coffee can be determined with perfect certainty, yet
+ground coffee is subjected to many and extensive adulterations (see also
+ADULTERATION). Chief among the adulterant substances, if it can be so
+called, is chicory; but it occupies a peculiar position, since very many
+people on the European continent as well as in Great Britain
+deliberately prefer a mixture of chicory with coffee to pure coffee.
+Chicory is indeed destitute of the stimulant alkaloid and essential oil
+for which coffee is valued; but the facts that it has stood the test of
+prolonged and extended use, and that its infusion is, in some
+localities, used alone, indicate that it performs some useful function
+in connexion with coffee, as used at least by Western communities. For
+one thing, it yields a copious amount of soluble matter in infusion with
+hot water, and thus gives a specious appearance of strength and
+substance to what may be really only a very weak preparation of coffee.
+The mixture of chicory with coffee is easily detected by the microscope,
+the structure of both, which they retain after torrefaction, being very
+characteristic and distinct. The granules of coffee, moreover, remain
+hard and angular when mixed with water, to which they communicate but
+little colour; chicory, on the other hand, swelling up and softening,
+yields a deep brown colour to water in which it is thrown. The specific
+gravity of an infusion of chicory is also much higher than that of
+coffee. Among the numerous other substances used to adulterate coffee
+are roasted and ground roots of the dandelion, carrot, parsnip and beet;
+beans, lupins and other leguminous seeds; wheat, rice and various cereal
+grains; the seeds of the broom, fenugreek and iris; acorns; "negro
+coffee," the seeds of _Cassia occidentalis_, the seeds of the ochro
+(_Hibiscus esculentus_), and also the soja or soy bean (_Glycine Soya_).
+Not only have these with many more similar substances been used as
+adulterants, but under various high-sounding names several of them have
+been introduced as substitutes for coffee; but they have neither merited
+nor obtained any success, and their sole effect has been to bring coffee
+into undeserved disrepute with the public.
+
+Not only is ground coffee adulterated, but such mixtures as flour,
+chicory and coffee, or even bran and molasses, have been made up to
+simulate coffee beans and sold as such.
+
+The leaves of the coffee tree contain caffeine in larger proportion than
+the seeds themselves, and their use as a substitute for tea has
+frequently been suggested. The leaves are actually so used in Sumatra,
+but being destitute of any attractive aroma such as is possessed by both
+tea and coffee, the infusion is not palatable. It is, moreover, not
+practicable to obtain both seeds and leaves from the same plant, and as
+the commercial demand is for the seed alone, no consideration either of
+profit or of any dietetic or economic advantage is likely to lead to the
+growth of coffee trees on account of their leaves.
+     (A. B. R.; W. G. F.)
+
+
+
+
+COFFER (Fr. _coffre_, O. Fr. _cofre_ or _cofne_, Lat. _cophinus_, cf.
+"coffin"), in architecture, a sunk panel in a ceiling or vault; also a
+casket or chest in which jewels or precious goods were kept, and, if of
+large dimensions, clothes. The marriage coffers in Italy were of
+exceptional richness in their carving and gilding and were sometimes
+painted by great artists.
+
+
+
+
+COFFERDAM, in engineering. To enable foundations (q.v.) to be laid in a
+site which is under water, the engineer sometimes surrounds it with an
+embankment or dam, known as a cofferdam, to form an enclosure from which
+the water is excluded. Where the depth of water is small and the current
+slight, simple clay dams may be used, but in general cofferdams consist
+of two rows of piles, the space between which is packed with clay
+puddle. The dam must be sufficiently strong to withstand the exterior
+pressure to which it is exposed when the enclosed space is pumped dry.
+
+
+
+
+COFFEYVILLE, a city of Montgomery county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the
+Verdigris river, about 150 m. S. of Topeka and near the southern
+boundary of the state. Pop. (1890) 2282; (1900) 4953, of whom 803 were
+negroes; (1905) 13,196; (1910) 12,687. Coffeyville is served by the
+Missouri Pacific, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Missouri, Kansas
+& Texas, and the Saint Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways, and by
+inter-urban electric railway to Independence. It is in the Kansas
+natural-gas field, ships large quantities of grain, and has a large zinc
+oxide smelter and a large oil refinery, and various manufactures,
+including vitrified brick and tile, flour, lumber, chemicals, window
+glass, bottles, pottery and straw boards. The municipality owns and
+operates its water-works and electric lighting plant. Coffeyville, named
+in honour of A. M. Coffey, who was a member of the first legislature of
+the territory of Kansas, was founded in 1869, but in 1871 it was removed
+about 1 m. from its original site, now known as "old town." It was
+incorporated as a city of the third class in 1872 and received a new
+charter in 1887. Coffeyville became a station on the Leavenworth,
+Lawrence & Galveston railway (now part of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa
+Fé), and for several years large numbers of cattle were driven here from
+Indian Territory and Texas for shipment; in fact, the city's chief
+importance was as a trade centre for the north part of Indian Territory
+until natural gas was found here in large quantities in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+COFFIN (from Lat. _cophinus_, Gr. [Greek: kophinos], a coffer, chest or
+basket, but never meaning "coffin" in its present sense), the receptacle
+in which a corpse is confined. The Greeks and Romans disposed of their
+dead both by burial and by cremation. Greek coffins varied in shape,
+being in the form of an urn, or like the modern coffins, or triangular,
+the body being in a sitting posture. The material used was generally
+burnt clay, and in some cases this had obviously been first moulded
+round the body, and so baked. Cremation was the commonest method of
+disposing of the dead among the Romans, until the Christian era, when
+stone coffins came into use. Examples of these have been frequently dug
+up in England. In 1853, during excavations for the foundations of some
+warehouses in Hayden Square, Minories, London, a Roman stone coffin was
+found within which was a leaden shell. Others have been found at
+Whitechapel, Stratford-le-Bow, Old Kent Road and Battersea Fields, and
+in great numbers at Colchester, York, Southfleet and Kingsholme near
+Gloucester. In early England stone coffins were only used by the nobles
+and the wealthy. Those of the Romans who were rich enough had their
+coffins made of a limestone brought from Assos in Troas, which it was
+commonly believed "ate the body"; hence arose the name sarcophagus
+(q.v.).
+
+The coffins of the Chaldaeans were generally clay urns with the top left
+open, resembling immense jars. These, too, must have been moulded round
+the body, as the size of the mouth would not admit of its introduction
+after the clay was baked. The Egyptian coffins, or sarcophagi, as they
+have been improperly called, are the largest stone coffins known and are
+generally highly polished and covered with hieroglyphics, usually a
+history of the deceased. Mummy chests shaped to the form of the body
+were also used. These were made of hard wood or _papier mâché_ painted,
+and like the stone coffins bore hieroglyphics. The Persians, Parthians,
+Medes and peoples of the Caspian are not known to have had any coffins,
+their usual custom being to expose the body to be devoured by beasts and
+birds of prey. Unhewn flat stones were sometimes used by the ancient
+European peoples to line the grave. One was placed at the bottom, others
+stood on their edges to form the sides, and a large slab was put on top,
+thus forming a rude cist. In England after the Roman invasion these rude
+cists gave place to the stone coffin, and this, though varying much in
+shape, continued in use until the 16th century.
+
+The most primitive wooden coffin was formed of a tree-trunk split down
+the centre, and hollowed out. The earliest specimen of this type is in
+the Copenhagen museum, the implements found in it proving that it
+belonged to the Bronze Age. This type of coffin, more or less modified
+by planing, was used in medieval Britain by those of the better classes
+who could not afford stone, but the poor were buried without coffins,
+wrapped simply in cloth or even covered only with hay and flowers.
+Towards the end of the 17th century, coffins became usual for all
+classes. It is worth noting that in the Burial Service in the Book of
+Common Prayer the word "coffin" is not used.
+
+Among the American Indians some tribes, e.g. the Sacs, Foxes and Sioux,
+used rough hewn wooden coffins; others, such as the Seris, sometimes
+enclosed the corpse between the carapace and plastron of a turtle. The
+Seminoles of Florida used no coffins, while at Santa Barbara,
+California, canoes containing corpses have been found buried though they
+may have been intended for the dead warrior's use in the next world.
+Rough stone cists, too, have been found, especially in Illinois and
+Kentucky. In their tree and scaffold burial the Indians sometimes used
+wooden coffins, but oftener the bodies were simply wrapped in blankets.
+Canoes mounted on a scaffold near a river were used as coffins by some
+tribes, while others placed the corpse in a canoe or wicker basket and
+floated them out into the stream or lake (see FUNERAL RITES). The
+aborigines of Australia generally used coffins of bark, but some tribes
+employed baskets of wicker-work.
+
+Lead coffins were used in Europe in the middle ages, shaped like the
+mummy chests of ancient Egypt. Iron coffins were more rare, but they
+were certainly used in England and Scotland as late as the 17th century,
+when an order was made that upon bodies so buried a heavier burial fee
+should be levied. The coffins used in England to-day are generally of
+elm or oak lined with lead, or with a leaden shell so as to delay as far
+as possible the process of disintegration and decomposition. In America
+glass is sometimes used for the lids, and the inside is lined with
+copper or zinc. The coffins of France and Germany and the continent
+generally, usually differ from those of England in not being of the
+ordinary hexagonal shape but having sides and ends parallel. Coffins
+used in cremation throughout the civilized world are of some light
+material easily consumed and yielding little ash. Ordinary thin deal and
+_papier mâché_ are the favourite materials. Coffins for what is known as
+Earth to Earth Burial are made of wicker-work covered with a thin layer
+of _papier mâché_ over cloth.
+
+  See also FUNERAL RITES; CREMATION; Burial and Burial Acts; EMBALMING;
+  MUMMY, &c.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Dr H. C. Yarrow, "Study of the Mortuary Customs of the
+  North American Indians," _Report of Bureau of Amer. Ethnol._ vol. i.
+  (Washington, U.S.A., 1881); Rev. Thomas Hugo, "On the Hayden Square
+  Sarcophagus," _Journ. of Archaeol. Soc._ vol. ix. (London, 1854); C.
+  V. Creagh, "On Unusual Forms of Burial by People of the East Coast of
+  Borneo," _J.A.I._, vol. xxvi. (London, 1896-1897); Rev. J. Edward
+  Vaux, _Church Folk-lore_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+COG. (1) (From an older _cogge_, a word which appears in various forms
+in Teutonic languages, as in O. Ger. _kogge_ or _kocke_, and also in
+Romanic, as in O. Fr. _cogue_, or _coque_, from which the Eng.
+"cock-boat" is derived; the connexion between the Teutonic and the
+Romanic forms is obscure), a broadly built, round-shaped ship, used as a
+trader and also as a ship of war till the 15th century. (2) (A word of
+obscure origin, possibly connected with Fr. _coche_, and Ital. _cocca_,
+a notch; the Celtic forms _cog_ and _cocas_ come from the English), a
+tooth in a series of teeth, morticed on to, or cut out of the
+circumference of a wheel, which works with the tooth in a corresponding
+series on another wheel (see MECHANICS). (3) (Also of quite obscure
+origin), a slang term for a form of cheating at dice. The early uses of
+the word show that this was done not by "loading" the dice, as the
+modern use of the expression of "cogged dice" seems to imply, but by
+sleight of hand in directing the fall or in changing the dice.
+
+
+
+
+COGERS HALL, a London tavern debating society. It was instituted in 1755
+at the White Bear Inn (now St Bride's Tavern), Fleet Street, moved about
+1850 to Discussion Hall, Shoe Lane, and in 1871 finally migrated to the
+Barley Mow Inn, Salisbury Square, E.C., its present quarters. The name
+is often wrongly spelt Codgers and Coggers; the "o" is really long, the
+accepted derivation being from Descartes' _Cogito, ergo sum_, and thus
+meaning "The society of thinkers." The aims of the Cogers were "the
+promotion of the liberty of the subject and the freedom of the Press,
+the maintenance of loyalty to the laws, the rights and claims of
+humanity and the practice of public and private virtue." Among its early
+members Cogers Hall reckoned John Wilkes, one of its first presidents,
+and Curran, who in 1773 writes to a friend that he spent a couple of
+hours every night at the Hall. Later Dickens was a prominent member.
+
+  See Peter Rayleigh, _History of Ye Antient Society of Cogers_ (London,
+  1904).
+
+
+
+
+COGHLAN, CHARLES FRANCIS (1841-1899), Irish actor, was born in Paris,
+and was educated for the law. He made his first London appearance in
+1860, and became the leading actor at the Prince of Wales's. He went to
+America in 1876, where he remained for the rest of his life, playing
+first in Augustin Daly's company and then in the Union Square stock
+company, during the long run of _The Celebrated Case_. He also played
+with his sister, and in support of Mrs Langtry and Mrs Fiske, and in
+1898 produced a version of Dumas' _Kean_, called _The Royal Box_, in
+which he successfully starred during the last years of his life. He died
+in Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of November 1899.
+
+His sister, the actress ROSE COGHLAN (1853-   ), went to America in 1871,
+was again in England from 1873 to 1877, playing with Barry Sullivan, and
+then returned to America, where she became prominent as Countess Zicka
+in _Diplomacy_, and Stephanie in _Forget-me-not_. She was at Wallack's
+almost continuously until 1888, and subsequently appeared in melodrama
+in parts like the title-rôle of _The Sporting Duchess_.
+
+
+
+
+COGNAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Charente, on the left bank of the river Charente, 32
+m. W. of Angoulême on the Ouest-État railway, between Angoulême and
+Saintes. Pop. (1906) 18,389. The streets of the old town--which borders
+the river--are narrow and tortuous, but the newer parts are well
+provided with open spaces. The chief of these is the beautiful Parc
+François 1er overlooking the Charente. In one of the squares there is a
+statue of Francis I., who was born here. The chief building is a church
+of the 12th century dedicated to St Leger, which preserves a fine
+Romanesque façade and a tower of the 15th century. A castle of the 15th
+and 16th centuries, once the residence of the counts of Angoulême, now a
+storehouse for brandy, and a medieval gate stand in the older part of
+the town. Cognac is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of first
+instance and of commerce, a council of trade arbitrators, a chamber of
+commerce, and consulates of the United States, Spain and Portugal. Its
+most important industry is the distillation of the brandy (q.v.) to
+which the town gives its name. Large quantities are carried, by way of
+the river, to the neighbouring port of Tonnay-Charente. The industries
+subsidiary to the brandy trade, such as the making of cases and bottles,
+occupy many hands. Ironware is also manufactured, and a considerable
+trade is maintained in grain and cattle. In 1526 Cognac gave its name to
+a treaty concluded against Charles V. by Francis I., the pope, Venice
+and Milan. Its possession was contested during the wars of religion, and
+in 1570 it became one of the Huguenot strongholds. In 1651 it
+successfully sustained a siege against Louis II., prince of Condé,
+leader of the Fronde.
+
+  See _Le Pays du Cognac_, by L. Ravaz, for a description of the
+  district and its viticulture.
+
+
+
+
+COGNITION (Latin _cognitio_, from _cognoscere_, to become acquainted
+with), in psychology, a term used in its most general sense for all
+modes of being conscious or aware of an object, whether material or
+intellectual. It is an ultimate mode of consciousness, strictly the
+presentation (through sensation or otherwise) of an object to
+consciousness; in its complete form, however, it seems to involve a
+judgment, i.e. the separation from other objects of the object
+presented. The psychological theory of cognition takes for granted the
+dualism of the mind that knows and the object known; it takes no account
+of the metaphysical problem as to the possibility of a relation between
+the ego and the non-ego, but assumes that such a relation does exist.
+Cognition is therefore distinct from emotion and conation; it has no
+psychological connexion with feelings of pleasure and pain, nor does it
+tend as such to issue in action.
+
+  For the analysis of cognition-reactions see O. Külpe, _Outlines of
+  Psychology_ (Eng. trans., 1895), pp. 411 foll.; E. B. Titchener,
+  _Experimental Psychology_ (1905), ii. 187 foll. On cognition
+  generally, G. F. Stout's _Analytic Psychology and Manual of
+  Psychology_; W. James's _Principles of Psychology_ (1890), i. 216
+  foll.; also article PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+COGNIZANCE (Lat. _cognoscere_, to know), knowledge, notice, especially
+judicial notice, the right of trying or considering a case judicially,
+the exercise of jurisdiction by a court of law. In heraldry a
+"cognizance" is an emblem, badge or device, used as a distinguishing
+mark by the body of retainers of a royal or noble house.
+
+
+
+
+COHEN (Hebrew for "priest"), a Jewish family name, implying descent from
+the ancient Hebrew priests. Many families claiming such descent are,
+however, not named Cohen. Other forms of the name are Cohn, Cowen, Kahn.
+
+  See J. Jacobs, _Jewish Encyclopedia_, iv. 144.
+
+
+
+
+COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS (1828-1898), German botanist, was born on the
+24th of January 1828 at Breslau. He was educated at Breslau and Berlin,
+and in 1859 became extraordinary, and in 1871 ordinary, professor of
+botany at Breslau University. He had a remarkable career, owing to his
+Jewish origin. He was contemporary with N. Pringsheim, and worked with
+H. R. Goeppert, C. G. Nees von Esenbeck, C. G. Ehrenberg and Johannes
+Müller. At an early date he exhibited astonishing ability with the
+microscope, which he did much to improve, and his researches on
+cell-walls and the growth and contents of plant-cells soon attracted
+attention, especially as he made remarkable advances in the
+establishment of an improved cell-theory, discovered the cilia in, and
+analysed the movements of, zoospores, and pointed out that the
+protoplasm of the plant-cell and the sarcode of the zoologists were one
+and the same physical vehicle of life. Although these early researches
+were especially on the Algae, in which group he instituted marked
+reforms of the rigid system due to F. T. Kützing, Cohn had already
+displayed that activity in various departments which made him so famous
+as an all-round naturalist, his attention at various times being turned
+to such varied subjects as _Aldorovanda_, torsion in trees, the nature
+of waterspouts, the effects of lightning, physiology of seeds, the
+proteid crystals in the potato, which he discovered, the formation of
+travertin, the rotatoria, luminous worms, &c.
+
+It is, however, in the introduction of the strict biological and
+philosophical analysis of the life-histories of the lower and most
+minute forms of life that Cohn's greatest achievements consist, for he
+applied to these organisms the principle that we can only know the
+phases of growth of microscopic plants by watching every stage of
+development under the microscope, just as we learn how different are the
+youthful and adult appearances of an oak or a fern by direct
+observation. The success with which he attempted and carried out the
+application of cultural and developmental methods on the Algae, Fungi
+and Bacteria can only be fully appreciated by those familiar with the
+minute size and elusive evolutions of these organisms, and with the
+limited appliances at Cohn's command. Nevertheless his account of the
+life-histories of _Protococcus_ (1850), _Stephanosphaera_ (1852),
+_Volvox_ (1856 and 1875), _Hydrodictyon_ (1861), and _Sphaeroplea_
+(1855-1857) among the Algae have never been put aside. The first is a
+model of what a study in development should be; the last shares with G.
+Thuret's studies on _Fucus_ and Pringsheim's on _Vaucheria_ the merit of
+establishing the existence of a sexual process in Algae. Among the Fungi
+Cohn contributed important researches on _Pilobolus_ (1851), _Empusa_
+(1855), _Tarichium_ (1869), as well as valuable work on the nature of
+parasitism of Algae and Fungi.
+
+It is as the founder of bacteriology that Cohn's most striking claims to
+recognition will be established. He seems to have been always attracted
+particularly by curious problems of fermentation and coloration due to
+the most minute forms of life, as evinced by his papers on _Monas
+prodigiosa_ (1850) and "Über blutähnliche Färbungen" (1850), on
+infusoria (1851 and 1852), on organisms in drinking-water (1853), "Die
+Wunder des Blutes" (1854), and had already published several works on
+insect epidemics (1869-1870) and on plant diseases, when his first
+specially bacteriological memoir (_Crenothrix_) appeared in the
+journal, _Beiträge zur Biologie_, which he then started (1870-1871), and
+which has since become so renowned. Investigations on other branches of
+bacteriology soon followed, among which "Organismen der Pockenlymphe"
+(1872) and "Untersuchungen über Bacterien" (1872-1875) are most
+important, and laid the foundations of the new department of science
+which has now its own laboratories, literature and workers specially
+devoted to its extension in all directions. When it is remembered that
+Cohn brought out and helped R. Koch in publishing his celebrated paper
+on _Anthrax_ (1876), the first clearly worked out case of a bacterial
+disease, the significance of his influence on bacteriology becomes
+apparent.
+
+Among his most striking discoveries during his studies of the forms and
+movements of the Bacteria may be mentioned the nature of Zoogloea, the
+formation and germination of true spores--which he observed for the
+first time, and which he himself discovered in _Bacillus subtilis_--and
+their resistance to high temperatures, and the bearing of this on the
+fallacious experiments supposed to support abiogenesis; as well as works
+on the bacteria of air and water, the significance of the bright sulphur
+granules in sulphur bacteria, and of the iron oxide deposited in the
+walls of _Crenothrix_. His discoveries in these and in other departments
+all stand forth as mementoes of his acute observation and reasoning
+powers, and the thoughtful (in every sense of the word) consideration of
+the work of others, and suggestive ideas attached to his principal
+papers, bear the same characteristics. If we overcome the always
+difficult task of bridging in imagination the interval between our
+present platform of knowledge and that on which bacteriologists stood
+in, say, 1870, we shall not undervalue the important contributions of
+Cohn to the overthrow of the then formidable bugbear known as the
+doctrine of "spontaneous generation," a dogma of despair calculated to
+impede progress as much in its day as that of "vitalism" did in other
+periods. Cohn had also clear perceptions of the important bearings of
+Mycology and Bacteriology in infective diseases, as shown by his studies
+in insect-killing fungi, microscopic analysis of water, &c. He was a
+foreign member of the Royal Society and of the Linnean Society, and
+received the gold medal of the latter in 1895. He died at Breslau on the
+25th of June 1898.
+
+  Lists of his papers will be found in the _Catalogue of Scientific
+  Papers of the Royal Society_, and in _Ber. d. d. bot. Gesellsch._,
+  1899, vol. xvii. p. (196). The latter also contains (p. (172)) a full
+  memoir by F. Rosen.     (H. M. W.)
+
+
+
+
+COHN, GUSTAV (1840-   ), German economist, was born on the 12th of
+December 1840 at Marienwerder, in West Prussia. He was educated at
+Berlin and Jena universities. In 1869 he obtained a post at the
+polytechnic in Riga, and in 1875 was elected a professor at the
+polytechnic at Zürich. In 1873 he went to England for a period of study,
+and as a result published his _Untersuchungen über die englische
+Eisenbahnpolitik_ (Leipzig, 1874-1875). In 1884 he was appointed
+professor of political science at Göttingen. Cohn's best-known works are
+_System der Nationalökonomie_ (Stuttgart, 1885); _Finanzwissenschaft_
+(1889); _Nationalökonomische Studien_ (1886), and _Zur Geschichte und
+Politik des Verkehrswesens_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+COHOES, a city of Albany county, New York, U.S.A., about 9 m. N. of
+Albany, at the confluence of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers. Pop. (1890)
+22,509; (1900) 23,910, of whom 7303 were foreign-born; (1910) 24,709. It
+is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Delaware &
+Hudson railways, by electric lines to Troy and Albany, and by the Erie
+and Champlain canals. It is primarily a manufacturing city. Hosiery and
+knit goods, cotton cloth, cotton batting, shoddy, underwear and shirts
+and collars are the principal products, but there are also extensive
+valve works and manufactories of pulp, paper and paper boxes, beer, pins
+and needles, tools and machinery, and sash, doors and blinds. The value
+of the factory products in 1905 was $10,289,822, of which $4,126,873, or
+40.1%, was the value of hosiery and knit goods, Cohoes ranking fifth
+among the cities of the United States (of 20,000 inhabitants or more) in
+this industry, and showing a higher degree of specialization in it than
+any other city in the United States except Little Falls, N.Y. The Falls
+of the Mohawk, which furnish power for the majority of the manufacturing
+establishments, are 75 ft. high and 900 ft. broad, a large dam above the
+falls storing the water, which is conveyed through canals to the mills.
+Below the falls the river is crossed by two fine iron bridges. The city
+has a public library, a normal training school and the St Bernard's
+(Roman Catholic) Academy. Cohoes was a part of the extensive manorial
+grant made to Killian Van Rensselaer in 1629 and it was probably settled
+very soon afterwards. It was incorporated as a village in 1848 and was
+chartered as a city in 1870.
+
+
+
+
+COHORT (Lat. _cohors_), originally a place enclosed: in the Roman army,
+the name of a unit of infantry. The troops of the first grade, the
+legions, were divided into cohorts, of which there were ten in each
+legion: the cohort thus contained 600 men. Among the troops of the
+second grade (the _auxilia_) the cohorts were independent foot regiments
+500 or 1000 strong, corresponding to the _alae_, which were similar
+regiments of cavalry; they were generally posted on the frontiers of the
+Empire in small forts of four to eight acres, each holding one cohort or
+_ala_. The special troops of Rome itself, the Praetorian Guard, the
+Urbanae Cohortes, and the Vigiles (fire brigade), were divided into
+cohorts (see further ROMAN ARMY). The phrase _cohors praetoria_ or
+_cohors amicorum_ was sometimes used, especially during the Roman
+republic, to denote the suite of the governor of a province; hence
+developed the Praetorian cohorts which formed the emperor's bodyguard.
+
+In biology, "cohort" is a term for a group of allied orders or families
+of plants or animals.
+
+
+
+
+COIF (from Fr. _coiffe_, Ital. _cuffia_, a cap), a close-fitting
+covering for the head. Originally it was the name given to a
+head-covering worn in the middle ages, tied like a night-cap under the
+chin, and worn out of doors by both sexes; this was later worn by men as
+a kind of night-cap or skull-cap. The coif was also a close-fitting cap
+of white lawn or silk, worn by English serjeants-at-law as a
+distinguishing mark of their profession. It became the fashion to wear
+on the top of the white coif a small skull-cap of black silk or velvet;
+and on the introduction of wigs at the end of the 17th century a round
+space was left on the top of the wig for the display of the coif, which
+was afterwards covered by a small patch of black silk edged with white
+(see A. Pulling, _Order of the Coif_, 1897). The random conjecture of
+Sir H. Spelman (_Glossarium archaiologicum_) that the coif was
+originally designed to conceal the ecclesiastical tonsure has
+unfortunately been quoted by annotators of Blackstone's _Commentaries_
+as well as by Lord Campbell in his _Lives of the Chief Justices_. It may
+be classed with the curious conceit, recorded in Brand's _Popular
+Antiquities_, that the coif was derived from the child's caul, and was
+worn on the advocate's head for luck.
+
+
+
+
+COIMBATORE, a city and district of British India, in the Madras
+presidency. The city is situated on the left bank of the Noyil river,
+305 m. from Madras by the Madras railway. In 1901 it had a population of
+53,080, showing an increase of 14% in the decade. The city stands 1437
+ft. above sea-level, is well laid out and healthy, and is rendered
+additionally attractive to European residents by its picturesque
+position on the slopes of the Nilgiri hills. It is an important
+industrial centre, carrying on cotton weaving and spinning, tanning,
+distilling, and the manufacture of coffee, sugar, manure and saltpetre.
+It has two second-grade colleges, a college of agriculture, and a school
+of forestry.
+
+The DISTRICT OF COIMBATORE has an area of 7860 sq. m. It may be
+described as a flat, open country, hemmed in by mountains on the north,
+west and south, but opening eastwards on to the great plain of the
+Carnatic; the average height of the plain above sea-level is about 900
+ft. The principal mountains are the Anamalai Hills, in the south of the
+district, rising at places to a height of between 8000 and 9000 ft. In
+the west the Palghat and Vallagiri Hills form a connecting link between
+the Anamalai range and the Nilgiris, with the exception of a remarkable
+gap known as the Palghat Pass. This gap, which completely intersects the
+Ghats, is about 20 m. wide. In the north is a range of primitive
+trap-hills known as the Cauvery chain, extending eastwards from the
+Nilgiris, and rising in places to a height of 4000 ft. The principal
+rivers are the Cauvery, Bhavani, Noyil, and Amravati. Numerous canals
+are cut from the rivers for the purpose of affording artificial
+irrigation, which has proved of immense benefit to the country. Well and
+tank water is also largely used for irrigation purposes. Coimbatore
+district was acquired by the British in 1799 at the close of the war
+which ended with the death of Tippoo. In 1901 the population was
+2,201,782, showing an increase of 10% in the preceding decade. The
+principal crops are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, oilseeds,
+cotton and tobacco, with a little coffee. Forests cover nearly 1½
+million acres, yielding valuable timber (teak, sandalwood, &c.), and
+affording grazing-ground for cattle. There are several factories for
+pressing cotton, and for cleaning coffee, oil-cake presses, tanneries
+and saltpetre refineries. Cereals, cotton, forest products, cattle and
+hides, and brass and copper vessels are the chief exports from the
+district. The south-west line of the Madras railway runs through the
+district, and the South Indian railway (of metre gauge) joins this at
+Erode.
+
+
+
+
+COIMBRA, the capital of an administrative district formerly included in
+the province of Beira, Portugal; on the north bank of the river Mondego,
+115 m. N.N.E. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-Oporto railway. Pop. (1900)
+18,144. Coimbra is built for the most part on rising ground, and
+presents from the other side of the river a picturesque and imposing
+appearance; though in reality its houses have individually but little
+pretension, and its streets are, almost without exception, narrow and
+mean. It derives its present importance from being the seat of the only
+university in the kingdom--an institution which was originally
+established at Lisbon in 1291, was transferred to Coimbra in 1306, was
+again removed to Lisbon, and was finally fixed at Coimbra in 1527. There
+are five faculties--theology, law, medicine, mathematics and
+philosophy--with more than 1300 students. The library contains about
+150,000 volumes, and the museums and laboratories are on an extensive
+scale. In connexion with the medical faculty there are regular
+hospitals; the mathematical faculty maintains an observatory from which
+an excellent view can be obtained of the whole valley of the Mondego;
+and outside the town there is a botanic garden (especially rich in the
+flora of Brazil), which also serves as a public promenade. Among the
+other educational establishments are a military college, a royal college
+of arts, a scientific and literary institute, and an episcopal seminary.
+
+The city is the seat of a bishop, suffragan to the archbishop of Braga;
+its new cathedral, founded in 1580, is of little interest; but the old
+is a fine specimen of 12th-century Romanesque, and retains portions of
+the mosque which it replaced. The principal churches are Santa Cruz, of
+the 16th century, and San Salvador, founded in 1169. On the north bank
+of the Mondego stand the ruins of the once splendid monastery of Santa
+Clara, established in 1286; and on the south bank is the celebrated
+_Quinta das lagrimas_, or Villa of Tears, where Inez de Castro (q.v.) is
+believed to have been murdered in 1355. The town is supplied with water
+by means of an aqueduct of 20 arches. The Mondego is only navigable in
+flood, and the port of Figueira da Foz is 20 m. W. by S., so that the
+trade of Coimbra is mainly local; but there are important lamprey
+fisheries and manufactures of pottery, leather and hats.
+
+A Latin inscription of the 4th century identifies Coimbra with the
+ancient Aeminium; while Condeixa (3623), 8 m. S.S.W., represents the
+ancient Conimbriga or Conembrica,. In the 9th century, however, when the
+bishopric of Conimbriga was removed hither, its old title was
+transferred to the new see, and hence arose the modern name Coimbra. The
+city was for a long time a Moorish stronghold, but in 1064 it was
+captured by Ferdinand I. of Castile and the Cid. Until 1260 it was the
+capital of the country, and no fewer than six kings--Sancho I. and II.,
+Alphonso II. and III., Pedro and Ferdinand--were born within its walls.
+It was also the birthplace of the poet Francisco Sá de Miranda
+(1495-1558), and, according to one tradition, of the more famous Luiz de
+Camoens (1524-1580), who was a student at the university between 1537
+and 1542. In 1755 Coimbra suffered considerably from the earthquake. In
+1810 it was sacked by the French under Marshal Masséna. In 1834 Dom
+Miguel made the city his headquarters; and in 1846 it was the scene of a
+Miguelist insurrection.
+
+The administrative district of Coimbra coincides with the south-western
+part of Beira; pop. (1900) 332,168; area 1508 sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+COÍN, a town of southern Spain in the province of Málaga; 18 m. W.S.W.
+of the city of Málaga. Pop. (1900) 12,326. Coín is finely situated on
+the northern slope of the Sierra de Mijas, overlooking the small river
+Séco and surrounded by vineyards and plantations of oranges and lemons.
+There are marble quarries in the neighbourhood, and, despite the lack of
+a railway, Coín has a thriving agricultural trade. The population
+increased by more than half between 1880 and 1900.
+
+
+
+
+COIN (older forms of the word are _coyne_, _quoin_ and _coign_, all
+derived through the O. Fr. _coing_, and _cuigne_ from Lat. _cuneus_, a
+wedge), properly the term for a wedge-shaped die used for stamping
+money, and so transferred to the money so stamped; hence a piece of
+money. The form "quoin" is used for the external angle of a building
+(see QUOINS), and "coign," also a projecting angle, survives in the
+Shakespearean phrase "a coign of vantage."
+
+
+
+
+COINAGE OFFENCES. The coinage of money is in all states a prerogative of
+the sovereign power; consequently any infringement of that prerogative
+is always severely punished, as being an offence likely to interfere
+with the well-being of the state.
+
+In the United Kingdom the statute law against offences relating to the
+coin was codified by an act of 1861. The statute provides that whoever
+falsely makes or counterfeits any coin resembling or apparently intended
+to resemble or pass for any current gold or silver coin of the realm (s.
+2), or gilds, silvers, washes, cases over or colours with materials
+capable of producing the appearance of gold or silver a coin or a piece
+of any metal or mixture of metals, or files or alters it, with intent to
+make it resemble or pass for any current gold or silver coin (s. 3), or
+who buys, sells, receives or pays a false gold or silver coin at a lower
+rate than its denomination imports, or who receives into the United
+Kingdom any false coin knowing it to be counterfeit (ss. 6, 7), or who,
+without lawful authority or excuse, knowingly makes or mends, buys or
+sells, or has in his custody or possession, or conveys out of the Royal
+Mint any coining moulds, machines or tools, is guilty of felony (ss. 24,
+25). The punishment for such offences is either penal servitude for life
+or for not less than three years, or imprisonment for not more than two
+years, with or without hard labour. Whoever impairs, diminishes or
+lightens current gold or silver coin, with intent to pass same, is
+liable to penal servitude for from three to fourteen years (s. 4), and
+whoever has in his possession filings or clippings obtained by impairing
+or lightening current coin is liable to the same punishment, or to penal
+servitude for from three to seven years. The statute also makes
+provision against tendering or uttering false gold or silver coin, which
+is a misdemeanour, punishable by imprisonment with or without hard
+labour. Provision is also made with respect to falsely making,
+counterfeiting, tendering or uttering copper coin, exporting false coin,
+or defacing current coin by stamping names or words on it, and
+counterfeiting, tendering or uttering coin resembling or meant to pass
+as that of some foreign state. The act of 1861 applies to offences with
+respect to colonial coins as well as to those of the United Kingdom.
+
+By the constitution of the United States, Congress has the power of
+coining money, regulating the value thereof and of foreign coin (Art. i.
+s. viii.), and the states are prohibited from coining money, or making
+anything but gold and silver money a tender in payment of debts (Art. i.
+s. x.). The counterfeiting coin or money, uttering the same, or
+mutilating or defacing it, is an offence against the United States, and
+is punishable by fine and imprisonment with hard labour for from two to
+ten years. It has also been made punishable by state legislation.
+
+
+
+
+COIR (from Malay _K[=a]yar_, cord, _K[=a]yaru_, to be twisted), a rough,
+strong, fibrous substance obtained from the outer husk of the coco-nut.
+(See COCO-NUT PALM.)
+
+
+
+
+COIRE (Ger. _Chur_ or _Cur_, Ital. _Coira_, Lat. _Curia Raetorum_,
+Romonsch _Cuera_), the capital of the Swiss canton of the Grisons. It is
+built, at a height of 1949 ft. above the sea-level, on the right bank of
+the Plessur torrent, just as it issues from the Schanfigg valley, and
+about a mile above its junction with the Rhine. It is overshadowed by
+the Mittenberg (east) and Pizokel (south), hills that guard the entrance
+to the deep-cut Schanfigg valley. In 1900 it contained 11,532
+inhabitants, of whom 9288 were German-speaking, 1466 Romonsch-speaking,
+and 677 Italian-speaking; while 7561 were Protestants, 3962 Romanists
+and one a Jew. The modern part of the city is to the west, but the old
+portion, with all the historical buildings, is to the east. Here is the
+cathedral church of St Lucius (who is the patron of Coire, and is
+supposed to be a 2nd-century British king, though really the name has
+probably arisen from a confusion between Lucius of Cyrene--miswritten
+"_curiensis_"--with the Roman general Lucius Munatius Plancus, who
+conquered Raetia). Built between 1178 and 1282, on the site of an older
+church, it contains many curious medieval antiquities (especially in the
+sacristy), as well as a picture by Angelica Kaufmann, and the tomb of
+the great Grisons political leader (d. 1637) Jenatsch (q.v.). Opposite
+is the Bishop's Palace, and not far off is the Episcopal Seminary (built
+on the ruins of a 6th-century monastic foundation). Not far from these
+ancient monuments is the new Raetian Museum, which contains a great
+collection of objects relating to Raetia (including the geological
+collections of the Benedictine monk of Disentis, Placidus a Spescha
+(1752-1833), who explored the high snowy regions around the sources of
+the Rhine). One of the hospitals was founded by the famous Capuchin
+philanthropist, Father Theodosius Florentini (1808-1865), who was long
+the Romanist curé of Coire, and whose remains were in 1906 transferred
+from the cathedral here to Ingenbohl (near Schwyz), his chief
+foundation. Coire is 74 m. by rail from Zürich, and is the meeting-point
+of the routes from Italy over many Alpine passes (the Lukmanier, the
+Splügen, the San Bernardino) as well as from the Engadine (Albula,
+Julier), so that it is the centre of an active trade (particularly in
+wine from the Valtelline), though it possesses also a few local
+factories.
+
+The episcopal see is first mentioned in 452, but probably existed a
+century earlier. The bishop soon acquired great temporal powers,
+especially after his dominions were made, in 831, dependent on the
+Empire alone, of which he became a prince in 1170. In 1392 he became
+head of the league of God's House (originally formed against him in
+1367), one of the three Raetian leagues, but, in 1526, after the
+Reformation, lost his temporal powers, having fulfilled his historical
+mission (see GRISONS). The bishopric still exists, with jurisdiction
+over the Cantons of the Grisons, Glarus, Zürich, and the three Forest
+Cantons, as well as the Austrian principality of Liechtenstein. The gild
+constitution of the city of Chur lasted from 1465 to 1839, while in 1874
+the _Burgergemeinde_ was replaced by an _Einwohnergemeinde_.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A. Eichhorn, _Episcopatus Curiensis_ (St Blasien, 1797);
+  W. von Juvalt, _Forschungen über die Feudalzeit im Curischen Raetien_,
+  2 parts (Zürich, 1871); C. Kind, _Die Reformation in den Bisthümern
+  Chur und Como_ (Coire, 1858); Conradin von Moor, Geschichte von
+  Curraetien (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874); P. C. von Planta, _Das alte
+  Raetien_ (Berlin, 1872); _Idem, Die Curraetischen Herrschaften in der
+  Feudalzeit_ (Bern, 1881); _Idem, Verfassungsgeschichte der Stadt Cur
+  im Mittelalter_ (Coire, 1879); _Idem, Geschichte von Graubünden_
+  (Bern, 1892).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+COKE, SIR EDWARD (1552-1634), English lawyer, was born at Mileham, in
+Norfolk, on the 1st of February 1552. From the grammar school of Norwich
+he passed to Trinity College, Cambridge; and in 1572 he entered
+Lincoln's Inn. In 1578 he was called to the bar, and in the next year he
+was chosen reader at Lyon's Inn. His extensive and exact legal
+erudition, and the skill with which he argued the intricate libel case
+of Lord Cromwell (4 Rep. 13), and the celebrated real property case of
+Shelley (1 Rep. 94, 104), soon brought him a practice never before
+equalled, and caused him to be universally recognized as the greatest
+lawyer of his day. In 1586 he was made recorder of Norwich, and in 1592
+recorder of London, solicitor-general, and reader in the Inner Temple.
+In 1593 he was returned as member of parliament for his native county,
+and also chosen speaker of the House of Commons. In 1594 he was promoted
+to the office of attorney-general, despite the claims of Bacon, who was
+warmly supported by the earl of Essex. As crown lawyer his treatment of
+the accused was marked by more than the harshness and violence common in
+his time; and the fame of the victim has caused his behaviour in the
+trial of Raleigh to be lastingly remembered against him. While the
+prisoner defended himself with the calmest dignity and self-possession,
+Coke burst into the bitterest invective, brutally addressing the great
+courtier as if he had been a servant, in the phrase, long remembered for
+its insolence and its utter injustice--"Thou hast an English face, but a
+Spanish heart!"
+
+In 1582 Coke married the daughter of John Paston, a gentleman of
+Suffolk, receiving with her a fortune of £30,000; but in six months he
+was left a widower. Shortly after he sought the hand of Lady Elizabeth
+Hatton, daughter of Thomas, second Lord Burghley, and granddaughter of
+the great Cecil. Bacon was again his rival, and again unsuccessfully;
+the wealthy young widow became--not, it is said, to his future
+comfort--Coke's second wife.
+
+In 1606 Coke was made chief justice of the common pleas, but in 1613 he
+was removed to the office of chief justice of the king's bench, which
+gave him less opportunity of interfering with the court. The change,
+though it brought promotion in dignity, caused a diminution of income as
+well as of power; but Coke received some compensation in being appointed
+a member of the privy council. The independence of his conduct as a
+judge, though not unmixed with the baser elements of prejudice and
+vulgar love of authority, has partly earned forgiveness for the
+harshness which was so prominent in his sturdy character. Full of an
+extreme reverence for the common law which he knew so well, he defended
+it alike against the court of chancery, the ecclesiastical courts, and
+the royal prerogative. In a narrow spirit, and strongly influenced, no
+doubt, by his enmity to the chancellor, Thomas Egerton (Lord Brackley),
+he sought to prevent the interference of the court of chancery with even
+the unjust decisions of the other courts. In the case of an appeal from
+a sentence given in the king's bench, he advised the victorious, but
+guilty, party to bring an action of praemunire against all those who had
+been concerned in the appeal, and his authority was stretched to the
+utmost to obtain the verdict he desired. On the other hand, Coke has the
+credit of having repeatedly braved the anger of the king. He freely gave
+his opinion that the royal proclamation cannot make that an offence
+which was not an offence before. An equally famous but less satisfactory
+instance occurred during the trial of Edmund Peacham, a divine in whose
+study a sermon had been found containing libellous accusations against
+the king and the government. There was nothing to give colour to the
+charge of high treason with which he was charged, and the sermon had
+never been preached or published; yet Peacham was put to the torture,
+and Bacon was ordered to confer with the judges individually concerning
+the matter. Coke declared such conference to be illegal, and refused to
+give an opinion, except in writing, and even then he seems to have said
+nothing decided. But the most remarkable case of all occurred in the
+next year (1616). A trial was held before Coke in which one of the
+counsel denied the validity of a grant made by the king to the bishop of
+Lichfield of a benefice to be held _in commendam_. James, through Bacon,
+who was then attorney-general, commanded the chief justice to delay
+judgment till he himself should discuss the question with the judges. At
+Coke's request Bacon sent a letter containing the same command to each
+of the judges, and Coke then obtained their signatures to a paper
+declaring that the attorney-general's instructions were illegal, and
+that they were bound to proceed with the case. His Majesty expressed his
+displeasure, and summoned them before him in the council-chamber, where
+he insisted on his supreme prerogative, which, he said, ought not to be
+discussed in ordinary argument. Upon this all the judges fell on their
+knees, seeking pardon for the form of their letter; but Coke ventured to
+declare his continued belief in the loyalty of its substance, and when
+asked if he would in the future delay a case at the king's order, the
+only reply he would vouchsafe was that he would do what became him as a
+judge. Soon after he was dismissed from all his offices on the following
+charges,--the concealment, as attorney-general, of a bond belonging to
+the king, a charge which could not be proved, illegal interference with
+the court of chancery and disrespect to the king in the case of
+commendams. He was also ordered by the council to revise his book of
+reports, which was said to contain many extravagant opinions (June
+1616).
+
+Coke did not suffer these losses with patience. He offered his daughter
+Frances, then little more than a child, in marriage to Sir John
+Villiers, brother of the favourite Buckingham. Her mother, supported at
+first by her husband's great rival and her own former suitor, Bacon,
+objected to the match, and placed her in concealment. But Coke
+discovered her hiding-place; and she was forced to wed the man whom she
+declared that of all others she abhorred. The result was the desertion
+of the husband and the fall of the wife. It is said, however, that after
+his daughter's public penance in the Savoy church, Coke had heart enough
+to receive her back to the home which he had forced her to leave. Almost
+all that he gained by his heartless diplomacy was a seat in the council
+and in the star-chamber.
+
+In 1620 a new and more honourable career opened for him. He was elected
+member of parliament for Liskeard; and henceforth he was one of the most
+prominent of the constitutional party. It was he who proposed a
+remonstrance against the growth of popery and the marriage of Prince
+Charles to the infanta of Spain, and who led the Commons in the decisive
+step of entering on the journal of the House the famous petition of the
+18th of December 1621, insisting on the freedom of parliamentary
+discussion, and the liberty of speech of every individual member. In
+consequence, together with Pym and Sir Robert Philips, he was thrown
+into confinement; and, when in the August of the next year he was
+released, he was commanded to remain in his house at Stoke Poges during
+his Majesty's pleasure. Of the first and second parliaments of Charles
+I. Coke was again a member. From the second he was excluded by being
+appointed sheriff of Buckinghamshire. In 1628 he was at once returned
+for both Buckinghamshire and Suffolk, and he took his seat for the
+former county. After rendering other valuable support to the popular
+cause, he took a most important part in drawing up the great Petition of
+Right. The last act of his public career was to bewail with tears the
+ruin which he declared the duke of Buckingham was bringing upon the
+country. At the close of the session he retired into private life; and
+the six years that remained to him were spent in revising and improving
+the works upon which, at least as much as upon his public career, his
+fame now rests. He died at Stoke Poges on the 3rd of September 1634.
+
+Coke published _Institutes_ (1628), of which the first is also known as
+_Coke upon Littleton_; _Reports_ (1600-1615), in thirteen parts; _A
+Treatise of Bail and Mainprize_ (1635); _The Complete Copyholder_
+(1630); _A Reading on Fines and Recoveries_ (1684).
+
+  See Johnson, _Life of Sir Edward Coke_ (1837); H. W. Woolrych, _The
+  Life of Sir Edward Coke_ (1826); Foss, _Lives of the Judges_;
+  Campbell, _Lives of the Chief Justices_; also ENGLISH LAW.
+
+
+
+
+COKE, SIR JOHN (1563-1644), English politician, was born on the 5th of
+March 1563, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. After
+leaving the university he entered public life as a servant of William
+Cecil, Lord Burghley, afterwards becoming deputy-treasurer of the navy
+and then a commissioner of the navy, and being specially commended for
+his labours on behalf of naval administration. He became member of
+parliament for Warwick in 1621 and was knighted in 1624, afterwards
+representing the university of Cambridge. In the parliament of 1625 Coke
+acted as a secretary of state; in this and later parliaments he
+introduced the royal requests for money, and defended the foreign policy
+of Charles I. and Buckingham, and afterwards the actions of the king.
+His actual appointment as secretary dates from September 1625. Disliked
+by the leaders of the popular party, his speeches in the House of
+Commons did not improve the king's position, but when Charles ruled
+without a parliament he found Coke's industry very useful to him. The
+secretary retained his post until 1639, when a scapegoat was required to
+expiate the humiliating treaty of Berwick with the Scots, and the
+scapegoat was Coke. Dismissed from office, he retired to his estate at
+Melbourne in Derbyshire, and then resided in London, dying at Tottenham
+on the 8th of September 1644. Coke's son, Sir John Coke, sided with the
+parliament in its struggle with the king, and it is possible that in
+later life Coke's own sympathies were with this party, although in his
+earlier years he had been a defender of absolute monarchy. Coke, who
+greatly disliked the papacy, is described by Clarendon as "a man of very
+narrow education and a narrower mind"; and again he says, "his cardinal
+perfection was industry and his most eminent infirmity covetousness."
+
+
+
+
+COKE, THOMAS (1747-1814), English divine, the first Methodist bishop,
+was born at Brecon, where his father was a well-to-do apothecary. He was
+educated at Jesus College, Oxford, taking the degree of M.A. in 1770 and
+that of D.C.L. in 1775. From 1772 to 1776 he was curate at South
+Petherton in Somerset, whence his rector dismissed him for adopting the
+open-air and cottage services introduced by John Wesley, with whom he
+had become acquainted. After serving on the London Wesleyan circuit he
+was in 1782 appointed president of the conference in Ireland, a position
+which he frequently held, in the intervals of his many voyages to
+America. He first visited that country in 1784, going to Baltimore as
+"superintendent" of the Methodist societies in the new world and, in
+1787 the American conference changed his title to "bishop," a
+nomenclature which he tried in vain to introduce into the English
+conference, of which he was president in 1797 and 1805. Failing this, he
+asked Lord Liverpool to make him a bishop in India, and he was voyaging
+to Ceylon when he died on the 3rd of May 1814. Coke had always been a
+missionary enthusiast, and was the pioneer of such enterprise in his
+connexion. He was an ardent opponent of slavery, and endeavoured also to
+heal the breach between the Methodist and Anglican communions. He
+published a _History of the West Indies_ (3 vols., 1808-1811), several
+volumes of sermons, and, with Henry Moore, a _Life of Wesley_ (1792).
+
+
+
+
+COKE (a northern English word, possibly connected with "colk," core),
+the product obtained by strongly heating coal out of contact with the
+air until the volatile constituents are driven off; it consists
+essentially of carbon, the so-called "fixed carbon," together with the
+incombustible matters or ash contained in the coal from which it is
+derived. In addition to these it almost invariably contains small
+quantities of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, the whole, however, not
+exceeding 2 or 3%. It also contains water, the amount of which may vary
+considerably according to the method of manufacture. When produced
+rapidly and at a low heat, as in gas-making, it is of a dull black
+colour, and a loose spongy or pumice-like texture, and ignites with
+comparative ease, though less readily than bituminous coal, so that it
+may be burnt in open fire-places; but when a long-continued heat is
+used, as in the preparation of coke for iron and steel melting, the
+product is hard and dense, is often prismatic in structure, has a
+brilliant semi-metallic lustre and silvery-grey colour, is a conductor
+of heat and electricity, and can only be burnt in furnaces provided with
+a strong chimney draught or an artificial blast. The strength and
+cohesive properties are also intimately related to the nature and
+composition of the coals employed, which are said to be caking or
+non-caking according to the compact or fragmentary character of the coke
+produced.
+
+Formerly coke was made from large coal piled in heaps with central
+chimneys like those of the charcoal burner, or in open rectangular
+clamps or kilns with air flues in the enclosing walls; but these methods
+are now practically obsolete, closed chambers or ovens being generally
+used. These vary considerably in construction, but may be classified
+into three principal types:--(1) direct heated ovens, (2) flue-heated
+ovens, (3) condensing ovens. In the first class the heating is done by
+direct contact or by burning the gases given off in coking within the
+oven, while in the other two the heating is indirect, the gas being
+burned in cellular passages or flues provided in the walls dividing the
+coking chambers, and the heat transmitted through the sides of the
+latter which are comparatively thin. The arrangement is somewhat similar
+to that of a gas-works retort, whence the name of "retort ovens" is
+sometimes applied to them. The difference between the second and third
+classes is founded on the treatment of the gases. In the former the gas
+is fired in the side flues immediately upon issuing from the oven, while
+in the latter the gases are first subjected to a systematic treatment in
+condensers, similar to those used in gas-works, to remove tar, ammonia
+and condensable hydrocarbons, the incondensable gases being returned to
+the oven and burned in the heating flues. These are generally known as
+"by-product ovens."
+
+
+    Beehive oven.
+
+  The simplest form of coke oven, and probably that still most largely
+  used, is the so-called "beehive oven." This is circular in plan, from
+  7 to 12 ft. in diameter, with a cylindrical wall about 2½ ft. high and
+  a nearly hemispherical roof with a circular hole at the top. The
+  floor, made of refractory bricks or slabs, is laid with a slight slope
+  towards an arched opening in the ring wall, which is stopped with
+  brickwork during the coking but opened for drawing the finished
+  charge. The ovens are usually arranged in rows or banks of 20 to 30 or
+  more, with their doors outwards, two rows being often placed with a
+  longitudinal flue between them connected by uptakes with the
+  individual ovens on either side. A railway along the top of the bank
+  brings the coal from the screens or washery. The largest ovens take a
+  charge of about 5 tons, which is introduced through the hole in the
+  roof, the brickwork of the empty oven being still red hot from the
+  preceding charge, and when levelled fills the cylindrical part nearly
+  to the springing of the roof. The gas fires as it is given off and
+  fills the dome with flame, and the burning is regulated by air
+  admitted through holes in the upper part of the door stopping. The
+  temperature being very high, a proportion of the volatile hydrocarbons
+  is decomposed, and a film of graphitic carbon is deposited on the
+  coke, giving it a semi-metallic lustre and silvery grey colour. When
+  the gas is burned off, the upper part of the door is opened and the
+  glowing charge cooled by jets of water thrown directly upon it from a
+  hose, and it is subsequently drawn out through the open door. The
+  charge breaks up into prisms or columns whose length corresponds to
+  the depth of the charge, and as a rule is uniform in character and
+  free from dull black patches or "black ends." The time of burning is
+  either 48 or 72 hours, the turns being so arranged as to avoid the
+  necessity of drawing the ovens on Sunday. The longer the heat is
+  continued the denser the product becomes, but the yield also
+  diminishes, as a portion of the finished coke necessarily burns to
+  waste when the gas is exhausted. For this reason the yield on the coal
+  charged is usually less than that obtained in retort ovens, although
+  the quality may be better. Coals containing at most about 35% of
+  volatile matter are best suited for the beehive oven. With less than
+  25% the gas is not sufficient to effect the coking completely, and
+  when there is a higher percentage the coke is brittle and spongy and
+  unsuited for blast furnace or foundry use. The spent flame from the
+  ovens passes to a range of steam boilers before escaping by the
+  chimney.
+
+
+    Retort oven.
+
+  The retort oven, which is now generally displacing the beehive form in
+  new installations, is made in a great variety of forms, the
+  differences being mainly in the arrangement of the heating flues, but
+  all have the central feature, the coking chamber, in common. This is a
+  tubular chamber with vertical sides and cylindrical roof, about 30 ft.
+  long, from 17 to 20 in. wide, and 6 or 7 ft. high, and closed at both
+  ends by sliding doors which are raised by crab winches when the charge
+  is to be drawn. The general arrangements of such an oven are shown in
+  fig. 1, which represents one of the earliest and most popular forms,
+  that of Evence Coppée of Brussels. The coking chambers A B connect by
+  rectangular posts at the springing of the roof, where the gas given
+  off from the top of the charge is fired by air introduced through _c
+  c_. The flames pass downwards through the parallel flues _f f_ along
+  the bottom flue of one oven, and return in the opposite direction
+  under the next to the chimney flue, a further part of the heat being
+  intercepted by placing a range of steam boilers between the ovens and
+  the chimney stack. The charging of the oven is done through the
+  passages D D in the roof from small wagons on transverse lines of
+  rails, the surface being raked level before the doors are closed and
+  luted up. The time of coking is much less than in the beehive ovens
+  and may be from 24 to 36 hours, according to the proportion of
+  volatile matter present. When the gas is completely given off the
+  doors are lifted and the charge is pushed out by the ram--a cast-iron
+  plate of the shape of the cross section of the oven, at the end of a
+  long horizontal bar, which is driven by a rack and pinion movement and
+  pushes the block of coke out of the oven on to the wharf or bank in
+  front where it falls to pieces and is immediately quenched by jets of
+  water from a hose pipe. When sufficiently cooled it is loaded into
+  railway wagons or other conveyances for removal. The ram, together
+  with its motor, and boiler when steam is used, is mounted upon a
+  carriage running upon a line of rails of about 2 ft. gauge along the
+  back of the range of ovens, so that it can be brought up to any one of
+  them in succession.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Coppée's Coke Oven.]
+
+  In some cases, instead of the small coal being charged through the
+  roof of the oven and levelled by hand, it is formed into blocks by
+  being stamped in a slightly moistened condition in a mould consisting
+  of a bottom plate or peel on a racked rod like that of the ram, with
+  movable sides and ends. This, when the ends are removed, is pushed
+  forward into the oven, and the bottom plate is withdrawn by reversing
+  the rack motion. The moulding box is mounted on a carriage like that
+  of the ram, the two being sometimes carried on the same framing. The
+  moulding is done at a fixed station in the centre of the range of
+  ovens by a series of cast-iron stampers driven by an electric motor.
+  This system is useful for coals low in volatile matter, which do not
+  give a coherent coke under ordinary conditions.
+
+
+    Condensing ovens.
+
+  In the distilling or by-product ovens the gases, instead of being
+  burned at the point of origin, pass by an uptake pipe in the roof
+  about the centre of the oven into a water-sealed collecting trough or
+  hydraulic main, whence they are drawn by exhausters through a series
+  of air and water cooled condensers and scrubbers. In the first or
+  atmospheric condensers the tar is removed, and in the second
+  ammoniacal water, which is further enriched by a graduated system of
+  scrubbing with weak ammoniacal liquor until it is sufficiently
+  concentrated to be sent to the ammonia stills. The first treatment by
+  scrubbing with creosote or heavy tar oil removes benzene, after which
+  the permanent gaseous residue consisting chiefly of hydrogen and marsh
+  gas is returned to the ovens as fuel.
+
+  In the Otto-Hoffmann oven, one of the most generally used forms,
+  vertical side flues like those of Coppée are adopted. The returned gas
+  enters by a horizontal flue along the bottom of the coking chamber,
+  divided into two parts by a mid-feather wall, and is fired by heated
+  air from a Siemens regenerator on the substructure at one end, and the
+  flame rising through one half of the side flues to a parallel
+  collector at the top returns downwards through the flues of the other
+  half and passes out to the chimney through a similar regenerator at
+  the other end. The course of the gases is reversed at intervals of
+  about an hour, as in the ordinary Siemens furnace, each end of the
+  oven having its own gas supply. In the later modification known as the
+  Otto-Hilgenstock, the regenerators are abandoned, but provision is
+  made for more perfect distribution of the heat by a line of sixteen
+  Bunsen burners in each wall; each of these serves two flues, the
+  course of the flame being continuously upwards without reversal. In
+  the newest Otto ovens the same system of burners is combined with
+  regenerators. In the Bauer system, another vertical flue oven, each
+  flue has its own burner, which is of a simplified construction.
+
+  In the Carvés oven, the earliest of the by-product ovens, the heating
+  flues are arranged horizontally in parallel series along the entire
+  length of the side walls, the gas being introduced from both ends but
+  at different levels. This system was further developed by H. Simon of
+  Manchester, who added a continuous air "recuperator" heated by the
+  spent flame; this Simon-Carvés system has been extensively adopted in
+  Great Britain. Another horizontal flue oven, the Semet-Solvay, is
+  distinguished by the structure of the flues, which are independent of
+  the dividing walls of the ovens, so that the latter can be made with
+  thinner sides than those of the earlier systems, and are more readily
+  repaired. In the horizontal ovens it is sometimes difficult to
+  maintain the heat when the flues are continuous along the whole length
+  of the wall, especially when the heating value of the gas is reduced
+  by the removal of the heavy hydrocarbons. This difficulty is met by
+  dividing the flues in the middle so as to shorten the length of travel
+  of the flame, and working each end independently. The Hüssener and
+  Koppers systems are two of the best-known examples of this
+  modification.
+
+  Coke from retort ovens is not so dense or brilliant as that made in
+  beehive ovens, but the waste being less there is a decided saving,
+  apart from the value of the condensed products. In one instance the
+  coke was found to be about 5% less efficient in the blast furnace,
+  while the yield on the coal charged was increased 10%. In the further
+  treatment of the condensed products by distillation the tar gives
+  burning oil and pitch, the benzene is separated from the creosote oil
+  by steam-heated stills, and the ammoniacal liquor, after some lime has
+  been added to decompose fixed ammonium compounds, is heated to
+  vaporize the ammonia, which is condensed in lead or copper-lined tanks
+  containing strong sulphuric acid to produce a crystalline powder of
+  ammonium sulphate, which accumulates in the receiver and is fished out
+  from time to time. The yield of by-products averages about 1% of
+  ammonium sulphate, about 3½% of tar, and 0.6 to 0.9% of benzene, of
+  the weight of the coal carbonized. After the ovens have been heated
+  and steam supplied for the machinery of the condensing plant and the
+  coke ovens, there is usually a surplus of gas, which may be used for
+  lighting or driving gas-engines. For the latter purpose, however, it
+  is necessary to remove the last traces of tar, which acts very
+  prejudicially in fouling the valves when the gas is not completely
+  purified. The gas given off during the earlier part of the coking
+  process is richer in heavy hydrocarbons and of a higher illuminating
+  value than that of the later period when the temperature is higher.
+  This property is utilized in several large coking plants in America,
+  where the gas from the first ten hours' working is drawn off by a
+  second hydraulic main and sent directly to town gas-works, where it
+  passes through the ordinary purifying treatment, the gas from the
+  second period being alone used for heating the ovens.
+
+Coke is essentially a partially graphitized carbon, its density being
+about midway between that of coal and graphite, and it should therefore
+occupy less space than the original coal; but owing to the softening of
+the charge a spongy structure is set up by the escaping gases, which
+acts in the other direction, so that for equal bulk coke is somewhat
+lighter than coal. It is this combination of properties that gives it
+its chief value in iron smelting, the substance being sufficiently dense
+to resist oxidation by carbon dioxide in the higher regions of the
+furnace, while the vesicular structure gives an extended surface for the
+action of heated air and facilitates rapid consumption at the tuyeres.
+Compact coke, such as that formed on the inner sides of gas retorts
+(retort carbon), can only be burned with great difficulty in small
+furnaces of special construction, but it gives out a great amount of
+heat.
+
+The most deleterious constituents of coke are ash, sulphur and volatile
+constituents including water. As the coke yield is only from two-thirds
+to three-quarters of that of the coal, the original proportion of ash is
+augmented by one-third or one-half in the product. For this reason it is
+now customary to crush and wash the coal carefully to remove
+intermingled patches of shale and dirt before coking, so that the ash
+may not if possible exceed 10% in the coke. About one-half of the
+sulphur in the coal is eliminated in coking, so that the percentage in
+the coke is about the same. It should not be much above 1%. According to
+the researches of F. Wuest (_Journ. Iron and Steel Inst._, 1906) the
+sulphur is retained in a complex carbon compound which is not destroyed
+until the coke is actually consumed.
+
+  The older methods of coking and the earlier forms of retort ovens are
+  described in J. Percy, _Metallurgy_, Jordan, _Album du cours de
+  metallurgie_; Phillips and Bauerman, _Handbook of Metallurgy_, and
+  other text-books. A systematic series of articles on the newer forms
+  will be found in _The Engineer_, vol. 82, pp. 205-303 and vol. 83, pp.
+  207-231; see also Dürre, _Die neuern Koksöfen_ (Leipzig, 1892); D. A.
+  Louis, "Von Bauer and Brünck Ovens," _Journ. Iron and Steel Inst._,
+  1904, ii. p. 293; C. L. Bell, "Hüssener Oven," _id._, 1904, i. p. 188;
+  Hurez, "A Comparison of Different Systems of Vertical and Horizontal
+  Flue Ovens," _Bull. soc. industrie minérale_, 1903, p. 777. A
+  well-illustrated description of the Otto system in its American
+  modification was issued by the United Gas & Coke Company of New York,
+  in 1906.     (H. B.)
+
+
+
+
+COL (Fr. for "neck," Lat. _collum_), in physical geography, generally
+any marked depression upon a high and rugged water-parting over which
+passage is easy from one valley to another. Such is the Col de Balme
+between the Trient and Chamounix valleys, where the great inaccessible
+wall crowned with aiguilles running to the massif of Mt. Blanc is broken
+by a gentle downward curve with smooth upland slopes, over which a
+footpath gives easy passage. The col is usually formed by the
+head-waters of a stream eating backward and lowering the water-parting
+at the head of its valley. In early military operations, the march of an
+army was always over a col, which has at all times considerable
+commercial importance in relation to roads in high mountain regions.
+
+
+
+
+COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1619-1683), French statesman, was born at Reims,
+where his father and grandfather were merchants. He claimed to be the
+descendant of a noble Scottish family, but the evidence for this is
+lacking. His youth is said to have been spent in a Jesuit college, in
+the office of a Parisian banker, and in that of a Parisian notary,
+Chapelain, the father of the poet. But the first fact on which we can
+rely with confidence is that, when not yet twenty, he obtained a post in
+the war-office, by means of the influence that he possessed through the
+marriage of one of his uncles to the sister of Michel Le Tellier, the
+secretary of state for war. During some years he was employed in the
+inspection of troops and other work of the kind, but at length his
+ability, his extraordinary energy and his untiring laboriousness induced
+Le Tellier to make him his private secretary. These qualities, combined,
+it must be confessed, with a readiness to seize every opportunity of
+advancement, soon brought Colbert both wealth and influence. In 1647 we
+find him receiving the confiscated goods of his uncle Pussort, in 1648
+obtaining 40,000 crowns with his wife Marie Charron, in 1649 appointed
+councillor of state.
+
+It was the period of the wars of the Fronde; and in 1651 the triumph of
+the Condé family drove Cardinal Mazarin from Paris. Colbert, now aged
+thirty-two, was engaged to keep him acquainted with what should happen
+in the capital during his absence. At first Colbert's position was far
+from satisfactory; for the close wary Italian treated him merely as an
+ordinary agent. On one occasion, for example, he offered him 1000
+crowns. The gift was refused somewhat indignantly; and by giving proof
+of the immense value of his services, Colbert gained all that he
+desired. His demands were not small; for, with an ambition mingled, as
+his letters show, with strong family affection, he aimed at placing all
+his relatives in positions of affluence and dignity; and many a rich
+benefice and important public office was appropriated by him to that
+purpose. For these favours, conferred upon him by his patron with no
+stinted hand, his thanks were expressed in a most remarkable manner; he
+published a letter defending the cardinal from the charge of ingratitude
+which was often brought against him, by enumerating the benefits that he
+and his family had received from him (April 1655). Colbert obtained,
+besides, the higher object of his ambition; the confidence of Mazarin,
+so far as it was granted to any one, became his, and he was entrusted
+with matters of the gravest importance. In 1659 he was giving directions
+as to the suppression of the revolt of the gentry which threatened in
+Normandy, Anjou and Poitou, with characteristic decision arresting those
+whom he suspected, and arranging every detail of their trial, the
+immediate and arbitrary destruction of their castles and woods, and the
+execution of their chief, Bonnesson. In the same year we have evidence
+that he was already planning his great attempt at financial reform. His
+earliest tentative was the drawing up of a _mémoire_ to Mazarin, showing
+that of the taxes paid by the people not one-half reached the king. The
+paper also contained an attack upon the superintendent Nicholas Fouquet
+(q.v.), and being opened by the postmaster of Paris, who happened to be
+a spy of Fouquet's, it gave rise to a bitter quarrel, which, however,
+Mazarin repressed during his lifetime.
+
+In 1661 the death of Mazarin allowed Colbert to take the first place in
+the administration, and he made sure of the king's favour by revealing
+to him some of Mazarin's hidden wealth. It was some time before he
+assumed official dignities; but in January 1664 he obtained the post of
+superintendent of buildings; in 1665 he was made controller-general; in
+1669 he became minister of the marine; and he was also appointed
+minister of commerce, the colonies and the king's palace. In short, he
+soon acquired power in every department except that of war.
+
+A great financial and fiscal reform at once claimed all his energies.
+Not only the nobility, but many others who had no legal claim to
+exemption, paid no taxes; the weight of the burden fell on the wretched
+country-folk. Colbert sternly and fearlessly set about his task.
+Supported by the young king, Louis XIV., he aimed the first blow at the
+greatest of the extortioners--the bold and powerful superintendent,
+Fouquet; whose fall, in addition, secured his own advancement.
+
+The office of superintendent and many others dependent upon it being
+abolished the supreme control of the finances was vested in a royal
+council. The sovereign was its president; but Colbert, though for four
+years he only possessed the title of intendant, was its ruling spirit,
+great personal authority being conferred upon him by the king. The
+career on which Colbert now entered must not be judged without constant
+remembrance of the utter rottenness of the previous financial
+administration. His ruthlessness in this case, dangerous precedent as it
+was, was perhaps necessary; individual interests could not be respected.
+Guilty officials having been severely punished, the fraudulent creditors
+of the government remained to be dealt with. Colbert's method was
+simple. Some of the public loans were totally repudiated, and from
+others a percentage was cut off, which varied, at first according to his
+own decision, and afterwards according to that of the council which he
+established to examine all claims against the state.
+
+Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce equality in
+the pressure of the taxes on the various classes. To diminish the number
+of the privileged was impossible, but false claims to exemption were
+firmly resisted, and the unjust direct taxation was lightened by an
+increase of the indirect taxes, from which the privileged could not
+escape. The mode of collection was at the same time immensely improved.
+
+Order and economy being thus introduced into the working of the
+government, the country, according to Colbert's vast yet detailed plan,
+was to be enriched by commerce. Manufactures were fostered in every way
+he could devise. New industries were established, inventors protected,
+workmen invited from foreign countries, French workmen absolutely
+prohibited to emigrate. To maintain the character of French goods in
+foreign markets, as well as to afford a guarantee to the home consumer,
+the quality and measure of each article were fixed by law, breach of the
+regulations being punished by public exposure of the delinquent and
+destruction of the goods, and, on the third offence, by the pillory. But
+whatever advantage resulted from this rule was more than compensated by
+the disadvantages it entailed. The production of qualities which would
+have suited many purposes of consumption was prohibited, and the odious
+supervision which became necessary involved great waste of time and a
+stereotyped regularity which resisted all improvements. And other parts
+of Colbert's schemes deserve still less equivocal condemnation. By his
+firm maintenance of the corporation system, each industry remained in
+the hands of certain privileged bourgeois; in this way, too, improvement
+was greatly discouraged; while to the lower classes opportunities of
+advancement were closed. With regard to international commerce Colbert
+was equally unfortunate in not being in advance of his age; the tariffs
+he published were protective to an extreme. The interests of internal
+commerce were, however, wisely consulted. Unable to abolish the duties
+on the passage of goods from province to province, he did what he could
+to induce the provinces to equalize them. The roads and canals were
+improved. The great canal of Languedoc was planned and constructed by
+Pierre Paul Riquet (1604-1680) under his patronage. To encourage trade
+with the Levant, Senegal, Guinea and other places, privileges were
+granted to companies; but, like the more important East India Company,
+all were unsuccessful. The chief cause of this failure, as well as of
+the failure of the colonies, on which he bestowed so much watchful care,
+was the narrowness and rigidity of the government regulations.
+
+The greatest and most lasting of Colbert's achievements was the
+establishment of the French marine. The royal navy owed all to him, for
+the king thought only of military exploits. For its use, Colbert
+reconstructed the works and arsenal of Toulon, founded the port and
+arsenal of Rochefort, and the naval schools of Rochefort, Dieppe and
+Saint-Malo, and fortified, with some assistance from Vauban (who,
+however, belonged to the party of his rival Louvois), among other ports
+those of Calais, Dunkirk, Brest and Havre. To supply it with recruits
+he invented his famous system of classes, by which each seaman,
+according to the class in which he was placed, gave six months' service
+every three or four or five years. For three months after his term of
+service he was to receive half-pay; pensions were promised; and, in
+short, everything was done to make the navy popular. There was one
+department, however, that was supplied with men on a very different
+principle. Letters exist written by Colbert to the judges requiring them
+to sentence to the oar as many criminals as possible, including all
+those who had been condemned to death; and the convict once chained to
+the bench, the expiration of his sentence was seldom allowed to bring
+him release. Mendicants also, against whom no crime had been proved,
+contraband dealers, those who had been engaged in insurrections, and
+others immeasurably superior to the criminal class, nay, innocent
+men--Turkish, Russian and negro slaves, and poor Iroquois Indians, whom
+the Canadians were ordered to entrap--were pressed into that terrible
+service. By these means the benches of the galleys were filled, and
+Colbert took no thought of the long unrelieved agony borne by those who
+filled them.
+
+Nor was the mercantile marine forgotten. Encouragement was given to the
+building of ships in France by allowing a premium on those built at
+home, and imposing a duty on those brought from abroad; and as French
+workmen were forbidden to emigrate, so French seamen were forbidden to
+serve foreigners on pain of death.
+
+Even ecclesiastical affairs, though with these he had no official
+concern, did not altogether escape Colbert's attention. He took a
+subordinate part in the struggle between the king and Rome as to the
+royal rights over vacant bishoprics; and he seems to have sympathized
+with the proposal that was made to seize part of the wealth of the
+clergy. In his hatred of idleness, he ventured to suppress no less than
+seventeen fêtes, and he had a project for lessening the number of those
+devoted to clerical and monastic life, by fixing the age for taking the
+vows some years later than was then customary. With heresy he was at
+first unwilling to interfere, for he was aware of the commercial value
+of the Huguenots; but when the king resolved to make all France Roman
+Catholic, he followed him and urged his subordinates to do all that they
+could to promote conversions.
+
+In art and literature Colbert took much interest. He possessed a
+remarkably fine private library, which he delighted to fill with
+valuable manuscripts from every part of Europe where France had placed a
+consul. He has the honour of having founded the Academy of Sciences (now
+called the Institut de France), the Observatory, which he employed
+Claude Perrault to build and brought G. D. Cassini (1625-1712) from
+Italy to superintend, the Academies of Inscriptions and Medals, of
+Architecture and of Music, the French Academy at Rome, and Academies at
+Arles, Soissons, Nîmes and many other towns, and he reorganized the
+Academy of Painting and Sculpture which Richelieu had established. He
+was a member of the French Academy; and one very characteristic rule,
+recorded to have been proposed by him with the intention of expediting
+the great Dictionary, in which he was much interested, was that no one
+should be accounted present at any meeting unless he arrived before the
+hour of commencement and remained till the hour for leaving. In 1673 he
+presided over the first exhibition of the works of living painters; and
+he enriched the Louvre with hundreds of pictures and statues. He gave
+many pensions to men of letters, among whom we find Molière, Corneille,
+Racine, Boileau, P. D. Huet (1630-1721) and Antoine Varillas
+(1626-1696), and even foreigners, as Huyghens, Vossius the geographer,
+Carlo Dati the Dellacruscan, and Heinsius the great Dutch scholar. There
+is evidence to show that by this munificence he hoped to draw out
+praises of his sovereign and himself; but this motive certainly is far
+from accounting for all the splendid, if in some cases specious,
+services that he rendered to literature, science and art.
+
+Indeed to everything that concerned the interests of France Colbert
+devoted unsparing thought and toil. Besides all that has been
+mentioned, he found time to do something for the better administration
+of justice (the codification of ordinances, the diminishing of the
+number of judges, the reduction of the expense and length of trials for
+the establishment of a superior system of police) and even for the
+improvement of the breed of horses and the increase of cattle. As
+superintendent of public buildings he enriched Paris with boulevards,
+quays and triumphal arches; he relaid the foundation-stone of the
+Louvre, and brought Bernin from Rome to be its architect; and he erected
+its splendid colonnade upon the plan of Claude Perrault, by whom Bernin
+had been replaced. He was not permitted, however, to complete the work,
+being compelled to yield to the king's preference for residences outside
+Paris, and to devote himself to Marly and Versailles.
+
+Amid all these public labours his private fortune was never neglected.
+While he was reforming the finances of the nation, and organizing its
+navy, he always found time to direct the management of his smallest
+farm. He died extremely rich, and left fine estates all over France. He
+had been created marquis de Seignelay, and for his eldest son he
+obtained the reversion of the office of minister of marine; his second
+son became archbishop of Rouen; and a third son, the marquis d'Ormoy,
+became superintendent of buildings.
+
+To carry out his reforms, Colbert needed peace; but the war department
+was in the hands of his great rival Louvois, whose influence gradually
+supplanted that of Colbert with the king. Louis decided on a policy of
+conquest. He was deaf also to all the appeals against the other forms of
+his boundless extravagance which Colbert, with all his deference towards
+his sovereign, bravely ventured to make.[1] Thus it came about that,
+only a few years after he had commenced to free the country from the
+weight of the loans and taxes which crushed her to the dust, Colbert was
+forced to heap upon her a new load of loans and taxes more heavy than
+the last. Henceforth his life was a hopeless struggle, and the financial
+and fiscal reform which, with the great exception of the establishment
+of the navy, was the most valuable service to France contemplated by
+him, came to nought.
+
+Depressed by his failure, deeply wounded by the king's favour for
+Louvois, and worn out by overwork, Colbert's strength gave way at a
+comparatively early age. In 1680 he was the constant victim of severe
+fevers, from which he recovered for a time through the use of quinine
+prescribed by an English physician. But in 1683, at the age of
+sixty-four, he was seized with a fatal illness, and on the 6th of
+September he expired. It was said that he died of a broken heart, and a
+conversation with the king is reported in which Louis disparagingly
+compared the buildings of Versailles, which Colbert was superintending,
+with the works constructed by Louvois in Flanders. He took to bed, it is
+true, immediately afterwards, refusing to receive all messages from the
+king; but his constitution was utterly broken before, and a post-mortem
+examination proved that he had been suffering from stone. His body was
+interred in the secrecy of night, for fear of outrage from the
+Parisians, by whom his name was cordially detested.
+
+Colbert was a great statesman, who did much for France. Yet his insight
+into political science was not deeper than that of his age; nor did he
+possess any superiority in moral qualities. His rule was a very bad
+example of over-government. He did not believe in popular liberty;, the
+parlements and the states-general received no support from him. The
+technicalities of justice he never allowed to interfere with his plans;
+but he did not hesitate to shield his friends. He trafficked in public
+offices for the profit of Mazarin and in his own behalf. He caused the
+suffering of thousands in the galleys; he had no ear, it is said, for
+the cry of the suppliant. There was indeed a more human side to his
+character, as is shown in his letters, full of wise advice and
+affectionate care, to his children, his brothers, his cousins even. Yet
+to all outside he was "the man of marble." Madame de Sévigné called him
+"the North." To diplomacy he never pretended; persuasion and deceit were
+not the weapons he employed; all his work was carried out by the iron
+hand of authority. He was a great statesman in that he conceived a
+magnificent yet practicable scheme for making France first among
+nations, and in that he possessed a matchless faculty for work, neither
+shrinking from the vastest undertakings nor scorning the most trivial
+details.
+
+  Numerous _vies_ and _éloges_ of Colbert have been published; but the
+  most thorough student of his life and administration was Pierre
+  Clément, member of the Institute, who in 1846 published his _Vie de
+  Colbert_, and in 1861 the first of the 9 vols. of the _Lettres,
+  instructions, et mémoires de Colbert_. The historical introductions
+  prefixed to each of these volumes have been published by Mme. Clément
+  under the title of the _Histoire de Colbert et de son administration_
+  (3rd ed., 1892). The best short account of Colbert as a statesman is
+  that in Lavisse, _Histoire de France_ (1905), which gives a thorough
+  study of the administration. Among Colbert's papers are _Mémoires sur
+  les affaires de finance de France_ (written about 1663), a fragment
+  entitled _Particularités secrètes de la vie du Roy_, and other
+  accounts of the earlier part of the reign of Louis XIV.     (J. T. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See especially a _Mémoire_ presented to the king in 1666,
+    published in the _Lettres, &c., de Colbert_, vol. ii.
+
+
+
+
+COLBERT DE CROISSY, CHARLES, MARQUIS (1625-1696), French diplomatist,
+like his elder brother Jean Baptiste Colbert, began his career in the
+office of the minister of war Le Tellier. In 1656 he bought a
+counsellorship at the parlement of Metz, and in 1658 was appointed
+intendant of Alsace and president of the newly-created sovereign council
+of Alsace. In this position he had to re-organize the territory recently
+annexed to France. The steady support of his brother at court gained for
+him several diplomatic missions--to Germany and Italy (1659-1661). In
+1662 he became marquis de Croissy and _président à mortier_ of the
+parlement of Metz. After various intendancies, at Soissons (1665), at
+Amiens (1666), and at Paris (1667), he turned definitely to diplomacy.
+In 1668 he represented France at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle; and
+in August of the same year was sent as ambassador to London, where he
+was to negotiate the definite treaty of alliance with Charles II. He
+arranged the interview at Dover between Charles and his sister Henrietta
+of Orleans, gained the king's personal favour by finding a mistress for
+him, Louise de Kéroualle, maid of honour to Madame, and persuaded him to
+declare war against Holland. The negotiation of the treaty of Nijmwegen
+(1676-1678) still further increased his reputation as a diplomatist and
+Louis XIV. made him secretary of state for foreign affairs after the
+disgrace of Arnauld de Pomponne, brought about by his brother, 1679. He
+at once assumed the entire direction of French diplomacy. Foreign
+ambassadors were no longer received and diplomatic instructions were no
+longer given by other secretaries of state. It was he, not Louvois, who
+formed the idea of annexation during a time of peace, by means of the
+chambers of reunion. He had outlined this plan as early as 1658 with
+regard to Alsace. His policy at first was to retain the territory
+annexed by the chambers of reunion without declaring war, and for this
+purpose he signed treaties of alliance with the elector of Brandenburg
+(1681), and with Denmark (1683); but the troubles following upon the
+revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685) forced him to give up his
+scheme and to prepare for war with Germany (1688). The negotiations for
+peace had been begun again when he died, on the 28th of July 1696. His
+clerk, Bergeret, was his invaluable assistant.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--His papers, preserved in the _Archives des affaires
+  étrangères_ at Paris, have been partially published in the _Recueil
+  des instructions données aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France_
+  (since 1884). See especially the volumes:--_Autriche_ (t. i.), _Suède_
+  (t. ii.), _Rome_ (t. vi.), _Bavière_ (t. viii.), _Savoie_ (t. xiv.),
+  _Prusse_ (t. xvi.). Other documents have been published in Mignet's
+  _Négociations relatives à la succession d'Espagne_, vol. iv., and in
+  the collection of _Lettres et négociations ... pour la paix de
+  Nimègue_, 1676-1677 (La Haye, 1710). In addition to the _Mémoires_ of
+  the time, see Spanheim, _Relation de la cour de France en 1690_, ed.
+  E. Bourgeois (Paris and Lyons, 1900); Baschet, _Histoire du depôt des
+  affaires étrangères_; C. Rousset, _Histoire de Louvois_ (4 vols.,
+  Paris, 1863); E. Bourgeois, "Louvois, et Colbert de Croissy," in the
+  _Revue historique_, vol. xxxiv. (1887); A. Waddington, _Le Grand
+  Électeur et Louis XIV_ (Paris, 1905); G. Pagis, _Le Grand Électeur et
+  Louis XIV_ (Paris, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+COLBURN, HENRY (d. 1855), British publisher, obtained his earliest
+experience of bookselling in London at the establishment of W. Earle,
+Albemarle Street, and afterwards as an assistant at Morgan's Library,
+Conduit Street, of which in 1816 he became proprietor. He afterwards
+removed to New Burlington Street, where he established himself as a
+publisher, resigning the Conduit Street Library to Messrs Saunders &
+Otley. In 1814 he originated the _New Monthly Magazine_, of which at
+various times Thomas Campbell, Bulwer Lytton, Theodore Hook and Harrison
+Ainsworth were editors. Colburn published in 1818 _Evelyn's Diary_, and
+in 1825 the _Diary of Pepys_, edited by Lord Braybrooke, paying £2200
+for the copyright. He also issued Disraeli's first novel, _Vivian Grey_,
+and a large number of other works by Theodore Hook, G. P. R. James,
+Marryat and Bulwer Lytton. In 1829 Richard Bentley (q.v.) was taken into
+partnership; and in 1832 Colburn retired, but set up again soon
+afterwards independently in Great Marlborough Street; his business was
+taken over in 1841 by Messrs Hurst & Blackett. Henry Colburn died on the
+16th of August 1855, leaving property to the value of £35,000.
+
+
+
+
+COLBURN, ZERAH (1804-1840), American mathematical prodigy, was born at
+Cabot, Vermont, on the 1st of September 1804. At a very early age he
+developed remarkable powers of calculating with extreme rapidity, and in
+1810 his father began to exhibit him. As a performing prodigy he visited
+Great Britain and France. From 1816 to 1819 he studied in Westminster
+school, London. After the death of his father in 1824 he returned to
+America, and from 1825 to 1834 he was a Methodist preacher. As he grew
+older his extraordinary calculating powers diminished. From 1835 until
+his death, on the 2nd of March 1840, he was professor of languages at
+the Norwich University in Vermont. He published a _Memoir_ of his life
+in 1833.
+
+His nephew, also named ZERAH COLBURN (1832-1870), was a well-known
+mechanical engineer; the editor successively of the _Railroad Advocate_,
+in New York, _The Engineer_, in London, and _Engineering_, in London;
+and the author of a work entitled _The Locomotive Engine_ (1851).
+
+
+
+
+COLBY, THOMAS FREDERICK (1784-1852), British major-general and director
+of ordnance survey, was born at St Margaret's, Rochester, on the 1st of
+September 1784, a member of a South Wales family. Entering the Royal
+Engineers he began in 1802 a life-long connexion with the Ordnance
+Survey department. His most important work was the survey of Ireland.
+This he planned in 1824, and was engaged upon it until 1846. The last
+sheets of this survey were almost ready for issue in that year when he
+reached the rank of major-general, and according to the rules of the
+service had to vacate his survey appointment. He was the inventor of the
+compensation bar, an apparatus used in base-measurements. He died at New
+Brighton on the 9th of October 1852.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHAGUA, a province of central Chile, bounded N. by Santiago and
+O'Higgins, E. by Argentina, S. by Curicó, and W. by the Pacific. Its
+area is officially estimated at 3856 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 157,566.
+Extending across the great central valley of Chile, the province has a
+considerable area devoted to agriculture, but much attention is given to
+cattle and mining. Its principal river is the Rapel, sometimes
+considered as the southern limit of the Inca empire. Its greatest
+tributary is the Cachapoal, in the valley of which, among the Andean
+foothills, are the popular thermal mineral baths of Cauquenes, 2306 ft.
+above sea-level. The state central railway from Santiago to Puerto Montt
+crosses the province and has two branches within its borders, one from
+Rengo to Peumo, and one from San Fernando via Palmilla to Pichilemu on
+the coast. The principal towns are the capital, San Fernando, Rengo and
+Palmilla. San Fernando is one of the several towns founded in 1742 by
+the governor-general José de Manso, and had a population of 7447 in
+1895. Rengo is an active commercial town and had a population of 6463 in
+1895.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, 1ST BARON (1757-1829), born at Abingdon, was
+the son of Dr John Abbot, rector of All Saints, Colchester, and, by his
+mother's second marriage, half-brother of the famous Jeremy Bentham.
+From Westminster school Charles Abbot passed to Christ Church, Oxford,
+at which he gained the chancellor's medal for Latin verse as well as the
+Vinerian scholarship. In 1795, after having practised twelve years as a
+barrister, and published a treatise proposing the incorporation of the
+judicial system of Wales with that of England, he was appointed to the
+office previously held by his brother of clerk of the rules in the
+king's bench; and in June of the same year he was elected member of
+parliament for Helston, through the influence of the duke of Leeds. In
+1796 Abbot commenced his career as a reformer in parliament by obtaining
+the appointment of two committees--the one to report on the arrangements
+which then existed as to temporary laws or laws about to expire, the
+other to devise methods for the better publication of new statutes. To
+the latter committee, and a second committee which he proposed some
+years later, it is owing that copies of new statutes were thenceforth
+sent to all magistrates and municipal bodies. To Abbot's efforts were
+also due the establishment of the Royal Record Commission, the reform of
+the system which had allowed the public money to lie for some time at
+long interest in the hands of the public accountants, by charging them
+with payment of interest, and, most important of all, the act for taking
+the first census, that of 1801. On the formation of the Addington
+ministry in March 1801 Abbot became chief secretary and privy seal for
+Ireland; and in the February of the following year he was chosen speaker
+of the House of Commons--a position which he held with universal
+satisfaction till 1817, when an attack of erysipelas compelled him to
+retire. In response to an address of the Commons, he was raised to the
+peerage as Baron Colchester, with a pension of £4000, of which £3000 was
+to be continued to his heir. He died on the 8th of May 1829. His
+speeches against the Roman Catholic claims were published in 1828.
+
+He was succeeded by his eldest son CHARLES (d. 1867), postmaster-general
+in 1858; and the latter by his son REGINALD CHARLES EDWARD (b. 1842), as
+3rd baron.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHESTER a market town, river port and municipal and parliamentary
+borough of Essex, England; 52 m. N. E. by E. from London by the Great
+Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 38,373. It lies on the river Colne, 12 m.
+from the open sea. Among numerous buildings of antiquarian interest the
+first is the ruined keep of the castle, a majestic specimen of Norman
+architecture, the largest of its kind in England, covering nearly twice
+the area of the White Tower in London. It was erected in the reign of
+William I. or William II., and is quadrangular, turreted at the angles.
+As in other ancient buildings in Colchester there are evidences of the
+use of material from the Roman town which occupied the site, but it is
+clearly of Norman construction. Here is the museum of the Essex
+Archaeological Society, with a remarkable collection of Roman
+antiquities, and a library belonging to the Round family, who own the
+castle. Among ecclesiastical buildings are remains of two monastic
+foundations--the priory of St Botolph, founded early in the 12th century
+for Augustinian canons, of which part of the fine Norman west front (in
+which Roman bricks occur), and of the nave arcades remain; and the
+restored gateway of the Benedictine monastery of St John, founded by
+Eudo, steward to William II. This is a beautiful specimen of
+Perpendicular work, embattled, flanked by spired turrets, and covered
+with panel work. The churches of Holy Trinity, St Martin and St Leonard
+at Hythe are of antiquarian interest; the first has an apparently
+pre-Norman tower and the last preserves some curious frescoes.
+
+The principal modern buildings are the town hall, corn exchange, free
+library, the Eastern Counties' asylum, Essex county hospital and
+barracks. The town has long been an important military centre with a
+large permanent camp. There are a free grammar school (founded 1539), a
+technical and university extension college, a literary institute and
+medical and other societies. Castle Park is a public ground surrounding
+the castle. Colchester is the centre of an agricultural district, and
+has extensive corn and cattle markets. Industries include founding,
+engineering, malting, flour-milling, rose-growing and the making of
+clothing and boots and shoes. The oyster fisheries at the mouth of the
+Colne, for which the town has been famous for centuries, belong to the
+corporation, and are held on a ninety-nine years' lease by the Colne
+Fishery Company, incorporated under an act of 1870. The harbour, with
+quayage at the suburb of Hythe, is controlled by the corporation. The
+parliamentary borough, which is co-extensive with the municipal, returns
+one member. The municipal corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen
+and 24 councillors. Area 11,333 acres.
+
+The Roman town, _Colonia Victricensis Camalodunum_ (or _Camulodunum_),
+was of great importance. It was founded by Claudius, early in the period
+of the Roman conquest, as a municipality with discharged Roman soldiers
+as citizens, to assist the Roman dominion and spread its civilization.
+Under Queen Boadicea the natives burned the town and massacred the
+colonists; but Camalodunum soon rose to fresh prosperity and flourished
+throughout the Roman period. Its walls and some other remains, including
+the guardroom at the principal gate, can still be clearly traced, and
+many such relics as sculptures, inscriptions, pavements and pottery have
+been discovered. When the borough originated is not known, but Domesday
+Book mentions two hundred and seventy-six burgesses and land _in commune
+burgensium_, a phrase that may point to a nascent municipal corporation.
+The first charter given by Richard I. in 1189 granted the burghers leave
+to choose their bailiffs and a justice to hold the pleas of the crown
+within the borough, freedom from the obligation of duel, freedom of
+passage and pontage through England, free warren, fishery and custom as
+in the time of Henry I., and other privileges. An _inspeximus_ of this
+charter by Henry III. in 1252 granted the burgesses the return of
+certain writs. The charters were confirmed by various kings, and new
+grants obtained in 1447 and 1535. In 1635 Charles I. granted a fresh
+charter, which replaced the bailiffs by a mayor, and in 1653 Cromwell
+altered it to secure a permanent majority for his party on the
+corporation. But his action was undone in 1659, and in 1663 Charles II.
+granted a new charter. In 1684 the charters were surrendered, and a new
+one obtained reserving to the crown power to remove the mayor and
+alderman, and this one was further modified by James II. But the charter
+of 1663 was confirmed in 1693 and remained in force till 1741, when the
+liberties were allowed to lapse. In 1763 George III. made the borough a
+renewed grant of its liberties. Colchester returned two members to
+parliament from 1295 until 1885. Fairs were granted by Richard I. in
+1189 to the hospital of St Mary Magdalene, and by Edward II. in 1319 to
+the town for the eve of and feast of St Denis and the six following
+days--a fair which is still held. In the 13th century Colchester was
+sufficiently important as a port to pay a fee-farm of £46, its ships
+plying to Winchelsea and France. Elizabeth and James I. encouraged
+Flemish settlers in the manufacture of baize ("bays and says"), which
+attained great importance, so that a charter of Charles I. speaks of
+burgesses industriously exercising the manufacture of cloth. Both Camden
+and Fuller mention the trade in barrelled oysters and candied
+eringo-root. The most notable event in the history of the town was its
+siege by Fairfax in 1648, when the raw levies of the Royalists in the
+second civil war held his army at bay for nearly eleven weeks, only
+surrendering when starved out, and when Cromwell's victory in the north
+made further resistance useless. Colchester was made the see of a
+suffragan bishop by King Henry VIII., and two bishops were in succession
+appointed by him; no further appointments, however, were made until the
+see was re-established under Queen Victoria.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Essex_; _Charters and Letters Patent
+  granted to the Borough of Colchester_ (Colchester, 1903); Morant,
+  _History of Colchester_ (1748); Harrod's _Report on the Records of
+  Colchester_ (1865); Cutts, _Colchester_ (Historic Towns) 1888; J. H.
+  Round, "Colchester and the Commonwealth" in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ vol.
+  xv.; Benham, _Red Paper Book of Colchester_ (1902), and _Oath Book of
+  Colchester_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+COLCHESTER, a township of Chittenden county, Vermont, U.S.A., on Lake
+Champlain, immediately N.E. of Burlington, from which it is separated by
+the Winooski river. Pop. (1900) 5352; (1910) 6450. It is served by the
+Central Vermont railway. The surface is generally gently rolling, and in
+places along the banks of the Winooski or Onion river, the shore of the
+lake, and in the valleys, it is very picturesque. At Mallett's Bay, an
+arm of Lake Champlain, 2 m. long and 1½ m. wide, several large private
+schools hold summer sessions. The soil is varied, much of it being good
+meadow land or well adapted to the growing of grain and fruit. The
+township has two villages: Colchester Centre, a small, quiet settlement,
+and Winooski (pop. in 1900, 3783) on the Winooski river. This stream
+furnishes good water power, and the village has manufactories of cotton
+and woollen goods, lumber, woodenware, gold and silver plated ware,
+carriages, wagons and screens. Within the township there is a United
+States military reservation, Fort Ethan Allen. The village was founded
+in 1772 by Ira Allen and for many years it was known as "Allen's
+Settlement"; but later it was called Winooski Falls, and in 1866 it was
+incorporated as the Village of Winooski.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHICUM, the Meadow Saffron, or Autumn Crocus (_Colchicum autumnale_),
+a perennial plant of the natural order, Liliaceae, found wild in rich
+moist meadow-land in England and Ireland, in middle and southern Europe,
+and in the Swiss Alps. It has pale-purple flowers, rarely more than
+three in number; the perianth is funnel-shaped, and produced below into
+a long slender tube, in the upper part of which the six stamens are
+inserted. The ovary is three-celled, and lies at the bottom of this
+tube. The leaves are three or four in number, flat, lanceolate, erect
+and sheathing; and there is no stem. Propagation is by the formation of
+new corms from the parent corm, and by seeds. The latter are numerous,
+round, reddish-brown, and of the size of black mustard-seeds. The corm
+of the meadow-saffron attains its full size in June or early in July. A
+smaller corm is then formed from the old one, close to its root; and
+this in September and October produces the crocus-like flowers. In the
+succeeding January or February it sends up its leaves, together with the
+ovary, which perfects its seeds during the summer. The young corm, at
+first about the diameter of the flower-stalk, grows continuously, till
+in the following July it attains the size of a small apricot. The parent
+corm remains attached to the new one, and keeps its form and size till
+April in the third year of its existence, after which it decays. In some
+cases a single corm produces several new plants during its second spring
+by giving rise to immature corms.
+
+_C. autumnale_ and its numerous varieties as well as other species of
+the genus, are well known in cultivation, forming some of the most
+beautiful of autumn-flowering plants. They are very easy to cultivate
+and do not require lifting. The most suitable soil is a light, sandy
+loam enriched with well decomposed manure, in a rather moist situation.
+The corms should be planted not less than 3 in. deep. Propagation is
+effected by seed or increase of corms; the seed should be sown as soon
+as it is ripe in June or July.
+
+Colchicum was known to the Greeks under the name of [Greek: Kolchikon],
+from [Greek: Kolchis], or Colchis, a country in which the plant grew;
+and it is described by Dioscorides as a poison. In the 17th century the
+corms were worn by some of the German peasantry as a charm against the
+plague. The drug was little used till 1763, when Baron Störck of Vienna
+introduced it for the treatment of dropsy. Its use in febrile diseases,
+at one time extensive, is now obsolete. As a specific for gout colchicum
+was early employed by the Arabs; and the preparation known as _eau
+médicinale_, much resorted to in the 18th century for the cure of gout,
+owes its therapeutic virtues to colchicum; but general attention was
+first directed by Sir Everard Home to the use of the drug in gout.
+
+For medical purposes the corm should be collected in the early summer
+and, after the outer coat has been removed, should be sliced and dried
+at a temperature of 130° to 150° F.
+
+The chief constituents of colchicum are two alkaloids, _colchicine_ and
+_veratrine_. Colchicine is the active principle and may be given in full
+form in doses of 1/32 to 1/16 grain. It is a yellow, micro-crystalline
+powder, soluble in water, alcohol and chloroform, and forming readily
+decomposed salts with acids. It is the methyl ester of a neutral body
+_colchicein_, which may be obtained in white acicular crystals.
+
+The official dose of powdered colchicum is 2 to 5 grains, which may be
+given in a cachet. The British Pharmacopoeia contains (1) an extract of
+the fresh corm, having doses of ¼ to 1 grain, and (2) the _Vinum
+Colchici_, made by treating the dried corm with sherry and given in
+doses of 10 to 30 minims. This latter is the preparation still most
+generally used, though the presence of veratrine both in the corm and
+the seeds renders the use of colchicine itself theoretically preferable.
+The dried ripe seeds of this plant are also used in medicine. They are
+exceedingly hard and difficult to pulverize, odourless, bitter and
+readily confused with black mustard seeds. They contain a volatile oil
+which does not occur in the corm, and their proportion of colchicine is
+higher, for which reason the _Tinctura Colchici Seminum_--dose 5 to 15
+minims--is preferable to the wine prepared from the corm. At present
+this otherwise excellent preparation is not standardized, but the
+suggestion has been made that it should be standardized to contain 0.1%
+of colchicine. The salicylate of colchicine is stable in water and may
+be given in doses of about one-thirtieth of a grain. It is often known
+as Colchi-Sal.
+
+_Pharmacology._--Colchicum or colchicine, when applied to the skin, acts
+as a powerful irritant, causing local pain and congestion. When inhaled,
+the powder causes violent sneezing, similar to that produced by
+veratrine itself, which is, as already stated, a constituent of the
+corm. Taken internally, colchicum or colchicine markedly increases the
+amount of bile poured into the alimentary canal, being amongst the most
+powerful of known cholagogues. Though this action doubtless contributes
+to its remarkable therapeutic power, it is very far from being an
+adequate explanation of the virtues of the drug in gout. In larger doses
+colchicum or colchicine acts as a most violent gastrointestinal
+irritant, causing terrible pain, colic, vomiting, diarrhoea, haemorrhage
+from the bowel, thirst and ultimately death from collapse. This is
+accelerated by a marked depressant action upon the heart, similar to
+that produced by veratrine and aconite. Large doses also depress the
+nervous system, weakening the anterior horns of grey matter in the
+spinal cord so as ultimately to cause complete paralysis, and also
+causing a partial insensibility of the cutaneous nerves of touch and
+pain. The action of colchicum or colchicine upon the kidneys has been
+minutely studied, and it is asserted on the one hand that the urinary
+solids are much diminished and, on the other hand, that they are
+markedly increased, the specific gravity of the secretion being much
+raised. These assertions, and the total inadequacy of the pharmacology
+of colchicum, as above detailed, to explain its specific therapeutic
+property, show that the secret of colchicum is as yet undiscovered.
+
+The sole but extremely important use of this drug is as a specific for
+gout. It has an extraordinary power over the pain of acute gout; it
+lessens the severity and frequency of the attacks when given
+continuously between them, and it markedly controls such symptoms of
+gout as eczema, bronchitis and neuritis, whilst it is entirely
+inoperative against these conditions when they are not of gouty origin.
+Despite the general recognition of these facts, the pharmacology of
+colchicum has hitherto thrown no light on the pathology of gout, and the
+pathology of gout has thrown no light upon the manner in which colchicum
+exerts its unique influence upon this disease. Veratrine is useless in
+the treatment of gout. A further curious fact, doubtless of very great
+significance, but hitherto lacking interpretation, is that the
+administration of colchicum during an acute attack of gout may often
+hasten the oncoming of the next attack; and this property, familiar to
+many gouty patients, may not be affected by the administration of small
+doses after the attack. Altogether colchicum is a puzzle, and will
+remain so until the efficient poison of gout is isolated and defined.
+When that is done, colchicine may be found to exhibit a definite
+chemical interaction with this hitherto undiscovered substance.
+
+In _colchicum poisoning_, empty the stomach, give white of egg, olive or
+salad oil, and water. Use hot bottles and stimulants, especially trying
+to counteract the cardiac depression by atropine, caffeine,
+strophanthin, &c.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHIS, in ancient geography, a nearly triangular district of Asia
+Minor, at the eastern extremity of the Black Sea, bounded on the N. by
+the Caucasus, which separated it from Asiatic Sarmatia, E. by Iberia,
+S. by the Montes Moschici, Armenia and part of Pontus, and W. by the
+Euxine. The ancient district is represented roughly by the modern
+province of Kutais (formerly Mingrelia). The name of Colchis first
+appears in Aeschylus and Pindar. It was inhabited by a number of tribes
+whose settlements lay chiefly along the shore of the Black Sea. The
+chief of those were the Lazi, Moschi, Apsilae, Abasci, Sagadae, Suani
+and Coraxi. These tribes differed so completely in language and
+appearance from the surrounding nations, that the ancients originated
+various theories to account for the phenomenon. Herodotus, who states
+that they, with the Egyptians and the Ethiopians, were the first to
+practise circumcision, believed them to have sprung from the relics of
+the army of Sesostris (q.v.), and thus regarded them as Egyptians.
+Apollonius Rhodius (_Argon_, iv. 279) states that the Egyptians of
+Colchis preserved as heirlooms a number of wooden [Greek: kurbeis]
+(tablets) showing seas and highways with considerable accuracy. Though
+this theory was not generally adopted by the ancients, it has been
+defended, but not with complete success, by some modern writers. It is
+quite possible that there was an ancient trade connexion between the
+Colchians and the Mediterranean peoples. We learn that women were
+buried, while the corpses of men were suspended on trees. The principal
+coast town was the Milesian colony of Dioscurias (Roman Sebastopolis;
+mod. Sukhum Kaleh), the ancient name being preserved in the modern C.
+Iskuria. The chief river was the Phasis (mod. Rion). From Colchis is
+derived the name of the plant Colchicum (q.v.).
+
+Colchis was celebrated in Greek mythology as the destination of the
+Argonauts, the home of Medea and the special domain of sorcery. Several
+Greek colonies were founded there by Miletus. At a remote period it
+seems to have been incorporated with the Persian empire, though the
+inhabitants evidently enjoyed a considerable degree of independence; in
+this condition it was found by Alexander the Great, when he invaded
+Persia. From this time till the era of the Mithradatic wars nothing is
+known of its history. At the time of the Roman invasion it seems to have
+paid a nominal homage to Mithradates the Great and to have been ruled
+over by Machares, his second son. On the defeat of Mithradates by
+Pompey, it became a Roman province. After the death of Pompey,
+Pharnaces, the son of Mithradates, rose in rebellion against the Roman
+yoke, subdued Colchis and Armenia, and made head, though but for a short
+time, against the Roman arms. After this Colchis was incorporated with
+Pontus, and the Colchians are not again alluded to in ancient history
+till the 6th century, when, along with the Abasci or Abasgi, under their
+king Gobazes, whose mother was a Roman, they called in the aid of
+Chosroes I. of Persia (541). The importance of the district, then
+generally called Lazica from the Lazi (cf. mod. Lazistan) who led the
+revolt, was due to the fact that it was the only remaining bar which
+held the Persians, already masters of Iberia, from the Black Sea. It had
+therefore been specially garrisoned by Justinian under first Peter, a
+Persian slave, and subsequently Johannes Tzibos, who built Petra on the
+coast as the Roman Headquarters. Tzibos took advantage of the extreme
+poverty of the Lazi to create a Roman monopoly by which he became a
+middleman for all the trade both export and import. Chosroes at once
+accepted the invitation of Gobazes and succeeded in capturing Petra
+(A.D. 541). The missionary zeal of the Zoroastrian priests soon caused
+discontent among the Christian inhabitants of Colchis, and Gobazes,
+perceiving that Chosroes intended to Persianize the district, appealed
+to Rome, with the result that in 549 one Dagisthaeus was sent out with
+7000 Romans and 1000 auxiliaries of the Tzani (Zani, Sanni). The "Lazic
+War" lasted till 556 with varying success. Petra was recaptured in 551
+and Archaeopolis was held by the Romans against the Persian general
+Mermeroes. Gobazes was assassinated in 552, but the Persian general
+Nachoragan was heavily defeated at Phasis in 553.
+
+By the peace of 562 the district was left in Roman possession, but
+during the next 150 years it is improbable that the Romans exercised
+much authority over it. In 697 we hear of a revolt against Rome led by
+Sergius the Patrician, who allied himself with the Arabs. Justinian II.
+in his second period of rule sent Leo the Isaurian, afterwards emperor,
+to induce the Alans to attack the Abasgi. The Alans, having gained
+knowledge of the district by a trick, invaded Lazica, and, probably in
+712, a Roman and Armenian army laid siege to Archaeopolis. On the
+approach of a Saracen force they retired, but a small plundering
+detachment was cut off. Ultimately Leo joined this band and aided by the
+Apsilian chief Marinus escaped with them to the coast.
+
+From the beginning of the 14th to the end of the 17th century the
+district under the name Mingrelia (q.v.) was governed by an independent
+dynasty, the Dadians, which was succeeded by a semi-independent dynasty,
+the Chikovans, who by 1838 had submitted to Russia, though they retained
+a nominal sovereignty. In 1866 the district was finally annexed by
+Russia.
+
+  For the kings see Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_, i. 83.     (J. M. M.)
+
+
+
+
+COLCOTHAR (adapted in Romanic languages from Arabic _golgotar_, which
+was probably a corruption of the Gr. [Greek: chalkanthos], from [Greek:
+chalkos], copper, [Greek: anthos], flower, i.e. copper sulphate), a name
+given to the brownish-red ferric oxide formed in the preparation of
+fuming sulphuric (Nordhausen) acid by distilling ferrous sulphate. It is
+used as a polishing powder, forming the rouge of jewellers, and as the
+pigment Indian red. It is also known as _Crocus Martis_.
+
+
+
+
+COLD (in O. Eng. _cald_ and _ceald_, a word coming ultimately from a
+root cognate with the Lat. _gelu_, _gelidus_, and common in the Teutonic
+languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and
+the adjective, cf. Ger. _Kälte_, _kalt_, Dutch _koude_, _koud_),
+subjectively the sensation which is excited by contact with a substance
+whose temperature is lower than the normal; objectively a quality or
+condition of material bodies which gives rise to that sensation. Whether
+cold, in the objective sense, was to be regarded as a positive quality
+or merely as absence of heat was long a debated question. Thus Robert
+Boyle, who does not commit himself definitely to either view, says, in
+his _New Experiments and Observations touching Cold_, that "the dispute
+which is the _primum frigidum_ is very well known among naturalists,
+some contending for the earth, others for water, others for the air, and
+some of the moderns for nitre, but all seeming to agree that there is
+some body or other that is of its own nature supremely cold and by
+participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality." But with
+the general acceptance of the dynamical theory of heat, cold naturally
+came to be regarded as a negative condition, depending on decrease in
+the amount of the molecular vibration that constitutes heat.
+
+The question whether there is a limit to the degree of cold possible,
+and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first attacked by the
+French physicist, G. Amontons, in 1702-1703, in connexion with his
+improvements in the air-thermometer. In his instrument temperatures were
+indicated by the height at which a column of mercury was sustained by a
+certain mass of air, the volume or "spring" of which of course varied
+with the heat to which it was exposed. Amontons therefore argued that
+the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the
+spring of the air in it was reduced to nothing. On the scale he used the
+boiling-point of water was marked at 73 and the melting-point of ice at
+51½, so that the zero of his scale was equivalent to about -240° on the
+centigrade scale. This remarkably close approximation to the modern
+value of -273° for the zero of the air-thermometer was further improved
+on by J. H. Lambert (_Pyrometrie_, 1779), who gave the value -270° and
+observed that this temperature might be regarded as absolute cold.
+Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, however,
+universally accepted about this period. Laplace and Lavoisier, for
+instance, in their treatise on heat (1780), arrived at values ranging
+from 1500° to 3000° below the freezing-point of water, and thought that
+in any case it must be at least 600° below, while John Dalton in his
+_Chemical Philosophy_ gave ten calculations of this value, and finally
+adopted -3000° C. as the natural zero of temperature. After J. P. Joule
+had determined the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached
+the question from an entirely different point of view, and in 1848
+devised a scale of absolute temperature which was independent of the
+properties of any particular substance and was based solely on the
+fundamental laws of thermodynamics (see HEAT and THERMODYNAMICS). It
+followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that
+its zero was placed at -273°, at almost precisely the same point as the
+zero of the air-thermometer.
+
+In nature the realms of space, on the probable assumption that the
+interstellar medium is perfectly transparent and diathermanous, must, as
+was pointed out by W. J. Macquorn Rankine, be incapable of acquiring any
+temperature, and must therefore be at the absolute zero. That, however,
+is not to say that if a suitable thermometer could be projected into
+space it would give a reading of -273°. On the contrary, not being a
+transparent and diathermanous body, it would absorb radiation from the
+sun and other stars, and would thus become warmed. Professor J. H.
+Poynting ("Radiation in the Solar System," _Phil. Trans._, A, 1903, 202,
+p. 525) showed that as regards bodies in the solar system the effects of
+radiation from the stars are negligible, and calculated that by solar
+radiation alone a small absorbing sphere at the distance of Mercury from
+the sun would have its temperature raised to 483° Abs. (210° C), at the
+distance of Venus to 358° Abs. (85° C), of the earth to 300° Abs. (27°
+C), of Mars to 243° Abs. (-30° C), and of Neptune to only 54° Abs. (-219°
+C.). The French physicists of the early part of the 19th century held a
+different view, and rejected the hypothesis of the absolute cold of
+space. Fourier, for instance, postulated a fundamental temperature of
+space as necessary for the explanation of the heat-effects observed on
+the surface of the earth, and estimated that in the interplanetary
+regions it was little less than that of the terrestrial poles and below
+the freezing-point of mercury, though it was different in other parts of
+space (_Ann. chim. phys._, 1824, 27, pp. 141, 150). C. S. M. Pouillet,
+again, calculated the temperature of interplanetary space as -142° C.
+(_Comptes rendus_, 1838, 7, p. 61), and Sir John Herschel as -150°
+(_Ency. Brit._, 8th ed., art. "Meteorology," p. 643).
+
+To attain the absolute zero in the laboratory, that is, to deprive a
+substance entirely of its heat, is a thermodynamical impossibility, and
+the most that the physicist can hope for is an indefinitely close
+approach to that point. The lowest steady temperature obtainable by the
+exhaustion of liquid hydrogen is about -262° C. (11° Abs.), and the
+liquefaction of helium by Professor Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908 yielded a
+liquid having a boiling-point of about 4.3° Abs., which on exhaustion
+must bring us to within about 2½ degrees of the absolute zero. (See
+LIQUID GASES.)
+
+  For a "cold," in the medical sense, see CATARRH and Respiratory
+  System: _Pathology_.
+
+
+
+
+COLDEN, CADWALLADER (1688-1776), American physician and colonial
+official, was born at Duns, Scotland, on the 17th of February 1688. He
+graduated at the university of Edinburgh in 1705, spent three years in
+London in the study of medicine, and emigrated to America in 1708. After
+practising medicine for ten years in Philadelphia, he was invited to
+settle in New York by Governor Hunter, and in 1718 was appointed the
+first surveyor-general of the colony. Becoming a member of the
+provincial council in 1720, he served for many years as its president,
+and from 1761 until his death was lieutenant-governor; for a
+considerable part of the time, during the interim between the
+appointment of governors, he was acting-governor. About 1755 he retired
+from medical practice. As early as 1729 he had built a country house
+called Coldengham on the line between Ulster and Orange counties, where
+he spent much of his time until 1761. Aristocratic and extremely
+conservative, he had a violent distrust of popular government and a
+strong aversion to the popular party in New York. Naturally he came into
+frequent conflict with the growing sentiment in the colony in opposition
+to royal taxation. He was acting-governor when in 1765 the stamped paper
+to be used under the Stamp Act arrived in the port of New York; a mob
+burned him in effigy in his own coach in Bowling Green, in sight of the
+enraged acting-governor and of General Gage; and Colden was compelled to
+surrender the stamps to the city council, by whom they were locked up
+in the city hall until all attempts to enforce the new law were
+abandoned. Subsequently Colden secured the suspension of the provincial
+assembly by an act of parliament. He understood, however, the real
+temper of the patriot party, and in 1775, when the outbreak of
+hostilities seamed inevitable, he strongly advised the ministry to act
+with caution and to concede some of the colonists' demands. When the war
+began, he retired to his Long Island country seat, where he died on the
+28th of September 1776. Colden was widely known among scientists and men
+of letters in England and America. He was a life-long student of botany,
+and was the first to introduce in America the classification system of
+Linnaeus, who gave the name "Coldenia" to a newly recognized genus. He
+was an intimate friend of Benjamin Franklin. He wrote several medical
+works of importance in their day, the most noteworthy being _A Treatise
+on Wounds and Fevers_ (1765); he also wrote _The History of the Five
+Indian Nations depending on the Province of New York_ (1727, reprinted
+1866 and 1905), and an elaborate work on _The Principles of Action in
+Matter_ (1751) which, with his _Introduction to the Study of Physics_
+(c. 1756), his _Enquiry into the Principles of Vital Motion_ (1766), and
+his _Reflections_ (c. 1770), mark him as the first of American
+materialists and one of the ablest material philosophers of his day. I.
+Woodbridge Riley, in _American Philosophy_ (New York, 1907), made the
+first critical study of Colden's philosophy, and said of it that it
+combined "Newtonian mechanics with the ancient hylozoistic doctrine ..."
+and "ultimately reached a kind of dynamic panpsychism, substance being
+conceived as a self-acting and universally diffused principle, whose
+essence is power and force."
+
+  See Alice M. Keys, _Cadwallader Colden, A Representative 18th Century
+  Official_ (New York, 1906), a Columbia University doctoral
+  dissertation; J. G. Mumford, _Narrative of Medicine in America_ (New
+  York, 1903); and Asa Gray, "Selections from the Scientific
+  Correspondence of Cadwallader Colden" in _American Journal of
+  Science_, vol. 44, 1843.
+
+His grandson, CADWALLADER DAVID COLDEN (1769-1834), lawyer and
+politician, was educated in London, but returned in 1785 to New York,
+where he attained great distinction at the bar. He was a colonel of
+volunteers during the war of 1812, and from 1818 to 1821 was the
+successor of Jacob Radcliff as mayor of New York City. He was a member
+of the state assembly (1818) and the state senate (1825-1827), and did
+much to secure the construction of the Erie Canal and the organization
+of the state public school system; and in 1821-1823 he was a
+representative in Congress. He wrote a _Life of Robert Fulton_ (1817)
+and a _Memoir of the Celebration of the Completion of the New York
+Canals_ (1825).
+
+
+
+
+COLD HARBOR, OLD and NEW, two localities in Hanover county, Virginia,
+U.S.A., 10 m. N.E. of Richmond. They were the scenes of a succession of
+battles, on May 31-June 12, 1864, between the Union forces under command
+of General U. S. Grant and the Confederates under General R. E. Lee, who
+held a strongly entrenched line at New Cold Harbor. The main Union
+attack on June 3 was delivered by the II. (Hancock), VI. (Wright), and
+XVIII. (W. F. Smith) corps, and was brought to a standstill in eight
+minutes. An order from army headquarters to renew the attack was ignored
+by the officers and men at the front, who realized fully the strength of
+the hostile position. These troops lost as many as 5,000 men in an
+hour's fighting, the greater part in the few minutes of the actual
+assault. In the constant fighting of 31st of May to 12th of June on this
+ground Grant lost 14,000 men. (See WILDERNESS and AMERICAN CIVIL WAR.)
+
+
+
+
+COLDSTREAM, a police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1482.
+It is situated on the north bank of the Tweed, here spanned by John
+Smeaton's fine bridge of five arches, erected in 1763-1766, 13½ m.
+south-west of Berwick by the North Eastern railway. The chief public
+buildings are the town hall, library, mechanics' institute, and cottage
+hospital. Some brewing is carried on. Owing to its position on the
+Border and also as the first ford of any consequence above Berwick, the
+town played a prominent part in Scottish history during many centuries.
+Here Edward I. crossed the stream in 1296 with his invading host, and
+Montrose with the Covenanters in 1640. Of the Cistercian priory, founded
+about 1165 by Cospatric of Dunbar, and destroyed by the 1st earl of
+Hertford in 1545, which stood a little to the east of the present
+market-place, no trace remains; but for nearly four hundred years it was
+a centre of religious fervour. Here it was that the papal legate, in the
+reign of Henry VIII., published a bull against the printing of the
+Scriptures; and by the irony of fate its site was occupied in the 19th
+century by an establishment, under Dr Adam Thomson, for the production
+of cheap Bibles. At Coldstream General Monk raised in 1659 the
+celebrated regiment of Foot Guards bearing its name. Like Gretna Green,
+Coldstream long enjoyed a notoriety as the resort of runaway couples,
+the old toll-house at the bridge being the usual scene of the marriage
+ceremony. "Marriage House," as it is called, still exists in good
+repair. Henry Brougham, afterwards lord chancellor, was married in this
+clandestine way, though in an inn and not at the bridge, in 1821.
+Birgham, 3 m. west, was once a place of no small importance, for there
+in 1188 William the Lion conferred with the bishop of Durham concerning
+the attempt of the English Church to impose its supremacy upon Scotland;
+there in 1289 was held the convention to consider the question of the
+marriage of the Maid of Norway with Prince Edward of England; and there,
+too, in 1290 was signed the treaty of Birgham, which secured the
+independence of Scotland. Seven miles below Coldstream on the English
+side, though 6 m. north-east of it, are the massive ruins of Norham
+Castle, made famous by Scott's _Marmion_, and from the time of its
+building by Ranulph Flambard in 1121 a focus of Border history during
+four centuries.
+
+
+
+
+COLDWATER, a city and county-seat of Branch county, Michigan, U.S.A., on
+Coldwater Stream (which connects two of the group of small lakes in the
+vicinity), about 80 m. S.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 5247; (1900)
+6216, of whom 431 were foreign-born; (1904) 6225; (1910) 5945. It is
+served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railway. It is the seat of
+a state public school and temporary home (opened in 1874) for dependent,
+neglected or ill-treated children, who are received at any age under
+twelve. The city is situated in a fine farming region, has an important
+flouring and grist mill industry, and also manufactures Portland cement,
+liniment, lumber, furniture, sashes, doors and blinds, brass castings,
+sleighs, shoes, &c. The municipality owns and operates the water-works
+and electric lighting plant. Coldwater was settled in 1829, was laid out
+as a town under the name of Lyons in 1832, received its present name in
+the following year, was incorporated as a village in 1837, was reached
+by railway and became the county-seat in 1851, and was chartered as a
+city in 1861.
+
+
+
+
+COLE, SIR HENRY (1808-1882), English civil servant, was born at Bath on
+the 15th of July 1808, and was the son of an officer in the army. At the
+age of fifteen he became clerk to Sir Francis Palgrave, then a
+subordinate officer in the record office, and, helped by Charles Buller,
+to whom he had been introduced by Thomas Love Peacock, and who became
+chairman of a royal commission for inquiry into the condition of the
+public records, worked his way up until he became an assistant keeper.
+He largely assisted in influencing public opinion in support of Sir
+Rowland Hill's reforms at the post office. A connexion with the Society
+of Arts caused him to drift gradually out of the record office: he was a
+leading member of the commission that organized the Great Exhibition of
+1851, and upon the conclusion of its labours was made secretary to the
+School of Design, which by a series of transformations became in 1853
+the Department of Science and Art. Under its auspices the South
+Kensington (now Victoria and Albert) Museum was founded in 1855 upon
+land purchased out of the surplus of the exhibition, and Cole
+practically became its director, retiring in 1873. His proceedings were
+frequently criticized, but the museum owes much to his energy.
+Indefatigable, genial and masterful, he drove everything before him, and
+by all sorts of schemes and devices built up a great institution, whose
+variety and inequality of composition seemed imaged in the anomalous
+structure in which it was temporarily housed. He also, though to the
+financial disappointment of many, conferred a great benefit upon the
+metropolis by originating the scheme for the erection of the Royal
+Albert Hall. He was active in founding the national training schools for
+cookery and music, the latter the germ of the Royal College of Music. He
+edited the works of his benefactor Peacock; and was in his younger days
+largely connected with the press, and the author of many useful
+topographical handbooks published under the pseudonym of "Felix
+Summerly." He died on the 18th of April 1882.
+
+
+
+
+COLE, THOMAS (1801-1848), American landscape painter, was born at
+Bolton-le-Moors, England, on the 1st of February 1801. In 1819 the
+family emigrated to America, settling first in Philadelphia and then at
+Steubenville, Ohio, where Cole learned the rudiments of his profession
+from a wandering portrait painter named Stein. He went about the country
+painting portraits, but with little financial success. Removing to New
+York (1825), he displayed some landscapes in the window of an
+eating-house, where they attracted the attention of the painter Colonel
+Trumbull, who sought him out, bought one of his canvases, and found him
+patrons. From this time Cole was prosperous. He is best remembered by a
+series of pictures consisting of four canvases representing "The Voyage
+of Life," and another series of five canvases representing "The Course
+of Empire," the latter now in the gallery of the New York Historical
+Society. They were allegories, in the taste of the day, and became
+exceedingly popular, being reproduced in engravings with great success.
+The work, however, was meretricious, the sentiment false, artificial and
+conventional, and the artist's genuine fame must rest on his landscapes,
+which, though thin in the painting, hard in the handling, and not
+infrequently painful in detail, were at least earnest endeavours to
+portray the world out of doors as it appeared to the painter; their
+failings were the result of Cole's environment and training. He had an
+influence on his time and his fellows which was considerable, and with
+Durand he may be said to have founded the early school of American
+landscape painters. Cole spent the years 1829-1832 and 1841-1842 abroad,
+mainly in Italy, and at Florence lived with the sculptor Greenough.
+After 1827 he had a studio in the Catskills which furnished the subjects
+of some of his canvases, and he died at Catskill, New York, on the 11th
+of February 1848. His pictures are in many public and private
+collections. His "Expulsion from Eden" is in the Metropolitan Museum in
+New York.
+
+
+
+
+COLE, TIMOTHY (1852-   ), American wood engraver, was born in London,
+England, in 1852, his family emigrating to the United States in 1858. He
+established himself in Chicago, where in the great fire of 1871 he lost
+everything he possessed. In 1875 he removed to New York, finding work on
+the _Century_ (then _Scribner's_) magazine. He immediately attracted
+attention by his unusual facility and his sympathetic interpretation of
+illustrations and pictures, and his publishers sent him abroad in 1883
+to engrave a set of blocks after the old masters in the European
+galleries. These achieved for him a brilliant success. His reproductions
+of Italian, Dutch, Flemish and English pictures were published in book
+form with appreciative notes by the engraver himself. Though the advent
+of new mechanical processes had rendered wood engraving almost a lost
+art and left practically no demand for the work of such craftsmen, Mr
+Cole was thus enabled to continue his work, and became one of the
+foremost contemporary masters of wood engraving. He received a medal of
+the first class at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and the only grand
+prize given for wood engraving at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at
+St Louis, Missouri, in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+COLE, VICAT (1833-1893), English painter, born at Portsmouth on the 17th
+of April 1833, was the son of the landscape painter, George Cole, and in
+his practice followed his father's lead with marked success. He
+exhibited at the British Institution at the age of nineteen, and was
+first represented at the Royal Academy in 1853. His election as an
+associate of this institution took place in 1870, and he became an
+Academician ten years later. He died in London on the 6th of April 1893.
+The wide popularity of his work was due partly to the simple directness
+of his technical method, and partly to his habitual choice of attractive
+material. Most of his subjects were found in the counties of Surrey and
+Sussex, and along the banks of the Thames. One of his largest pictures,
+"The Pool of London," was bought by the Chantrey Fund Trustees in 1888,
+and is now in the Tate Gallery.
+
+  See Robert Chignell, _The Life and Paintings of Vicat Cole, R.A._
+  (London, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS (1765-1837), English Orientalist, the third son
+of Sir George Colebrooke, 2nd baronet, was born in London on the 15th of
+June 1765. He was educated at home; and when only fifteen he had made
+considerable attainments in classics and mathematics. From the age of
+twelve to sixteen he resided in France, and in 1782 was appointed to a
+writership in India. About a year after his arrival there he was placed
+in the board of accounts in Calcutta; and three years later he was
+removed to a situation in the revenue department at Tirhut. In 1789 he
+was removed to Purneah, where he investigated the resources of that part
+of the country, and published his _Remarks on the Husbandry and Commerce
+of Bengal_, privately printed in 1795, in which he advocated free trade
+between Great Britain and India. After eleven years' residence in India,
+Colebrooke began the study of Sanskrit; and to him was confided the
+translation of the great _Digest of Hindu Laws_, which had been left
+unfinished by Sir William Jones. He translated the two treatises
+_Mitacshara_ and _Dayabhaga_ under the title _Law of Inheritance_. He
+was sent to Nagpur in 1799 on a special mission, and on his return was
+made a judge of the new court of appeal, over which he afterwards
+presided. In 1805 Lord Wellesley appointed him professor of Hindu Law
+and Sanskrit at the college of Fort William. During his residence at
+Calcutta he wrote his _Sanskrit Grammar_ (1805), some papers on the
+religious ceremonies of the Hindus, and his _Essay on the Vedas_ (1805),
+for a long time the standard work on the subject. He became member of
+council in 1807 and returned to England seven years later. He died on
+the 18th of March 1837. He was a director of the Asiatic Society, and
+many of the most valuable papers in the society's _Transactions_ were
+communicated by him.
+
+  His life was written by his son, Sir T. E. Colebrooke, in 1873.
+
+
+
+
+COLEMANITE, a hydrous calcium borate, Ca2B6O11 + 5H2O, found in
+California as brilliant monoclinic crystals. It contains 50.9% of boron
+trioxide, and is an important source of commercial borates and boracic
+acid. Beautifully developed crystals, up to 2 or 3 in. in length,
+encrust cavities in compact, white colemanite; they are colourless and
+transparent, and the brilliant lustre of their faces is vitreous to
+adamantine in character. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the
+plane of symmetry of the crystals. Hardness 4-4½; specific gravity 2.42.
+The mineral was first discovered in 1882 in Death Valley, Inyo county,
+California, and in the following year it was found in greater abundance
+near Daggett in San Bernardino county, forming with other borates and
+borosilicates a bed in sedimentary strata of sandstones and clays; in
+more recent years very large masses have been found and worked in these
+localities, and also in Los Angeles county (see Special Report, 1905, of
+U.S. Census Bureau on _Mines and Quarries_; and _Mineral Resources of
+the U.S._, 1907).
+
+Priceite and pandermite are hydrous calcium borates with very nearly the
+same composition as colemanite, and they may really be only impure forms
+of this species. They are massive white minerals, the former friable and
+chalk-like, and the latter firm and compact in texture. Priceite occurs
+near Chetco in Curry county, Oregon, where it forms layers between a bed
+of slate and one of tough blue steatite; embedded in the steatite are
+rounded masses of priceite varying in size from that of a pea to masses
+weighing 200 lb. Pandermite comes from Asia Minor, and is shipped from
+the port of Panderma on the Sea of Marmora: it occurs as large nodules,
+up to a ton in weight, beneath a thick bed of gypsum.
+
+Another borate of commercial importance found abundantly in the
+Californian deposits is ulexite, also known as boronatrocalcite or
+"cotton-ball," a hydrous calcium and sodium borate, CaNaB5O9 + 8H2O,
+which forms rounded masses consisting of a loose aggregate of fine
+fibres. It is the principal species in the borate deposits in the
+Atacama region of South America.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM (1814-1883), English bishop of Natal, was born at
+St Austell, Cornwall, on the 24th of January 1814. His family were in
+embarrassed circumstances, and he was indebted to relatives for the
+means of university education. In 1836 he was second wrangler and
+Smith's prizeman at Cambridge, and in 1837 he became fellow of St
+John's. Two years later he went to Harrow as mathematical tutor, but the
+step proved an unfortunate one. The school was just then at the lowest
+ebb, and Colenso not only had few pupils, but lost most of his property
+by a fire. He went back to Cambridge, and in a short time paid off heavy
+debts by diligent tutoring and the proceeds of his series of manuals of
+algebra (1841) and arithmetic (1843), which were adopted all over
+England. In 1846 he became rector of Forncett St Mary, Norfolk, and in
+1853 he was appointed bishop of Natal. He at once devoted himself to
+acquiring the Zulu language, of which he compiled a grammar and a
+dictionary, and into which he translated the New Testament and other
+portions of Scripture. He had already given evidence, in a volume of
+sermons dedicated to Maurice, that he was not satisfied with the
+traditional views about the Bible. The puzzling questions put to him by
+the Zulus strengthened him in this attitude and led him to make a
+critical examination of the Pentateuch. His conclusions, positive and
+negative, were published in a series of treatises on the Pentateuch,
+extending from 1862 to 1879, and, being in advance of his time, were
+naturally disputed in England with a fervour of conviction equal to his
+own. On the continent they attracted the notice of Abraham Kuenen, and
+furthered that scholar's investigations.
+
+While the controversy raged in England, the South African bishops, whose
+suspicions Colenso had already incurred by the liberality of his views
+respecting polygamy among native converts and by a commentary upon the
+Epistle to the Romans (1861), in which he combated the doctrine of
+eternal punishment, met in conclave to condemn him, and pronounced his
+deposition (December 1863). Colenso, who had refused to appear before
+their tribunal otherwise than as sending a protest by proxy, appealed to
+the privy council, which pronounced that the metropolitan of Cape Town
+(Robert Gray) had no coercive jurisdiction and no authority to interfere
+with the bishop of Natal. No decision, therefore, was given upon the
+merits of the case. His adversaries, though unable to obtain his
+condemnation, succeeded in causing him to be generally inhibited from
+preaching in England, and Bishop Gray not only excommunicated him but
+consecrated a rival bishop for Natal (W. K. Macrorie), who, however,
+took his title from Maritzburg. The contributions of the missionary
+societies were withdrawn, but an attempt to deprive him of his episcopal
+income was frustrated by a decision of the courts. Colenso, encouraged
+by a handsome testimonial raised in England, to which many clergymen
+subscribed, returned to his diocese, and devoted the latter years of his
+life to further labours as a biblical commentator and translator. He
+also championed the cause of the natives against Boer oppression and
+official encroachments, a course by which he made more enemies among the
+colonists than he had ever made among the clergy. He died at Durban on
+the 20th of June 1883. His daughter Frances Ellen Colenso (1840-1887)
+published two books on the relations of the Zulus to the British (1880
+and 1885), taking a pro-Zulu view; and an elder daughter, Harriette E.
+Colenso (b. 1847), became prominent as an advocate of the natives in
+opposition to their treatment by Natal, especially in the case of
+Dinizulu in 1888-1889 and in 1908-1909.
+
+  See his _Life_ by Sir G. W. Cox (2 vols., London, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+COLENSO, a village of Natal on the right or south bank of the Tugela
+river, 16 m. by rail south by east of Ladysmith. It was the scene of an
+action fought on the 15th of December 1899 between the British forces
+under Sir Redvers Buller and the Boers, in which the former were
+repulsed. (See LADYSMITH.)
+
+
+
+
+COLEOPTERA, a term used in zoological classification for the true
+beetles which form one of the best-marked and most natural of the orders
+into which the class Hexapoda (or Insecta) has been divided. For the
+relationship of the Coleoptera to other orders of insects see HEXAPODA.
+The name (Gr. [Greek: koleos], a sheath, and [Greek: ptera], wings) was
+first used by Aristotle, who noticed the firm protective sheaths,
+serving as coverings for the hind-wings which alone are used for flight,
+without recognizing their correspondence with the fore-wings of other
+insects.
+
+These firm fore-wings, or elytra (fig. 1, A), are usually convex above,
+with straight hind margins (_dorsa_); when the elytra are closed, the
+two hind margins come together along the mid-dorsal line of the body,
+forming a _suture_. In many beetles the hind-wings are reduced to mere
+vestiges useless for flight, or are altogether absent, and in such cases
+the two elytra are often fused together at the suture; thus organs
+originally intended for flight have been transformed into an armour-like
+covering for the beetle's hind-body. In correlation with their heavy
+build and the frequent loss of the power of flight, many beetles are
+terrestrial rather than aerial in habit, though a large proportion of
+the order can fly well.
+
+Aristotle's term was adopted by Linnaeus (1758), and has been
+universally used by zoologists. The identification of the elytra of
+beetles with the fore-wings of other insects has indeed been questioned
+(1880) by F. Meinert, who endeavoured to compare them with the tegulae
+of Hymenoptera, but the older view was securely established by the
+demonstration in pupal elytra by J. G. Needham (1898) and W. L. Tower
+(1903), of nervures similar to those of the hind-wing, and by the proof
+that the small membranous structures present beneath the elytra of
+certain beetles, believed by Meinert to represent the whole of the true
+fore-wings, are in reality only the alulae.
+
+_Structure._--Besides the conspicuous character of the elytra, beetles
+are distinguished by the adaptation of the jaws for biting, the
+mandibles (fig. 1, Bb) being powerful, and the first pair of maxillae
+(fig. 1, Bc) usually typical in form. The maxillae of the second pair
+(fig. 1, Bd) are very intimately fused together to form what is called
+the "lower lip" or labium, a firm transverse plate representing the
+fused basal portions of the maxillae, which may carry a small median
+"ligula," representing apparently the fused inner maxillary lobes, a
+pair of paraglossae (outer maxillary lobes), and a pair of palps. The
+feelers of beetles differ greatly in the different families (cf. figs.
+2b, 9b and 26b, c); the number of segments is usually eleven, but may
+vary from two to more than twenty.
+
+The head is extended from behind forwards, so that the crown
+(epicranium) is large, while the face (clypeus) is small. The chin
+(gula) is a very characteristic sclerite in beetles, absent only in a
+few families, such as the weevils. There is usually a distinct labrum
+(fig. 1, Ba).
+
+The prothorax is large and "free," i.e. readily movable on the
+mesothorax, an arrangement usual among insects with the power of rapid
+running. The tergite of the prothorax (pronotum) is prominent in all
+beetles, reaching back to the bases of the elytra and forming a
+substantial shield for the front part of the body. The tergal regions of
+the mesothorax and of the metathorax are hidden under the pronotum and
+the elytra when the latter are closed, except that the mesothoracic
+scutellum is often visible--a small triangular or semicircular plate
+between the bases of the elytra (fig. 1, A). The ventral region of the
+thoracic skeleton is complex, each segment usually possessing a median
+sternum with paired episterna (in front) and epimera (behind). The
+articular surfaces of the haunches (coxae) of the fore-legs are often
+conical or globular, so that each limb works in a ball-and-socket joint,
+while the hind haunches are large, displacing the ventral sclerites of
+the first two abdominal segments (fig. 1, C). The legs themselves (fig.
+1, A) are of the usual insectan type, but in many families one, two, or
+even three of the five foot-segments may be reduced or absent. In
+beetles of aquatic habit the intermediate and hind legs are modified as
+swimming-organs (fig. 2, a), while in many beetles that burrow into the
+earth or climb about on trees the fore-legs are broadened and
+strengthened for digging, or lengthened and modified for clinging to
+branches. The hard fore-wings (elytra) are strengthened with marginal
+ridges, usually inflected ventrally to form epipleura which fit
+accurately along the edges of the abdomen. The upper surface of the
+elytron is sharply folded inwards at intervals, so as to give rise to a
+regular series of external longitudinal furrows (striae) and to form a
+set of supports between the two chitinous layers forming the elytron.
+The upper surface often shows a number of impressed dots (punctures).
+Along the sutural border of the elytron, the chitinous lamella forms a
+tubular space within which are numerous glands. The glands occur in
+groups, and lead into common ducts which open in several series along
+the suture. Sometimes the glands are found beneath the disk of the
+elytron, opening by pores on the surface. The hind-wings, when
+developed, are characteristic in form, possessing a sub-costal nervure
+with which the reduced radial nervure usually becomes associated. There
+are several curved median and cubital nervures and a single anal, but
+few cross nervures or areolets. The wing, when not in use, is folded
+both lengthwise and transversely, and doubled up beneath the elytron; to
+permit the transverse folding, the longitudinal nervures are
+interrupted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Structure of Male Stag-Beetle (_Lucanus
+cervus_). A, Dorsal view; B, mouth organs; C, under side.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Water Beetles (_Dyticidae_). a, Beetle; b, head
+of beetle with feelers and palps; c, larva; d, pupa.]
+
+Ten segments can be recognized--according to the studies of K. W.
+Verhoeff (1804-1896)--in a beetle's abdomen, but the tenth sternite is
+usually absent. On account of the great extension of the metathorax and
+the haunches of the large hind-legs, the first abdominal sternite is
+wanting, and the second is usually so much reduced that the foremost
+apparent ventral sclerite of the abdomen represents the third sternite.
+From this point backwards the successive abdominal segments, as far as
+the seventh or eighth, can be readily made out. The ninth and tenth
+segments are at most times retracted within the eighth. The female can
+protrude a long flexible tube in connexion with the eighth segment,
+carrying the sclerites of the ninth at its extremity, and these
+sclerites may carry short hairy processes--the stylets. This flexible
+tube is the functional ovipositor, the typical insectan ovipositor with
+its three pairs of processes (see HEXAPODA) being undeveloped among the
+Coleoptera. In male beetles, however, the two pairs of genital processes
+(paramera) belonging to the ninth abdominal segment are always present,
+though sometimes reduced. Between them is situated, sometimes
+asymmetrically, the prominent intromittent organ.
+
+In the structure of the digestive system, beetles resemble most other
+mandibulate insects, the food-canal consisting of gullet, crop, gizzard,
+mid-gut or stomach, intestine and rectum. The stomach is beset
+throughout its length with numerous small, finger-like caecal tubes. The
+excretory (malpighian) tubes are few in number, either four or six. Many
+beetles have, in connexion with the anus, glands which secrete a
+repellent acid fluid, serving as a defence for the insect when attacked.
+The "bombardier" ground beetles (fig. 5) have this habit. Oil-beetles
+(figs. 23 and 24) and ladybirds (fig. 32) defend themselves by ejecting
+drops of fluid from the knee-joints. The nervous system is remarkably
+concentrated in some beetles, the abdominal ganglia showing a tendency
+to become shifted forward and crowded together, and in certain chafers
+all the thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused into a single
+nerve-centre situated in the thorax,--a degree of specialization only
+matched in the insectan class among the Hemiptera and some muscid flies.
+
+  _Development._--The embryonic development (see HEXAPODA) has been
+  carefully studied in several genera of beetles. As regards growth
+  after hatching, all beetles undergo a "complete" metamorphosis, the
+  wing-rudiments developing beneath the cuticle throughout the larval
+  stages, and a resting pupal stage intervening between the last larval
+  instar[1] and the imago. The coleopterous pupa (figs. 2d, 3c) is
+  always "free," the legs, wings and other appendages not being fixed
+  to the body as in the pupa of a moth, and the likeness of pupa to
+  perfect insect is very close.
+
+  The most striking feature in the development of beetles is the great
+  diversity noticeable in the outward form of the larva in different
+  families. The larva of a ground-beetle or a carnivorous water-beetle
+  (fig. 2 c) is an active elongate grub with well-armoured cuticle. The
+  head--carrying feelers, mandibles and two pairs of maxillae--is
+  succeeded by the three thoracic segments, each bearing a pair of
+  strong five-segmented legs, whose feet, like those of the adult, carry
+  two claws. Ten segments can be distinguished in the tapering abdomen,
+  the ninth frequently bearing a pair of tail-feelers (cerci), and the
+  tenth, attached ventrally to the ninth, having the anal opening at its
+  extremity and performing the function of a posterior limb, supporting
+  and temporarily fixing the tail end of the insect on the surface over
+  which it crawls. Such a typically "campodeiform" grub, moving actively
+  about in pursuit of prey, is the one extreme of larval structure to be
+  noticed among the Coleoptera. The other is exemplified by the white,
+  wrinkled, soft-skinned, legless grub of a weevil, which lives
+  underground feeding on roots, or burrows in the tissues of plants
+  (fig. 3 b). Between these two extremes we find various transitional
+  forms: an active larva, as described above, but with four-segmented,
+  single-clawed legs, as among the rove-beetles and their allies; the
+  body well armoured, but slender and worm-like, with very short legs as
+  in wireworms and mealworms (figs. 18, 21 b); the body shortened, with
+  the abdomen swollen, but protected with tubercles and spines, and with
+  longish legs adapted for an active life, as in the predaceous larvae
+  of ladybirds; the body soft-skinned, swollen and caterpillar-like,
+  with legs well developed, but leading a sluggish underground life, as
+  in the grub of a chafer; the body soft-skinned and whitish, and the
+  legs greatly reduced in size, as in the wood-feeding grub of a
+  longhorn beetle. In the case of certain beetles whose larvae do not
+  find themselves amid appropriate food from the moment of hatching, but
+  have to migrate in search of it, an early larval stage, with legs, is
+  followed by later sluggish stages in which legs have disappeared,
+  furnishing examples of what is called hypermetamorphosis. For example,
+  the grub of a pea or bean beetle (_Bruchus_) is hatched, from the egg
+  laid by its mother on the carpel of a leguminous flower, with three
+  pairs of legs and spiny processes on the prothorax. It bores through
+  and enters the developing seed, where it undergoes a moult and becomes
+  legless. Similarly the newly-hatched larva of an oil-beetle (_Meloe_)
+  is an active little campodeiform insect, which, hatched from an egg
+  laid among plants, waits to attach itself to a passing bee. Carried to
+  the bee's nest, it undergoes a moult, and becomes a fat-bodied grub,
+  ready to lead a quiet life feeding on the bee's rich food-stores.
+
+[Illustration: From Chittenden, _Yearbook_, 1894, U.S. Dept. of
+Agriculture.
+
+FIG. 3.--Grain Weevils. a, _Calandra granaria_; b, larva; c, pupa; d,
+_C. oryzae_.]
+
+_Distribution and Habits._--The Coleoptera are almost world-wide in
+their distribution, being represented in the Arctic regions and on
+almost all oceanic islands. Most of the dominant families--such as the
+_Carabidae_ (ground-beetles), _Scarabaeidae_ (chafers), or
+_Curculionidae_ (weevils) have a distribution as wide as the order. But
+while some large families, such as the _Staphylinidae_ (rove-beetles)
+are especially abundant on the great northern continents, becoming
+scarcer in the tropics, others, the _Cicindelidae_ (tiger-beetles), for
+example, are most strongly represented in the warmer regions of the
+earth, and become scarce as the collector journeys far to south or
+north. The distribution of many groups of beetles is restricted in
+correspondence with their habits; the _Cerambycidae_ (longhorns), whose
+larvae are wood-borers, are absent from timberless regions, and most
+abundant in the great tropical forests. Some families are very
+restricted in their range. The _Amphizoidae_, for example, a small
+family of aquatic beetles, are known only from western North America and
+Eastern Tibet, while an allied family, the _Pelobiidae_, inhabit the
+British Isles, the Mediterranean region, Tibet and Australia. The
+beetles of the British islands afford some very interesting examples of
+restricted distribution among species. For example, large and
+conspicuous European beetles, such as the stag-beetle (fig. 1, _Lucanus
+cervus_) and the great water-beetle (_Hydrophilus piceus_, fig. 20), are
+confined to eastern and southern Britain, and are unknown in Ireland. On
+the other hand, there are Arctic species like the ground-beetle,
+_Pelophila borealis_, and south-western species like the boring weevil,
+_Mesites Tardyi_, common in Ireland, and represented in northern or
+western Britain, but unknown in eastern Britain or in Central Europe.
+Careful study of insular faunas, such as that of Madeira by T. V.
+Wollaston, and of the Sandwich Islands by D. Sharp, and the comparison
+of the species found with those of the nearest continental land, furnish
+the student of geographical distribution with many valuable and
+suggestive facts.
+
+Notes on habit are given below in the accounts of the various families.
+In general it may be stated that beetles live and feed in almost all the
+diverse ways possible for insects. There are carnivores, herbivores and
+scavengers among them. Various species among those that are predaceous
+attack smaller insects, hunt in packs crustaceans larger than
+themselves, insert their narrow heads into snail-shells to pick out and
+devour the occupants, or pursue slugs and earthworms underground. The
+vegetable-feeders attack leaves, herbaceous or woody stems and roots;
+frequently different parts of a plant are attacked in the two active
+stages of the life-history; the cockchafers, for example, eating leaves,
+and their grubs gnawing roots. Some of the scavengers, like the burying
+beetles, inter the bodies of small vertebrates to supply food for
+themselves and their larvae, or, like the "sacred" beetle of Egypt,
+collect for the same purpose stores of dung. Many beetles of different
+families have become the "unbidden guests" of civilized man, and may be
+found in dwelling-houses, stores and ships' cargoes, eating food-stuffs,
+paper, furniture, tobacco and drugs. Hence we find that beetles of some
+kind can hold their own anywhere on the earth's surface. Some climb
+trees and feed on leaves, while others tunnel between bark and wood.
+Some fly through the air, others burrow in the earth, while several
+families have become fully adapted to life in fresh water. A large
+number of beetles inhabit the deep limestone caves of Europe and North
+America, while many genera and some whole families are at home nowhere
+but in ants' nests. Most remarkable is the presence of a number of
+beetles along the seashore between tide-marks, where, sheltered in some
+secure nook, they undergo immersion twice daily, and have their active
+life confined to the few hours of the low ebb.
+
+_Stridulating Organs._--Many beetles make a hissing or chirping sound by
+rubbing a "scraper," formed by a sharp edge or prominence on some part
+of their exoskeleton, over a "file" formed by a number of fine ridges
+situate on an adjacent region. These stridulating organs were mentioned
+by C. Darwin as probable examples of the action of sexual selection;
+they are, however, frequently present in both sexes, and in some
+families also in the larvae. An account of the principal types of
+stridulators that have been described has been published by C. J. Gahan
+(1900). The file may be on the head--either upper or lower surface--and
+the scraper formed by the front edge of the prothorax, as in various
+wood-boring beetles (_Anobium_ and _Scolytus_). Or ridged areas on the
+sides of the prothorax may be scraped by "files" on the front thighs, as
+in some ground-beetles. Among the longhorn beetles, the prothorax
+scrapes over a median file on the mid-dorsal aspect of the mesothorax.
+In a large number of beetles of different families, stridulating areas
+occur on various segments of the abdomen, and are scraped by the elytra.
+It is remarkable that these organs are found in similar positions in
+genera belonging to widely divergent families, while two genera of the
+same family may have them in different positions. It follows, therefore,
+that they have been independently acquired in the course of the
+evolution of the Coleoptera.
+
+Stridulating organs among beetle-larvae have been noted, especially in
+the wood-feeding grub of the stag-beetles (_Lucanidae_) and their allies
+the _Passalidae_, and in the dung-eating grubs of the dor-beetles
+(_Geotrupes_), which belong to the chafer family (_Scarabaeidae_). These
+organs are described by J. C. Schiödte and D. Sharp; in the stag-beetle
+larva a series of short tubercles on the hind-leg is drawn across the
+serrate edge of a plate on the haunch of the intermediate legs, while in
+the Passalid grub the modified tip of the hind-leg acts as a scraper,
+being so shortened that it is useless for locomotion, but highly
+specialized for producing sound. Whatever may be the true explanation of
+stridulating organs in adult beetles, sexual selection can have had
+nothing to do with the presence of these highly-developed larval
+structures. It has been suggested that the power of stridulation would
+be advantageous to wood-boring grubs, the sound warning each of the
+position of its neighbour, so that adjacent burrowers may not get in
+each other's way. The root-feeding larvae of the cockchafer and allied
+members of the _Scarabaeidae_ have a ridged area on the mandible, which
+is scraped by teeth on the maxillae, apparently forming a stridulating
+organ.
+
+_Luminous Organs._--The function of the stridulating organs just
+described is presumably to afford means of recognition by sound. Some
+beetles emit a bright light from a portion of their bodies, which leads
+to the recognition of mate or comrade by sight. In the wingless female
+glow-worm (_Lampyris_, fig. 15 f) the luminous region is at the hinder
+end, the organ emitting the light consisting, according to H. von
+Wielowiejski (1882), of cells similar to those of the fat-body,
+containing a substance that undergoes oxidation. The illumination is
+intermittent, and appears to be under the control of the insect's
+nervous system. The well-known "fire-flies" of the tropics are large
+click-beetles (_Elateridae_), that emit light from paired spots on the
+prothorax and from the base of the ventral abdominal region. The
+luminous organs of these beetles consist of a specialized part of the
+fat-body, with an inner opaque and an outer transparent layer. Its
+structure has been described by C. Heinemann, and its physiology by R.
+Dubois (1886), who considers that the luminosity is due to the influence
+of an enzyme in the cells of the organ upon a special substance in the
+blood. The eggs and larvae of the fire-flies are luminous as well as the
+perfect beetles.
+
+_Fossil History._--The Coleoptera can be traced back farther in time
+than any other order of insects with complete transformations, if the
+structures that have been described from the Carboniferous rocks of
+Germany are really elytra. In the Triassic rocks of Switzerland remains
+of weevils (_Curculionidae_) occur, a family which is considered by many
+students the most specialized of the order. And when we know that the
+_Chrysomelidae_ and _Buprestidae_ also lived in Triassic, and the
+_Carabidae_, _Elateridae_, _Cerambycidae_ and _Scarabaeidae_, in Liassic
+times, we cannot doubt that the great majority of our existing families
+had already been differentiated at the beginning of the Mesozoic epoch.
+Coming to the Tertiary we find the Oligocene beds of Aix, of east
+Prussia (amber) and of Colorado, and the Miocene of Bavaria, especially
+rich in remains of beetles, most of which can be referred to existing
+genera.
+
+_Classification._--The Coleoptera have been probably more assiduously
+studied by systematic naturalists than any other order of insects. The
+number of described species can now hardly be less than 100,000, but
+there is little agreement as to the main principles of a natural
+classification. About eighty-five families are generally recognized; the
+difficulty that confronts the zoologists is the arrangement of these
+families in "superfamilies" or "sub-orders." Such obvious features as
+the number of segments in the foot and the shape of the feeler were
+used by the early entomologists for distinguishing the great groups of
+beetles. The arrangement dependent on the number of tarsal segments--the
+order being divided into tribes _Pentamera_, _Tetramera_, _Heteromera_
+and _Trimera_--was suggested by E. L. Geoffroy in 1762, adopted by P. A.
+Latreille, and used largely through the 19th century. W. S. Macleay's
+classification (1825), which rested principally on the characters of the
+larvae, is almost forgotten nowadays, but it is certain that in any
+systematic arrangement which claims to be natural the early stages in
+the life-history must receive due attention. In recent years
+classifications in part agreeing with the older schemes but largely
+original, in accord with researches on the comparative anatomy of the
+insects, have been put forward. Among the more conservative of these may
+be mentioned that of D. Sharp (1899), who divides the order into six
+great series of families: _Lamellicornia_ (including the chafers and
+stag-beetles and their allies with five-segmented feet and plate-like
+terminal segments to the feelers); _Adephaga_ (carnivorous, terrestrial
+and aquatic beetles, all with five foot-segments); _Polymorpha_
+(including a heterogeneous assembly of families that cannot be fitted
+into any of the other groups); _Heteromera_ (beetles with the fore and
+intermediate feet five-segmented, and the hind-feet four-segmented);
+_Phytophaga_ (including the leaf-beetles, and longhorns, distinguished
+by the apparently four-segmented feet), and _Rhynchophora_ (the weevils
+and their allies, with head prolonged into a snout, and feet with four
+segments). L. Ganglbauer (1892) divides the whole order into two
+sub-orders only, the _Caraboidea_ (the _Adephaga_ of Sharp and the older
+writers) and the _Cantharidoidea_ (including all other beetles), since
+the larvae of _Caraboidea_ have five-segmented, two-clawed legs, while
+those of all other beetles have legs with four segments and a single
+claw. A. Lameere (1900) has suggested three sub-orders, the
+_Cantharidiformia_ (including the _Phytophaga_, the _Heteromera_, the
+_Rhynchophora_ and most of the _Polymorpha_ of Sharp's classification),
+the _Staphyliniformia_ (including the rove-beetles, carrion-beetles and
+a few allied families of Sharp's _Polymorpha_), and the _Carabidiformia_
+(_Adephaga_). Lameere's classification is founded on the number of
+abdominal sterna, the nervuration of the wings, the number of malpighian
+tubules (whether four or six) and other structural characters.
+Preferable to Lameere's system, because founded on a wider range of
+adult characters and taking the larval stages into account, is that of
+H. J. Kolbe (1901), who recognizes three sub-orders: (i.) the
+_Adephaga_; (ii.) the _Heterophaga_, including the _Staphylinoidea_, the
+_Actinorhabda_ (_Lamellicornia_), the _Heterorhabda_ (most of Sharp's
+_Polymorpha_), and the _Anchistopoda_ (the _Phytophaga_, with the
+ladybirds and some allied families which Sharp places among the
+_Polymorpha_); (iii.) the _Rhynchophora_.
+
+Students of the Coleoptera have failed to agree not only on a system of
+classification, but on the relative specialization of some of the groups
+which they all recognize as natural. Lameere, for example, considers
+some of his _Cantharidiformia_ as the most primitive Coleoptera. J. L.
+Leconte and G. H. Horn placed the _Rhynchophora_ (weevils) in a group
+distinct from all other beetles, on account of their supposed primitive
+nature. Kolbe, on the other hand, insists that the weevils are the most
+modified of all beetles, being highly specialized as regards their adult
+structure, and developing from legless maggots exceedingly different
+from the adult; he regards the Adephaga, with their active armoured
+larvae with two foot-claws, as the most primitive group of beetles, and
+there can be little doubt that the likeness between larvae and adult may
+safely be accepted as a primitive character among insects. In the
+Coleoptera we have to do with an ancient yet dominant order, in which
+there is hardly a family that does not show specialization in some point
+of structure or life-history. Hence it is impossible to form a
+satisfactory linear series.
+
+In the classification adopted in this article, the attempt has been made
+to combine the best points in old and recent schemes, and to avoid the
+inconvenience of a large heterogeneous group including the vast majority
+of the families.
+
+
+  ADEPHAGA.--This tribe includes beetles of carnivorous habit with five
+  segments on every foot, simple thread-like feelers with none of the
+  segments enlarged to form club or pectination, and the outer lobs
+  (galea) of the first maxilla usually two-segmented and palpiform (fig.
+  4 b). The transverse fold of the hind-wing is towards the tip, about
+  two-thirds of the wing-length from the base. At this fold the median
+  nervure stops and is joined by a cross nervure to the radial, which
+  can be distinguished throughout its length from the subcostal. There
+  are four malpighian tubules. In the ovarian tubes of Adephaga small
+  yolk-chambers alternate with the egg-chambers, while in all other
+  beetles there is only a single large yolk-chamber at the narrow end of
+  the tube. The larvae (fig. 2 c) are active, with well-chitinized
+  cuticle, often with elongate tail-feelers (cerci), and with
+  five-segmented legs, the foot-segment carrying two claws.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Mormolyce phyllodes_. Java. a, Labium; b,
+  maxilla; c, labrum; d, mandible.]
+
+  The generalized arrangement of the wing-nervure and the nature of the
+  larva, which is less unlike the adult than in other beetles,
+  distinguish this tribe as primitive, although the perfect insects are,
+  in the more dominant families, distinctly specialized. Two very small
+  families of aquatic beetles seem to stand at the base of the series,
+  the _Amphizoidae_, whose larvae are broad and well armoured with short
+  cerci, and the _Pelobiidae_, which have elongate larvae, tapering to
+  the tail end, where are long paired cerci and a median process,
+  recalling the grub of a Mayfly.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Pheropsophus Jurinei_. W. Africa.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Carabus rutilans_. Spain.]
+
+  The _Dyticidae_ (fig. 2) are Adephaga highly specialized for life in
+  the water, the hind-legs having the segments short, broad and fringed,
+  so as to be well adapted for swimming, and the feet without claws. The
+  metasternum is without the transverse linear impression that is found
+  in most families of Adephaga. The beetles are ovoid in shape, with
+  smooth contours, and the elytra fit over the edges of the abdomen so
+  as to enclose a supply of air, available for use when the insect
+  remains under water. The fore-legs of many male dyticids have the
+  three proximal foot-segments broad and saucer-shaped, and covered
+  with suckers, by means of which they secure a firm hold of their
+  mates. Larval dyticids (fig. 2 b) possess slender, curved, hollow
+  mandibles, which are perforated at the tip and at the base, being thus
+  adapted for sucking the juices of victims. Large dyticid larvae often
+  attack small fishes and tadpoles. They breathe by piercing the surface
+  film with the tail, where a pair of spiracles are situated. The pupal
+  stage is passed in an earthen cell, just beneath the surface of the
+  ground. Nearly 2000 species of _Dyticidae_ are known: they are
+  universally distributed, but are most abundant in cool countries. The
+  _Haliplidae_ form a small aquatic family allied to the _Dyticidae_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Cicindela sylvatica_ (Wood Tiger-Beetle).
+  Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Manticora tuberculata_. S. Africa.]
+
+  The _Carabidae_, or ground-beetles, comprising 13,000 species, form
+  the largest and most typical family of the Adephaga (figs. 4, 5, 6),
+  the legs of all three pairs being alike and adapted for rapid running.
+  In many _Carabidae_ the hind-wings are reduced or absent, and the
+  elytra fused together along the suture. Many of our native species
+  spend the day lurking beneath stones, and sally forth at night in
+  pursuit of their prey, which consists of small insects, earthworms and
+  snails. But a number of the more brightly coloured ground-beetles run
+  actively in the sunshine. The carabid larva is an active well-armoured
+  grub with the legs and cerci variable in length. Great differences in
+  the general form of the body may be observed in the family. For
+  example, the stout, heavy body of _Carabus_ (fig. 6) contrasts
+  markedly with the wonderful flattened abdomen and elytra of
+  _Mormolyce_ (fig. 4), a Malayan genus found beneath fallen trees, a
+  situation for which its compressed shape is admirably adapted. Blind
+  _Carabidae_ form a large proportion of cave-dwelling beetles, and
+  several species of great interest live between tide-marks along the
+  seashore.
+
+  The _Cicindelidae_, or tiger-beetles (figs. 7, 8) are the most highly
+  organized of all the Adephaga. The inner lobe (lacinia) of the first
+  maxilla terminates in an articulated hook, while in the second
+  maxillae (labium) both inner and outer lobes ("ligula" and
+  "para-glossae") are much reduced. The face (clypeus) is broad,
+  extending on either side in front of the insertion of the feelers. The
+  beetles are elegant insects with long, slender legs, running quickly,
+  and flying in the sunshine. The pronotum and elytra are often adorned
+  with bright colours or metallic lustre, and marked with stripes or
+  spots. The beetles are fierce in nature and predaceous in habit, their
+  sharp toothed mandibles being well adapted for the capture of small
+  insect-victims. The larvae are more specialized than those of other
+  Adephaga, the head and prothorax being very large and broad, the
+  succeeding segments slender and incompletely chitinized. The fifth
+  abdominal segment has a pair of strong dorsal hook-like processes, by
+  means of which the larva supports itself in the burrow which it
+  excavates in the earth, the great head blocking the entrance with the
+  mandibles ready to seize on any unwary insect that may venture within
+  reach.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.
+
+    a  _Gyrinus sulcatus_ (Grooved Whirligig). Europe.
+    b  Antenna of _Gyrinus_.
+    c  Larva of _Gyrinus_.]
+
+  Two or three families may be regarded as aberrant Adephaga. The
+  _Paussidae_ are a very remarkable family of small beetles, mostly
+  tropical, found only in ants' nests, or flying by night, and
+  apparently migrating from one nest to another. The number of antennal
+  segments varies from eleven to two. It is supposed that these beetles
+  secrete a sweet substance on which the ants feed, but they have been
+  seen to devour the ants' eggs and grubs. The _Gyrinidae_, or whirligig
+  beetles (fig. 9), are a curious aquatic family with the feelers (fig.
+  9, b) short and reduced as in most _Paussidae_. They are flattened
+  oval in form, circling with gliding motion over the surface film of
+  the water, and occasionally diving, when they carry down with them a
+  bubble of air. The fore-legs are elongate and adapted for clasping,
+  while the short and flattened intermediate and hind legs form very
+  perfect oar-like propellers. The larva of _Gyrinus_ (fig. 9, c) is
+  slender with elongate legs, and the abdominal segments carry paired
+  tracheal gills.
+
+  STAPHYLINOIDEA.--The members of this tribe may be easily recognized by
+  their wing-nervuration. Close to a transverse fold near the base of
+  the wing, the median nervure divides into branches which extend to the
+  wing-margin; there is a second transverse fold near the tip of the
+  wing, and cross nervures are altogether wanting. There are four
+  malpighian tubes, and all five tarsal segments are usually
+  recognizable. With very few exceptions, the larva in this group is
+  active and campodeiform, with cerci and elongate legs as in the
+  Adephaga, but the leg has only four segments and one claw.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Silpha quadripunctata_. Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Necrophorus vespillo_ (Sexton Beetle).
+  Europe.]
+
+  The _Silphidae_, or carrion beetles, form one of the best-known
+  families of this group. They are rotund or elongate insects with
+  conical front haunches, the elytra generally covering (fig. 10) the
+  whole dorsal region of the abdomen, but sometimes leaving as many as
+  four terga exposed (fig. 11). Some of these beetles are brightly
+  coloured, while others are dull black. They are usually found in
+  carrion, and the species of _Necrophorus_ (fig. 11) and _Necrophaga_
+  are valuable scavengers from their habit of burying small vertebrate
+  carcases which may serve as food for their larvae. At this work a
+  number of individuals are associated together. The larvae that live
+  underground have spiny dorsal plates, while those of the _Silpha_
+  (fig. 10) and other genera that go openly about in search of food
+  resemble wood-lice. About 1000 species of _Silphidae_ are known.
+  Allied to the _Silphidae_ are a number of small and obscure families,
+  for which reference must be made to monographs of the order. Of
+  special interest among these are the _Histeridae_, compact beetles
+  (fig. 12) with very hard cuticle and somewhat abbreviated elytra, with
+  over 2000 species, most of which live on decaying matter, and the
+  curious little _Pselaphidae_, with three-segmented tarsi, elongate
+  palpi, and shortened abdomen; the latter are usually found in ants'
+  nests, where they are tended by the ants, which take a sweet fluid
+  secreted among little tufts of hair on the beetles' bodies; these
+  beetles, which are carried about by the ants, sometimes devour their
+  larvae. The _Trichopterygidae_, with their delicate narrow fringed
+  wings, are the smallest of all beetles, while the _Platypsyllidae_
+  consist of only a single species of curious form found on the beaver.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12. _Hister iv-maculatus_ (Mimic Beetle). Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13. _Oxyporus rufus_. Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14. _Stenus biguttatus_. Europe.]
+
+  The _Staphylinidae_, or rove-beetles--a large family of nearly 10,000
+  species--may be known by their very short elytra, which cover only two
+  of the abdominal segments, leaving the elongate hind-body with seven
+  or eight exposed, firm terga (figs. 13, 14). These segments are very
+  mobile, and as the rove-beetles run along they often curl the abdomen
+  upwards and forwards like the tail of a scorpion. The _Staphylinid_
+  larvae are typically campodeiform. Beetles and larvae are frequently
+  carnivorous in habit, hunting for small insects under stones, or
+  pursuing the soft-skinned grubs of beetles and flies that bore in
+  woody stems or succulent roots. Many _Staphylinidae_ are constant
+  inmates of ants' nests.
+
+  MALACODERMATA.--In this tribe may be included a number of families
+  distinguished by the softness of the cuticle, the presence of seven or
+  eight abdominal sterna and of four malpighian tubes, and the firm,
+  well-armoured larva (fig. 15, c) which is often predaceous in habit.
+  The mesothoracic epimera bound the coxal cavities of the intermediate
+  legs. The _Lymexylonidae_, a small family of this group, characterized
+  by its slender, undifferentiated feelers and feet, is believed by
+  Lameere to comprise the most primitive of all living beetles, and
+  Sharp lays stress on the undeveloped structure of the tribe generally.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Glow-worm. _Lampyris noctiluca_. a, Male; b,
+  female; c, larva (ventral view). Europe.]
+
+  The _Lampyridae_ are a large family, of which the glow-worm
+  (_Lampyris_) and the "soldier beetles" (_Telephorus_) are familiar
+  examples. The female "glow-worm" (fig. 15, b), emitting the well-known
+  light (see above), is wingless and like a larva; the luminosity seems
+  to be an attraction to the male, whose eyes are often exceptionally
+  well developed. Some male members of the family have remarkably
+  complex feelers. In many genera of _Lampyridae_ the female can fly as
+  well as the male; among these are the South European "fireflies."
+
+  TRICHODERMATA.--Several families of rather soft-skinned beetles, such
+  as the _Melyridae_, _Cleridae_ (fig. 16), _Corynetidae_, _Dermestidae_
+  (fig. 17), and _Dascillidae_, are included in this tribe. They may be
+  distinguished from the Malacodermata by the presence of only five or
+  six abdominal sterna, while six malpighian tubes are present in some
+  of the families. The beetles are hairy and their larvae well-armoured
+  and often predaceous. Several species of _Dermestidae_ are commonly
+  found in houses, feeding on cheeses, dried meat, skins and other such
+  substances. The "bacon beetle" (_Dermestes lardarius_), and its hard
+  hairy larva, are well known. According to Sharp, all Dermestid larvae
+  probably feed on dried animal matters; he mentions one species that
+  can find sufficient food in the horsehair of furniture, and another
+  that eats the dried insect-skins hanging in old cobwebs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Clerus apiarus_ (Hive Beetle). Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--_Dermestes lardarius_ (Bacon Beetle).]
+
+  STERNOXIA.--This is an important tribe of beetles, including families
+  with four malpighian tubes and only five or six abdominal sterna,
+  while in the thorax there is a backwardly directed process of the
+  prosternum that fits into a mesosternal cavity. The larvae are
+  elongate and worm-like, with short legs but often with hard strong
+  cuticle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle; C,
+  adult Click Beetle (_Agriotes lineatum_).]
+
+  The _Elateridae_ or click beetles (fig. 18) have the prosternal
+  process just mentioned, capable of movement in and out of the
+  mesosternal cavity, the beetles being thus enabled to leap into the
+  air, hence their popular name of "click-beetles" or "skip-jacks." The
+  prothorax is convex in front, and is usually drawn out behind into a
+  prominent process on either side, while the elytra are elongate and
+  tapering. Many of the tropical American _Elateridae_ emit light from
+  the spots on the prothorax and an area beneath the base of the
+  abdomen; these are "fireflies" (see above). The larvae of _Elateridae_
+  are elongate, worm-like grubs, with narrow bodies, very firm cuticle,
+  short legs, and a distinct anal proleg. They are admirably adapted for
+  moving through the soil, where some of them live on decaying organic
+  matter, while others are predaceous. Several of the elaterid larvae,
+  however, gnaw roots and are highly destructive to farm crops. These
+  are the well-known "wire-worms" (q.v.).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Catoxantha bicolor_. Java.]
+
+  The _Buprestidae_ are distinguished from the _Elateridae_ by the
+  immobility of the prosternal process in the mesosternal cavity and by
+  the absence of the lateral processes at the hind corners of the
+  prothorax. Many tropical _Buprestidae_ are of large size (fig. 19),
+  and exhibit magnificent metallic colours; their elytra are used as
+  ornaments in human dress. The larvae are remarkable for their small
+  head, very broad thorax, with reduced legs, and narrow elongate
+  abdomen. They feed by burrowing in the roots and stems of plants.
+
+  BOSTRYCHOIDEA.--This tribe is distinguished from the Malacoderma and
+  allied groups by the mesothoracic epimera not bounding the coxal
+  cavities of the intermediate legs. The downwardly directed head is
+  covered by the pronotum, and the three terminal antennal segments form
+  a distinct club. To this group belong the _Bostrychidae_ and
+  _Ptinidae_, well known (especially the latter family) for their
+  ravages in old timber. The larvae are stout and soft-skinned, with
+  short legs in correlation with their burrowing habit. The noises made
+  by some _Ptinidae_ (_Anobium_) tapping on the walls of their burrows
+  with their mandibles give rise to the "death tick" that has for long
+  alarmed the superstitious.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Hydrophilus piceus_ (Black Water Beetle).
+  Europe.]
+
+  CLAVICORNIA.--This is a somewhat heterogeneous group, most of whose
+  members are characterized by clubbed feelers and simple, unbroadened
+  tarsal segments--usually five on each foot--but in some families and
+  genera the males have less than the normal number on the feet of one
+  pair. There are either four or six malpighian tubes. A large number of
+  families, distinguished from each other by more or less trivial
+  characters, are included here, and there is considerable diversity in
+  the form of the larvae. The best-known family is the _Hydrophilidae_,
+  in which the feelers are short with less than eleven segments and the
+  maxillary palpi very long. Some members of this family--the large
+  black _Hydrophilus piceus_ (fig. 20), for example--are specialized for
+  an aquatic life, the body being convex and smooth as in the
+  _Dyticidae_, and the intermediate and hind-legs fringed for swimming.
+  When _Hydrophilus_ dives it carries a supply of air between the elytra
+  and the dorsal surface of the abdomen, while air is also entangled in
+  the pubescence which extends beneath the abdomen on either side, being
+  scooped in bubbles by the terminal segments of the feelers when the
+  insect rises to the surface. Many of the _Hydrophilidae_ construct,
+  for the protection of their eggs, a cocoon formed of a silky material
+  derived from glands opening at the tip of the abdomen. That of
+  _Hydrophilus_ is attached to a floating leaf, and is provided with a
+  hollow, tapering process, which projects above the surface and
+  presumably conveys air to the enclosed eggs. Other _Hydrophilidae_
+  carry their egg-cocoons about with them beneath the abdomen. Many
+  _Hydrophilidae_, unmodified for aquatic life, inhabit marshes. The
+  larvae in this family are well-armoured, active and predaceous. Of the
+  numerous other families of the Clavicornia may be mentioned the
+  _Cucujidae_ and _Cryptophagidae_, small beetles, examples of which may
+  be found feeding on stored seeds or vegetable refuse, and the
+  _Mycetophagidae_, which devour fungi. The _Nitidulidae_ are a large
+  family with 1600 species, among which members of the genus
+  _Meligethes_ are often found in numbers feeding on blossoms, while
+  others live under the bark of trees and prey on the grubs of boring
+  beetles.
+
+  HETEROMERA.--This tribe is distinguished by the presence of the normal
+  five segments in the feet of the fore and intermediate legs, while
+  only four segments are visible in the hind-foot. Considerable
+  diversity is to be noticed in details of structure within this group,
+  and for an enumeration of all the various families which have been
+  proposed and their distinguishing characters the reader is referred to
+  one of the monographs mentioned below. Some of the best-known members
+  of the group belong to the _Tenebrionidae_, a large family containing
+  over 10,000 species and distributed all over the world. The
+  tenebrionid larva is elongate, with well-chitinized cuticle, short
+  legs and two stumpy tail processes, the common mealworm (fig. 21)
+  being a familiar example. Several species of this family are found
+  habitually in stores of flour or grain. The beetles have feelers with
+  eleven segments, whereof the terminal few are thickened so as to form
+  a club. The true "black-beetles" or "churchyard beetles" (_Blaps_)
+  (fig. 22) belong to this family; like members of several allied genera
+  they are sooty in colour, and somewhat resemble ground beetles
+  (_Carabi_) in general appearance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--(a) _Tenebrio molitor_ (Flour Beetle).
+  Europe. (b) Larva, or mealworm.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--_Blaps mortisaga_ (Churchyard Beetle).
+  Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--_Meloe proscarabaeus_ (Oil Beetle). Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--_Lytta vesicatoria_ (Blister Beetle).
+  Europe.]
+
+  The most interesting of the Heteromera, and perhaps of all the
+  Coleoptera, are some beetles which pass through two or more larval
+  forms in the course of the life-history (hypermetamorphosis). These
+  belong to the families _Rhipidophoridae_ and _Meloidae_. The latter
+  are the oil beetles (fig. 23) or blister beetles (fig. 24), insects
+  with rather soft cuticle, the elytra (often abbreviated) not fitting
+  closely to the sides of the abdomen, the head constricted behind the
+  eyes to form a neck, and the claws of the feet divided to the base.
+  Several of the _Meloidae_ (such as the "Spanish fly," fig. 24) are of
+  economic importance, as they contain a vesicant substance used for
+  raising medicinal blisters on the human skin. The wonderful
+  transformations of these insects were first investigated by G. Newport
+  in 1851, and have recently been more fully studied by C. V. Riley
+  (1878) and J. H. Fabre. The first larval stage is the "triungulin," a
+  tiny, active, armoured larva with long legs (each foot with three
+  claws) and cercopods. In the European species of _Sitaris_ and _Meloe_
+  these little larvae have the instinct of clinging to any hairy object.
+  All that do not happen to attach themselves to a bee of the genus
+  _Anthophora_ perish, but those that succeed in reaching the right host
+  are carried to the nest, and as the bee lays an egg in the cell the
+  triungulin slips off her body on to the egg, which floats on the
+  surface of the honey. After eating the contents of the egg, the larva
+  moults and becomes a fleshy grub with short legs and with paired
+  spiracles close to the dorsal region, so that, as it floats in and
+  devours the honey, it obtains a supply of air. After a resting
+  (pseudo-pupal) stage and another larval stage, the pupa is developed.
+  In the American EPICAUTA VITTATA the larva is parasitic on the eggs
+  and egg-cases of a locust. The triungulin searches for the eggs, and,
+  after a moult, becomes changed into a soft-skinned tapering larva.
+  This is followed by a resting (pseudo-pupal) stage, and this by two
+  successive larval stages like the grub of a chafer. The
+  RHIPIDOPHORIDAE are beetles with, short elytra, the feelers pectinate
+  in the males and serrate in the females. The life-history of
+  _Metoecus_ has been studied by T. A. Chapman, who finds that the eggs
+  are laid in old wood, and that the triungulin seeks to attach itself
+  to a social wasp, who carries it to her nest. There it feeds first as
+  an internal parasite of the wasp-grub, then bores its way out, moults
+  and devours the wasp larva from outside. The wasps are said to leave
+  the larval or pupal _Metoecus_ unmolested, but they are hostile to the
+  developed beetles, which hasten to leave the nest as soon as possible.
+
+  STREPSIPTERA.--Much difference of opinion has prevailed with regard to
+  the curious, tiny, parasitic insects included in this division, some
+  authorities considering that they should be referred to a distinct
+  order, while others would group them in the family _Meloidae_ just
+  described. While from the nature of their life-history there is no
+  doubt that they have a rather close relationship to the _Meloidae_,
+  their structure is so remarkable that it seems advisable to regard
+  them as at least a distinct tribe of Coleoptera.
+
+  They may be comprised in a single family, the _Stylopidae_. The males
+  are very small, free-flying insects with the prothorax, mesothorax and
+  elytra greatly reduced, the latter appearing as little, twisted
+  strips, while the metathorax is relatively large, with its wings broad
+  and capable of longitudinal folding. The feelers are branched and the
+  jaws vestigial. The female is a segmented, worm-like creature,
+  spending her whole life within the body of the bee, wasp or bug on
+  which she is parasitic. One end of her body protrudes from between two
+  of the abdominal segments of the host; it has been a subject of
+  dispute whether this protruded end is the head or the tail, but there
+  can be little doubt that it is the latter. While thus carried about by
+  the host-insect, the female is fertilized by the free-flying male, and
+  gives birth to a number of tiny triungulin larvae. The chief points in
+  the life-history of _Stylops_ and _Xenos_, which are parasitic on
+  certain bees (_Andrena_) and wasps (_Polistes_), have been
+  investigated by K. T. E. von Siebold (1843) and N. Nassonov (1892).
+  The little triungulins escape on to the body of the bee or wasp; then
+  those that are to survive must leave their host for a non-parasitized
+  insect. Clinging to her hairs they are carried to the nest, where they
+  bore into the body of a bee or wasp larva, and after a moult become
+  soft-skinned legless maggots. The growth of the parasitic larva does
+  not stop the development of the host-larva, and when the latter
+  pupates and assumes the winged form, the stylopid, which has completed
+  its transformation, is carried to the outer world. The presence of a
+  _Stylops_ causes derangement in the body of its host, and can be
+  recognized by various external signs. Other genera of the family are
+  parasitic on Hemiptera--bugs and frog-hoppers--but nothing is known as
+  to the details of their life-history.
+
+  LAMELLICORNIA.--This is a very well-marked tribe of beetles,
+  characterized by the peculiar elongation and flattening of three or
+  more of the terminal antennal segments, so that the feeler seems to
+  end in a number of leaf-like plates, or small comb-teeth (fig. 26, b,
+  c). The wings are well developed for flight, and there is a tendency
+  in the group, especially among the males, towards an excessive
+  development of the mandibles or the presence of enormous, horn-like
+  processes on the head or pronotum. There are four malpighian tubes.
+  The larvae are furnished with large heads, powerful mandibles and
+  well-developed legs, but the body-segments are feebly chitinized, and
+  the tail-end is swollen. They feed in wood or spend an underground
+  life devouring roots or animal excrement.
+
+  The _Lucanidae_ or stag beetles (figs. 1 and 25) have the terminal
+  antennal segments pectinate, and so arranged that the comb-like part
+  of the feeler cannot be curled up, while the elytra completely cover
+  the abdomen. There are about 600 species in the family, the males
+  being usually larger than the females, and remarkable for the size of
+  their mandibles. In the same species, however, great variation occurs
+  in the development of the mandibles, and the breadth of the head
+  varies correspondingly, the smallest type of male being but little
+  different in appearance from the female. The larvae of _Lucanidae_
+  live within the wood of trees, and may take three or four years to
+  attain their full growth. The _Passalidae_ are a tropical family of
+  beetles generally considered to be intermediate between stag-beetles
+  and chafers, the enlarged segments of the feeler being capable of
+  close approximation.
+
+  The _Scarabaeidae_ or chafers are an enormous family of about 15,000
+  species. The plate-like segments of the feeler (fig. 26, b, c) can be
+  brought close together so as to form a club-like termination; usually
+  the hinder abdominal segments are not covered by the elytra. In this
+  family there is often a marked divergence between the sexes; the
+  terminal antennal segments are larger in the male than in the female,
+  and the males may carry large spinous processes on the head or
+  prothorax, or both. These structures were believed by C. Darwin to be
+  explicable by sexual selection. The larvae have the three pairs of
+  legs well developed, and the hinder abdominal segments swollen. Most
+  of the _Scarabaeidae_ are vegetable-feeders, but one section of the
+  family--represented in temperate countries by the dor-beetles
+  (_Geotrupes_) (fig. 28) and _Aphodius_, and in warmer regions by the
+  "sacred" beetles of the Egyptians (_Scarabaeus_) (fig. 27), and allied
+  genera--feed both in the adult and larval stages, on dung or decaying
+  animal matter. The heavy grubs of _Geotrupes_, their swollen tail-ends
+  black with the contained food-material, are often dug up in numbers in
+  well-manured fields. The habits of _Scarabaeus_ have been described in
+  detail by J. H. Fabre. The female beetle in spring-time collects dung,
+  which she forms into a ball by continuous rolling, sometimes assisted
+  by a companion. This ball is buried in a suitable place, and serves
+  the insect as a store of food. During summer the insects rest in their
+  underground retreats, then in autumn they reappear to bury another
+  supply of dung, which serves as food for the larvae. Fabre states that
+  the mother-insect carefully arranges the food-supply so that the most
+  nutritious and easily digested portion is nearest the egg, to form the
+  first meal of the young larva. In some species of _Copris_ it is
+  stated that the female lays only two or three eggs at a time, watching
+  the offspring grow to maturity, and then rearing another brood.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--_Cladognathus cinnamomeus_. Java.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--_Melolontha fullo_ (Cockchafer). S. Europe,
+  b, Antenna of male; c, antenna of female.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Scarabaeus Aegyptiorum_. Africa.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Geotrupes Blackburnei_. N. America.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Phaneus Imperator_. S. America.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--_Cetonia Baxii_. W. Africa.]
+
+  Among the vegetable-feeding chafers we usually find that while the
+  perfect insect devours leaves, the larva lives underground and feeds
+  on roots. Such are the habits of the cockchafer (_Melolontha
+  vulgaris_) and other species that often cause great injury to farm and
+  garden crops (see CHAFER). Many of these insects, such as the species
+  of _Phanaeus_ (fig. 29) and _Cetonia_ (fig. 30), are adorned with
+  metallic or other brilliant colours. The African "goliath-beetles"
+  (fig. 31) and the American "elephant-beetles" (_Dynastes_) are the
+  largest of all insects.
+
+  ANCHISTOPODA.--The families of beetles included by Kolbe in this group
+  are distinguished by the possession of six malpighian tubes, and a
+  great reduction in one or two of the tarsal segments, so that there
+  seem to be only four or three segments in each foot; hence the names
+  _Tetramera_ and _Trimera_ formerly applied to them. The larvae have
+  soft-skinned bodies sometimes protected by rows of spiny tubercles,
+  the legs being fairly developed in some families and greatly reduced
+  or absent in others. As might be expected, degeneration in larval
+  structure is correlated with a concealed habit of life.
+
+  The _Coccinellidae_, or ladybirds (fig. 32), are a large family of
+  beetles, well known by their rounded convex bodies, usually shining
+  and hairless. They have eleven segments to the feeler, which is
+  clubbed at the tip, and apparently three segments only in each foot.
+  Ladybirds are often brightly marked with spots and dashes, their
+  coloration being commonly regarded as an advertisement of inedibility.
+  The larvae have a somewhat swollen abdomen, which is protected by
+  bristle-bearing tubercles. Like the perfect insects, they are
+  predaceous, feeding on plant-lice (_Aphidae_) and scale insects
+  (_Coccidae_). Their role in nature is therefore beneficial to the
+  cultivator. The _Endomychidae_ (fig. 33), an allied family, are mostly
+  fungus-eaters. In the _Erotylidae_ and a few other small related
+  families the feet are evidently four-segmented.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--_Goliathus giganteus_ (Goliath Beetle).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--_Anatio ocellata_ (Eyed Ladybird). Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--_Endomychus coccineus_. Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--_Sagra cyanea_. W. Africa.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Eumorphus ivguttatus_. Sumatra.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--_Lophonocerus barbicornis_. S. America.]
+
+  The _Chrysomelidae_, or leaf-beetles (figs. 34, 35), are a very large
+  family, with "tetramerous" tarsi; there seem to be only four segments
+  to the foot, but there are really five, the fourth being greatly
+  reduced. The mandibles are strong, adapted for biting the vegetable
+  substances on which these beetles feed, and the palps of the second
+  maxillae have three segments. Most of the _Chrysomelidae_ are metallic
+  in colour and convex in form; in some the head is concealed beneath
+  the prothorax, and the so-called "tortoise" beetles (_Cassidinae_)
+  have the elytra raised into a prominent median ridge. The most active
+  form of larva found in this family resembles in shape that of a
+  ladybird, tapering towards the tail end, and having the trunk segments
+  protected by small firm sclerites. Such larvae, and also many with
+  soft cuticle and swollen abdomen--those of the notorious "Colorado
+  beetle," for example--feed openly on foliage. Others, with soft,
+  white, cylindrical bodies, which recall the caterpillars of moths,
+  burrow in the leaves or stems of plants. The larvae of the
+  tortoise-beetles have the curious habit of forming an umbrella-like
+  shield out of their own excrement, held in position by the upturned
+  tail-process. The larvae of the beautiful, elongate, metallic
+  _Donaciae_ live in the roots and stems of aquatic plants, obtaining
+  thence both food and air. The larva pierces the vessels of the plant
+  with sharp processes at the hinder end of its body. In this way it is
+  believed that the sub-aqueous cocoon in which the pupal stage is
+  passed becomes filled with air.
+
+  The _Cerambycidae_, or longhorn beetles, are recognizable by their
+  slender, elongate feelers, which are never clubbed and rarely serrate.
+  The foot has apparently four segments, as in the _Chrysomelidae_. The
+  beetles are usually elongate and elegant in form, often adorned with
+  bright bands of colour, and some of the tropical species attain a very
+  large size (figs. 36, 37). The feelers are usually longer in the male
+  than in the female, exceeding in some cases by many times the length
+  of the body. The larvae have soft, fleshy bodies, with the head and
+  prothorax large and broad, and the legs very much reduced. They live
+  and feed in the wood of trees. Consequently, beetles of this family
+  are most abundant in forest regions, and reach their highest
+  development in the dense virgin forests of tropical countries, South
+  America being particularly rich in peculiar genera.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Phryneta aurocincta_. West Africa.]
+
+  The _Bruchidae_, or seed-beetles, agree with the two preceding
+  families in tarsal structure; the head is largely hidden by the
+  pronotum, and the elytra are short enough to leave the end of the
+  abdomen exposed (fig. 38). The development of the pea and bean-beetles
+  has been carefully studied by C. V. Riley, who finds that the young
+  larva, hatched from the egg laid on the pod, has three pairs of legs,
+  and that these are lost after the moult that occurs when the grub has
+  bored its way into the seed. In Great Britain the beetle, after
+  completing its development, winters in the seed, waiting to emerge and
+  lay its eggs on the blossom in the ensuing spring.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--_Bruchus piei_ (Pea Beetle.) Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Platyrrhinus latirostris_. Europe.]
+
+  RHYNCHOPHORA.--The _Rhynchophora_ are a group of beetles easily
+  recognized by the elongation of the head into a beak or snout, which
+  carries the feelers at its sides and the jaws at its tip. The third
+  tarsal segment is broad and bi-lobed, and the fourth is so small that
+  the feet seem to be only four-segmented. There are six malpighian
+  tubes. The ventral sclerite of the head-skeleton (gula), well
+  developed in most families of beetles, is absent among the
+  _Rhynchophora_, while the palps of the maxillae are much reduced. The
+  larvae have soft, white bodies and, with very few exceptions, no legs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Brenthus anchorago_. Tropical Countries.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--_Otiorrhynchus ligustici_. Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--_Lixus paraplecticus_. Europe.]
+
+  Of the four families included in this group, the _Anthribidae_ (fig.
+  39) have jointed, flexible palps, feelers--often of excessive
+  length--with a short basal segment, and the three terminal segments
+  forming a club, and, in some genera, larvae with legs. There are
+  nearly 1000 known species, most of which live in tropical countries.
+  The _Brenthidae_ are a remarkable family almost confined to the
+  tropics; they are elongate and narrow in form (fig. 40), with a
+  straight, cylindrical snout which in some male beetles of the family
+  is longer than the rest of the body.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--_Scolytus ulmi_. (Bark Beetle). Europe.]
+
+  The _Curculionidae_, or weevils (q.v.), comprising 23,000 species, are
+  by far the largest family of the group. The maxillary palps are short
+  and rigid, and there is no distinct labrum, while the feelers are
+  usually of an "elbowed" form, the basal segment being very elongate
+  (figs. 41, 42). They are vegetable feeders, both in the perfect and
+  larval stages, and are often highly injurious. The female uses her
+  snout as a boring instrument to prepare a suitable place for
+  egg-laying. The larvae (fig. 3) of some weevils live in seeds; others
+  devour roots, while the parent-beetles eat leaves; others, again, are
+  found in wood or under bark. The _Scolytidae_, or bark-beetles, are a
+  family of some 1500 species, closely allied to the _Curculionidae_,
+  differing only in the feeble development of the snout. They have
+  clubbed feelers, and their cylindrical bodies (fig. 43) are well
+  adapted for their burrowing habits under the bark of trees. Usually
+  the mother-beetle makes a fairly straight tunnel along which, at short
+  intervals, she lays her eggs. The grubs, when hatched, start galleries
+  nearly at right angles to this, and when fully grown form oval cells
+  in which they pupate; from these the young beetles emerge by making
+  circular holes directly outward through the bark.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to what may be found in numerous important
+  works on the Hexapoda (q.v.) as a whole, such as J. O. Westwood's
+  _Modern Classification of Insects_, vol. i. (London, 1838); J. H.
+  Fabre's _Souvenirs Entomologiques_ (Paris, 1879-1891); D. Sharp's
+  contribution to the Cambridge Natural History (vol. vi., London,
+  1899); and L. C. Miall's _Aquatic Insects_ (London, 1895), the special
+  literature of the _Coleoptera_ is enormous. Classical anatomical
+  memoirs are those of L. Dufour (_Ann. Sci. Nat._ ii., iii., iv., vi.,
+  viii., xiv., 1824-1828); _Ib._ (ser. 2, Zool.) i., 1834; and H. E.
+  Strauss-Dürkheim, _Anatomie comparée des animaux articulées_ (Paris,
+  1828).
+
+  The wings of _Coleoptera_ (including the elytra) are described and
+  discussed by F. Meinert (_Entom. Tijdsk._ v., 1880); C. Hoffbauer
+  (_Zeit. f. wissen. Zool._ liv., 1892); J. H. Comstock and J. G.
+  Needham (_Amer. Nat._ xxxii., 1898); and W. L. Tower (_Zool. Jahrb.
+  Anat._ xvii., 1903). The morphology of the abdomen, ovipositor and
+  genital armature is dealt with by K. W. Verhoeff (_Ent. Nachtr._ xx.,
+  1894, and _Arch. f. Naturg._ lxi., lxii., 1895-1896); and B.
+  Wandolleck (_Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xxii., 1905).
+
+  Luminous organs are described by H. von Wielowiejski (_Zeits. f.
+  wissen. Zool._ xxxvii., 1882); C. Heinemann (_Arch. f. mikr. Anat._
+  xxvii., 1886); and R. Dubois (_Bull. soc. zool. France_, 1886); and
+  stridulating organs by C. J. Gahan (_Trans. Entom. Soc._, 1900). See
+  also C. Darwin's _Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex_
+  (London, 1871).
+
+  Many larvae of _Coleoptera_ are described and beautifully figured by
+  J. C. Schiödte (_Naturh. Tidsskr._ i.-xiii., 1861-1872).
+  Hypermetamorphosis in the _Meloidae_ is described by G. Newport
+  (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ xx., xxi., 1851-1853); C. V. Riley (_Rep. U.S.
+  Entom. Comm._ i., 1878); J. H. Fabre (_Ann. Sci. Nat._ (4), ix., xix.,
+  1848-1853); H. Beauregard (_Les Insectes vésicants_, Paris, 1890); and
+  A. Chabaud (_Ann. Soc. Ent. France_, lx., 1891); in the _Bruchidae_ by
+  Riley (_Insect Life_, iv., v., 1892-1893); and in the _Strepsiptera_
+  (_Stylopidae_) by K. T. E. von Siebold (_Arch. f. Naturg._ ix., 1843);
+  N. Nassonov (_Bull. Univ. Narsovie_, 1892); and C. T. Brues (_Zool.
+  Jahrb. Anat._ xiii., 1903).
+
+  For various schemes of classification of the _Coleoptera_ see E. L.
+  Geoffroy (_Insectes qui se trouvent aux environs de Paris_, Paris,
+  1762); A. G. Olivier (_Coléoptères_, Paris, 1789-1808); W. S. MacLeay
+  (_Annulosa Javanica_, London, 1825); the general works of Westwood and
+  Sharp, mentioned above; M. Gemminger and B. de Harold (_Catalogus
+  Coleopterorum_, 12 vols., Munich, 1868-1872); T. Lacordaire and F.
+  Chapuis (_Genera des Coléoptères_, 10 vols., Paris, 1854-1874); J. L.
+  Leconte and G. H. Horn (_Classification of Coleoptera of N. America_,
+  Washington, Smithsonian Inst., 1883); L. Ganglbauer (_Die Käfer von
+  Mitteleuropa_, Vienna, 1892, &c.); A. Lameere (_Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg._
+  xliv., xlvii., 1900-1903); and H. J. Kolbe (_Arch. f. Naturg._ lxvii.,
+  1901).
+
+  For the British species, W. W. Fowler (_Coleoptera of the British
+  Islands_, 5 vols., London, 1887-1891) is the standard work; and W. F.
+  Johnson and J. N. Halbert's "Beetles of Ireland" (_Proc. R. Irish
+  Acad._, 3, vi., 1902) is valuable faunistically. Among the large
+  number of systematic writers on the order generally, or on special
+  families, may be mentioned D. Sharp, T. V. Wollaston, H. W. Bates, G.
+  C. Champion, E. Reitter, G. C. Crotch, H. S. Gorham, M. Jacoby, L.
+  Fairmaire and C. O. Waterhouse. (G. H. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Instar is a convenient term suggested by D. Sharp to indicate a
+    stage in the life-history of an insect between two successive
+    castings of the cuticle.
+
+
+
+
+COLEPEPER, JOHN COLEPEPER (or CULPEPPER), 1ST BARON (d. 1660), English
+politician, was the only son of Sir John Colepeper of Wigsell, Sussex.
+He began his career in military service abroad, and came first into
+public notice at home through his knowledge of country affairs, being
+summoned often before the council board to give evidence on such
+matters. He was knighted, and was elected member for Kent in the Long
+Parliament, when he took the popular side, speaking against monopolies
+on the 9th of November 1640, being entrusted with the impeachment of Sir
+Robert Berkeley on the 12th of February 1641, supporting Stafford's
+attainder, and being appointed to the committee of defence on the 12th
+of August 1641. He separated, however, from the popular party on the
+Church question, owing to political rather than religious objections,
+fearing the effect of the revolutionary changes which were now
+contemplated. He opposed the London petition for the abolition of
+episcopacy, the project of religious union with the Scots, and the Root
+and Branch Bill, and on the 1st of September he moved a resolution in
+defence of the prayer-book. In the following session he opposed the
+militia bill and the Grand Remonstrance, and finally on the 2nd of
+January 1642 he joined the king's party, taking office as chancellor of
+the exchequer. He highly disapproved of the attempt upon the five
+members, which was made without his knowledge, but advised the
+enterprise against Hull. On the 25th of August 1642 he appeared at the
+bar of the House of Commons to deliver the king's final proposals for
+peace, and was afterwards present at Edgehill, where he took part in
+Prince Rupert's charge and opposed the retreat of the king's forces from
+the battlefield. In December he was made by Charles master of the rolls.
+He was a leading member of the Oxford Parliament, and was said, in
+opposition to the general opinion, to have counselled considerable
+concessions to secure peace. His influence in military affairs caused
+him to be much disliked by Prince Rupert and the army, and the general
+animosity against him was increased by his advancement to the peerage on
+the 21st of October 1644 by the title of Baron Colepeper of Thoresway in
+Lincolnshire.
+
+He was despatched with Hyde in charge of the prince of Wales to the West
+in March 1645, and on the 2nd of March 1646, after Charles's final
+defeat, embarked with the prince for Scilly, and thence to France. He
+strongly advocated the gaining over of the Scots by religious
+concessions, a policy supported by the queen and Mazarin, but opposed by
+Hyde and other leading royalists, and constantly urged this course upon
+the king, at the same time deprecating any yielding on the subject of
+the militia. He promoted the mission of Sir John Berkeley in 1647 to
+secure an understanding between Charles and the army. In 1648 he
+accompanied the prince in his unsuccessful naval expedition, and
+returned with him to the Hague, where violent altercations broke out
+among the royalist leaders, Colepeper going so far, on one occasion in
+the council, as to challenge Prince Rupert, and being himself severely
+assaulted in the streets by Sir Robert Walsh. He continued after the
+execution of the king to press the acceptance on Charles II. of the
+Scottish proposals. He was sent to Russia in 1650, where he obtained a
+loan of 20,000 roubles from the tsar, and, soon after his return, to
+Holland, to procure military assistance. By the treaty, agreed to
+between Cromwell and Mazarin, of August 1654, Colepeper was obliged to
+leave France, and he appears henceforth to have resided in Flanders. He
+accompanied Charles II. to the south of France in September 1659, at the
+time of the treaty of the Pyrenees. At the Restoration he returned to
+England, but only survived a few weeks, dying on the 11th of June 1660.
+
+Several contemporary writers agree in testifying to Colepeper's great
+debating powers and to his resources as an adviser, but complain of his
+want of stability and of his uncertain temper. Clarendon, with whom he
+was often on ill terms, speaks generally in his praise, and repels the
+charge of corruption levelled against him. That he was gifted with
+considerable political foresight is shown by a remarkable letter written
+on the 20th of September 1658 on the death of Cromwell, in which he
+foretells with uncommon sagacity the future developments in the
+political situation, advises the royalists to remain inactive till the
+right moment and profit by the division of their opponents, and
+distinguishes Monck as the one person willing and capable of effecting
+the Restoration (_Clarendon State Papers_, iii. 412). Colepeper was
+twice married, (1) to Philippa, daughter of Sir John Snelling, by whom
+he had one son, who died young, and a daughter, and (2) to Judith,
+daughter of Sir J. Colepeper of Hollingbourn, Kent, by whom he had seven
+children. Of these Thomas (d. 1719; governor of Virginia 1680-1683) was
+the successor in the title, which became extinct on the death of his
+younger brother Cheney in 1725.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+
+
+COLERAINE, a seaport and market town of Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in the
+north parliamentary division, on the Bann, 4 m. from its mouth, and 61½
+m. N.W. by N. from Dublin by the Northern Counties (Midland) railway.
+Pop. of urban district (1901) 6958. The town stands upon both sides of
+the river, which is crossed by a handsome stone bridge, connecting the
+town and its suburb, Waterside or Killowen. The principal part is on the
+east bank, and consists of a central square called the Diamond, and
+several diverging streets. Among institutions may be mentioned the
+public schools founded in 1613 and maintained by the Honourable Irish
+Society, and the Academical Institution, maintained by the Irish Society
+and the London Clothworkers' Company. The linen trade has long been
+extensively carried on in the town, from which, indeed, a fine
+description of cloth is known as "Coleraines." Whisky-distilling,
+pork-curing, and the salmon and eel fisheries are prosecuted. The mouth
+of the river was formerly obstructed by a bar, but piers were
+constructed, and the harbours greatly improved by grants from the Irish
+Society of London and from a loan under the River Bann Navigation Act
+1879. Coleraine ceased to return one member to the Imperial parliament
+in 1885; having previously returned two to the Irish parliament until
+the Union. It was incorporated by James I. It owed its importance mainly
+to the Irish Society, which was incorporated as the Company for the New
+Plantation of Ulster in 1613. Though fortified only by an earthen wall,
+it managed to hold out against the rebels in 1641. There are no remains
+of a former priory, monastery and castle. A rath or encampment of large
+size occupies Mount Sandel, 1 m. south-east.
+
+
+
+
+COLERIDGE, HARTLEY (1796-1849), English man of letters, eldest son of
+the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, was born on the 19th of September
+1796, near Bristol. His early years were passed under Southey's care at
+Greta Hall, Keswick, and he was educated by the Rev. John Dawes at
+Ambleside. In 1815 he went to Oxford, as scholar of Merton College. His
+university career, however, was very unfortunate. He had inherited the
+weakness of purpose, as well as the splendid conversational powers, of
+his father, and lapsed into habits of intemperance. He was successful in
+gaining an Oriel fellowship, but at the close of the probationary year
+(1820) was judged to have forfeited it. The authorities could not be
+prevailed upon to reverse their decision; but they awarded to him a free
+gift of £300. Hartley Coleridge then spent two years in London, where he
+wrote short poems for the _London Magazine_. His next step was to become
+a partner in a school at Ambleside, but this scheme failed. In 1830 a
+Leeds publisher, Mr. F. E. Bingley, made a contract with him to write
+biographies of Yorkshire and Lancashire worthies. These were afterwards
+republished under the title of _Biographia Borealis_ (1833) and
+_Worthies of Yorkshire and Lancashire_ (1836). Bingley also printed a
+volume of his poems in 1833, and Coleridge lived in his house until the
+contract came to an end through the bankruptcy of the publisher. From
+this time, except for two short periods in 1837 and 1838 when he acted
+as master at Sedbergh grammar school, he lived quietly at Grasmere and
+(1840-1849) Rydal, spending his time in study and wanderings about the
+countryside. His figure was as familiar as Wordsworth's, and his
+gentleness and simplicity of manner won for him the friendship of the
+country-people. In 1839 appeared his edition of Massinger and Ford, with
+biographies of both dramatists. The closing decade of Coleridge's life
+was wasted in what he himself calls "the woeful impotence of weak
+resolve." He died on the 6th of January 1849. The prose style of Hartley
+Coleridge is marked by much finish and vivacity; but his literary
+reputation must chiefly rest on the sanity of his criticisms, and above
+all on his _Prometheus_, an unfinished lyric drama, and on his sonnets.
+As a sonneteer he achieved real excellence, the form being exactly
+suited to his sensitive genius. _Essays and Marginalia_, and _Poems_,
+with a memoir by his brother Derwent, appeared in 1851.
+
+
+COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE, 1ST BARON (1820-1894), lord chief
+justice of England, was the eldest son of Sir John Taylor Coleridge. He
+was born at Heath's Court, Ottery St Mary, on the 3rd of December 1820.
+He was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, of which he was a
+scholar. He was called to the bar in 1846, and went the western circuit,
+rising steadily, through more than twenty years of hard work, till in
+1865 he was returned as member for Exeter in the Liberal interest. The
+impression which he made on the heads of his party was so favourable
+that they determined, early in the session of 1867, to put him forward
+as the protagonist of their attack on the Conservative government. But
+that move seemed to many of their staunchest adherents unwise, and it
+was frustrated by the active opposition of a section, including Hastings
+Russell (later ninth duke of Bedford), his brother Arthur, member for
+Tavistock, Alexander Mitchell of Stow, A. W. Kinglake and Henry Seymour.
+They met to deliberate in the tea-room of the House, and were afterwards
+sometimes confounded with the tea-room party which was of subsequent
+formation and under the guidance of a different group. The protest was
+sufficient to prevent the contemplated attack being made, but the
+Liberals returned to power in good time with a large majority behind
+them in 1868. Coleridge was made, first solicitor-, and then
+attorney-general.
+
+As early as 1863 a small body of Oxford men in parliament had opened
+fire against the legislation which kept their university bound by
+ecclesiastical swaddling clothes. They had made a good deal of progress
+in converting the House of Commons to their views before the general
+election of 1865. That election having brought Coleridge into
+parliament, he was hailed as a most valuable ally, whose great
+university distinction, brilliant success as an orator at the bar, and
+hereditary connexion with the High Church party, entitled him to take
+the lead in a movement which, although gathering strength, was yet very
+far from having achieved complete success. The clerically-minded section
+of the Conservative party could not but listen to the son of Sir John
+Coleridge, the godson of Keble, and the grand-nephew of the man who had
+been an indirect cause of the Anglican revival of 1833,--for John Stuart
+Mill was right when he said that the poet Coleridge and the philosopher
+Bentham were, so far as England was concerned, the leaders of the two
+chief movements of their times: "it was they who taught the teachers,
+and who were the two great seminal minds."
+
+Walking up one evening from the House of Commons to dine at the
+Athenaeum with Henry Bruce (afterwards Lord Aberdare) and another
+friend, Coleridge said: "There is a trial coming on which will be one of
+the most remarkable _causes célèbres_ that has ever been heard of." This
+was the Tichborne case, which led to proceedings in the criminal courts
+rising almost to the dignity of a political event. The Tichborne trial
+was the most conspicuous feature of Coleridge's later years at the bar,
+and tasked his powers as an advocate to the uttermost, though he was
+assisted by the splendid abilities and industry of Charles (afterwards
+Lord) Bowen. In November 1873 Coleridge succeeded Sir W. Bovill as chief
+justice of the common pleas, and was immediately afterwards raised to
+the peerage as Baron Coleridge of Ottery St Mary. In 1880 he was made
+lord chief justice of England on the death of Sir Alexander Cockburn.
+
+In jury cases his quickness in apprehending facts and his lucidity in
+arranging them were very remarkable indeed. He was not one of the most
+learned of lawyers, but he was a great deal more learned than many
+people believed him to be, and as an ecclesiastical lawyer had perhaps
+few or no superiors. His fault--a natural fault in one who had been so
+successful as an advocate--was that of being too apt to take one side.
+He allowed, also, certain political or personal prepossessions to colour
+the tone of his remarks from the bench. A game-preserving landlord had
+not to thank the gods when his case, however buttressed by generally
+accepted claims, came before Coleridge. Towards the end of his life his
+health failed, and he became somewhat indolent. On the whole, he was not
+so strong a man in his judicial capacity as Campbell or Cockburn; but it
+must be admitted that his scholarship, his refinement, his power of
+oratory, and his character raised the tone of the bench while he sat
+upon it, and that if it has been adorned by greater judicial abilities,
+it has hardly ever known a greater combination of varied merits. It is
+curious to observe that of all judges the man whom he put highest was
+one very unlike himself, the great master of the rolls, Sir William
+Grant. Coleridge died in harness on the 14th of June 1894.
+
+Coleridge's work, first as a barrister, and then as a judge, prevented
+his publishing as much as he otherwise would have done, but his
+addresses and papers would, if collected, fill a substantial volume and
+do much honour to his memory. One of the best, and one most eminently
+characteristic of the man, was his inaugural address to the
+Philosophical Institution at Edinburgh in 1870; another was a paper on
+Wordsworth (1873). He was an exceptionally good letter-writer. Of travel
+he had very little experience. He had hardly been to Paris; once, quite
+near the end of his career, he spent a few days in Holland, and came
+back a willing slave to the genius of Rembrandt; but his longest absence
+from England was a visit, which had something of a representative legal
+character, to the United States. It is strange that a man so steeped in
+Greek and Roman poetry, so deeply interested in the past, present and
+future of Christianity, never saw Rome, or Athens, or the Holy Land. A
+subsidiary cause, no doubt, was the fatal custom of neglecting modern
+languages at English schools. He felt himself at a disadvantage when he
+passed beyond English-speaking lands, and cordially disliked the
+situation. No notice of Coleridge should omit to make mention of his
+extraordinary store of anecdotes, which were nearly always connected
+with Eton, Oxford, the bar or the bench. His exquisite voice,
+considerable power of mimicry, and perfect method of narration added
+greatly to the charm. He once told, at the table of Dr Jowett, master of
+Balliol, anecdotes through the whole of dinner on Saturday evening,
+through the whole of breakfast, lunch and dinner the next day, through
+the whole journey on Monday morning from Oxford to Paddington, without
+ever once repeating himself. He was frequently to be seen at the
+Athenaeum, was a member both of Grillion's and The Club, as well as of
+the Literary Society, of which he was president, and whose meetings he
+very rarely missed. Bishop Copleston is said to have divided the human
+race into three classes,--men, women and Coleridges. If he did so, he
+meant, no doubt, to imply that the family of whom the poet of
+_Christabel_ was the chief example regarded themselves as a class to
+themselves, the objects of a special dispensation. John Duke Coleridge
+was sarcastic and critical, and at times over-sensitive. But his
+strongest characteristics were love of liberty and justice. By birth and
+connexions a Conservative, he was a Liberal by conviction, and loyal to
+his party and its great leader, Mr Gladstone.
+
+Coleridge had three sons and a daughter by his first wife, Jane
+Fortescue, daughter of the Rev. George Seymour of Freshwater. She was an
+artist of real genius, and her portrait of Cardinal Newman was
+considered much better than the one by Millais. She died in February
+1878; a short notice of her by Dean Church of St Paul's was published in
+the _Guardian_, and was reprinted in her husband's privately printed
+collection of poems. Coleridge remained for some years a widower, but
+married in 1885 Amy Augusta Jackson Lawford, who survived him. He was
+succeeded in the peerage by his eldest son, Bernard John Seymour (b.
+1851), who went to the bar and became a K.C. in 1892. In 1907 he was
+appointed a judge of the Supreme Court. The two other sons were Stephen
+(b. 1854), a barrister, secretary to the Anti-Vivisection Society, and
+Gilbert James Duke (b. 1859).
+
+  His _Life and Correspondence_, edited by E. H. Coleridge, was
+  published in 1904; see further E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_
+  (1904); and for the history of the Coleridge family see Lord
+  Coleridge, _The Story of a Devonshire House_ (1907).     (M. G. D.)
+
+
+
+
+COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR (1790-1876), English judge, the second son of
+Captain James Coleridge and nephew of the poet S. T. Coleridge, was born
+at Tiverton, Devon, and was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
+where he had a brilliant career. He graduated in 1812 and was soon after
+made a fellow of Exeter; in 1819 he was called to the bar at the Middle
+Temple and practised for some years on the western circuit. In 1824, on
+Gifford's retirement, he assumed the editorship of the _Quarterly
+Review_, resigning it a year afterwards in favour of Lockhart. In 1825
+he published his excellent edition of _Blackstone's Commentaries_, and
+in 1832 he was made a serjeant-at-law and recorder of Exeter. In 1835 he
+was appointed one of the judges of the king's bench. In 1852 his
+university created him a D.C.L., and in 1858 he resigned his judgeship,
+and was made a member of the privy council. In 1869, although in extreme
+old age, he produced his pleasant _Memoir of the Rev. John Keble_, whose
+friend he had been since their college days, a third edition of which
+was issued within a year. He died on the 11th of February 1876 at Ottery
+St Mary, Devon, leaving two sons and a daughter; the eldest son, John
+Duke, 1st Baron Coleridge (q.v.), became lord chief justice of England;
+the second son, Henry James (1822-1893), left the Anglican for the Roman
+Catholic church in 1852, and became well-known as a Jesuit divine,
+editor of _The Month_, and author of numerous theological works. Sir
+John Taylor Coleridge's brothers, James Duke and Henry Nelson (husband
+of Sara Coleridge), are referred to in other articles; his brother
+Francis George was the father of Arthur Duke Coleridge (b. 1830), clerk
+of assizes on the midland circuit and author of _Eton in the Forties_,
+whose daughter Mary E. Coleridge (1861-1907) became a well-known writer
+of fiction.
+
+
+
+
+COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834), English poet and philosopher, was
+born on the 21st of October 1772, at his father's vicarage of Ottery St
+Mary's, Devonshire. His father, the Rev. John Coleridge (1719-1781), was
+a man of some mark. He was known for his great scholarship, simplicity
+of character, and affectionate interest in the pupils of the grammar
+school, of which he was appointed master a few months before becoming
+vicar of the parish (1760), reigning in both capacities till his death.
+He had married twice. The poet was the youngest child of his second
+wife, Anne Bowdon (d. 1809), a woman of great good sense, and anxiously
+ambitious for the success of her sons. On the death of his father, a
+presentation to Christ's Hospital was procured for Coleridge by the
+judge, Sir Francis Buller, an old pupil of his father's. He had already
+begun to give evidence of a powerful imagination, and he has described
+in a letter to his valued friend, Tom Poole, the pernicious effect which
+the admiration of an uncle and his circle of friends had upon him at
+this period. For eight years he continued at Christ's Hospital. Of these
+school-days Charles Lamb has given delightful glimpses in the _Essays of
+Elia_. The headmaster, Bowyer (as he was called, though his name was
+Boyer), was a severe disciplinarian, but respected by his pupils.
+Middleton, afterwards known as a Greek scholar, and bishop of Calcutta,
+reported Coleridge to Bowyer as a boy who read Virgil for amusement, and
+from that time Bowyer began to notice him and encouraged his reading.
+Some compositions in English poetry, written at sixteen, and not without
+a touch of genius, give evidence of the influence which Bowles, whose
+poems were then in vogue, had over his mind at this time. Before he left
+school his constitutional delicacy of frame, increased by swimming the
+New River in his clothes, began to give him serious discomfort.
+
+In February 1791 he was entered at Jesus College, Cambridge. A
+school-fellow who followed him to the university has described in
+glowing terms evenings in his rooms, "when Aeschylus, and Plato, and
+Thucydides were pushed aside, with a pile of lexicons and the like, to
+discuss the pamphlets of the day. Ever and anon a pamphlet issued from
+the pen of Burke. There was no need of having the book before
+us;--Coleridge had read it in the morning, and in the evening he would
+repeat whole pages verbatim." William Frend, a fellow of Jesus, accused
+of sedition and Unitarianism, was at this time tried and expelled from
+Cambridge. Coleridge had imbibed his sentiments, and joined the ranks of
+his partisans. He grew discontented with university life, and in 1793,
+pressed by debt, went to London. Perhaps he was also influenced by his
+passion for Mary Evans, the sister of one of his school-fellows. A poem
+in the _Morning Chronicle_ brought him a guinea, and when that was spent
+he enlisted in the 15th Dragoons under the name of Silas Tomkyn
+Comberbache. One of the officers of the dragoon regiment, finding a
+Latin sentence inscribed on a wall, discovered the condition of the very
+awkward recruit. Shortly afterwards an old school-fellow (G. L. Tuckett)
+heard of his whereabouts, and by the intervention of his brother,
+Captain James Coleridge, his discharge was procured. He returned for a
+short time to Cambridge, but quitted the university without a degree in
+1794. In the same year he visited Oxford, and after a short tour in
+Wales went to Bristol, where he met Southey. The French Revolution had
+stirred the mind of Southey to its depths. Coleridge received with
+rapture his new friend's scheme of Pantisocracy. On the banks of the
+Susquehanna was to be founded a brotherly community, where selfishness
+was to be extinguished, and the virtues were to reign supreme. No funds
+were forthcoming, and in 1795, to the chagrin of Coleridge, the scheme
+was dropped. In 1794 _The Fall of Robespierre_, of which Coleridge wrote
+the first act and Southey the other two, appeared. At Bristol Coleridge
+formed the acquaintance of Joseph Cottle, the bookseller, who offered
+him thirty guineas for a volume of poems. In October of 1795 Coleridge
+married Sarah Fricker, and took up his residence at Clevedon on the
+Bristol Channel. A few weeks afterwards Southey married a sister of Mrs
+Coleridge, and on the same day quitted England for Portugal.
+
+Coleridge began to lecture in Bristol on politics and religion. He
+embodied the first two lectures in his first prose publication,
+_Conciones ad Populum_ (1795). The book contained much invective against
+Pitt, and in after life Coleridge declared that, with this exception, and
+a few pages involving philosophical tenets which he afterwards rejected,
+there was little or nothing he desired to retract. The first volume of
+_Poems_ was published by Cottle early in 1796. Coleridge projected a
+periodical called _The Watchman_, and in 1796 undertook a journey, well
+described in the _Biographic Literaria_, to enlist subscribers. _The
+Watchman_ had a brief life of two months, but at this time Coleridge
+began to think of becoming a Unitarian preacher, and abandoning
+literature for ever. Hazlitt has recorded his very favourable impression
+of a remarkable sermon delivered at Shrewsbury; but there are other
+accounts of Coleridge's preaching not so enthusiastic. In the summer of
+1795 he met for the first time the brother poet with whose name his own
+will be for ever associated. Wordsworth and his sister had established
+themselves at Racedown in the Dorsetshire hills, and here Coleridge
+visited them in 1797. There are few things in literary history more
+remarkable than this friendship. The gifted Dorothy Wordsworth described
+Coleridge as "thin and pale, the lower part of the face not good, wide
+mouth, thick lips, not very good teeth, longish, loose, half-curling,
+rough, black hair,"--but all was forgotten in the magic charm of his
+utterance. Wordsworth, who declared, "The only wonderful man I ever knew
+was Coleridge," seems at once to have desired to see more of his new
+friend. He and his sister removed in July 1797 to Alfoxden, near Nether
+Stowey, to be in Coleridge's neighbourhood, and in the most delightful
+and unrestrained intercourse the friends spent many happy days. It was
+the delight of each one to communicate to the other the productions of
+his mind, and the creative faculty of both poets was now at its best. One
+evening, at Watchett on the British Channel, _The Ancient Mariner_ first
+took shape. Coleridge was anxious to embody a dream of a friend, and the
+suggestion of the shooting of the albatross came from Wordsworth, who
+gained the idea from Shelvocke's _Voyage_ (1726). A joint volume was
+planned. Wordsworth was to show the real poetry that lies hidden in
+commonplace subjects, while Coleridge was to treat supernatural subjects
+to illustrate the common emotions of humanity. From this sprang the
+_Lyrical Ballads_, to which Coleridge contributed _The Ancient Mariner_,
+the _Nightingale_ and two scenes from _Osorio_, and after much cogitation
+the book was published in 1798 at Bristol by Cottle, to whose
+reminiscences, often indulging too much in detail, we owe the account of
+this remarkable time. A second edition of the _Lyrical Ballads_ in 1800
+included another poem by Coleridge--_Love_, to which subsequently the
+sub-title was given of _An Introduction to the Tale of the Dark Ladie_.
+To the Stowey period belong also the tragedy of _Osorio_ (afterwards
+known as _Remorse_), _Kubla Khan_ and the first part of _Christabel_. In
+1798 an annuity, granted him by the brothers Wedgwood, led Coleridge to
+abandon his reluctantly formed intention of becoming a Unitarian
+minister. For many years he had desired to see the continent, and in
+September 1798, in company with Wordsworth and his sister, he left
+England for Hamburg. _Satyrane's Letters_ (republished in _Biog. Lit._
+1817) give an account of the tour.
+
+A new period in Coleridge's life now began. He soon left the Wordsworths
+to spend four months at Ratzeburg, whence he removed to Göttingen to
+attend lectures. A great intellectual movement had begun in Germany.
+Coleridge was soon in the full whirl of excitement. He learnt much from
+Blumenbach and Eichhorn, and took interest in all that was going on
+around him. During his stay of nine months in Germany, he made himself
+master of the language to such purpose that the translation of
+_Wallenstein_--his first piece of literary work after his return to
+England--was actually accomplished in six weeks. It was published in
+1800, and, although it failed to make any impression on the general
+public, it became at once prized by Scott and others as it deserved. It
+is matter for regret that a request to Coleridge that he should
+undertake to translate _Faust_ never received serious attention from
+him. During these years Coleridge wrote many newspaper articles and some
+poems, among them "Fire, Famine and Slaughter," for the _Morning Post_
+(January 8, 1798). He had vehemently opposed Pitt's policy, but a change
+came over his way of thought, and he found himself separated from Fox on
+the question of a struggle with Napoleon. He had lost his admiration for
+the Revolutionists, as his "Ode to France" shows (_Morning Post_, April
+16, 1798). Like many other Whigs, he felt that all questions of domestic
+policy must at a time of European peril be postponed. From this time,
+however, his value for the ordered liberty of constitutional government
+increased; and though never exactly to be found among the ranks of
+old-fashioned Constitutionalists, during the remainder of his life he
+kept steadily in view the principles which received their full
+exposition in his well-known work on _Church and State_. In the year
+1800 Coleridge left London for the Lakes. Here in that year he wrote the
+second part of _Christabel_. In 1803 Southey became a joint lodger with
+Coleridge at Greta Hall, Keswick, of which in 1812 Southey became sole
+tenant and occupier.
+
+In 1801 begins the period of Coleridge's life during which, in spite of
+the evidence of work shown in his compositions, he sank more and more
+under the dominion of opium, in which he may have first indulged at
+Cambridge. Few things are so sad to read as the letters in which he
+details the consequences of his transgression. He was occasionally seen
+in London during the first years of the century, and wherever he
+appeared he was the delight of admiring circles. He toured in Scotland
+with the Wordsworths in 1803, visited Malta in 1804, when for ten months
+he acted as secretary to the governor, and stayed nearly eight months at
+Naples and Rome in 1805-1806. In Rome he received a hint that his
+articles in the _Morning Post_ had been brought to Napoleon's notice,
+and he made the voyage from Leghorn in an American ship. On a visit to
+Somersetshire in 1807 he met De Quincey for the first time, and the
+younger man's admiration was shown by a gift of £300, "from an unknown
+friend." In 1809 he started a magazine called _The Friend_, which
+continued only for eight months. At the same time Coleridge began to
+contribute to the _Courier_. In 1808 he lectured at the Royal
+Institution, but with little success, and two years later he gave his
+lectures on Shakespeare and other poets. These lectures attracted great
+attention and were followed by two other series. In 1812 his income from
+the Wedgwoods was reduced, and he settled the remainder on his wife. His
+friends were generous in assisting him with money. Eventually Mackintosh
+obtained a grant of £100 a year for him in 1824 during the lifetime of
+George IV., as one of the royal associates of the Society of Literature,
+and at different times he received help principally from Stuart, the
+publisher, Poole, Sotheby, Sir George Beaumont, Byron and Wordsworth,
+while his children shared Southey's home at Keswick. But between 1812
+and 1817 Coleridge made a good deal by his work, and was able to send
+money to his wife in addition to the annuity she received. The tragedy
+of _Remorse_ was produced at Drury Lane in 1813, and met with
+considerable success. Three years after this, having failed to conquer
+the opium habit, he determined to enter the family of Mr James Gillman,
+who lived at Highgate. The letter in which he discloses his misery to
+this kind and thoughtful man gives a real insight into his character.
+Under judicious treatment the hour of mastery at last arrived. The shore
+was reached, but the vessel had been miserably shattered in its passage
+through the rocks. For the rest of his life he hardly ever left his home
+at Highgate. During his residence there, _Christabel_, written many
+years before, and known to a favoured few, was first published in a
+volume with _Kubla Khan_ and the _Pains of Sleep_ in 1816. He read
+widely and wisely, in poetry, philosophy and divinity. In 1816 and the
+following year, he gave his _Lay Sermons_ to the world. _Sibylline
+Leaves_ appeared in 1817; the _Biographia Literaria_ and a revised
+edition of _The Friend_ soon followed. Seven years afterwards his most
+popular prose work--_The Aids to Reflection_--first appeared. His last
+publication, in 1830, was the work on _Church and State_. It was not
+till 1840 that his _Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit_, by far his most
+seminal work, was posthumously published. In 1833 he appeared at the
+meeting of the British Association at Cambridge, but he died in the
+following year (25th of July 1834), and was buried in the churchyard
+close to the house of Mr Gillman, where he had enjoyed every consolation
+which friendship and love could render. Coleridge died in the communion
+of the Church of England, of whose polity and teaching he had been for
+many years a loving admirer. An interesting letter to his god-child,
+written twelve days before his death, sums up his spiritual experience
+in a most touching form.
+
+Of the extraordinary influence which he exercised in conversation it is
+impossible to speak fully here. Many of the most remarkable among the
+younger men of that period resorted to Highgate as to the shrine of an
+oracle, and although one or two disparaging judgments, such as that of
+Carlyle, have been recorded, there can be no doubt that since Samuel
+Johnson there had been no such power in England. His nephew, Henry
+Nelson Coleridge, gathered together some specimens of the _Table Talk_
+of the few last years. But remarkable as these are for the breadth of
+sympathy and extent of reading disclosed, they will hardly convey the
+impressions furnished in a dramatic form, as in Boswell's great work.
+Four volumes of _Literary Remains_ were published after his death, and
+these, along with the chapters on the poetry of Wordsworth in the
+_Biographia Literaria_, may be said to exhibit the full range of
+Coleridge's power as a critic of poetry. In this region he stands
+supreme. With regard to the preface, which contains Wordsworth's theory,
+Coleridge has honestly expressed his dissent:--"With many parts of this
+preface, in the sense attributed to them, and which the words
+undoubtedly seem to authorize, I never concurred; but, on the contrary,
+objected to them as erroneous in principle, and contradictory (in
+appearance at least) both to other parts of the same preface, and to the
+author's own practice in the greater number of the poems themselves."
+This disclaimer of perfect agreement renders the remaining portion of
+what he says more valuable. Coleridge was in England the creator of that
+higher criticism which had already in Germany accomplished so much in
+the hands of Lessing and Goethe. It is enough to refer here to the
+fragmentary series of his Shakespearian criticisms, containing evidence
+of the truest insight, and a marvellous appreciation of the judicial
+"sanity" which raises the greatest name in literature far above even the
+highest of the poets who approached him.
+
+As a poet Coleridge's own place is safe. His niche in the great gallery
+of English poets is secure. Of no one can it be more emphatically said
+that at his highest he was "of imagination all compact." He does not
+possess the fiery pulse and humaneness of Burns, but the exquisite
+perfection of his metre and the subtle alliance of his thought and
+expression must always secure for him the warmest admiration of true
+lovers of poetic art. In his early poems may be found traces of the
+fierce struggle of his youth. The most remarkable is the _Monody on the
+Death of Chatterton_ and the _Religious Musings_. In what may be called
+his second period, the ode entitled _France_, considered by Shelley the
+finest in the language, is most memorable. The whole soul of the poet is
+reflected in the _Ode to Dejection_. The well-known lines--
+
+  "O Lady! we receive but what we give,
+   And in our life alone does nature live;
+   Ours is her wedding garment, ours her shroud,"
+
+with the passage which follows, contain more vividly, perhaps, than
+anything which Coleridge has written, the expression of the shaping and
+colouring function which he assigns, in the _Biographia Literaria_, to
+imagination. _Christabel_ and the _Ancient Mariner_ have so completely
+taken possession of the highest place, that it is needless to do more
+than allude to them. The supernatural has never received such treatment
+as in these two wonderful productions of his genius, and though the
+first of them remains a torso, it is the loveliest torso in the gallery
+of English literature. Although Coleridge had, for many years before his
+death, almost entirely forsaken poetry, the few fragments of work which
+remain, written in later years, show little trace of weakness, although
+they are wanting in the unearthly melody which imparts such a charm to
+_Kubla Khan_, _Love_ and _Youth and Age_.     (G. D. B.; H. CH.)
+
+In the latter part of his life, and for the generation which followed,
+Coleridge was ranked by many young English churchmen of liberal views as
+the greatest religious thinker of their time. As Carlyle has told in his
+_Life of Sterling_, the poet's distinction, in the eyes of the younger
+churchmen with philosophic interests, lay in his having recovered and
+preserved his Christian faith after having passed through periods of
+rationalism and Unitarianism, and faced the full results of German
+criticism and philosophy. His opinions, however, were at all periods
+somewhat mutable, and it would be difficult to state them in any form
+that would hold good for the whole even of his later writings. He was,
+indeed, too receptive of thought impressions of all kinds to be a
+consistent systematizer. As a schoolboy, by his own account, he was for
+a time a Voltairean, on the strength of a perusal of the _Philosophical
+Dictionary_. At college, as we have seen, he turned Unitarian. From that
+position he gradually moved towards pantheism, a way of thought to which
+he had shown remarkable leanings when, as a schoolboy, he discoursed of
+Neo-Platonism to Charles Lamb, or--if we may trust his
+recollection--translated the hymns of Synesius. Early in life, too, he
+met with the doctrines of Jacob Behmen, of whom, in the _Biographia
+Literaria_, he speaks with affection and gratitude as having given him
+vital philosophic guidance. Between pantheism and Unitarianism he seems
+to have balanced till his thirty-fifth year, always tending towards the
+former in virtue of the recoil from "anthropomorphism" which originally
+took him to Unitarianism. In 1796, when he named his first child David
+Hartley, but would not have him baptized, he held by the "Christian
+materialism" of the writer in question, whom in his _Religious Musings_
+he terms "wisest of mortal kind."
+
+When, again, he met Wordsworth in 1797, the two poets freely and
+sympathetically discussed Spinoza, for whom Coleridge always retained a
+deep admiration; and when in 1798 he gave up his Unitarian preaching, he
+named his second child Berkeley, signifying a new allegiance, but still
+without accepting Christian rites otherwise than passively. Shortly
+afterwards he went to Germany, where he began to study Kant, and was
+much captivated by Lessing. In the _Biographia_ he avows that the
+writings of Kant "more than any other work, at once invigorated and
+disciplined my understanding"; yet the gist of his estimate there is
+that Kant left his system undeveloped, as regards his idea of the
+Noumenon, for fear of orthodox persecution--a judgment hardly compatible
+with any assumption of Kant's Christian orthodoxy, which was notoriously
+inadequate. But after his stay at Malta, Coleridge announced to his
+friends that he had given up his "Socinianism" (of which ever afterwards
+he spoke with asperity), professing a return to Christian faith, though
+still putting on it a mystical construction, as when he told Crabb
+Robinson that "Jesus Christ was a Platonic philosopher." At this stage
+he was much in sympathy with the historico-rationalistic criticism of
+the Old Testament, as carried on in Germany; giving his assent, for
+instance, to the naturalistic doctrine of Schiller's _Die Sendung
+Moses_. From about 1810 onwards, however, he openly professed Christian
+orthodoxy, while privately indicating views which cannot be so
+described. And even his published speculations were such as to draw from
+J. H. Newman a protest that they took "a liberty which no Christian can
+tolerate," and carried him to "conclusions which were often heathen
+rather than Christian." This would apply to some of his positions
+concerning the Logos and the Trinity. After giving up Unitarianism he
+claimed that from the first he had been a Trinitarian on Platonic lines;
+and some of his latest statements of the doctrine are certainly more
+pantheistic than Christian.
+
+The explanation seems to be that while on Christian grounds he
+repeatedly denounced pantheism as being in all its forms equivalent to
+atheism, he was latterly much swayed by the thought of Schelling in the
+pantheistic direction which was natural to him. To these conflicting
+tendencies were probably due his self-contradictions on the problem of
+original sin and the conflicting claims of feeling and reason. It would
+seem that, in the extreme spiritual vicissitudes of his life, conscious
+alternately of personal weakness and of the largest speculative grasp,
+he at times threw himself entirely on the consolations of evangelical
+faith, and at others reconstructed the cosmos for himself in terms of
+Neo-Platonism and the philosophy of Schelling. So great were his
+variations even in his latter years, that he could speak to his friend
+Allsop in a highly latitudinarian sense, declaring that in Christianity
+"the miracles are supererogatory," and that "the law of God and the
+great principles of the Christian religion would have been the same had
+Christ never assumed humanity."
+
+From Schelling, whom he praised as having developed Kant where Fichte
+failed to do so, he borrowed much and often, not only in the
+metaphysical sections of the _Biographia_ but in his aesthetic lectures,
+and further in the cosmic speculations of the posthumous _Theory of
+Life_. On the first score he makes but an equivocal acknowledgment,
+claiming to have thought on Schelling's lines before reading him; but it
+has been shown by Hamilton and Ferrier that besides transcribing much
+from Schelling without avowal he silently appropriated the learning of
+Maass on philosophical history. In other directions he laid under
+tribute Herder and Lessing; yet all the while he cast severe imputations
+of plagiarism upon Hume and others. His own plagiarisms were doubtless
+facilitated by the physiological effects of opium.
+
+Inasmuch as he finally followed in philosophy the mainly poetical or
+theosophic movement of Schelling, which satisfied neither the logical
+needs appealed to by Hegel nor the new demand for naturalistic
+induction, Coleridge, after arousing a great amount of philosophic
+interest in his own country in the second quarter of the century, has
+ceased to "make a school." Thus his significance in intellectual history
+remains that of a great stimulator. He undoubtedly did much to deepen
+and liberalize Christian thought in England, his influence being
+specially marked in the school of F. D. Maurice, and in the lives of men
+like John Sterling. And even his many borrowings from the German were
+assimilated with a rare power of development, which bore fruit not only
+in a widening of the field of English philosophy but in the larger
+scientific thought of a later generation.     (J. M. RO.)
+
+  Of Coleridge's four children, two (Hartley and Sara) are separately
+  noticed. His second child, Berkeley, died when a baby. The third,
+  Derwent (1800-1883), a distinguished scholar and author, was master of
+  Helston school, Cornwall (1825-1841), first principal of St Mark's
+  College, Chelsea (1841-1864), and rector of Hanwell (1864-1880); and
+  his daughter Christabel (b. 1843) and son Ernest Hartley (b. 1846)
+  both became well known in the world of letters, the former as a
+  novelist, the latter as a biographer and critic.
+
+  After Coleridge's death several of his works were edited by his
+  nephew, Henry Nelson Coleridge, the husband of Sara, the poet's only
+  daughter. In 1847 Sara Coleridge published the _Biographia Literaria_,
+  enriched with annotations and biographical supplement from her own
+  pen. Three volumes of political writings, entitled _Essays on his Own
+  Times_, were also published by Sara Coleridge in 1850. The standard
+  life of Coleridge is that by J. Dykes Campbell (1894); his letters
+  were edited by E. H. Coleridge.
+
+
+
+
+COLERIDGE, SARA (1802-1852), English author, the fourth child and only
+daughter of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his wife Sarah Fricker of
+Bristol, was born on the 23rd of December 1802, at Greta Hall, Keswick.
+Here, after 1803, the Coleridges, Southey and his wife (Mrs Coleridge's
+sister), and Mrs Lovell (another sister), widow of Robert Lovell, the
+Quaker poet, all lived together; but Coleridge was often away from home;
+and "Uncle Southey" was a _pater familias_. The Wordsworths at Grasmere
+were their neighbours. Wordsworth, in his poem, the _Triad_, has left us
+a description, or "poetical glorification," as Sara Coleridge calls it,
+of the three girls--his own daughter Dora, Edith Southey and Sara
+Coleridge, the "last of the three, though eldest born." Greta Hall was
+Sara Coleridge's home until her marriage; and the little Lake colony
+seems to have been her only school. Guided by Southey, and with his
+ample library at her command, she read by herself the chief Greek and
+Latin classics, and before she was five-and-twenty had learnt French,
+German, Italian and Spanish.
+
+In 1822 Sara Coleridge published _Account of the Abipones_, a
+translation in three large volumes of Dobrizhoffer, undertaken in
+connexion with Southey's _Tale of Paraguay_, which had been suggested to
+him by Dobrizhoffer's volumes; and Southey alludes to his niece, the
+translator (canto iii. stanza 16), where he speaks of the pleasure the
+old missionary would have felt if
+
+  ".... he could in Merlin's glass have seen
+   By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught."
+
+In less grandiloquent terms, Charles Lamb, writing about the _Tale of
+Paraguay_ to Southey in 1825, says, "How she Dobrizhoffered it all out,
+puzzles my slender Latinity to conjecture." In 1825 her second work
+appeared, a translation from the medieval French of the "Loyal
+Serviteur," _The Right Joyous and Pleasant History of the Feats, Jests,
+and Prowesses of the Chevalier Bayard, the Good Knight without Fear and
+without Reproach: By the Loyal Servant_.
+
+In September 1829 at Crosthwaite church, Keswick, after an engagement of
+seven years' duration, Sara Coleridge was married to her cousin, Henry
+Nelson Coleridge (1798-1843), younger son of Captain James Coleridge
+(1760-1836). He was then a chancery barrister in London. The first eight
+years of her married life were spent in a little cottage in Hampstead.
+There four of her children were born, of whom two survived. In 1834 Mrs
+Coleridge published her _Pretty Lessons in Verse for Good Children; with
+some Lessons in Latin in Easy Rhyme_. These were originally written for
+the instruction of her own children, and became very popular. In 1837
+the Coleridges removed to Chester Place, Regent's Park; and in the same
+year appeared _Phantasmion, a Fairy Tale_, Sara Coleridge's longest
+original work. The songs in _Phantasmion_ were much admired at the time
+by Leigh Hunt and other critics. Some of them, such as "Sylvan Stay" and
+"One Face Alone," are extremely graceful and musical, and the whole
+fairy tale is noticeable for the beauty of the story and the richness of
+its language.
+
+In 1843 Henry Coleridge died, leaving to his widow the unfinished task
+of editing her father's works. To these she added some compositions of
+her own, among which are the _Essay on Rationalism, with a special
+application to the Doctrine of Baptismal_ _Regeneration_, appended to
+Coleridge's _Aids to Reflection_, a Preface to the _Essays on his Own
+Times, by S. T. Coleridge_, and the Introduction to the _Biographia
+Literaria_. During the last few years of her life Sara Coleridge was a
+confirmed invalid. Shortly before she died she amused herself by writing
+a little autobiography for her daughter. This, which reaches only to her
+ninth year, was completed by her daughter, and published in 1873,
+together with some of her letters, under the title _Memoirs and Letters
+of Sara Coleridge_. The letters show a cultured and highly speculative
+mind. They contain many apt criticisms of known people and books, and
+are specially interesting for their allusions to Wordsworth and the Lake
+Poets. Sara Coleridge died in London on the 3rd of May 1852.
+
+Her son, Herbert Coleridge (1830-1861), won a double first class in
+classics and mathematics at Oxford in 1852. He was secretary to a
+committee appointed by the Philological Society to consider the project
+of a standard English dictionary, a scheme of which the _New English
+Dictionary_, published by the Clarendon Press, was the ultimate outcome.
+His personal researches into the subject were contained in his
+_Glossarial Index to the Printed English Literature of the Thirteenth
+Century_ (1859).
+
+
+
+
+COLET, JOHN (1467?-1510), English divine and educationist, the eldest
+son of Sir Henry Colet (lord mayor of London 1486 and 1495), was born in
+London about 1467. He was educated at St Anthony's school and at
+Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took the M.A. degree in 1490. He
+already held the non-resident rectory of Dennington, Suffolk, and the
+vicarage of St Dunstan's, Stepney, and was now collated rector of
+Thurning, Hunts. In 1493 he went to Paris and thence to Italy, studying
+canon and civil law, patristics and the rudiments of Greek. During his
+residence abroad he became acquainted with Budaeus (Guillaume Budé) and
+Erasmus, and with the teaching of Savonarola. On his return to England
+in 1496 he took orders and settled at Oxford, where he lectured on the
+epistles of St Paul, replacing the old scholastic method of
+interpretation by an exegesis more in harmony with the new learning. His
+methods did much to influence Erasmus, who visited Oxford in 1498, and
+in after years Erasmus received an annuity from him. Since 1494 he had
+been prebendary of York, and canon of St Martin le Grand, London. In
+1502 he became prebendary of Salisbury, in 1505 prebendary of St Paul's,
+and immediately afterwards dean of the same cathedral, having previously
+taken the degree of doctor of divinity. Here he continued his practice
+of lecturing on the books of the Bible; and he soon afterwards
+established a perpetual divinity lecture, on three days in each week, in
+St Paul's church. About the year 1508, having inherited his father's
+large wealth, Colet formed his plan for the re-foundation of St Paul's
+school, which he completed in 1512, and endowed with estates of an
+annual value of £122 and upwards. The celebrated grammarian William
+Lilly was the first master, and the company of mercers were (in 1510)
+appointed trustees, the first example of non-clerical management in
+education. The dean's religious opinions were so much more liberal than
+those of the contemporary clergy (whose ignorance and corruption he
+denounced) that they deemed him little better than a heretic; but
+William Warham, the archbishop, refused to prosecute him. Similarly
+Henry VIII. held him in high esteem despite his sermons against the
+French wars. In 1514 he made the Canterbury pilgrimage, and in 1515
+preached at Wolsey's installation as cardinal. Colet died of the
+sweating sickness on the 16th of September 1519. He was buried on the
+south side of the choir of St Paul's, where a stone was laid over his
+grave, with no other inscription than his name. Besides the preferments
+above mentioned, he was rector of the gild of Jesus at St Paul's and
+chaplain to Henry VIII.
+
+Colet, though never dreaming of a formal breach with the Roman Church,
+was a keen reformer, who disapproved of auricular confession, and of the
+celibacy of the clergy. Though no great scholar or writer, he was a
+powerful force in the England of his day, and helped materially to
+disintegrate the medieval conditions still obtaining, and to introduce
+the humanist movement. Among his works, which were first collectively
+published in 1867-1876, are _Absolutissimus de octo orationis partium
+constructione libellus_ (Antwerp, 1530), _Rudimenta Grammatices_
+(London, 1539), _Daily Devotions_, _Monition to a Godly Life_,
+_Epistolae ad Erasmum_, and commentaries on different parts of the
+Bible.
+
+  See F. Seebohm, _The Oxford Reformers_; J. H. Lupton, _Life of John
+  Colet_ (1887); art. in _The Times_, July 7, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+COLET, LOUISE (1810-1876), French poet and novelist, was born at Aix of
+a Provençal family named Revoil, on the 15th of September 1810. In 1835
+she came to Paris with her husband Hippolyte Colet (1808-1851), a
+composer of music and professor of harmony and counterpoint at the
+conservatoire. In 1836 appeared her _Fleurs du Midi_, a volume of verse,
+of liberal tendency, followed by _Penserosa_ (1839), a second volume of
+verse; by _La Jeunesse de Goethe_ (1839), a one-act comedy; by _Les
+Coeurs brisés_ (1843), a novel; _Les Funerailles de Napoléon_ (1840),
+a poem, and _La Jeunesse de Mirabeau_ (1841), a novel. Her works were
+crowned five or six times by the Institute, a distinction which she
+owed, however, to the influence of Victor Cousin rather than to the
+quality of her work. The criticisms on her books and on the prizes
+conferred on her by the Academy exasperated her; and in 1841 Paris was
+diverted by her attempted reprisals on Alphonse Karr for certain notices
+in _Les Guêpes_. In 1849 she had to defend an action brought against her
+by the heirs of Madame Récamier, whose correspondence with Benjamin
+Constant she had published in the columns of the _Presse_. She produced
+a host of writings in prose and verse, but she is perhaps best known for
+her intimate connexion with some of her famous contemporaries, Abel
+Villemain, Gustave Flaubert and Victor Cousin. Only one of her books is
+now of interest--_Lui: roman contemporain_ (1859), the novel in which
+she told the story of her life. She died on the 8th of March 1876.
+
+
+
+
+COLEUS, a genus of herbaceous or shrubby plants belonging to the natural
+order Labiatae, chiefly natives of the tropics. They are very ornamental
+plants, the colour of their leaves being exceedingly varied, and often
+very brilliant. They are of the easiest culture. The cuttings of young
+shoots should be propagated every year, about March, being planted in
+thumb pots, in sandy loam, and placed in a close temperature of 70°.
+After taking root shift into 6-in. pots, using ordinary light loamy
+compost, containing abundance of leaf-mould and sand, and keeping them
+near the light. They may be passed on into larger pots as often as
+required, but 8-in. pots will be large enough for general purposes, as
+they can be fed with liquid manure. The young spring-struck plants like
+a warm growing atmosphere, but by midsummer they will bear more air and
+stand in a greenhouse or conservatory. They should be wintered in a
+temperature of 60° to 65°. The stopping of the young shoots must be
+regulated by the consideration whether bushy or pyramidal plants are
+desired. Some of the varieties are half-hardy and are used for summer
+bedding.
+
+
+
+
+COLFAX, SCHUYLER (1823-1885), American political leader, vice-president
+of the United States from 1869 to 1873, was born in New York city on the
+23rd of March 1823. His father died before the son's birth, and his
+mother subsequently married a Mr Matthews. The son attended the public
+schools of New York until he was ten, and then became a clerk in his
+step-father's store, removing in 1836 with his mother and step-father to
+New Carlisle, Indiana. In 1841 he removed to South Bend, where for eight
+years he was deputy auditor (his step-father being auditor) of St Joseph
+county; in 1842-1844 he was assistant enrolling clerk of the state
+senate and senate reporter for the _Indiana State Journal_. In 1845 he
+established the _St Joseph Valley Register_, which he published for
+eighteen years and made an influential Whig and later Republican
+journal. In 1850 he was a member of the state constitutional convention,
+and in 1854 took an active part in organizing the "Anti-Nebraska men"
+(later called Republicans) of his state, and was by them sent to
+Congress. Here he served with distinction from 1855 until 1869, the last
+six years as speaker of the House. At the close of the Civil War he was
+a leading member of the radical wing of the Republican party, advocating
+the disfranchisement of all who had been prominent in the service of
+the Confederacy, and declaring that "loyalty must govern what loyalty
+has preserved." In 1868 he had presidential aspirations, and was not
+without supporters. He accepted, however, the Republican nomination as
+vice-president on a ticket headed by General Grant, and was elected; but
+he failed in 1872 to secure renomination. During the political campaign
+of 1872 he was accused, with other prominent politicians, of being
+implicated in corrupt transactions with the Crédit Mobilier, and a
+congressional investigation brought out the fact that he had agreed to
+take twenty shares from this concern, and had received dividends
+amounting to $1200. It also leaked out during the investigation that he
+had received in 1868, as a campaign contribution, a gift of $4000 from a
+contractor who had supplied the government with envelopes while Colfax
+was chairman of the post office committee of the House. At the close of
+his term Colfax returned to private life under a cloud, and during the
+remainder of his lifetime earned a livelihood by delivering popular
+lectures. He died at Mankato, Minnesota, on the 13th of January 1885.
+
+  See J. C. Hollister's _Life of Schuyler Colfax_ (New York, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+COLIC (from the Gr. [Greek: kolon] or [Greek: kôlon], the large
+intestine), a term in medicine of very indefinite meaning, used by
+physicians outside England for any paroxysmal abdominal pain, but
+generally limited in England to a sudden sharp pain having its origin in
+the pelvis of the kidney, the ureter, gall-bladder, bile-ducts or
+intestine. Thus it is customary to speak of renal, biliary or intestinal
+colic. There is a growing tendency, however, among professional men of
+to-day, to restrict the use of the word to a pain produced by the
+contraction of the muscular walls of any of the hollow viscera of which
+the aperture has become more or less occluded, temporarily or otherwise.
+For renal and biliary colic, see the articles KIDNEY DISEASES and LIVER,
+only intestinal colic being treated in this place.
+
+In infants, usually those who are "bottle-fed," colic is exceedingly
+common, and is shown by the drawing up of their legs, their restlessness
+and their continuous cries.
+
+Among adults one of the most serious causes is that due to
+lead-poisoning and known as lead colic (_Syn._ painters' colic, _colica
+Pictonum_, Devonshire colic), from its having been clearly ascertained
+to be due to the absorption of lead into the system (see
+LEAD-POISONING). This disease had been observed and described long
+before its cause was discovered. Its occurrence in an epidemic form
+among the inhabitants of Poitou was recorded by François Citois
+(1572-1652) in 1617, under the title of _Novus et popularis apud
+Pictones dolor colicus biliosus_. The disease was thereafter termed
+_colica Pictonum_. It was supposed to be due to the acidity of the
+native wines, but it was afterwards found to depend on lead contained in
+them. A similar epidemic broke out in certain parts of Germany in the
+end of the 17th century, and was at the time believed by various
+physicians to be caused by the admixture of acid wines with litharge to
+sweeten them.
+
+About the middle of the 18th century this disease, which had long been
+known to prevail in Devonshire, was carefully investigated by Sir George
+Baker (1722-1809), who succeeded in tracing it unmistakably to the
+contamination of the native beverage, cider, with lead, either
+accidentally from the leadwork of the vats and other apparatus for
+preparing the liquor, or from its being sweetened with litharge.
+
+In Germany a similar colic resulting from the absorption of copper
+occurs, but it is almost unknown in England.
+
+The simplest form of colic is that arising from habitual constipation,
+the muscular wall of the intestines contracting painfully to overcome
+the resistance of hardened scybalous masses of faeces, which cause more
+or less obstruction to the onward passage of the intestinal contents.
+Another equally common cause is that due to irritating or indigestible
+food such as apples, pears or nuts, heavy pastry, meat pies and
+puddings, &c. It may then be associated with either constipation or
+diarrhoea, though the latter is the more common. It may result from any
+form of enteritis as simple, mucous and ulcerative colitis, or an
+intestinal malignant growth. The presence of _ascaris lumbricoides_
+may, by reflex action, set up a very painful nervous spasm; and certain
+forms of influenza (q.v.) are ushered in by colic of a very pronounced
+type. Many physicians describe a rheumatic colic due to cold and damp,
+and among women disease of the pelvic organs may give rise to an exactly
+similar pain. There are also those forms of colic which must be classed
+as functional or neuralgic, though this view of the case must never be
+accepted until every other possible cause is found to be untenable. From
+this short account of a few of the commoner causes of the trouble, it
+will be clear that colic is merely a symptom of disease, not a disease
+in itself, and that no diagnosis has been made until the cause of the
+pain has been determined.
+
+Intestinal colic is paroxysmal, usually both beginning and ending
+suddenly. The pain is generally referred to the neighbourhood of the
+umbilicus, and may radiate all over the abdomen. It varies in intensity
+from a slight momentary discomfort to a pain so severe as to cause the
+patient to shriek or even to break out into a cold clammy sweat. It is
+usually relieved by pressure, and this point is one which aids in the
+differential diagnosis between a simple colic and peritonitis, the pain
+of the latter being increased by pressure. But should the colic be due
+to a malignant growth, or should the intestines be distended with gas,
+pressure will probably increase the pain. The temperature is usually
+subnormal, but may be slightly raised, and the pulse is in proportion.
+
+In the treatment of simple colic the patient must be confined to bed,
+hot fomentations applied to the abdomen and a purge administered, a few
+drops of laudanum being added when the pain is exceptionally severe. But
+the whole difficulty lies in making the differential diagnosis. Acute
+intestinal obstruction (ileus) begins just as an attack of simple colic,
+but the rapid increase of illness, frequent vomiting, anxious
+countenance, and still more the condition of the pulse, warn a trained
+observer of the far more serious state. Appendicitis and peritonitis, as
+also the gastric crises of locomotor ataxy, must all be excluded.
+
+
+
+
+COLIGNY, GASPARD DE (1519-1572), admiral of France and Protestant
+leader, came of a noble family of Burgundy, who traced their descent
+from the 11th century, and in the reign of Louis XI. were in the service
+of the king of France. His father, Gaspard de Coligny, known as the
+maréchal de Châtillon (d. 1522), served in the Italian wars from 1495 to
+1515, and was created marshal of France in 1516. By his wife, Louise de
+Montmorency, sister of the future constable, he had three sons: Odet,
+cardinal de Châtillon; Gaspard, the admiral; and Francis, seigneur
+d'Andelot; all of whom played an important part in the first period of
+the wars of religion. At twenty-two young Gaspard came to court, and
+there contracted a friendship with Francis of Guise. In the campaign of
+1543 Coligny distinguished himself greatly, and was wounded at the
+sieges of Montmédy and Bains. In 1544 he served in the Italian campaign
+under the duke of Enghien, and was knighted on the field of Ceresole.
+Returning to France, he took part in different military operations; and
+having been made colonel-general of the infantry (April 1547), exhibited
+great capacity and intelligence as a military reformer. He was made
+admiral on the death of d'Annebaut (1552). In 1557 he was entrusted with
+the defence of Saint Quentin. In the siege he displayed great courage,
+resolution, and strength of character; but the place was taken, and he
+was imprisoned in the stronghold of L'Ecluse. On payment of a ransom of
+50,000 crowns he recovered his liberty. But he had by this time become a
+Huguenot, through the influence of his brother, d'Andelot--the first
+letter which Calvin addressed to him is dated the 4th of September
+1558--and he busied himself secretly with protecting his
+co-religionists, a colony of whom he sent to Brazil, whence they were
+afterwards expelled by the Portuguese.
+
+On the death of Henry II. he placed himself, with Louis, prince of
+Condé, in the front of his sect, and demanded religious toleration and
+certain other reforms. In 1560, at the Assembly of Notables at
+Fontainebleau, the hostility between Coligny and Francis of Guise broke
+forth violently. When the civil wars began in 1562, Coligny decided to
+take arms only after long hesitation, and he was always ready to
+negotiate. In none of these wars did he show superior genius, but he
+acted throughout with great prudence and extraordinary tenacity; he was
+"le héros de la mauvaise fortune." In 1569 the defeat and death of the
+prince of Condé at Jarnac left him sole leader of the Protestant armies.
+Victorious at Arnay-le-Duc, he obtained in 1570 the pacification of St
+Germain. Returning to the court in 1571, he grew rapidly in favour with
+Charles XI. As a means of emancipating the king from the tutelage of his
+mother and the faction of the Guises, the admiral proposed to him a
+descent on Spanish Flanders, with an army drawn from both sects and
+commanded by Charles in person. The king's regard for the admiral, and
+the bold front of the Huguenots, alarmed the queen-mother; and the
+massacre of St Bartholomew was the consequence. On the 22nd of August
+1572 Coligny was shot in the street by Maurevel, a bravo in the pay of
+the queen-mother and Guise; the bullets, however, only tore a finger
+from his right hand and shattered his left elbow. The king visited him,
+but the queen-mother prevented all private intercourse between them. On
+the 24th of August, the night of the massacre, he was attacked in his
+house, and a servant of the duke of Guise, generally known as Besme,
+slew him and cast him from a window into the courtyard at his master's
+feet. His papers were seized and burned by the queen-mother; among them,
+according to Brantôme, was a history of the civil war, "très-beau et
+tres-bien faict, et digne d'estre imprimé."
+
+By his wife, Charlotte de Laval, Coligny had several children, among
+them being Louise, who married first Charles de Téligny and afterwards
+William the Silent, prince of Orange, and Francis, admiral of Guienne,
+who was one of the devoted servants of Henry IV. Gaspard de Coligny
+(1584-1646), son of Francis, was marshal of France during the reign of
+Louis XIII.
+
+  See Jean du Bouchet, _Preuves de l'histoire généalogique de l'illustre
+  maison de Coligny_ (Paris, 1661); biography by François Hotman, 1575
+  (French translation, 1665); L. J. Delaborde, _Gaspard de Coligny_
+  (1879-1882); Erich Marcks, _Gaspard von Coligny, sein Leben und das
+  Frankreich seiner Zeit_ (Stuttgart, 1892); H. Patry, "Coligny et la
+  Papauté," in the _Bulletin du protestantisme français_ (1902); A. W.
+  Whitehead, _Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France_ (1904); and C.
+  Merki, _L'Amiral de Coligny_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+COLIMA, a small Pacific coast state of Mexico, lying between Jalisco on
+the N.W. and N., and Michoacan on the E. Including the Revilla Gigédo
+islands its area is only 2272 sq. m., which thus makes it the second
+smallest of the Mexican states. Pop. (1895) 55,264; (1900) 65,115. The
+larger part of its territory is within the narrow, flat coastal plain,
+beyond which it rises toward the north-east into the foothills of the
+Sierra Madre, the higher masses of the range, including the Colima
+volcano, lying outside the state. It is drained by the Ameria and
+Coahuayana rivers and their affluents, which are largely used for
+irrigation. There are tidewater lagoons and morasses on the coast which
+accentuate its malarious character. One of the largest of these,
+Cuitlán, immediately south of Manzanillo, is the centre of a large
+salt-producing industry. The soil is generally fertile and productive,
+but lack of transportation facilities has been a serious obstacle to any
+production greatly exceeding local demands. The dry and rainy seasons
+are sharply defined, the rainfall being abundant in the latter. The
+climate is hot, humid and malarious, becoming drier and healthier on the
+higher mountain slopes of the interior. Stock-raising is an important
+industry in the higher parts of the state, but the horses, mules and
+cattle raised have been limited to local demands. Agriculture, however,
+is the principal occupation of the state, the more important products
+being sugar, rice, Indian corn, palm oil, coffee, indigo, cotton and
+cacao. The production of cacao is small, and that of indigo and cotton
+is declining, the latter being limited to the requirements of small
+local mills. There are two crops of Indian corn a year, but sugar and
+rice are the principal crops. The "Caracolillo" coffee, produced on the
+slopes of the mountains culminating in the volcano of Colima, is reputed
+the best in Mexico, and the entire crop (about 506,000 lb. in 1906) is
+consumed in the country at a price much above other grades. There are
+important mineral deposits in the state, including iron, copper and
+lead, but mining enterprise has made no progress through lack of
+transportation facilities. Salt is made on the coast and shipped inland,
+and palm-leaf hats are manufactured and exported. Hides and deerskins
+are also exported in large quantities. A narrow-gauge railway has been
+in operation between the capital and Manzanillo for many years, and in
+1907 a branch of the Mexican Central was completed between Guadalajara
+and the capital, and the narrow-gauge line to the coast was widened to
+the standard gauge. The chief cities of the state are the capital
+Colima, Manzanillo, Comala (the second largest town in the state), 5 m.
+from the capital, with which it is connected by an electric railway,
+Ixtlahuacan Coquimatlan and Almoloyan.
+
+
+
+
+COLIMA, a city of Mexico and capital of a state of the same name, 570 m.
+(direct) W. by S. of Mexico City and about 36 m. inland from the Pacific
+coast. Pop. (1895) 18,977; (1900) 20,698. Colima is picturesquely
+situated on the Colima river, in a large fertile valley about 1650 ft.
+above the sea, and lies in the midst of fine mountain-scenery. About 30
+m. to the north-east the volcano of Colima, in the state of Jalisco,
+rises to an elevation of 12,685 ft.; it is the most westerly of the
+active volcanoes of Mexico. Colima enjoys a moderately cool and healthy
+climate, especially in the dry season (November to June). The city is
+regularly laid out and is in great part well built, with good public
+buildings, several churches, a theatre, two hospitals, and a handsome
+market completed in 1905. Tramways connect the central plaza with the
+railway station, cemetery, and the suburb of Villa de Alvarez, 2½ m.
+distant, and an extension of 5 m. was projected in 1906 to Comala. The
+local industries include two old-fashioned cotton mills, an ice plant,
+corn-grinding mill, and five cigarette factories. Colima is the
+commercial centre for a large district, but trade has been greatly
+restricted by lack of transportation facilities. A railway connects with
+the port of Manzanillo, and the Mexican Central railway serves Colima
+itself. Colima was founded in 1522 by Gonzalo de Sandoval. It has not
+played a very prominent part in Mexican history because of its
+inaccessibility, and for the same reason has suffered less from
+revolutionary violence.
+
+
+
+
+COLIN, ALEXANDRE (1526-1612), Flemish sculptor, was born at Malines. In
+1563 he went, at the invitation of the emperor Ferdinand I., to
+Innsbruck, to work on the magnificent monument which was being erected
+to Maximilian I. in the nave of the Franciscan church. Of the
+twenty-four marble alti-rilievi, representing the emperor's principal
+acts and victories, which adorn the sides of this tomb, twenty were
+executed by Colin, apparently in three years. The work displays a
+remarkable combination of liveliness and spirit with extreme care and
+finish, its delicacy rivalling that of a fine cameo. Thorwaldsen is said
+to have pronounced it the finest work of its kind. Colin, who was
+sculptor in ordinary both to the emperor and to his son, the archduke
+Ferdinand of Tirol, did a great deal of work for his patrons at
+Innsbruck and in its neighbourhood; particular mention may be made of
+the sepulchres of the archduke and his first wife, Philippine Welser,
+both in the same church as the Maximilian monument, and of Bishop Jean
+Nas. His tomb in the cemetery at Innsbruck bears a fine bas-relief
+executed by one of his sons.
+
+
+
+
+COLL, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1901) 432. It is situated about 7 m. west of Caliach Point in Mull, and
+measures 12 m. from N.E. to S.W., with a breadth varying from ¾ m. to 4
+m. It is composed of gneiss, is generally rather flat, save in the west
+where Ben Hogh reaches a height of 339 ft., and has several lakes. The
+pasturage is good and the soil fairly fertile. Much dairy produce is
+exported, besides sheep and cattle. The antiquities include stone
+circles, duns, the ruins of Breachacha Castle, once a fortress of the
+Lords of the Isles. A steamer from Oban calls regularly at Arinagour.
+
+
+
+
+COLLAERT, HANS, Flemish engraver, son of Adrian Collaert, a draughtsman
+and engraver of repute, was born at Antwerp about 1545. After working
+some years in his father's studio, he went to Rome to perfect himself in
+his art. His engravings after Rubens are very highly esteemed. He left
+many works; among the best may be mentioned a "Life of Saint Francis,"
+16 prints; a "Last Judgment," folio; "Monilium, Bullarum, Inauriumque
+Artificiosissimae Icones," 10 prints, 1581; "The Dead Christ in his
+Mother's Lap"; "Marcus Curtius"; "Moses Striking the Rock," and "The
+Resurrection of Lazarus," after Lambert Lombard; "The Fathers of the
+Desert"; and "Biblia Sacra and the History of the Church," after Rubens.
+
+
+
+
+COLLAR, something worn or fastened round the neck (Lat. _collare_, from
+_collum_, neck), particularly a band of linen, lace or other material,
+which, under various shapes at different periods, has been worn by men
+and women to serve as a completion or finish to the neckband of a
+garment (see COSTUME); also a chain, worn as a personal ornament, a
+badge of livery, a symbol of office, or as part of the insignia of an
+order of knighthood, an application of the term with which the present
+article deals. The word is also applied to that part of the
+draught-harness of a horse which fits over the animal's neck, to which
+the traces are attached, and against which the strain of the drawing of
+the vehicle is exercised, and to a circular piece of metal passed round
+the joints of a rod or pipe, to prevent movement or to make the joint
+steam- or water-tight.
+
+Necklaces with beads and jewels threaded thereon or the plain laces with
+a hanging ornament are among the common braveries of all times and
+countries. From these come the collar and the neck-chain. Torques or
+twisted collars of metal are found in burying-places of the barbarous
+people of northern Europe. British chiefs wore them, and gold torques
+were around the necks of the leaders of the first of the Saxon invaders
+of Britain, among whose descendants, however, the fashion seems to have
+languished. Edward the Confessor was buried with a neck-chain of gold 2
+ft. long, fastened with a jewelled locket and carrying an enamelled
+crucifix.
+
+The extravagant age of Richard II. saw a great revival of the
+neck-chain, heavy links twisted of gold or silver. From this time onward
+neck chains, with or without pendant devices, were commonly worn by men
+and women of the richer sort. The men abandoned them in the time of
+Charles I.
+
+Closely allied to the chain are the livery collars which appeared in the
+14th century, worn by those who thus displayed their alliances or their
+fealty. Thus Charles V. of France in 1378 granted to his chamberlain
+Geoffrey de Belleville the right of bearing in all feasts and in all
+companies the collar of the _Cosse de Geneste_ or Broomcod, a collar
+which was accepted and worn even by the English kings, Charles VI.
+sending such collars to Richard II. and to his three uncles. This French
+collar, a chain of couples of broom-cods linked by jewels, is seen in
+the contemporary portrait of Richard II. at Wilton. The like collar was
+worn by Henry IV. on the way to his crowning. During the sitting of the
+English parliament in 1394 the complaints of the earl of Arundel against
+Richard II. are recorded, one of his grievances being that the king was
+wont to wear the livery of the collar of the duke of Lancaster, his
+uncle, and that people of the king's following wore the same livery. To
+which the king answered that soon after the return from Spain (in 1389)
+of his uncle, the said duke, he himself took the collar from his uncle's
+neck, putting it on his own, which collar the king would wear and use
+for a sign of the good and whole-hearted love between them, even as he
+wore the liveries of his other uncles. Livery collars of the king of
+France, of Queen Anne and of the dukes of York and Lancaster are
+numbered with the royal plate and jewels which in the first year of
+Henry IV. had come to the king's hands. The inventory shows that Queen
+Anne's collar was made up of sprigs of rosemary garnished with pearls.
+The York collar had falcons and fetterlocks, and the Lancaster collar
+was doubtless that collar of Esses (or S S) used by the duke's son,
+Henry of Bolingbroke, as an earl, duke and king. This famous livery
+collar, which has never passed out of use, takes many forms, its Esses
+being sometimes linked together chainwise, and sometimes, in early
+examples, bestowed as the ornamental bosses of a garter-shaped
+strap-collar. The oldest effigy bearing it is that in Spratton church of
+Sir John Swinford, who died in 1371. Swinford was a follower of John of
+Gaunt, and the date of his death easily disposes of the fancy that the
+Esses were devised by Henry IV. to stand for his motto or "word" of
+_Soverayne_. Many explanations are given of the origin of these letters,
+but none has as yet been established with sufficient proof. During the
+reigns of Henry IV., his son and grandson, the collar of Esses was a
+royal badge of the Lancastrian house and party, the white swan being its
+pendant. In one of Henry VI.'s own collars the S was joined to the
+Broomcod of the French device, thus symbolizing the king's claim to the
+two kingdoms.
+
+The kings of the house of York and their chief followers wore the
+Yorkist collar of suns and roses, with the white lion of March, the
+Clare bull, or Richard's white boar for a pendant device. Henry VII.
+brought back the collar of Esses, a portcullis or a rose hanging from
+it, although in a portrait of this king, now possessed by the Society of
+Antiquaries, his neck bears the _rose en soleil_ alternating with knots,
+and his son, when young, had a collar of roses red and white. Besides
+these royal collars, the 14th and 15th centuries show many of private
+devices. A brass at Mildenhall shows a knight whose badge of a dog or
+wolf circled by a crown hangs from a collar with edges suggesting a
+pruned bough or the ragged staff. Thomas of Markenfield (d. c. 1415) on
+his brass at Ripon has a strange collar of park palings with a badge of
+a hart in a park, and the Lord Berkeley (d. 1392) wears one set with
+mermaids.
+
+Collars of various devices are now worn by the grand crosses of the
+European orders of knighthood. The custom was begun by Philip of
+Burgundy, who gave his knights of the Golden Fleece, an order founded on
+the 10th of February 1429-1430, badges of a golden fleece hung from that
+collar of flints, steels and sparks which is seen in so many old Flemish
+portraits. To this day it remains the most beautiful of all the collars,
+keeping in the main the lines of its Flemish designer, although a vulgar
+fancy sometimes destroys the symbolism of the golden fleece by changing
+it for an unmeaning fleece of diamonds. Following this new fashion,
+Louis XI. of France, when instituting his order of St Michael in 1469,
+gave the knights collars of scallop shells linked on a chain. The chain
+was doubled by Charles VIII., and the pattern suffered other changes
+before the order lapsed in 1830. Until the reign of Henry VIII., the
+Garter, most ancient of the great knightly orders, had no collar. But
+the Tudor king must needs match in all things with continental
+sovereigns, and the present collar of the Garter knights, with its
+golden knots and its buckled garters enclosing white roses set on red
+roses, has its origin in the Tudor age. An illustration in colours of
+the Garter collar is given on Plate I. in the article KNIGHTHOOD AND
+CHIVALRY, while descriptions of the collars of the other principal
+orders are also given. The collar of the Thistle with the thistles and
+rue-sprigs is as old as the reign of James II. The Bath collar, in its
+first form of white knots linking closed crowns to roses and thistles
+issuing from sceptres, dates from 1725, up to which time the knights of
+the Bath had hung their medallion from a ribbon.
+
+Founding the order of the Saint Esprit in 1578, Henry III. of France
+devised a collar of enflamed fleur-de-lis and cyphers of H and L, a
+fashion which was soon afterwards varied by Henry his successor.
+Elephants have been always borne on the collar of the Elephant founded
+in Denmark in 1478, the other links of which have taken many shapes.
+Another Danish order, the Dannebrog, said to be "re-instituted" by
+Christian V. in 1671, has a collar of crosses formy alternating with the
+crowned letters C and W, the latter standing for Waldemar the
+Victorious, whom a legend of no value described as founding the order in
+1219. Of other European orders, that of St Andrew, founded by Peter of
+Russia in 1698, has eagles and Andrew crosses and cyphers, while the
+Black Eagle of Prussia has the Prussian eagle with thunderbolts in its
+claws beside roundels charged with cyphers of the letters F.R.
+
+Plain collars of Esses are now worn in the United Kingdom by
+kings-of-arms, heralds and serjeants-at-arms. Certain legal dignitaries
+have worn them since the 16th century, the collar of the lord
+chief-justice having knots and roses between the letters. Henry IV.'s
+parliament in his second year restricted the free use of the king's
+livery collar to his sons and to all dukes, earls, barons and bannerets,
+while simple knights and squires might use it when in the royal presence
+or in going to and from the hostel of the king. The giving of a livery
+collar by the king made a squire of a man even as the stroke of the
+royal sword made him a knight. Collars of Esses are sometimes seen on
+the necks of ladies. The queen of Henry IV. wears one. So do the wife of
+a 16th century Knightley on her tomb at Upton, and Penelope, Lady
+Spencer (d. 1667), on her Brington monument.
+
+Since 1545 the lord mayor of London has worn a royal livery collar of
+Esses. This collar, however, has its origin in no royal favour, Sir John
+Alen, thrice a lord mayor, having bequeathed it to the then lord mayor
+and his successors "to use and occupie yerely at and uppon principall
+and festivall dayes." It was enlarged in 1567, and in its present shape
+has 28 Esses alternating with knots and roses and joined with a
+portcullis. Lord mayors of York use a plain gold chain of a triple row
+of links given in 1670; this chain, since the day when certain links
+were found wanting, is weighed on its return by the outgoing mayor. In
+Ireland the lord mayor of Dublin wears a collar given by Charles II.,
+while Cork's mayor has another which the Cork council bought of a
+silversmith in 1755, stipulating that it should be like the Dublin one.
+The lady mayoress of York wears a plain chain given with that of the
+lord mayor in 1670, and, like his, weighed on its return to official
+keeping. For some two hundred and thirty years the mayoress of
+Kingston-on-Hull enjoyed a like ornament until a thrifty council in 1835
+sold her chain as a useless thing.
+
+Of late years municipal patriotism and the persuasions of enterprising
+tradesmen have notably increased the number of English provincial mayors
+wearing collars or chains of office. Unlike civic maces, swords and caps
+of maintenance, these gauds are without significance. The mayor of Derby
+is decorated with the collar once borne by a lord chief-justice of the
+king's bench, and his brother of Kingston-on-Thames uses without
+authority an old collar of Esses which once hung over a herald's tabard.
+By a modern custom the friends of the London sheriffs now give them
+collars of gold and enamel, which they retain as mementoes of their year
+of office.     (O. BA.)
+
+
+
+
+COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat. _collateralis_,--_cum_, with, and _latus_,
+_lateris_, side,--side by side, hence parallel or additional), a term
+used in law in several senses. _Collateral relationship_ means the
+relationship between persons who are descended from the same stock or
+ancestor, but in a different line; as opposed to _lineal_, which is the
+relationship between ascendants and descendants in a direct line, as
+between father and son, grandfather and grandson. A _collateral
+agreement_ is an agreement made contemporaneously with a written
+contract as part of the transaction, but without being incorporated with
+it. _Collateral facts_, in evidence, are those facts which do not bear
+directly on the matters in dispute. _Collateral security_ is an
+additional security for the better safety of the mortgagee, i.e.
+property or right of action deposited to secure the fulfilment of an
+obligation.
+
+
+
+
+COLLATIA, an ancient town of Latium, 10 m. E. by N. of Rome by the Via
+Collatina. It appears in the legendary history of Rome as captured by
+Tarquinius Priscus. Livy tells us it was taken from the Sabines, while
+Virgil speaks of it as a Latin colony. In the time of Cicero it had lost
+all importance; Strabo names it as a mere village, in private hands,
+while for Pliny it was one of the lost cities of Latium. The site is
+undoubtedly to be sought on the hill now occupied by the large medieval
+fortified farmhouse of Lunghezza, immediately to the south of the Anio,
+which occupies the site of the citadel joined by a narrow neck to the
+tableland to the south-east on which the city stood: this is protected
+by wide valleys on each side, and is isolated at the south-east end by a
+deep narrow valley enlarged by cutting. No remains are to be seen, but
+the site is admirably adapted for an ancient settlement. The road may be
+traced leading to the south end of this tableland, being identical with
+the modern road to Lunghezza for the middle part of its course only.
+The current indentification with Castellaccio, 2 m. to the south-east,
+is untenable.
+
+  See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 138 seq.,
+  iii. 201.     (T. AS.)
+
+
+
+
+COLLATION (Lat. _collatio_, from _conferre_, to bring together or
+compare), the bringing together of things for the special purpose of
+comparison, and thus, particularly, the critical examination of the
+texts of documents or MSS. and the result of such comparison. The word
+is also a term in printing and bookbinding for the register of the
+"signatures," the number of quires and leaves in each quire of a book or
+MS. In Roman and Scots law "collation" answers to the English law term
+"hotch-pot" (q.v.). From another meaning of the Latin word, a
+consultation or conference, and so a treatise or homily, comes the title
+of a work of Johannes Cassianus (q.v.), the _Conferences of the Fathers_
+(_Collationes Patrum_). Readings from this and similar works were
+customary in monasteries; by the _regula_ of St Benedict it is ordered
+that on rising from supper there should be read _collationes_, passages
+from the lives of the Fathers and other edifying works; the word is then
+applied to the discussions arising from such readings. On fast days it
+was usual in monasteries to have a very light meal after the _Collatio_,
+and hence the meal itself came to be called "collation," a meaning which
+survives in the modern use of the word for any light or quickly prepared
+repast.
+
+
+
+
+COLLÉ, CHARLES (1709-1783), French dramatist and song-writer, the son of
+a notary, was born at Paris in 1709. He was early interested in the
+rhymes of Jean Heguanier, then the most famous maker of couplets in
+Paris. From a notary's office Collé was transferred to that of M. de
+Neulan, the receiver-general of finance, and remained there for nearly
+twenty years. When about seventeen, however, he made the acquaintance of
+Alexis Piron, and afterwards, through Gallet (d. 1757), of Panard. The
+example of these three masters of the vaudeville, while determining his
+vocation, made him diffident; and for some time he composed nothing but
+_amphigouris_--verses whose merit was measured by their
+unintelligibility. The friendship of the younger Crébillon, however,
+diverted him from this by-way of art, and the establishment in 1729 of
+the famous "Caveau" gave him a field for the display of his fine talent
+for popular song. In 1739 the Society of the Caveau, which numbered
+among its members Helvétius, Charles Duclos, Pierre Joseph Bernard,
+called Gentil-Bernard, Jean Philippe Rameau, Alexis Piron, and the two
+Crébillons, was dissolved, and was not reconstituted till twenty years
+afterwards. His first and his best comedy, _La Vérité dans le vin_,
+appeared in 1747. Meanwhile, the Regent Orleans, who was an excellent
+comic actor, particularly in representations of low life, and had been
+looking out for an author to write suitable parts for him, made Collé
+his reader. It was for the duke and his associates that Collé composed
+the greater part of his _Théâtre de société_. In 1763 Collé produced at
+the Théâtre Français _Dupuis et Desronais_, a successful sentimental
+comedy, which was followed in 1771 by _La Veuve_, which was a complete
+failure. In 1774 appeared _La Partie de chasse de Henri Quatre_ (partly
+taken from Dodsley's _King and the Miller of Mansfield_), Collé's last
+and best play. From 1748 to 1772, besides these and a multitude of
+songs, Collé was writing his _Journal_, a curious collection of literary
+and personal strictures on his boon companions as well as on their
+enemies, on Piron as on Voltaire, on La Harpe as on Corneille. Collé
+died on the 3rd of November 1783. His lyrics are frank and jovial,
+though often licentious. The subjects are love and wine; occasionally,
+however, as in the famous lyric (1756) on the capture of Port Mahon, for
+which the author received a pension of 600 livres, the note of
+patriotism is struck with no unskilful hand, while in many others Collé
+shows himself possessed of considerable epigrammatic force.
+
+  See also H. Bonhomme's edition (1868) of his _Journal et Mémoires_
+  (1748-1772); Grimm's _Correspondance_; and C. A. Sainte-Beuve,
+  _Nouveaux lundis_, vol. vii.
+
+
+
+
+COLLECTIVISM, a term used to denote the economic principle of the
+ownership by a community of all the means of production in order to
+secure to the people collectively an equitable distribution of the
+produce of their associated labour. Though often used in a narrow sense
+to express the economic basis of Socialism, the latter term is so
+generally employed in the same sense that collectivism is best discussed
+in connexion with it (see SOCIALISM).
+
+
+
+
+COLLECTOR, a term technically used for various officials, and
+particularly in India for the chief administrative official of a
+district. The word was in this case originally a translation of
+_tahsildar_, and indicates that the special duty of the office is the
+collection of revenue; but the collector has also magisterial powers and
+is a species of autocrat within the bounds of his district. The title is
+confined to the regulation provinces, especially Madras; in the
+non-regulation provinces the same duties are discharged by the
+deputy-commissioner (see COMMISSIONER).
+
+
+
+
+COLLE DI VAL D' ELSA, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province
+of Siena, 5 m. by rail S. of Poggibonsi, which is 16 m. N.W. of Siena.
+Pop. (1901) town 1987; commune 9879. The old (upper) town (732 ft. above
+sea-level), contains the cathedral, dating from the 13th century, with a
+pulpit partly of this period; the façade has been modernized. There are
+also some old palaces of good architecture, and the old house where
+Arnolfo di Cambio, the first architect of the cathedral at Florence
+(1232-1301) was born. The lower town (460 ft.) contains glass-works; the
+paper and iron industries (the former as old as 1377) are less
+important.
+
+
+
+
+COLLEGE (_Collegium_), in Roman law, a number of persons associated
+together by the possession of common functions,--a body of colleagues.
+Its later meaning applied to any union of persons, and _collegium_ was
+the equivalent of [Greek: hetaireia]. In many respects, e.g. in the
+distinction between the responsibilities and rights of the society and
+those of individual members thereof, the collegium was what we should
+now call a corporation (q.v.). Collegia might exist for purposes of
+trade like the English gilds, or for religious purposes (e.g. the
+college of augurs, of pontifices, &c.), or for political purposes, e.g.
+_tribunorum plebis collegia_. By the Roman law a collegium must have at
+least three members. The name is now usually applied to educational
+corporations, such as the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, with which,
+in the numerous English statutes relating to colleges, the colleges of
+Winchester and Eton are usually associated. These colleges are in the
+eye of the law eleemosynary corporations. In some of the earlier
+statutes of Queen Elizabeth they are spoken of as having an
+ecclesiastical character, but the doctrine of the common law since the
+Reformation has been that they are purely lay corporations,
+notwithstanding that most or all of their members may be persons in
+priest's orders. This is said to have been settled by Dr Patrick's case
+(_Raymond's Reports_, p. 101).
+
+Colleges appear to have grown out of the voluntary association of
+students and teachers at the university. According to some accounts
+these must at one time have been numerous and flourishing beyond
+anything we are now acquainted with. We are told, for example, of 300
+halls or societies at Oxford, and 30,000 students. In early times there
+seems to have been a strong desire to confine the scholars to certain
+licensed houses beyond the influence of the townspeople. Men of wealth
+and culture, and notably the political bishops and chancellors of
+England, obtained charters from the crown for the incorporation of
+societies of scholars, and these in time became exclusively the places
+of abode for students attending the university. At the same time the
+corporations thus founded were not necessarily attached to the locality
+of the university. The early statutes of Merton College, for example,
+allow the residence of the college to be shifted as occasion required;
+and the foundations of Wolsey at Oxford and Ipswich seem to have been
+the same in intention. In later times (until the introduction of
+non-collegiate students) the university and the colleges became
+coextensive; every member of the university had to attach himself to
+some college or hall, and every person admitted to a college or hall was
+obliged to matriculate himself in the university.
+
+In Ayliffe's _Ancient and Present State of the University of Oxford_ it
+is stated that a college must be "made up of three persons (at least)
+joined in community. And the reason of this almost seems to speak its
+own necessity, without the help of any express law to countenance it:
+because among two persons only there cannot be, in fact, a major part;
+and then if any disagreement should happen to arise between them it
+cannot be, in fact, brought to a conclusion by such a number alone in
+case both the parties should firmly adhere to their dissenting opinions;
+and thus it is declared by the civil law. But by the canon law it is
+known to be otherwise; for by that law two persons in number may make
+and constitute a college, forasmuch as according to this law two persons
+make and constitute an assembly or congregation. The common law of
+England, or rather the constant usage of our princes in erecting
+aggregate bodies, which has established this rule among us as a law, has
+been herein agreeable to the method and doctrine of the civil law, for
+that in all their grants and charters of incorporation of colleges they
+have not framed any aggregate body consisting of less than three in
+number." Another principle, apparently derived from the civil law, is
+that a man cannot be a fellow in two colleges at the same time. The law
+of England steadily resisted any attempt to introduce the principle of
+inequality into colleges. An act of 1542, reciting that divers founders
+of colleges have given in their statutes a power of veto to individual
+members, enacts that every statute made by any such founder, whereby the
+grant or election of the governor or ruler with the assent of the most
+part of such corporation should be in any wise hindered by any one or
+more being the lesser number (contrary to the common law), shall be
+void.
+
+The corporation consists of a head or master, fellows and scholars.
+Students, not being on the foundation, residing in the college, are not
+considered to be members of the corporation. The governing body in all
+cases is the head and fellows.
+
+It is considered essential to corporations of an ecclesiastical or
+educational character that they should have a Visitor whose duty it is
+to see that the statutes of the founder are obeyed. The duties of this
+officer have been ascertained by the courts of law in a great variety of
+decided cases. Subject to such restrictions as may be imposed on him by
+the statutes of the college, his duties are generally to interpret the
+statutes of the college in disputed cases, and to enforce them where
+they have been violated. For this purpose he is empowered to "visit" the
+society--usually at certain stated intervals. In questions within his
+jurisdiction his judgment is conclusive, but his jurisdiction does not
+extend to any cases under the common laws of the country, or to trusts
+attached to the college. Generally the visitorship resides in the
+founder and his heirs unless he has otherwise appointed, and in default
+of him in the crown.
+
+The fellowships, scholarships, &c., of colleges were until a
+comparatively recent date subject to various restrictions. Birth in a
+particular county, education at a particular school, relationship to the
+founder and holy orders, are amongst the most usual of the conditions
+giving a preferential or conclusive claim to the emoluments. Most of
+these restrictions have been or are being swept away. (See UNIVERSITIES;
+OXFORD; CAMBRIDGE; &C.)
+
+The term "college" (like "academy") is also applied to various
+institutions, e.g. to colleges of physicians and surgeons, and to the
+electoral college in the United States presidential elections, &c. For
+the Sacred College see CARDINAL.
+
+
+
+
+COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO (1400-1475), Italian soldier of fortune, was born
+at Bergamo. While he was still a child his father was attacked and
+murdered in his castle of Trezzo by Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of
+Milan. After wandering about Italy he entered the service of various
+_condottieri_, such as Braccio da Montone and Carmagnola. At the age of
+thirty-two he was serving the Venetian republic, and although Francesco
+Maria Gonzaga was commander-in-chief, Colleoni was the life and soul of
+the army. He recaptured many towns and districts for Venice from the
+Milanese, and when Gonzaga went over to the enemy he continued to serve
+the Venetians under Erasmo da Narni (known as Gattamelata) and Francesco
+A. Sforza, winning battles at Brescia, Verona and on the lake of Garda.
+When peace was made between Milan and Venice in 1441 Colleoni went over
+to the Milanese, together with Sforza in 1443. But although well
+treated at first, he soon fell under the suspicion of the treacherous
+Visconti and was imprisoned at Monza, where he remained until the duke's
+death in 1447. Milan then fell under the lordship of Sforza, whom
+Colleoni served for a time, but in 1448 he took leave of Sforza and
+returned to the Venetians. Disgusted at not having been elected
+captain-general, he went over to Sforza once more, but Venice could not
+do without him and by offering him increased emoluments induced him to
+return, and in 1455 he was appointed captain-general of the republic for
+life. Although he occasionally fought on his own account, when Venice
+was at peace, he remained at the disposal of the republic in time of war
+until his death.
+
+Colleoni was perhaps the most respectable of all the Italian
+_condottieri_, and although he often changed sides, no act of treachery
+is imputed to him, nor did he subject the territories he passed through
+to the rapine and exactions practised by other soldiers of fortune. When
+not fighting he devoted his time to introducing agricultural
+improvements on the vast estates with which the Venetians had endowed
+him, and to charitable works. At his death in 1475 he left a large sum
+to the republic for the Turkish war, with a request that an equestrian
+statue of himself should be erected in the Piazza San Marco. The statue
+was made by Verrocchio, but as no monument was permitted in the famous
+Piazza it was placed opposite the hospital of St Mark by way of
+compromise.
+
+  See G. M. Bonomi, _Il Castello di Cavernago e i conti Martinengo
+  Colleoni_ (Bergamo, 1884); for an account of his wars see S. Romanin,
+  _Storia documentata di Venezia_, vol. iv. (Venice, 1855), and other
+  histories of Venice.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+COLLETER (Gr. [Greek: kollos], glue), a botanical term for the
+gum-secreting hairs on the buds of certain plants.
+
+
+
+
+COLLETTA, PIETRO (1775-1831), Neapolitan general and historian, entered
+the Neapolitan artillery in 1796 and took part in the campaign against
+the French in 1798. On the entry of the French into Naples and the
+establishment of the Parthenopean republic (1799) he adhered to the new
+government, and when the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (q.v.) reconquered
+the city Colletta was thrown into prison and only escaped the death
+penalty by means of judiciously administered bribes. Turned out of the
+army he became a civil engineer, but when the Bourbons were expelled a
+second time in 1806 and Joseph Bonaparte seized the throne of Naples, he
+was reinstated in his rank and served in the expedition against the
+brigands and rebels of Calabria. In 1812 he was promoted general, and
+made director of roads and bridges. He served under Joachim Murat and
+fought the Austrians on the Panaro in 1815. On the restoration of
+Ferdinand Colletta was permitted to retain his rank in the army, and
+given command of the Salerno division. At the outbreak of the revolution
+of 1820 the king called him to his councils, and when the constitution
+had been granted Colletta was sent to put down the separatist rising in
+Sicily, which he did with great severity. He fought in the
+constitutionalist army against the Austrians at Rieti (7th of March
+1821), and on the re-establishment of autocracy he was arrested and
+imprisoned for three months by order of the prince of Canosa, the chief
+of police, his particular enemy. He would have been executed had not the
+Austrians intervened in his favour, and he was exiled instead to Brünn
+in Moravia; in 1823 he was permitted to settle in Florence, where he
+spent the rest of his days engaged on his _Storia del reame di Napoli_.
+He died in 1831. His history (1st ed., Capolago, 1834), which deals with
+the reigns of Charles III. and Ferdinand IV. (1734-1825), is still the
+standard work for that period; but its value is somewhat diminished by
+the author's bitterness against his opponents and the fact that he does
+not give chapter and verse for his statements, many of which are based
+on his recollection of documents seen, but not available at the time of
+writing. Still, having been an actor in many of the events recorded, he
+is on the whole accurate and trustworthy.
+
+  See Gino Capponi's memoir of him published in the _Storia del reame di
+  Napoli_ (2nd ed., Florence, 1848).     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+COLLEY, SIR GEORGE POMEROY (1835-1881), British general, third son of
+George Pomeroy Colley, of Rathangan, Co. Kildare, Ireland, and grandson
+of the fourth Viscount Harberton, was born on the 1st of November 1835,
+and entered the 2nd Queen's Regiment from Sandhurst as ensign in 1852.
+From 1854 to 1860 he served in South Africa, and was employed in
+surveying and as a magistrate in charge of the Bashi river district in
+Kaffraria. Early in 1860 he went with his regiment to China to join the
+Anglo-French expedition, and took part in the capture of the Taku forts
+and the entry into Peking, returning to South Africa to complete his
+work in Kaffraria (brevet-majority). In 1862 he entered the Staff
+College and passed out in one year with honours. After serving as
+brigade-major at Devonport for five years, he went to the War Office in
+1870 to assist in the preparation of (Lord) Cardwell's measures of army
+reform. He was appointed professor of military administration at the
+Staff College in 1871. Early in 1873 he joined Sir Garnet Wolseley at
+the Gold Coast, where he took charge of the transport, and the success
+of the Ashanti expedition was in no small degree due to his exertions.
+He was promoted brevet-colonel and awarded the C.B. In 1875 he
+accompanied Wolseley to Natal (C.M.G.). On his return home he was
+appointed military secretary to Lord Lytton, governor-general of India,
+and in 1877 private secretary (K.C.S.I.). In 1879 he joined Wolseley as
+chief of the staff and brigadier-general in S.E. Africa, but, on the
+murder of Cavagnari at Kabul, returned to India. In 1880 he succeeded
+Wolseley in S.E. Africa as high commissioner and general commanding, and
+conducted the operations against the rebel Boers. He was defeated at
+Laing's Nek and at the Ingogo river, and killed at Majuba Hill on the
+27th of February 1881. He had a very high reputation not only for a
+theoretical knowledge of military affairs, but also as a practical
+soldier.
+
+  See _Life of Sir George Pomeroy Colley_ by Lieut.-Gen. Sir W. F.
+  Butler (London, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+COLLIER, ARTHUR (1680-1732), English philosopher, was born at the
+rectory of Steeple Langford, Wiltshire, on the 12th of October 1680. He
+entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, in July 1697, but in October 1698
+he and his brother William became members of Balliol. His father having
+died in 1697, it was arranged that the family living of Langford Magna
+should be given to Arthur as soon as he was old enough. He was presented
+to the benefice in 1704, and held it till his death. His sermons show no
+traces of his bold theological speculations, and he seems to have been
+faithful in the discharge of his duty. He was often in pecuniary
+difficulties, from which at last he was obliged to free himself by
+selling the reversion of Langford rectory to Corpus Christi College,
+Oxford. His philosophical opinions grew out of a diligent study of
+Descartes and Malebranche. John Norris of Bemerton also strongly
+influenced him by his _Essay on the Ideal World_ (1701-1704). It is
+remarkable that Collier makes no reference to Locke, and shows no sign
+of having any knowledge of his works. As early as 1703 he seems to have
+become convinced of the non-existence of an external world. In 1712 he
+wrote two essays, which are still in manuscript, one on substance and
+accident, and the other called _Clavis Philosophica_. His chief work
+appeared in 1713, under the title _Clavis Universalis_, or a _New
+Inquiry after Truth_, being a _Demonstration of the Non-Existence or
+Impossibility of an External World_ (printed privately, Edinburgh, 1836,
+and reprinted in _Metaphysical Tracts_, 1837, edited by Sam. Parr). It
+was favourably mentioned by Reid, Stewart and others, was frequently
+referred to by the Leibnitzians, and was translated into German by von
+Eschenbach in 1756. Berkeley's _Principles of Knowledge_ and _Theory of
+Vision_ preceded it by three and four years respectively, but there is
+no evidence that they were known to Collier before the publication of
+his book.
+
+  His views are grounded on two presuppositions:--first, the utter
+  aversion of common sense to any theory of representative perception;
+  second, the opinion which Collier held in common with Berkeley, and
+  Hume afterwards, that the difference between imagination and sense
+  perception is only one of degree. The former is the basis of the
+  negative part of his argument; the latter supplies him with all the
+  positive account he has to give, and that is meagre enough. The
+  _Clavis_ consists of two parts. After explaining that he will use the
+  term "external world" in the sense of absolute, self-existent,
+  independent matter, he attempts in the first part to prove that the
+  visible world is not external, by showing--first, that the seeming
+  externality of a visible object is no proof of real externality, and
+  second, that a visible object, as such, is not external. The image of
+  a centaur seems as much external to the mind as any object of sense;
+  and since the difference between imagination and perception is only
+  one of degree, God could so act upon the mind of a person imagining a
+  centaur, that he would perceive it as vividly as any object can be
+  seen. Similar illustrations are used to prove the second proposition,
+  that a visible object, as such, is not external. The first part ends
+  with a reply to objections based on the universal consent of men, on
+  the assurance given by touch of the extra existence of the visible
+  world, and on the truth and goodness of God (Descartes), which would
+  be impugned if our senses deceived us. Collier argues naively that if
+  universal consent means the consent of those who have considered the
+  subject, it may be claimed for his view. He thinks with Berkeley that
+  objects of sight are quite distinct from those of touch, and that the
+  one therefore cannot give any assurance of the other; and he asks the
+  Cartesians to consider how far God's truth and goodness are called in
+  question by their denial of the externality of the secondary
+  qualities. The second part of the book is taken up with a number of
+  metaphysical arguments to prove the impossibility of an external
+  world. The pivot of this part is the logical principle of
+  contradiction. From the hypothesis of an external world a series of
+  contradictions are deduced, such as that the world is both finite and
+  infinite, is movable and immovable, &c.; and finally, Aristotle and
+  various other philosophers are quoted, to show that the external
+  matter they dealt with, as mere potentiality, is just nothing at all.
+  Among other uses and consequences of his treatise, Collier thinks it
+  furnishes an easy refutation of the Romish doctrine of
+  transubstantiation. If there is no external world, the distinction
+  between substance and accidents vanishes, and these become the sole
+  essence of material objects, so that there is no room for any change
+  whilst they remain as before. Sir William Hamilton thinks that the
+  logically necessary advance from the old theory of representative
+  perception to idealism was stayed by anxiety to save this miracle of
+  the church; and he gives Collier credit for being the first to make
+  the discovery.
+
+  His _Clavis Universalis_ is interesting on account of the resemblance
+  between its views and those of Berkeley. Both were moved by their
+  dissatisfaction with the theory of representative perception. Both
+  have the feeling that it is inconsistent with the common sense of
+  mankind, which will insist that the very object perceived is the sole
+  reality. They equally affirm that the so-called representative image
+  is the sole reality, and discard as unthinkable the unperceiving
+  material cause of the philosophers. Of objects of sense, they say,
+  their _esse_ is _percipi_. But Collier never got beyond a bald
+  assertion of the fact, while Berkeley addressed himself to an
+  explanation of it. The thought of a distinction between direct and
+  indirect perception never dawned upon Collier. To the question how all
+  matter exists in dependence on percipient mind his only reply is,
+  "Just how my reader pleases, provided it be somehow." As cause of our
+  sensations and ground of our belief in externality, he substituted for
+  an unintelligible material substance an equally unintelligible
+  operation of divine power. His book exhibits no traces of a scientific
+  development. The most that can be said about him is that he was an
+  intelligent student of Descartes and Malebranche, and had the ability
+  to apply the results of his reading to the facts of his experience. In
+  philosophy he is a curiosity, and nothing more. His biographer
+  attributes the comparative failure of the _Clavis_ to its inferiority
+  in point of style, but the crudeness of his thought had quite as much
+  to do with his failure to gain a hearing. Hamilton (_Discussions_, p.
+  197) allows greater sagacity to Collier than to Berkeley, on the
+  ground that he did not vainly attempt to enlist men's natural belief
+  against the hypothetical realism of the philosophers. But Collier did
+  so as far as his light enabled him. He appealed to the popular
+  conviction that the proper object of sense is the sole reality,
+  although he despaired of getting men to give up their belief in its
+  externality, and asserted that nothing but prejudice prevented them
+  from doing so; and there is little doubt that, if it had ever occurred
+  to him, as it did to Berkeley, to explain the genesis of the notion of
+  externality, he would have been more hopeful of commending his theory
+  to the popular mind.
+
+  In theology Collier was an adherent of the High Church party, though
+  his views were by no means orthodox. In the Jacobite _Mist's Journal_
+  he attacked Bishop Hoadly's defence of sincere errors. His views on
+  the problems of Arianism, and his attempt to reconcile it with
+  orthodox theology, are contained in _A Specimen of True Philosophy_
+  (1730, reprinted in _Metaphysical Tracts_, 1837) and _Logology, or a
+  Treatise on the Logos in Seven Sermons on John i. 1, 2, 3, 14_ (1732,
+  analysed in _Metaph. Tracts_). These may be compared with Berkeley's
+  _Siris_.
+
+  See Robt. Benson, _Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Arthur Collier_
+  (1837); Tennemann, _History of Philosophy_; Hamilton, _Discussions_;
+  A. C. Fraser, edition of _Berkeley's Works_; G. Lyon, "Un Idéaliste
+  anglais au XVIII. siècle," in _Rev. philos._ (1880), x. 375.
+
+
+
+
+COLLIER, JEREMY (1650-1726), English nonjuring divine, was born at
+Stow-with-Quy, Cambridgeshire, on the 23rd of September 1650. He was
+educated at Ipswich free school, over which his father presided, and at
+Caius College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1673 and M.A. in 1676. He
+acted for a short time as a private chaplain, but was appointed in 1679
+to the small rectory of Ampton, near Bury St Edmunds, and in 1685 he was
+made lecturer of Gray's Inn.
+
+At the Revolution he was committed to Newgate for writing in favour of
+James II. a tract entitled _The Desertion discuss'd in a Letter to a
+Country Gentleman_ (1688), in answer to Bishop Burnet's defence of King
+William's position. He was released after some months of imprisonment,
+without trial, by the intervention of his friends. In the two following
+years he continued to harass the government by his publications: and in
+1692 he was again in prison under suspicion of treasonable
+correspondence with James. His scruples forbade him to acknowledge the
+jurisdiction of the court by accepting bail, but he was soon released.
+But in 1696 for his boldness in granting absolution on the scaffold to
+Sir John Friend and Sir William Parkyns, who had attempted the
+assassination of William, he was obliged to flee, and for the rest of
+his life continued under sentence of outlawry.
+
+When the storm had blown over he returned to London, and employed his
+leisure in works which were less political in their tone. In 1697
+appeared the first volume of his _Essays on Several Moral Subjects_, to
+which a second was added in 1705, and a third in 1709. The first series
+contained six essays, the most notable being that "On the office of a
+Chaplain," which throws much light on the position of a large section of
+the clergy at that time. Collier deprecated the extent of the authority
+assumed by the patron and the servility of the poorer clergy.
+
+In 1698 Collier produced his famous _Short View of the Immorality and
+Profaneness of the English Stage..._. He dealt with the immodesty of the
+contemporary stage, supporting his contentions by a long series of
+references attesting the comparative decency of Latin and Greek drama;
+with the profane language indulged in by the players; the abuse of the
+clergy common in the drama; the encouragement of vice by representing
+the vicious characters as admirable and successful; and finally he
+supported his general position by the analysis of particular plays,
+Dryden's _Amphitryon_, Vanbrugh's _Relapse_ and D'Urfey's _Don Quixote_.
+The Book abounds in hypercriticism, particularly in the imputation of
+profanity; and in a useless display of learning, neither intrinsically
+valuable nor conducive to the argument. He had no artistic appreciation
+of the subject he discussed, and he mistook cause for effect in
+asserting that the decline in public morality was due to the flagrant
+indecency of the stage. Yet, in the words of Macaulay, who gives an
+admirable account of the discussion in his essay on the comic dramatists
+of the Restoration, "when all deductions have been made, great merit
+must be allowed to the work." Dryden acknowledged, in the preface to his
+_Fables_, the justice of Collier's strictures, though he protested
+against the manner of the onslaught;[1] but Congreve made an angry
+reply; Vanbrugh and others followed. Collier was prepared to meet any
+number of antagonists, and defended himself in numerous tracts. _The
+Short View_ was followed by a _Defence_ (1699), a _Second Defence_
+(1700), and _Mr Collier's Dissuasive from the Playhouse, in a Letter to
+a Person of Quality_ (1703), and a _Further Vindication_ (1708). The
+fight lasted in all some ten years; but Collier had right on his side,
+and triumphed; his position was, moreover, strengthened by the fact that
+he was known as a Troy and high churchman, and that his attack could
+not, therefore, be assigned to Puritan rancour against the stage.
+
+From 1701 to 1721 Collier was employed on his _Great Historical,
+Geographical, Genealogical and Poetical Dictionary_, founded on, and
+partly translated from, Louis Moréri's _Dictionnaire historique_, and in
+the compilation and issue of the two volumes folio of his own
+_Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain from the first planting of
+Christianity to the end of the reign of Charles II_. (1708-1714). The
+latter work was attacked by Burnet and others, but the author showed
+himself as keen a controversialist as ever. Many attempts were made to
+shake his fidelity to the lost cause of the Stuarts, but he continued
+indomitable to the end. In 1712 George Hickes was the only survivor of
+the nonjuring bishops, and in the next year Collier was consecrated. He
+had a share in an attempt made towards union with the Greek Church. He
+had a long correspondence with the Eastern authorities, his last letters
+on the subject being written in 1725. Collier preferred the version of
+the _Book of Common Prayer_ issued in 1549, and regretted that certain
+practices and petitions there enjoined were omitted in later editions.
+His first tract on the subject, _Reasons for Restoring some Prayers_
+(1717), was followed by others. In 1718 was published a new _Communion
+Office taken partly from Primitive Liturgies and partly from the first
+English Reformed Common Prayer Book,..._ which embodied the changes
+desired by Collier. The controversy that ensued made a split in the
+nonjuring communion. His last work was a volume of _Practical
+Discourses_, published in 1725. He died on the 26th of April 1726.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is an excellent account of Collier in A. Kippis's
+  _Biographia Britannica_, vol. iv. (1789), where some sensible
+  observations by the editor are added to the original biography. A full
+  list of Collier's writings is given by the Rev. Wm. Hunt in the
+  article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_. For particulars of
+  Collier's history as a nonjuring bishop, see Thomas Lathbury, _A
+  History of the Nonjurors ..._ (1845). There is an excellent account of
+  the _Short View_ and the controversy arising from it in A. Beljame's
+  _Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre au XVIIIe siècle_
+  (2nd ed., 1897), pp. 244-263.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "He is too much given to horse-play in his raillery, and comes to
+    battle like a dictator from the plough. I will not say, 'the zeal of
+    God's house has eaten him up'; but I am sure it has devoured some
+    part of his good manners and civility." (Dryden, _Works_, ed. Scott,
+    xi. 239).
+
+
+
+
+COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE (1789-1883), English Shakespearian critic, was born
+in London, on the 11th of January 1789. His father, John Dyer Collier
+(1762-1825), was a successful journalist, and his connexion with the
+press obtained for his son a position on the _Morning Chronicle_ as
+leader writer, dramatic critic and reporter, which continued till 1847;
+he was also for some time a reporter for _The Times_. He was summoned
+before the House of Commons in 1819 for giving an incorrect report of a
+speech by Joseph Hume. He entered the Middle Temple in 1811, but was not
+called to the bar until 1829. The delay was partly due to his
+indiscretion in publishing the _Criticisms on the Bar_ (1819) by "Amicus
+Curiae." His leisure was given to the study of Shakespeare and the early
+English drama. After some minor publications he produced in 1825-1827 a
+new edition of Dodsley's _Old Plays_, and in 1833 a supplementary volume
+entitled _Five Old Plays_. In 1831 appeared his _History of English
+Dramatic Poetry and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration_, a badly
+arranged, but valuable work. It obtained for him the post of librarian
+to the duke of Devonshire, and, subsequently, access to the chief
+collections of early English literature throughout the kingdom,
+especially to the treasures of Bridgwater House. These opportunities
+were unhappily misused to effect a series of literary fabrications,
+which may be charitably, and perhaps not unjustly, attributed to
+literary monomania, but of which it is difficult to speak with patience,
+so completely did they for a long time bewilder the chronology of
+Shakespeare's writings, and such suspicion have they thrown upon MS.
+evidence in general. After _New Facts_, _New Particulars_ and _Further
+Particulars_ respecting Shakespeare had appeared and passed muster,
+Collier produced (1852) the famous _Perkins Folio_, a copy of the second
+folio (1632), so called from a name written on the title-page. On this
+book were numerous MS. emendations of Shakespeare said by Collier to be
+from the hand of "an old corrector." He published these corrections as
+_Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shakespeare_ (1852), and boldly
+incorporated them in his edition (1853) of Shakespeare. Their
+authenticity was disputed by S. W. Singer in _The Text of Shakespeare
+Vindicated_ (1853) and by E. A. Brae in _Literary Cookery_ (1855) on
+internal evidence; and when in 1859 the folio was submitted by its
+owner, the duke of Devonshire, to experts at the British Museum, the
+emendations were incontestably proved to be forgeries of modern date.
+Collier was exposed by Mr Nicholas Hamilton in his _Inquiry_ (1860). The
+point whether he was deceiver or deceived was left undecided, but the
+falsifications of which he was unquestionably guilty among the MSS. at
+Dulwich College have left little doubt respecting it. He had produced
+the _Memoirs of Edward Alleyn_ for the Shakespeare Society in 1841. He
+followed up this volume with the _Alleyn Papers_ (1843) and the _Diary
+of P. Henslowe_ (1845). He forged the name of Shakespeare in a genuine
+letter at Dulwich, and the spurious entries in Alleyn's _Diary_ were
+proved to be by Collier's hand when the sale of his library in 1884 gave
+access to a transcript he had made of the _Diary_ with interlineations
+corresponding with the Dulwich forgeries. No statement of his can be
+accepted without verification, and no manuscript he has handled without
+careful examination, but he did much useful work. He compiled a valuable
+_Bibliographical and Critical Account of the Rarest Books in the English
+Language_ (1865); he reprinted a great number of early English tracts of
+extreme rarity, and rendered good service to the numerous antiquarian
+societies with which he was connected, especially in the editions he
+produced for the Camden Society and the Percy Society. His _Old Man's
+Diary_ (1871-1872) is an interesting record, though even here the taint
+of fabrication is not absent. Unfortunately what he did amiss is more
+striking to the imagination than what he did aright, and he will be
+chiefly remembered by it. He died at Maidenhead, where he had long
+resided, on the 17th of September 1883.
+
+  For an account of the discussion raised by Collier's emendations see
+  C.M. Ingleby, _Complete View of the Shakespeare Controversy_ (1861).
+
+
+
+
+COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON (1771-1811), Austrian dramatist, was born in
+Vienna, on the 26th of December 1771. He received a legal education and
+entered the Austrian ministry of finance where he found speedy
+promotion. In 1805 and in 1809, when Austria was under the heel of
+Napoleon, Collin was entrusted with important political missions. In
+1803 he was, together with other members of his family, ennobled, and in
+1809 made _Hofrat_. He died on the 28th of July 1811. His tragedy
+_Regulus_ (1801), written in strict classical form, was received with
+enthusiasm in Vienna, where literary taste, less advanced than that of
+North Germany, was still under the ban of French classicism. But in his
+later dramas, _Coriolan_ (1804), _Polyxena_ (1804), _Balboa_ (1806),
+_Bianca della Porta_ (1808), he made some attempt to reconcile the
+pseudo-classic type of tragedy with that of Shakespeare and the German
+romanticists. As a lyric poet (_Gedichte_, collected 1812), Collin has
+left a collection of stirring _Wehrmannslieder_ for the fighters in the
+cause of Austrian freedom, as well as some excellent ballads (_Kaiser
+Max auf der Martinswand_, _Herzog Leupold vor Solothurn_). His younger
+brother Matthäus von Collin (1779-1824), was, as editor of the _Wiener
+Jahrbücher für Literatur_, an even more potent force in the literary
+life of Vienna. He was, moreover, in sympathy with the Romantic
+movement, and intimate with its leaders. His dramas on themes from
+Austrian national history (_Belas Krieg mit dem Vater_, 1808, _Der Tod
+Friedrichs des Streitbaren_, 1813) may be regarded as the immediate
+precursors of Grillparzer's historical tragedies.
+
+  His _Gesammelte Werke_ appeared in 6 vols. (1812-1814); he is the
+  subject of an excellent monograph by F. Laban (1879). See also A.
+  Hauffen, _Das Drama der klassischen Periode_, ii. 2 (1891), where a
+  reprint of _Regulus_ will be found. M. von Collin's _Dramatische
+  Dichtungen_ were published in 4 vols. (1815-1817); his _Nachgelassene
+  Schriften_, edited by J. von Hammer, in 2 vols. (1827). A study of his
+  life and work by J. Wihan will be found in _Euphorion_,
+  Ergänzungsheft, v. (1901).
+
+
+
+
+COLLIN D'HARLEVILLE, JEAN FRANÇOIS (1755-1806), French dramatist, was
+born at Mévoisins, near Maintenon (Eure-et-Loire), on the 30th of May
+1755. His first dramatic success was _L'Inconstant_, a comedy accepted
+by the Comédie Française in 1780, but not produced there until six years
+later, though it was played elsewhere in 1784. This was followed by
+_L'Optimiste, ou l'homme toujours content_ (1788), and _Châteaux en
+Espagne_ (1789). His best play, _Le Vieux Célibataire_, appeared in
+1793. Among his other plays are--the one-act comedy _Monsieur de Crac
+dans son petit castel_ (1791), _Les Artistes_ (1796), _Les Moeurs du
+jour_ (1800) and _Malice pour malice_ (1803). Collin was one of the
+original members of the Institute of France, and died in Paris on the
+24th of February 1806.
+
+  The 1822 edition of his _Théâtre et poésies fugitives_ contains a
+  notice by his friend the dramatist Andrieux. His _Théâtre_ was also
+  edited by L. Moland in 1876; and by Édouard Thierry in 1882.
+
+
+
+
+COLLING, ROBERT (1749-1820), and CHARLES (1751-1836), English stock
+breeders, famous for their improvement of the Shorthorn breed of cattle,
+were the sons of Charles Colling, a farmer of Ketton near Darlington.
+Their lives are closely connected with the history of the Shorthorn
+breed. Of the two brothers, Charles is probably the better known, and it
+was his visit to the farm of Robert Bakewell at Dishley that first led
+the brothers to realize the possibilities of scientific cattle breeding.
+Charles succeeded to his father's farm at Ketton. Robert, after being
+first apprenticed to a grocer in Shields, took a farm at Barmpton. An
+animal which he bought at Charles's advice for £8 and afterwards sold to
+his brother, became known as the celebrated "Hubback," a bull which
+formed the basis of both the Ketton and Barmpton herds. The two brothers
+pursued the same system of "in and in" breeding which they had learned
+from Bakewell, and both the Ketton and the Barmpton herds were sold by
+auction in the autumn of 1810. The former with 47 lots brought £7116,
+and the latter with 61 lots £7852. Robert Colling died unmarried at
+Barmpton on the 7th of March 1820, leaving his property to his brother.
+Charles Colling, who is remembered as the owner of the famous bulls
+"Hubback," "Favourite" and "Comet," was more of a specialist and a
+business man than his brother. He died on the 16th of January 1836.
+
+  See the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1899, for a
+  biographical sketch of the brothers Colling, by C. J. Bates.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD, BARON (1750-1810), British naval
+commander, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, on the 26th of September
+1750. He was early sent to school; and when only eleven years of age he
+was put on board the "Shannon," then under the command of Captain
+(afterwards Admiral) Brathwaite, a relative of his own, to whose care
+and attention he was in a great measure indebted for that nautical
+knowledge which shone forth so conspicuously in his subsequent career.
+After serving under Captain Brathwaite for some years, and also under
+Admiral Roddam, he went in 1774 to Boston with Admiral Graves, and
+served in the naval brigade at the battle of Bunker Hill (17th of June
+1775), where he gained his lieutenancy. In 1779 he was made commander of
+the "Badger," and shortly afterwards post-captain of the "Hinchinbroke,"
+a small frigate. In the spring of 1780 that vessel, under the command of
+Nelson, was employed upon an expedition to the Spanish Main, where it
+was proposed to pass into the Pacific by navigating boats along the
+river San Juan and the lakes Nicaragua and Leon. The attempt failed, and
+most of those engaged in it became victims to the deadly influence of
+the climate. Nelson was promoted to a larger vessel, and Collingwood
+succeeded him in the command. It is a fact worthy of record that the
+latter succeeded the former very frequently from the time when they
+first became acquainted, until the star of Nelson set at
+Trafalgar--giving place to that of Collingwood, less brilliant
+certainly, but not less steady in its lustre.
+
+After commanding in another small frigate, Collingwood was promoted to
+the "Sampson" (64); and in 1783 he was appointed to the "Mediator,"
+destined for the West Indies, where, with Nelson, who had a command on
+that station, he remained till the end of 1786. With Nelson he warmly
+co-operated in carrying into execution the provisions of the navigation
+laws, which had been infringed by the United States, whose ships,
+notwithstanding the separation of the countries, continued to trade to
+the West Indies, although that privilege was by law exclusively confined
+to British vessels. In 1786 Collingwood returned to England, where, with
+the exception of a voyage to the West Indies, he remained until 1793, in
+which year he was appointed captain of the "Prince," the flag-ship of
+Rear-Admiral Bowyer. About two years previous to this event he had
+married Miss Sarah Roddam--a fortunate alliance, which continued to be
+a solace to him amidst the privations to which the life of a seaman must
+ever be subject.
+
+As captain of the "Barfleur," Collingwood was present at the naval
+engagement which was fought on the 1st of June 1794; and on that
+occasion he displayed equal judgment and courage. On board the
+"Excellent" he shared in the victory of the 14th of February 1797, when
+Sir John Jervis (Lord St Vincent) humbled the Spanish fleet off Cape St
+Vincent. His conduct in this engagement was the theme of universal
+admiration throughout the fleet, and greatly advanced his fame as a
+naval officer. After blockading Cadiz for some time, he returned for a
+few weeks to Portsmouth to repair. In the beginning of 1799 Collingwood
+was raised to the rank of vice-admiral, and hoisting his flag in the
+"Triumph," he joined the Channel Fleet, with which he proceeded to the
+Mediterranean, where the principal naval forces of France and Spain were
+assembled. Collingwood continued actively employed in watching the
+enemy, until the peace of Amiens restored him once more to the bosom of
+his family.
+
+The domestic repose, however, which he so highly relished, was cut short
+by the recommencement of hostilities with France, and in the spring of
+1803 he quitted the home to which he was never again to return. The duty
+upon which he was employed was that of watching the French fleet off
+Brest, and in the discharge of it he displayed the most unwearied
+vigilance. Nearly two years were spent in this employment; but Napoleon
+had at length matured his plans and equipped his armament, and the grand
+struggle which was to decide the fate of Europe and the dominion of the
+sea was close at hand. The enemy's fleet having sailed from Toulon,
+Admiral Collingwood was appointed to the command of a squadron, with
+orders to pursue them. The combined fleets of France and Spain, after
+spreading terror throughout the West Indies, returned to Cadiz. On their
+way thither they bore down upon Admiral Collingwood, who had only three
+vessels with him; but he succeeded in eluding the pursuit, although
+chased by sixteen ships of the line. Ere one-half of the enemy had
+entered the harbour he drew up before it and resumed the blockade, at
+the same time employing an ingenious artifice to conceal the inferiority
+of his force. But the combined fleet was at last compelled to quit
+Cadiz; and the battle of Trafalgar immediately followed. The brilliant
+conduct of Admiral Collingwood upon this occasion has been much and
+justly applauded. The French admiral drew up his fleet in the form of a
+crescent, and in a double line, every alternate ship being about a
+cable's length to windward of her second, both ahead and astern. The
+British fleet bore down upon this formidable and skilfully arranged
+armament in two separate lines, the one led by Nelson in the "Victory,"
+and the other by Collingwood in the "Royal Sovereign." The latter vessel
+was the swifter sailer, and having shot considerably ahead of the rest
+of the fleet, was the first engaged. "See," said Nelson, pointing to the
+"Royal Sovereign" as she penetrated the centre of the enemy's line, "see
+how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship into action!"
+Probably it was at the same instant that Collingwood, as if in response
+to the observation of his great commander, remarked to his captain,
+"What would Nelson give to be here?" The consummate valour and skill
+evinced by Collingwood had a powerful moral influence upon both fleets.
+It was with the Spanish admiral's ship that the "Royal Sovereign"
+closed; and with such rapidity and precision did she pour in her
+broadsides upon the "Santa Anna," that the latter was on the eve of
+striking in the midst of thirty-three sail of the line, and almost
+before another British ship had fired a gun. Several other vessels,
+however, seeing the imminent peril of the Spanish flag-ship, came to her
+assistance, and hemmed in the "Royal Sovereign" on all sides; but the
+latter, after suffering severely, was relieved by the arrival of the
+rest of the British squadron; and not long afterwards the "Santa Anna"
+struck her colours. The result of the battle of Trafalgar, and the
+expense at which it was purchased, are well known. On the death of
+Nelson, Collingwood assumed the supreme command; and by his skill and
+judgment greatly contributed to the preservation of the British ships,
+as well as of those which were captured from the enemy. He was raised to
+the peerage as Baron Collingwood of Coldburne and Heathpool, and
+received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament, with a pension of
+£2000 per annum.
+
+From this period until the death of Lord Collingwood no great naval
+action was fought; but he was much occupied in important political
+transactions, in which he displayed remarkable tact and judgment. Being
+appointed to the command of the Mediterranean fleet, he continued to
+cruise about, keeping a watchful eye upon the movements of the enemy.
+His health, however, which had begun to decline previously to the action
+of Trafalgar in 1805, seemed entirely to give way, and he repeatedly
+requested government to be relieved of his command, that he might return
+home; but he was urgently requested to remain, on the ground that his
+country could not dispense with his services. This conduct has been
+regarded as harsh; but the good sense and political sagacity which he
+displayed afford some palliation of the conduct of the government; and
+the high estimation in which he was held is proved by the circumstance
+that among the many able admirals, equal in rank and duration of
+service, none stood so prominently forward as to command the confidence
+of ministers and of the country to the same extent as he did. After many
+fruitless attempts to induce the enemy to put to sea, as well as to fall
+in with them when they had done so (which circumstance materially
+contributed to hasten his death), he expired on board the "Ville de
+Paris," then lying off Port Mahon, on the 7th of March 1810.
+
+Lord Collingwood's merits as a naval officer were in every respect of
+the first order. In original genius and romantic daring he was inferior
+to Nelson, who indeed had no equal in an age fertile in great
+commanders. In seamanship, in general talent, and in reasoning upon the
+probability of events from a number of conflicting and ambiguous
+statements, Collingwood was equal to the hero of the Nile; indeed, many
+who were familiar with both give him the palm of superiority. His
+political penetration was remarkable; and so high was the opinion
+generally entertained of his judgment, that he was consulted in all
+quarters, and on all occasions, upon questions of general policy, of
+regulation, and even of trade. He was distinguished for benevolence and
+generosity; his acts of charity were frequent and bountiful, and the
+petition of real distress was never rejected by him. He was an enemy to
+impressment and to flogging; and so kind was he to his crew, that he
+obtained amongst them the honourable name of father. Between Nelson and
+Collingwood a close intimacy subsisted, from their first acquaintance in
+early life till the fall of the former at Trafalgar; and they lie side
+by side in the cathedral of St Paul's.
+
+  The selections from the public and private correspondence of Lord
+  Collingwood, published in 2 vols., 8vo, in 1828, contain some of the
+  best specimens of letter-writing in the language. See also _A Fine Old
+  English Gentleman exemplified in the Life and Character of Lord
+  Collingwood, a Biographical Study_, by William Davies (London, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+COLLINGWOOD, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, suburban to
+Melbourne on the N.E., on the Yarra Yarra river. Pop. (1901) 32,766. It
+was the first town in Victoria incorporated after Melbourne and Geelong.
+It is esteemed one of the healthiest of the metropolitan suburbs.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINGWOOD, a town of Simcoe county, Ontario, Canada, 90 m. N.N.W. of
+Toronto, on Georgian Bay, and on the Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901)
+5755. It is the eastern terminus of two lines of steamers for the ports
+of Lakes Huron and Superior. It contains a large stone dry-dock and
+shipyard, pork factory, and saw and planing mills, and has a large
+lumber, grain and produce export trade, besides a shipbuilding plant and
+steel works.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, ANTHONY (1676-1729), English deist, was born at Heston, near
+Hounslow in Middlesex, on the 21st of June 1676. He was educated at Eton
+and King's College, Cambridge, and was for some time a student at the
+Middle Temple. The most interesting episode of his life was his intimacy
+with Locke, who in his letters speaks of him with affection and
+admiration. In 1715 he settled in Essex, where he held the offices of
+justice of the peace and deputy-lieutenant, which he had before held in
+Middlesex. He died at his house in Harley Street, London, on the 13th
+of December 1729.
+
+His writings are important as gathering together the results of previous
+English Freethinkers. The imperturbable courtesy of his style is in
+striking contrast to the violence of his opponents; and it must be
+remembered that, in spite of his unorthodoxy, he was not an atheist or
+even an agnostic. In his own words, "Ignorance is the foundation of
+atheism, and freethinking the cure of it" (_Discourse of Freethinking_,
+105).
+
+His first work of note was his _Essay concerning the Use of Reason in
+Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human Testimony_ (1707), in
+which he rejected the distinction between _above_ reason and _contrary
+to_ reason, and demanded that revelation should conform to man's natural
+ideas of God. Like all his works, it was published anonymously, although
+the identity of the author was never long concealed. Six years later
+appeared his chief work, _A Discourse of Freethinking, occasioned by the
+Rise and Growth of a Sect called Freethinkers_ (1713). Notwithstanding
+the ambiguity of its title, and the fact that it attacks the priests of
+all churches without moderation, it contends for the most part, at least
+explicitly, for no more than must be admitted by every Protestant.
+Freethinking is a right which cannot and must not be limited, for it is
+the only means of attaining to a knowledge of truth, it essentially
+contributes to the well-being of society, and it is not only permitted
+but enjoined by the Bible. In fact the first introduction of
+Christianity and the success of all missionary enterprise involve
+freethinking (in its etymological sense) on the part of those converted.
+In England this essay, which was regarded and treated as a plea for
+deism, made a great sensation, calling forth several replies, among
+others from William Whiston, Bishop Hare, Bishop Hoadly, and Richard
+Bentley, who, under the signature of _Phileleutherus Lipsiensis_,
+roughly handles certain arguments carelessly expressed by Collins, but
+triumphs chiefly by an attack on trivial points of scholarship, his own
+pamphlet being by no means faultless in this very respect. Swift also,
+being satirically referred to in the book, made it the subject of a
+caricature.
+
+In 1724 Collins published his _Discourse of the Grounds and Reasons of
+the Christian Religion_, with _An Apology for Free Debate and Liberty of
+Writing_ prefixed. Ostensibly it is written in opposition to Whiston's
+attempt to show that the books of the Old Testament did originally
+contain prophecies of events in the New Testament story, but that these
+had been eliminated or corrupted by the Jews, and to prove that the
+fulfilment of prophecy by the events of Christ's life is all "secondary,
+secret, allegorical, and mystical," since the original and literal
+reference is always to some other fact. Since, further, according to him
+the fulfilment of prophecy is the only valid proof of Christianity, he
+thus secretly aims a blow at Christianity as a revelation. The
+canonicity of the New Testament he ventures openly to deny, on the
+ground that the canon could be fixed only by men who were inspired. No
+less than thirty-five answers were directed against this book, the most
+noteworthy of which were those of Bishop Edward Chandler, Arthur Sykes
+and Samuel Clarke. To these, but with special reference to the work of
+Chandler, which maintained that a number of prophecies were literally
+fulfilled in Christ, Collins replied by his _Scheme of Literal Prophecy
+Considered_ (1727). An appendix contends against Whiston that the book
+of _Daniel_ was forged in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (see DEISM).
+
+In philosophy, Collins takes a foremost place as a defender of
+Necessitarianism. His brief _Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty_ (1715)
+has not been excelled, at all events in its main outlines, as a
+statement of the determinist standpoint. One of his arguments, however,
+calls for special criticism,--his assertion that it is self-evident that
+nothing that has a beginning can be without a cause is an unwarranted
+assumption of the very point at issue. He was attacked in an elaborate
+treatise by Samuel Clarke, in whose system the freedom of the will is
+made essential to religion and morality. During Clarke's lifetime,
+fearing perhaps to be branded as an enemy of religion and morality,
+Collins made no reply, but in 1729 he published an answer, entitled
+_Liberty and Necessity_.
+
+Besides these works he wrote _A Letter to Mr Dodwell_, arguing that it is
+conceivable that the soul may be material, and, secondly, that if the soul
+be immaterial it does not follow, as Clarke had contended, that it is
+immortal; _Vindication of the Divine Attributes_ (1710); _Priestcraft in
+Perfection_ (1709), in which he asserts that the clause "the Church ...
+Faith" in the twentieth of the Thirty-nine Articles was inserted by fraud.
+
+  See Kippis, _Biographia Britannica_; G. Lechler, _Geschichte des
+  englischen Deismus_ (1841); J. Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_,
+  ii. (1871); Leslie Stephen, _English Thought in the 18th Century_, i.
+  (1881); A. W. Benn, _Hist. of English Rationalism in the 19th Century_
+  (London, 1906), vol. i. ch. iii.; J. M. Robertson, _Short History of
+  Freethought_ (London, 1906); and Deism.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON (1848-1908), English literary critic, was born on
+the 26th of March 1848 at Bourton on the Water, Gloucestershire. From
+King Edward's school, Birmingham, he went to Balliol College, Oxford,
+where he graduated in 1872, and at once devoted himself to a literary
+career, as journalist, essayist and lecturer. His first book was a study
+of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1874), and later he edited various classical
+English writers, and published volumes on _Bolingbroke and Voltaire in
+England_ (1886), a _Study of English Literature_ (1891), a study of
+_Dean Swift_ (1893), _Essays and Studies_ (1895), _Ephemera Critica_
+(1901), _Essays in Poetry and Criticism_ (1905), and _Rousseau and
+Voltaire_ (1908), his original essays being sharply controversial in
+tone, but full of knowledge. In 1904 he became professor of English
+literature at Birmingham University. For many years he was a prominent
+University Extension lecturer, and a constant contributor to the
+principal reviews. On the 15th of September 1908 he was found dead in a
+ditch near Lowestoft, at which place he had been staying with a doctor
+for the benefit of his health. The circumstances necessitated the
+holding of an inquest, the verdict being that of "accidental death."
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, MORTIMER (1827-1876), English writer, was born at Plymouth,
+where his father, Francis Collins, was a solicitor, on the 29th of June
+1827. He was educated at a private school, and after some years spent as
+mathematical master at Queen Elizabeth's College, Guernsey, he went to
+London, where he devoted himself to journalism in the Conservative
+interest. In 1855 he published his _Idyls and Rhymes_; and in 1865
+appeared his first story, _Who is the Heir?_ A second volume of lyrics,
+_The Inn of Strange Meetings_, was issued in 1871; and in 1872 he
+produced his longest and best sustained poem, _The British Birds, a
+communication from the Ghost of Aristophanes_. He also wrote several
+capital novels, the best of which is perhaps _Sweet Anne Page_ (1868).
+Some of his lyrics, in their light grace, their sparkling wit, their
+airy philosophy, are equal to anything of their kind in modern English.
+On his second marriage in 1868 he settled at Knowl Hill, Berkshire.
+Collins was an athlete, an excellent pedestrian, and an enthusiastic
+lover of country life; and from this time he rarely left his home for a
+day. Conservative in his political and literary tastes, an ardent
+upholder of Church and State, he was yet a hater of convention; and his
+many and very varied gifts endeared him to a large circle of friends. He
+died on the 28th of July 1876.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, WILLIAM (1721-1759), English poet, was born on the 25th of
+December 1721. He divides with Gray the glory of being the greatest
+English lyrist of the 18th century. After some childish studies in
+Chichester, of which his father, a rich hatter, was the mayor, he was
+sent, in January 1733, to Winchester College, where Whitehead and Joseph
+Warton were his school-fellows. When he had been nine months at the
+school, Pope paid Winchester a visit and proposed a subject for a prize
+poem; it is legitimate to suppose that the lofty forehead, the brisk
+dark eyes and gracious oval of the childish face, as we know it in the
+only portrait existing of Collins, did not escape the great man's
+notice, then not a little occupied with the composition of the _Essay on
+Man_.
+
+In 1734 the young poet published his first verses, in a sixpenny
+pamphlet on _The Royal Nuptials_, of which, however, no copy has come
+down to us; another poem, probably satiric, called _The Battle of the
+Schoolbooks_, was written about this time, and has also been lost. Fired
+by his poetic fellows to further feats in verse, Collins produced, in
+his seventeenth year, those _Persian Eclogues_ which were the only
+writings of his that were valued by the world during his own lifetime.
+They were not printed for some years, and meanwhile Collins sent, in
+January and October 1739, some verses to the _Gentleman's Magazine_,
+which attracted the notice and admiration of Johnson, then still young
+and uninfluential. In March 1740 he was admitted a commoner of Queen's
+College, Oxford, but did not go up to Oxford until July 1741, when he
+obtained a demyship at Magdalen College. At Oxford he continued his
+affectionate intimacy with the Wartons, and gained the friendship of
+Gilbert White. Early in 1742 the _Persian Eclogues_ appeared in London.
+They were four in number, and formed a modest pamphlet of not more than
+300 lines in all. In a later edition, of 1759, the title was changed to
+_Oriental Eclogues_. Those pieces may be compared with Victor Hugo's
+_Les Orientales_, to which, of course, they are greatly inferior.
+Considered with regard to the time at which they were produced, they are
+more than meritorious, even brilliant, and one at least--the second--can
+be read with enjoyment at the present day. The rest, perhaps, will be
+found somewhat artificial and effete.
+
+In November 1743 Collins was made bachelor of arts, and a few days after
+taking his degree published his second work, _Verses humbly addressed to
+Sir Thomas Hanmer_. This poem, written in heroic couplets, shows a great
+advance in individuality, and resembles, in its habit of personifying
+qualities of the mind, the riper lyrics of its author. For the rest, it
+is an enthusiastic review of poetry, culminating in a laudation of
+Shakespeare. It is supposed that he left Oxford abruptly in the summer
+of 1744 to attend his mother's death-bed, and did not return. He is said
+to have now visited an uncle in Flanders. His indolence, which had been
+no less marked at the university than his genius, combined with a fatal
+irresolution to make it extremely difficult to choose for him a path in
+life. The army and the church were successively suggested and rejected;
+and he finally arrived in London, bent on enjoying a small property as
+an independent man about town. He made the acquaintance of Johnson and
+others, and was urged by those friends to undertake various important
+writings--a _History of the Revival of Learning_, several tragedies, and
+a version of Aristotle's _Poetics_, among others--all of which he began
+but lacked force of will to continue. He soon squandered his means,
+plunged, with most disastrous effects, into profligate excesses, and
+sowed the seed of his untimely misfortune.
+
+It was at this time, however, that he composed his matchless
+_Odes_--twelve in number--which appeared on the 12th of December 1746,
+dated 1747. The original project was to have combined them with the odes
+of Joseph Warton, but the latter proved at that time to be the more
+marketable article. Collins's little volume fell dead from the press,
+but it won him the admiration and friendship of the poet Thomson, with
+whom, until the death of the latter in 1748, he lived on terms of
+affectionate intimacy. In 1749 Collins was raised beyond the fear of
+poverty by the death of his uncle, Colonel Martyn, who left him about
+£2000, and he left London to settle in his native city. He had hardly
+begun to taste the sweets of a life devoted to literature and quiet,
+before the weakness of his will began to develop in the direction of
+insanity, and he hurried abroad to attempt to dispel the gathering gloom
+by travel. In the interval he had published two short pieces of
+consummate grace and beauty--the _Elegy on Thomson_, in 1749, and the
+_Dirge in Cymbeline_, later in the same year. In the beginning of 1750
+he composed the _Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands_,
+which was dedicated to the author of _Douglas_, and not printed till
+long after the death of Collins, and an _Ode on the Music of the Grecian
+Theatre_, which no longer exists, and in which English literature
+probably has sustained a severe loss. With this poem his literary career
+closes, although he lingered in great misery for nearly nine years. From
+Gilbert White, who jotted down some pages of invaluable recollections of
+Collins in 1781, and from other friends, we learn that his madness was
+occasionally violent, and that he was confined for a time in an asylum
+at Oxford. But for the most part he resided at Chichester, suffering
+from extreme debility of body when the mind was clear, and incapable of
+any regular occupation. Music affected him in a singular manner, and it
+is recorded that he was wont to slip out into the cathedral cloisters
+during the services, and moan and howl in horrible accordance with the
+choir. In this miserable condition he passed out of sight of all his
+friends, and in 1756 it was supposed, even by Johnson, that he was dead;
+in point of fact, however, his sufferings did not cease until the 12th
+of June 1759. No journal or magazine recorded the death of the forgotten
+poet, though Goldsmith, only two months before, had begun the laudation
+which was soon to become universal.
+
+No English poet so great as Collins has left behind him so small a bulk
+of writings. Not more than 1500 lines of his have been handed down to
+us, but among these not one is slovenly, and few are poor. His odes are
+the most sculpturesque and faultless in the language. They lack fire,
+but in charm and precision of diction, exquisite propriety of form, and
+lofty poetic suggestion they stand unrivalled. The ode named _The
+Passions_ is the most popular; that _To Evening_ is the classical
+example of perfect unrhymed verse. In this, and the _Ode to Simplicity_,
+one seems to be handling an antique vase of matchless delicacy and
+elegance. In his descriptions of nature it is unquestionable that he
+owed something to the influence of Thomson. Distinction may be said to
+be the crowning grace of the style of Collins; its leading peculiarity
+is the incessant personification of some quality of the character. In
+the _Ode on Popular Superstitions_ he produced a still nobler work; this
+poem, the most considerable in size which has been preserved, contains
+passages which are beyond question unrivalled for rich melancholy
+fulness in the literature between Milton and Keats.
+
+  The life of Collins was written by Dr Johnson; he found an
+  enthusiastic editor in Dr Langhorne in 1765, and in 1858 a kindly
+  biographer in Mr Moy Thomas.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, WILLIAM (1787-1847), English painter, son of an Irish picture
+dealer and man of letters, the author of a _Life of George Morland_, was
+born in London. He studied under Etty in 1807, and in 1809 exhibited his
+first pictures of repute--"Boys at Breakfast," and "Boys with a Bird's
+Nest." In 1815 he was made associate of the Royal Academy, and was
+elected R. A. in 1820. For the next sixteen years he was a constant
+exhibitor; his fishermen, shrimp-catchers, boats and nets, stretches of
+coast and sand, and, above all, his rustic children were universally
+popular. Then, however, he went abroad on the advice of Wilkie, and for
+two years (1837-1838) studied the life, manners and scenery of Italy. In
+1839 he exhibited the first fruits of this journey; and in 1840, in
+which year he was appointed librarian to the Academy, he made his first
+appearance as a painter of history. In 1842 he returned to his early
+manner and choice of subject, and during the last years of life enjoyed
+greater popularity than ever. Collins was a good colourist and an
+excellent draughtsman. His earlier pictures are deficient in breadth and
+force, but his later work, though also carefully executed, is rich in
+effects of tone and in broadly painted masses. His biography by his son,
+W. Wilkie Collins, the novelist, appeared in 1848.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE (1824-1889), English novelist, elder son of
+William Collins, R.A., the landscape painter, was born in London on the
+8th of January 1824. He was educated at a private school in Highbury,
+and when only a small boy of twelve was taken by his parents to Italy,
+where the family lived for three years. On their return to England
+Wilkie Collins was articled to a firm in the tea trade, but four years
+later he abandoned that business for the law, and was entered at
+Lincoln's Inn in 1846, being called to the bar three years later. He
+found little pleasure in his new career, however; though what he learned
+in it was exceedingly valuable to him later. On his father's death in
+1847 young Collins made his first essay in literature, publishing the
+_Life of William Collins_, in two volumes, in the following year. In
+1850 he put forth his first work of fiction, _Antonina, or the Fall of
+Rome_, which was clearly inspired by his life in Italy. _Basil_ appeared
+in 1852, and _Hide and Seek_ in 1854. About this time he made the
+acquaintance of Charles Dickens, and began to contribute to _Household
+Words_, where _After Dark_ (1856) and _The Dead Secret_ (1857) ran
+serially. His great success was achieved in 1860 with the publication of
+_The Woman in White_, which was first printed in _All the Year Round_.
+From that time he enjoyed as much popularity as any novelist of his day,
+_No Name_ (1862), _Armadale_ (1866), and _The Moonstone_, a capital
+detective story (1868), being among his most successful books. After
+_The New Magdalen_ (1873) his ingenuity became gradually exhausted, and
+his later stories were little more than faint echoes of earlier
+successes. He died in Wimpole Street, London, on the 23rd of September
+1889. Collins's gift was of the melodramatic order, and while many of
+his stories made excellent plays, several of them were actually
+reconstructed from pieces designed originally for stage production. But
+if his colours were occasionally crude and his methods violent, he was
+at least a master of situation and effect. His trick of telling a story
+through the mouths of different characters is sometimes irritatingly
+disconnected; but it had the merit of giving an air of actual evidence
+and reality to the elucidation of a mystery. He possessed in the highest
+degree the gift of absorbing interest; the turns and complexities of his
+plots are surprisingly ingenious, and many of his characters are not
+only real, but uncommon. Count Fosco in _The Woman in White_ is perhaps
+his masterpiece; the character has been imitated again and again, but no
+imitation has ever attained to the subtlety and humour of the original.
+
+
+
+
+COLLODION (from the Gr. [Greek: kolla], glue), a colourless, viscid
+fluid, made by dissolving gun-cotton and the other varieties of
+pyroxylin in a mixture of alcohol and ether. It was discovered in 1846
+by Louis Nicolas Ménard in Paris, and independently in 1848 by Dr J.
+Parkers Maynard in Boston. The quality of collodion differs according to
+the proportions of alcohol and ether and the nature of the pyroxylin it
+contains. Collodion in which there is a great excess of ether gives by
+its evaporation a very tough film; the film left by collodion containing
+a large quantity of alcohol is soft and easily torn; but in hot climates
+the presence of an excess of alcohol is an advantage, as it prevents the
+rapid evaporation of the ether. Under the microscope, the film produced
+by collodion of good quality appears translucent and colourless. To
+preserve collodion it should be kept cool and out of the action of the
+light; iodized collodion that has been discoloured by the development of
+free iodine may be purified by the immersion in it of a strip of silver
+foil. For the iodizing of collodion, ammonium bromide and iodide, and
+the iodides of calcium and cadmium are the agents employed (see
+PHOTOGRAPHY). Collodion is used in surgery since, when painted on the
+skin, it rapidly dries and covers the skin with a thin film which
+contracts as it dries and therefore affords both pressure and
+protection. Flexible collodion, containing Canada balsam and castor oil,
+does not crack, but, on the other hand, does not contract. It is
+therefore of less value. Collodion is applied to small aseptic wounds,
+to small-pox pustules, and occasionally to the end of the urethra in
+boys in order to prevent nocturnal incontinence. Collodion and crystals
+of carbolic acid, taken in equal parts, are useful in relieving
+toothache due to the presence of a carious cavity. _Vesicating_ or
+_Blistering Collodion_ contains cantharidin as one of its constituents.
+The styptic colloid of Richardson is a strong solution of tannin in
+gun-cotton collodion. Similarly collodion may be impregnated with
+salicylic acid, carbolic acid, iodine and other substances. Small
+balloons are manufactured from collodion by coating the interior of
+glass globes with the liquid; the film when dry is removed from the
+glass by applying suction to the mouth of the vessel. M. E. Gripon found
+(_Compt. rend._, 1875) that collodion membranes, like glass, reflect
+light and polarize it both by refraction and reflection; they also
+transmit a very much larger proportion of radiant heat, for the study of
+which they are preferable to mica.
+
+
+
+
+COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE (1750-1796), French revolutionist, was a
+Parisian by birth and an actor by profession. After figuring for some
+years at the principal provincial theatres of France and Holland, he
+became director of the playhouse at Geneva. He had from the first a
+share in the revolutionary tumult; but it was not until 1791 that he
+became a figure of importance. Then, however, by the publication of
+_L'Almanach du Père Gérard_,[1] a little book setting forth, in homely
+style, the advantages of a constitutional monarchy, he suddenly acquired
+great popularity. His renown was soon increased by his active
+interference on behalf of the Swiss of the Château-Vieux Regiment,
+condemned to the galleys for mutiny at Nancy. His efforts resulted in
+their liberation; he went himself to Brest in search of them; and a
+civic feast was decreed on his behalf and theirs, which gave occasion
+for one of the few poems published during his life by André Chénier. But
+his opinions became more and more radical. He was a member of the
+Commune of Paris on the 10th of August 1792, and was elected deputy for
+Paris to the Convention, where he was the first to demand the abolition
+of royalty (on the 21st of September 1792), and he voted the death of
+Louis XVI. "_sans sursis_." In the struggle between the Mountain and the
+Girondists he displayed great energy; and after the _coup d'état_ of the
+31st of May 1793 he made himself conspicuous by his pitiless pursuit of
+the defeated party. In June he was made president of the Convention; and
+in September he was admitted to the Committee of Public Safety, on which
+he was very active. After having entrusted him with several missions,
+the Convention sent him, on the 30th of October 1793, to Lyons to punish
+the revolt of that city. There he introduced the Terror in its most
+terrible form.
+
+In May 1794 an attempt was made to assassinate Collot; but it only
+increased his popularity, and this won him the hatred of Robespierre,
+against whom he took sides on the 9th Thermidor, when he presided over
+the Convention during a part of the session. During the Thermidorian
+reaction he was one of the first to be accused of complicity with the
+fallen leader, but was acquitted. Denounced a second time, he defended
+himself by pleading that he had acted for the cause of the Revolution,
+but was condemned with Barère and Billaud-Varenne to transportation to
+Cayenne (March 1795), where he died early in 1796.
+
+Collot d'Herbois wrote and adapted from the English and Spanish many
+plays, one of which, _Le Paysan magistrat_, kept the stage for several
+years. _L'Almanach du Père Gérard_ was reprinted under the title of
+_Étrennes aux amis de la Constitution française, ou entretiens du Père
+Gérard avec ses concitoyens_ (Paris, 1792).
+
+  See F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention_
+  (Paris, 1885-1886), t. ii. pp. 501-512. The principal documents
+  relative to the trial of Collot d'Herbois, Barère and Billaud-Varenne
+  are indicated in Aulard, _Recueil des actes du comité de salut
+  public_, t. i. pp. 5 and 6.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Michel Gérard was a popular Breton peasant deputy (see JACOBINS).
+
+
+
+
+COLLUSION (from Lat. _colludere_, strictly, to play with), a secret
+agreement or compact for some improper purpose. In judicial proceedings,
+and particularly in matrimonial causes (see DIVORCE), collusion is a
+deceitful agreement between two or more persons, or between one of them
+and a third party, to bring an action against the other in order to
+obtain a judicial decision, or some remedy which would not have been
+obtained unless the parties had combined for the purpose or suppressed
+material facts or otherwise.
+
+
+
+
+COLLYER, ROBERT (1823-   ), American Unitarian clergyman, was born in
+Keighley, Yorkshire, England, on the 8th of December 1823. At the age of
+eight he was compelled to leave school and support himself by work in a
+linen factory. He was naturally studious, however, and supplemented his
+scant schooling by night study. At fourteen he was apprenticed to a
+blacksmith, and for several years worked at this trade at Ilkley. In
+1849 he became a local Methodist minister, and in the following year
+emigrated to the United States, where he obtained employment as a hammer
+maker at Shoemakersville, Pennsylvania. Here he soon began to preach on
+Sundays while still employed in the factory on week-days. His earnest,
+rugged, simple style of oratory made him extremely popular, and at once
+secured for him a wide reputation. His advocacy of anti-slavery
+principles, then frowned upon by the Methodist authorities, aroused
+opposition, and eventually resulted in his trial for heresy and the
+revocation of his licence. He continued, however, as an independent
+preacher and lecturer, and in 1859, having joined the Unitarian Church,
+became a missionary of that church in Chicago, Illinois. In 1860 he
+organized and became pastor of the Unity Church, the second Unitarian
+church in Chicago. Under his guidance the church grew to be one of the
+strongest of that denomination in the West, and Mr Collyer himself came
+to be looked upon as one of the foremost pulpit orators in the country.
+During the Civil War he was active in the work of the Sanitary
+Commission. In 1879 he left Chicago and became pastor of the church of
+the Messiah in New York city, and in 1903 he became pastor emeritus. He
+published: _Nature and Life_ (1867); _A Man in Earnest: Life of A. H.
+Conant_ (1868); _The Life That Now is_ (1871); _The Simple Truth_
+(1877); _Talks to Young Men: With Asides to Young Women_ (1888); _Things
+New and Old_ (1893); _Father Taylor_ (1906); and _A History of the Town
+and Parish of Ilkley_ (with Horsefall Turner, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+COLMAN, SAINT (d. 676), bishop of Lindisfarne, was probably an Irish
+monk at Iona. Journeying southwards he became bishop of Lindisfarne in
+661, and a favoured friend of Oswio, king of Northumbria. He was at the
+synod of Whitby in 664, when the great dispute between the Roman and the
+Celtic parties in the church was considered; as spokesman of the latter
+party he upheld the Celtic usages, but King Oswio decided against him
+and his cause was lost. After this event Colman and some monks went to
+Iona and then to Ireland. He settled on the island of Inishbofin, where
+he built a monastery and where he died on the 8th of August 676.
+
+Colman must be distinguished from St Colman of Cloyne (c. 522-600), an
+Irish saint, who became a Christian about 570; and also from another
+Irishman, St Colman Ela (553-610), a kinsman of St Columba. The word
+Colman is derived from the Latin _columbus_, a dove, and the _Book of
+Leinster_ mentions 209 saints of this name.
+
+
+
+
+COLMAN, GEORGE (1732-1794), English dramatist and essayist, usually
+called "the Elder," and sometimes "George the First," to distinguish him
+from his son, was born in 1732 at Florence, where his father was
+stationed as resident at the court of the grand duke of Tuscany.
+Colman's father died within a year of his son's birth, and the boy's
+education was undertaken by William Pulteney, afterwards Lord Bath,
+whose wife was Mrs Colman's sister. After attending a private school in
+Marylebone, he was sent to Westminster School, which he left in due
+course for Christ Church, Oxford. Here he made the acquaintance of
+Bonnell Thornton, the parodist, and together they founded _The
+Connoisseur_ (1754-1756), a periodical which, although it reached its
+140th number, "wanted weight," as Johnson said. He left Oxford after
+taking his degree in 1755, and, having been entered at Lincoln's Inn
+before his return to London, he was called to the bar in 1757. A
+friendship formed with David Garrick did not help his career as a
+barrister, but he continued to practise until the death of Lord Bath,
+out of respect for his wishes.
+
+In 1760 he produced his first play, _Polly Honeycomb_, which met with
+great success. In 1761 _The Jealous Wife_, a comedy partly founded on
+_Tom Jones_, made Colman famous. The death of Lord Bath in 1764 placed
+him in possession of independent means. In 1765 appeared his metrical
+translation of the plays of Terence; and in 1766 he produced _The
+Clandestine Marriage_, jointly with Garrick, whose refusal to take the
+part of Lord Ogleby led to a quarrel between the two authors. In the
+next year he purchased a fourth share in the Covent Garden Theatre, a
+step which is said to have induced General Pulteney to revoke a will by
+which he had left Colman large estates. The general, who died in that
+year, did, however, leave him a considerable annuity. Colman was acting
+manager of Covent Garden for seven years, and during that period he
+produced several "adapted" plays of Shakespeare. In 1768 he was elected
+to the Literary Club, then nominally consisting of twelve members. In
+1774 he sold his share in the great playhouse, which had involved him in
+much litigation with his partners, to Leake; and three years later he
+purchased of Samuel Foote, then broken in health and spirits, the little
+theatre in the Haymarket. He was attacked with paralysis in 1785; in
+1789 his brain became affected, and he died on the 14th of August 1794.
+Besides the works already cited, Colman was author of adaptations of
+Beaumont and Fletcher's _Bonduca_, Ben Jonson's _Epicoene_, Milton's
+_Comus_, and of other plays. He also produced an edition of the works of
+Beaumont and Fletcher (1778), a version of the _Ars Poëtica_ of Horace,
+an excellent translation from the _Mercator_ of Plautus for Bonnell
+Thornton's edition (1769-1772), some thirty plays, many parodies and
+occasional pieces. An incomplete edition of his dramatic works was
+published in 1777 in four volumes.
+
+His son, GEORGE COLMAN (1762-1836), known as "the Younger," English
+dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was born on the 21st of October
+1762. He passed from Westminster school to Christ Church, Oxford, and
+King's College, Aberdeen, and was finally entered as a student of law at
+Lincoln's Inn, London. While in Aberdeen he published a poem satirizing
+Charles James Fox, called _The Man of the People_; and in 1782 he
+produced, at his father's playhouse in the Haymarket, his first play,
+_The Female Dramatist_, for which Smollett's _Roderick Random_ supplied
+the materials. It was unanimously condemned, but _Two to One_ (1784) was
+entirely successful. It was followed by _Turk and no Turk_ (1785), a
+musical comedy; _Inkle and Yarico_ (1787), an opera; _Ways and Means_
+(1788); _The Iron Chest_ (1796), taken from William Godwin's _Adventures
+of Caleb Williams_; _The Poor Gentleman_ (1802); _John Bull, or an
+Englishman's Fireside_ (1803), his most successful piece; _The Heir at
+Law_ (1808), which enriched the stage with one immortal character, "Dr
+Pangloss," and numerous other pieces, many of them adapted from the
+French.
+
+The failing health of the elder Colman obliged him to relinquish the
+management of the Haymarket theatre in 1789, when the younger George
+succeeded him, at a yearly salary of £600. On the death of the father
+the patent was continued to the son; but difficulties arose in his way,
+he was involved in litigation with Thomas Harris, and was unable to pay
+the expenses of the performances at the Haymarket. He was forced to take
+sanctuary within the Rules of the King's Bench. Here he resided for many
+years continuing to direct the affairs of his theatre. Released at last
+through the kindness of George IV., who had appointed him exon of the
+Yeomen of the Guard, a dignity disposed of by Colman to the highest
+bidder, he was made examiner of plays by the duke of Montrose, then lord
+chamberlain. This office, to the disgust of all contemporary dramatists,
+to whose MSS. he was as illiberal as he was severe, he held till his
+death. Although his own productions were open to charges of indecency
+and profanity, he was so severe a censor of others that he would not
+pass even such words as "heaven," "providence" or "angel." His comedies
+are a curious mixture of genuine comic force and sentimentality. A
+collection of them was published (1827) in Paris, with a life of the
+author, by J. W. Lake.
+
+Colman, whose witty conversation made him a favourite, was also the
+author of a great deal of so-called humorous poetry (mostly coarse,
+though much of it was popular)--_My Night Gown and Slippers_ (1797),
+reprinted under the name of _Broad Grins_, in 1802; and _Poetical
+Vagaries_ (1812). Some of his writings were published under the assumed
+name of Arthur Griffinhood of Turnham Green. He died in Brompton,
+London, on the 17th of October 1836. He had, as early as 1784,
+contracted a runaway marriage with an actress, Clara Morris, to whose
+brother David Morris, he eventually disposed of his share in the
+Haymarket theatre. Many of the leading parts in his plays were written
+especially for Mrs Gibbs (_née_ Logan), whom he was said to have
+secretly married after the death of his first wife.
+
+  See the second George Colman's memoirs of his early life, entitled
+  _Random Records_ (1830), and R. B. Peake, _Memoirs of the Colman
+  Family_ (1842).
+
+
+
+
+COLMAN, SAMUEL (1832-   ), American landscape painter, was born at
+Portland, Maine, on the 4th of March 1832. He was a pupil of Ashur B.
+Durand in New York, and in 1860-1862 studied in Spain, Italy, France and
+England. In 1871-1876 he was again in Europe. In 1860, with James D.
+Smilie, he founded the American Water Color Society, and became its
+first president (1866-1867), his own water-colour paintings being
+particularly fine. He was elected a member of the National Academy of
+Design in 1862. Among his works are "The Ships of the Western Plains,"
+in the Union League Club, New York; and "The Spanish Peaks, Colorado,"
+in the Metropolitan Museum, New York.
+
+
+
+
+COLMAR, or KOLMAR, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of
+Alsace-Lorraine, formerly the capital of the department of Haut-Rhin in
+France, on the Logelbach and Lauch, tributaries of the Ill, 40 m. S.S.W.
+from Strassburg on the main line of railway to Basel. Pop. (1905)
+41,582. It is the seat of the government for Upper Alsace, and of the
+supreme court of appeal for Alsace-Lorraine. The town is surrounded by
+pleasant promenades, on the site of the old fortifications, and has
+numerous narrow and picturesque streets. Of its edifices the most
+remarkable are the Roman Catholic parish church of St Martin, known also
+as the _Münster_, dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, the Lutheran
+parish church (15th century), the former Dominican monastery
+(1232-1289), known as "Unterlinden" and now used as a museum, the
+Kaufhaus (trade-hall) of the 15th century, and the handsome government
+offices (formerly the Prefecture). Colmar is the centre of considerable
+textile industries, comprising wool, cotton and silk-weaving, and has
+important manufactures of sewing thread, starch, sugar and machinery.
+Bleaching and brewing are also carried on, and the neighbourhood is rich
+in vineyards and fruit-gardens. The considerable trade of the place is
+assisted by a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Imperial Bank
+(Reichsbank).
+
+Colmar (probably the _columbarium_ of the Romans) is first mentioned, as
+a royal _villa_, in a charter of Louis the Pious in 823, and it was here
+that Charles the Fat held a diet in 884. It was raised to the status of
+a town and surrounded with walls by Wölfelin, advocate (_Landvogt_) of
+the emperor Frederick II. in Alsace, a masterful and ambitious man,
+whose accumulated wealth was confiscated by the emperor in 1235, and who
+is said to have been murdered by his wife lest her portion should also
+be seized. In 1226 Colmar became an imperial city, and the civic rights
+(_Stadtrecht_) conferred on it in 1274 by Rudolph of Habsburg became the
+model for those of many other cities. Its civic history is much the same
+as that of other medieval towns: a struggle between the democratic gilds
+and the aristocratic "families," which ended in 1347 in the inclusion of
+the former in the governing body, and in the 17th century in the
+complete exclusion of the latter. In 1255 Colmar joined the league of
+Rhenish cities, and in 1476 and 1477 took a vigorous share in the
+struggle against Charles the Bold. In 1632, during the Thirty Years'
+War, it was taken by the Swedes, and in 1635 by the French, who held it
+till after the Peace of Westphalia (1649). In 1673 the French again
+occupied it and dismantled the fortifications. In 1681 it was formally
+annexed to France by a decree of Louis XIV.'s _Chambre de Réunion_, and
+remained French till 1871, when it passed with Alsace-Lorraine to the
+new German empire.
+
+  See "Annalen und Chronik von Kolmar," German translation, G. H. Pabst,
+  in _Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit_ (2nd ed., G.
+  Wattenbach, Leipzig, 1897); Sigmund Billing, _Kleine Chronik der Stadt
+  Kolmar_ (Colmar, 1891); Hund, _Kolmar vor und während seiner
+  Entwickelung zur Reichsstadt_ (Strassburg, 1899); J. Liblin,
+  _Chronique de Colmar_, 58-1400 (Mülhausen, 1867-1868); T. F. X.
+  Hunkler, _Gesch. der Stadt Kolmar_ (Colmar, 1838). For further
+  references see Ulysse Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources.
+  Topobibliographie_ (Montbéliard, 1894-1899); and Waltz, _Bibliographie
+  de la ville de Colmar_ (Mülhausen, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+COLNE, a market town and municipal borough in the Clitheroe
+parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 34½ m. N. by E. from
+Manchester by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway; it is served also by a
+branch of the Midland railway from Skipton. Pop. (1901) 23,000. It
+stands on a hilly site above a small affluent of the river Calder. The
+church of St Bartholomew retains some Norman work, but is chiefly of
+various later periods. There is a cloth hall or piece hall, originally
+used as an exchange when woollens were the staple of the town. The
+grammar school is of interest as the place where John Tillotson
+(1630-1694), archbishop of Canterbury, received early education. Colne
+is a place of great antiquity, and many Roman coins have been found on
+the site. As early as the 14th century it was the seat of a woollen
+manufacture; but its principal manufactures now are cottons, printed
+calicoes and muslin. In the neighbourhood are several limestone and
+slate quarries. The town was incorporated in 1895, and the corporation
+consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5063 acres.
+
+
+
+
+COLOCYNTH, COLOQUINTIDA or BITTER APPLE, _Citrullus Colocynthis_, a
+plant of the natural order Cucurbitaceae. The flowers are unisexual; the
+male blossoms have five stamens with sinuous anthers, the female have
+reniform stigmas, and an ovary with three large fleshy placentas. The
+fruit is round, and about the size of an orange; it has a thick
+yellowish rind, and a light, spongy and very bitter pulp, which yields
+the colocynth of druggists. The seeds, which number from 200 to 300, and
+are disposed in vertical rows on the three parietal placentas of the
+fruit, are flat and ovoid and dark-brown; they are used as food by some
+of the tribes of the Sahara, and a coarse oil is expressed from them.
+The pulp contains only about 3.5% of fixed oil, whilst the seeds
+contains about 15%. The foliage resembles that of the cucumber, and the
+root is perennial. The plant has a wide range, being found in Ceylon,
+India, Persia, Arabia, Syria, North Africa, the Grecian Archipelago, the
+Cape Verd Islands, and the south-east of Spain. The term _pakkuoth_,
+translated "wild gourds" in 2 Kings iv. 39, is thought to refer to the
+fruit of the colocynth; but, according to Dr Olaf Celsius (1670-1756), a
+Swedish theologian and naturalist, it signifies a plant known as the
+squirting cucumber, _Ecbalium Elaterium_.
+
+The commercial colocynth consists of the peeled and dried fruits. In the
+preparation of the drug, the seeds are always removed from the pulp. Its
+active principle is an intensely bitter amorphous or crystalline
+glucoside, colocynthin, C56H84O23, soluble in water, ether and
+alcohol, and decomposable by acids into glucose and a resin,
+colocynthein, C40H54O13. Colocynthein also occurs as such in
+the drug, together with at least two other resins, citrullin and
+colocynthiden. Colocynthin has been used as a hypodermic purgative--a
+class of drugs practically nonexistent, and highly to be desired in
+numberless cases of apoplexy. The dose recommended for hypodermic
+injection is fifteen minims of a 1% solution in glycerin.
+
+The British Pharmacopeia contains a compound extract of colocynth, which
+no one ever uses; a compound pill--dose 4 to 8 grains--in which oil of
+cloves is included in order to relieve the griping caused by the drug;
+and the Pilula Colocynthidis et Hyoscyami, which contains 2 parts of the
+compound pill to 1 of extract of hyoscyamus. This is by far the best
+preparation, the hyoscyamus being added to prevent the pain and griping
+which is attendant on the use of colocynth alone. The official dose of
+this pill is 4 to 8 grains, but the most effective and least
+disagreeable manner in which to obtain its action is to give four
+two-grain pills at intervals of an hour or so.
+
+In minute doses colocynth acts simply as a bitter, but is never given
+for this purpose. In ordinary doses it greatly increases the secretion
+of the small intestine and stimulates its muscular coat. The
+gall-bladder is also stimulated, and the biliary function of the liver,
+so that colocynth is both an excretory and a secretory cholagogue. The
+action which follows hypodermic injection is due to the excretion of the
+drug from the blood into the alimentary canal. Though colocynth is a
+drastic hydragogue cathartic, it is desirable, as a rule, to supplement
+its action by some drug, such as aloes, which acts on the large
+intestine, and a sedative must always be added. Owing to its irritant
+properties, the drug must not be used habitually, but it is very
+valuable in initiating the treatment of simple chronic constipation, and
+its pharmacological properties obviously render it especially useful in
+cases of hepatitis and congestion of the liver.
+
+Colocynth was known to the ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic physicians;
+and in an Anglo-Saxon herbal of the 11th century (Cockayne, _Leechdoms_,
+&c., vol. i. p. 325, London, 1864), the following directions are given
+as to its use:--"For stirring of the inwards, take the inward neshness
+of the fruit, without the kernels, by weight of two pennies; give it,
+pounded in lithe beer to be drunk, it stirreth the inwards."
+
+
+
+
+COLOGNE (Ger. _Köln_, or officially, since 1900, _Cöln_), a city and
+archiepiscopal see of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, a
+fortress of the first rank, and one of the most important commercial
+towns of the empire. Pop. (1885) 239,437; (1900) 370,685; (1905)
+428,503, of which about 80% are Roman Catholics. It lies in the form of
+a vast semicircle on the left bank of the Rhine, 44 m. by rail
+north-east from Aix-la-Chapelle, 24 south-east from Düsseldorf and 57
+north-north-west from Coblenz. Its situation on the broad and navigable
+Rhine, and at the centre of an extensive network of railways, giving it
+direct communication with all the important cities of Europe, has
+greatly fostered its trade, while its close proximity to the beautiful
+scenery of the Rhine, has rendered it a favourite tourist resort. When
+viewed from a distance, especially from the river, the city, with its
+medieval towers and buildings, the whole surmounted by the majestic
+cathedral, is picturesque and imposing. The ancient walls and ditches,
+which formerly environed the city, were dismantled between 1881 and
+1885, and the site of the old fortifications, bought from the government
+by the municipality, were converted into a fine boulevard, the Ring,
+nearly 4 m. long. Beyond the Ring, about ½ m. farther out, a new
+continuous line of wall fortifications, with outlying clusters of
+earthworks and forts, has since been erected; 1000 acres, now occupied
+by handsome streets, squares and two public parks, were thus added to
+the inner town, almost doubling its area.
+
+Cologne is connected by bridges with the suburb of Deutz. Within the
+outer municipal boundary are included (besides Deutz) the suburbs of
+Bayenthal, Lindenthal, Ehrenfeld, Nippes, Sülz, Bickendorf, Niehl and
+Poll, protected by another widely extended circle of detached forts on
+both banks of the Rhine. Of the former city gates four have been
+retained, restored and converted into museums: the Severin gate, on the
+south, contains the geological section of the natural history museum;
+the Hahnen gate, on the west, is fitted as the historical and
+antiquarian museum of the city; and the Eigelstein gate, on the north,
+accommodates the zoological section of the natural history museum.
+
+Cologne, with the tortuous, narrow and dark streets and lanes of the old
+inner town, is still regarded as one of the least attractive capital
+cities of Germany; but in modern times it has been greatly improved, and
+the evil smells which formerly characterized it have yielded to proper
+sanitary arrangements. The most important squares are the Domhof, the
+Heumarkt, Neumarkt, Alte Markt and Waidmarkt in the old inner, and the
+Hansa-platz in the new inner town. The long Hohe-strasse of the old town
+is the chief business street.
+
+The cathedral or Dom, the principal edifice and chief object of interest
+in Cologne, is one of the finest and purest monuments of Gothic
+architecture in Europe (for plan, &c. see ARCHITECTURE: _Romanesque and
+Gothic in Germany_). It stands on the site of a cathedral begun about
+the beginning of the 9th century by Hildebold, metropolitan of Cologne,
+and finished under Willibert in 873. This structure was ruined by the
+Normans, was rebuilt, but in 1248 was almost wholly destroyed by fire.
+The foundation of the present cathedral was then laid by Conrad of
+Hochstaden (archbishop from 1238 to 1261). The original plan of the
+building has been attributed to Gerhard von Rile (d. c. 1295). In 1322
+the new choir was consecrated, and the bones of the Three Kings were
+removed to it from the place they had occupied in the former cathedral.
+After Conrad's death the work of building advanced but slowly, and at
+the time of the Reformation it ceased entirely. In the early part of the
+19th century the repairing of the cathedral was taken in hand, in 1842
+the building of fresh portions necessary for the completion of the whole
+structure was begun, and on the 15th of October 1880 the edifice,
+finally finished, was opened in the presence of the emperor William I.
+and all the reigning German princes. The cathedral, which is in the form
+of a cross, has a length of 480, and a breadth of 282 ft.; the height of
+the central aisle is 154 ft.; that of each of the towers 511 ft. The
+heaviest of the seven bells (_Kaiserglocke_), cast in 1874 from the
+metal of French guns, weighs 543 cwt., and is the largest and heaviest
+bell that is rung. In the choir the heart of Marie de' Medici is buried;
+and in the adjoining side-chapels are monuments of the founder and other
+archbishops of Cologne, and the shrine of the Three Kings, which is
+adorned with gold and precious stones. The three kings of Cologne
+(Kaspar, Melchior and Balthazar) were supposed to be the three wise men
+who came from the East to pay adoration to the infant Christ; according
+to the legend, the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa brought their bones
+from Milan in 1162, and had them buried in Cologne cathedral, and
+miraculous powers of healing were attributed to these relics. The very
+numerous and richly-coloured windows, presented at various times to the
+cathedral, add greatly to the imposing effect of the interior. The view
+of the cathedral has been much improved by a clearance of the old houses
+on the Domhof, including the archiepiscopal palace, but the new Hof,
+though flanked by many fine buildings, is displeasing owing to the
+intrusion of numerous modern palatial hotels and shops.
+
+Among the other churches of Cologne, which was fondly styled in the
+middle ages the "holy city" (_heilige Stadt_) and "German Rome," and,
+according to legend, possessed as many sacred fanes as there are days in
+the year, are several of interest both for their age and for the
+monuments and works of art they contain. In St Peter's are the famous
+altar-piece by Rubens, representing the Crucifixion of St Peter, several
+works by Lucas van Leyden, and some old German glass-paintings. St
+Martin's, built between the 10th and 12th centuries, has a fine
+baptistery; St Gereon's, built in the 11th century on the site of a
+Roman rotunda, is noted for its mosaics, and glass and oil-paintings;
+the Minorite church, begun in the same year as the cathedral, contains
+the tomb of Duns Scotus. Besides these may be mentioned the church of St
+Pantaleon, a 13th-century structure, with a monument to Theophano, wife
+of the emperor Otto II.; St Cunibert, in the Byzantine-Moorish style,
+completed in 1248; St Maria im Capitol, the oldest church in Cologne,
+dedicated in 1049 by Pope Leo IX., noted for its crypt, organ and
+paintings; St Cecilia, St Ursula, containing the bones of that saint
+and, according to legend, of the 11,000 English virgins massacred near
+Cologne while on a pilgrimage to Rome; St Severin, the church of the
+Apostles, and that of St Andrew (1220 and 1414), which contains the
+remains of Albertus Magnus in a gilded shrine. Most of these, and also
+many other old churches, have been completely restored. Among newer
+ecclesiastical buildings must be mentioned the handsome Roman Catholic
+church in Deutz, completed in 1896, and a large synagogue, in the new
+town west of the Ring, finished in 1899.
+
+Among the more prominent secular buildings are the Gürzenich, a former
+meeting-place of the diets of the Holy Roman Empire, built between 1441
+and 1447, of which the ground floor was in 1875 converted into a stock
+exchange, and the upper hall, capable of accommodating 3000 persons, is
+largely utilized for public festivities, particularly during the time of
+the Carnival: the Rathaus, dating from the 13th century, with beautiful
+Gobelin tapestries; the Tempelhaus, the ancestral seat of the patrician
+family of the Overstolzens, a beautiful building dating from the 13th
+century, and now the chamber of commerce; the Wallraf-Richartz Museum,
+in which is a collection of paintings by old Italian and Dutch masters,
+together with some works by modern artists; the Zeughaus, or arsenal,
+built on Roman foundations; the Supreme Court for the Rhine provinces;
+the post-office (1893); the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank); and the
+municipal library and archives. The Wolkenburg, a fine Gothic house of
+the 15th century, originally a patrician residence, was restored in
+1874, and is now the headquarters of the famous men's choral society of
+Cologne (Kölner Männergesangverein).
+
+A handsome central railway station (high level), on the site of the old
+station, and close to the cathedral, was built in 1889-1894. The railway
+to Bonn and the Upper Rhine now follows the line of the _ceinture_ of
+the new inner fortifications, and on this section there are three city
+stations in addition to the central. Like all important German towns,
+Cologne contains many fine monuments. The most conspicuous is the
+colossal equestrian statue (22½ ft. high) of Frederick William III. of
+Prussia in the Heumarkt. There are also monuments to Moltke (1881), to
+Count Johann von Werth (1885), the cavalry leader of the Thirty Years'
+War, and to Bismarck (1879). Near the cathedral is an archiepiscopal
+museum of church antiquities. Cologne is richly endowed with literary
+and scientific institutions. It has an academy of practical medicine, a
+commercial high school, a theological seminary, four Gymnasia (classical
+schools), numerous lower-grade schools, a conservatory of music and
+several high-grade ladies' colleges. Of its three theatres, the
+municipal theatre (Stadttheater) is famed for its operatic productions.
+
+Commercially, Cologne is one of the chief centres on the Rhine, and has
+a very important trade in corn, wine, mineral ores, coals, drugs, dyes,
+manufactured wares, groceries, leather and hides, timber, porcelain and
+many other commodities. A large new harbour, with spacious quays, has
+been constructed towards the south of the city. In 1903, the traffic of
+the port amounted to over one million tons. Industrially, also, Cologne
+is a place of high importance. Of the numerous manufactures, among which
+may be especially mentioned sugar, chocolate, tobacco and cigars, the
+most famous is the perfume known as _eau de Cologne_ (q.v.) (_Kölnisches
+Wasser_, i.e. Cologne-water).
+
+Of the newspapers published at Cologne the most important is the
+_Kölnische Zeitung_ (often referred to as the "Cologne Gazette"), which
+has the largest circulation of any paper in Germany, and great weight
+and influence. It must be distinguished from the _Kölnische
+Volkszeitung_, which is the organ of the Clerical party in the Prussian
+Rhine provinces.
+
+_History._--Cologne occupies the site of _Oppidum Ubiorum_, the chief
+town of the Ubii, and here in A.D. 50 a Roman colony, _Colonia_, was
+planted by the emperor Claudius, at the request of his wife Agrippina,
+who was born in the place. After her it was named Colonia Agrippina or
+Agrippinensis. Cologne rose to be the chief town of Germania Secunda,
+and had the privilege of the Jus Italicum. Both Vitellius and Trajan
+were at Cologne when they became emperors. About 330 the city was taken
+by the Franks but was not permanently occupied by them till the 5th
+century, becoming in 475 the residence of the Frankish king Childeric.
+It was the seat of a _pagus_ or _gau_, and counts of Cologne are
+mentioned in the 9th century.
+
+The succession of bishops in Cologne is traceable, except for a gap
+covering the troubled 5th century, from A.D. 313, when the see was
+founded. It was made the metropolitan see for the bishoprics of the
+Lower Rhine and part of Westphalia by Charlemagne, the first archbishop
+being Hildebold, who occupied the see from 785 to his death in 819. Of
+his successors one of the most illustrious was Bruno (q.v.), brother of
+the emperor Otto I., archbishop from 953 to 965, who was the first of
+the archbishops to exercise temporal jurisdiction, and was also
+"archduke" of Lorraine. The territorial power of the archbishops was
+already great when, in 1180, on the partition of the Saxon duchy, the
+duchy of Westphalia was assigned to them. In the 11th century they
+became _ex-officio_ arch-chancellors of Italy (see ARCHCHANCELLOR), and
+by the Golden Bull of 1356 they were finally placed among the electors
+(_Kurfürsten_) of the Empire. With Cologne itself, a free imperial city,
+the archbishop-electors were at perpetual feud; in 1262 the
+archiepiscopal see was transferred to Brühl, and in 1273 to Bonn; it was
+not till 1671 that the quarrel was finally adjusted. The archbishopric
+was secularized in 1801, all its territories on the left bank of the
+Rhine being annexed to France; in 1803 those on the right bank were
+divided up among various German states; and in 1815 by the congress of
+Vienna, the whole was assigned to Prussia. The last archbishop-elector,
+Maximilian of Austria, died in 1801.
+
+In Archbishop Hildebold's day Cologne was still contained by the square
+of its Roman walls, within which stood the cathedral and the
+newly-founded church of St Maria (known later as "im Capitol"); the city
+was, however, surrounded by a ring of churches, among which those of St
+Gereon, St Ursula, St Severin and St Cunibert were conspicuous. In 881
+Norman pirates, sailing up the Rhine, took and sacked the city; but it
+rapidly recovered, and in the 11th century had become the chief trading
+centre of Germany. Early in the 12th century the city was enlarged by
+the inclusion of suburbs of Oversburg; Niederich and St Aposteln; in
+1180 these were enclosed in a permanent rampart which, in the 13th
+century, was strengthened with the walls and gates that survived till
+the 19th century.
+
+The municipal history of Cologne is of considerable interest. In general
+it follows the same lines as that of other cities of Lower Germany and
+the Netherlands. At first the bishop ruled through his burgrave,
+advocate, and nominated jurats (_scabini_, _Schöffen_). Then, as the
+trading classes grew in wealth, his jurisdiction began to be disputed;
+the _conjuratio pro libertate_ of 1112 seems to have been an attempt to
+establish a commune (see Commune, Medieval). Peculiar to Cologne,
+however, was the _Richerzeche_ (_rigirzegheide_), a corporation of all
+the wealthy patricians, which gradually absorbed in its hands the
+direction of the city's government (the first record of its active
+interference is in 1225). In the 13th century the archbishops made
+repeated efforts to reassert their authority, and in 1259 Archbishop
+Conrad of Hochstaden, by appealing to the democratic element of the
+population, the "brotherhoods" (_fraternitates_) of the craftsmen,
+succeeded in overthrowing the Richerzeche and driving its members into
+exile. His successor, Engelbert II., however, attempted to overthrow the
+democratic constitution set up by him, with the result that in 1262 the
+brotherhoods combined with the patricians against the archbishop, and
+the Richerzeche returned to share its authority with the elected "great
+council" (_Weiter Rat_). As yet, however, none of the trade or craft
+gilds, as such, had a share in the government, which continued in the
+hands of the patrician families, membership of which was necessary even
+for election to the council and to the parochial offices. This continued
+long after the battle of Worringen (1288) had finally secured for the
+city full self-government, and the archbishops had ceased to reside
+within its walls. In the 14th century a narrow patrician council
+selected from the Richerzeche, with two burgomasters, was supreme. In
+1370 an insurrection of the weavers was suppressed; but in 1396, the
+rule of the patricians, having been weakened by internal dissensions, a
+bloodless revolution led to the establishment of a comparatively
+democratic constitution, based on the organization of the trade and
+craft gilds, which lasted with but slight modification till the French
+Revolution.
+
+The greatness of Cologne, in the middle ages as now, was due to her
+trade. Wine and herrings were the chief articles of her commerce; but
+her weavers had been in repute from time immemorial, and exports of
+cloth were large, while her goldsmiths and armourers were famous. So
+early as the 11th century her merchants were settled in London, their
+colony forming the nucleus of the Steelyard. When, in 1201, the city
+joined the Hanseatic League (q.v.) its power and repute were so great
+that it was made the chief place of a third of the confederation.
+
+In spite of their feuds with the archbishops, the burghers of Cologne
+were stanch Catholics, and the number of the magnificent medieval
+churches left is evidence at once of their piety and their wealth. The
+university, founded in 1389 by the sole efforts of the citizens, soon
+gained a great reputation; in the 15th century its students numbered
+much more than a thousand, and its influence extended to Scotland and
+the Scandinavian kingdoms. Its decline began, however, from the moment
+when the Catholic sentiment of the city closed it to the influence of
+the Reformers; the number of its students sank to vanishing point, and
+though, under the influence of the Jesuits, it subsequently revived, it
+never recovered its old importance. A final blow was dealt it when, in
+1777, the enlightened archbishop Maximilian Frederick (d. 1784) founded
+the university of Bonn, and in 1798, amid the confusion of the
+revolutionary epoch, it ceased to exist.
+
+The same intolerance that ruined the university all but ruined the city
+too. It is difficult, indeed, to blame the burghers for resisting the
+dubious reforming efforts of Hermann of Wied, archbishop from 1515 to
+1546, inspired mainly by secular ambitions; but the expulsion of the
+Jews in 1414, and still more the exclusion, under Jesuit influence, of
+Protestants from the right to acquire citizenship, and from the
+magistracy, dealt severe blows at the prosperity of the place. A variety
+of other causes contributed to its decay: the opening up of new trade
+routes, the gradual ossification of the gilds into close and corrupt
+corporations, above all the wars in the Netherlands, the Thirty Years'
+War, and the Wars of the Spanish and Austrian Succession. When in 1794
+Cologne was occupied by the French, it was a poor and decayed city of
+some 40,000 inhabitants, of whom only 6000 possessed civic rights. When,
+in 1801, by the treaty of Lunéville, it was incorporated in France, it
+was not important enough to be more than the chief town of an
+arrondissement. On the death of the last elector in 1801 the
+archiepiscopal see was left vacant. With the assignment of the city to
+Prussia by the congress of Vienna in 1815 a new era of prosperity began.
+The university, indeed, was definitively established at Bonn, but the
+archbishopric was restored (1821) as part of the new ecclesiastical
+organization of Prussia, and the city became the seat of the president
+of a governmental district. Its prosperity now rapidly increased; when
+railways were introduced it became the meeting-place of several lines,
+and in 1881 its growth necessitated the pushing outward of the circle of
+fortifications.
+
+  See L. Ennen, _Gesch. der Stadt Köln_ (5 vols., Cologne, 1863-1880) to
+  1648, and _Frankreich und der Niederrhein_ (2 vols., ib., 1855, 1856),
+  a history of the city and electorate of Cologne since the Thirty
+  Years' War; R. Schultze and C. Steuernagel, _Colonia Agrippinensis_
+  (Bonn, 1895); K. Heldmann, _Der Kölngau und die Civitas Köln_ (Halle,
+  1900); L. Korth, _Köln im Mittelalter_ (Cologne, 1890); F. Lau,
+  _Entwickelung der kommunalen Verfassung der Stadt Köln bis zum Jahre
+  1396_ (Bonn, 1898); K. Hegel, _Städte und Gilden der germanischen
+  Völker im Mittelalter_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891), ii. p. 323; H.
+  Keussen, _Historische Topographie der Stadt Köln im Mittelalter_
+  (Bonn, 1906); W. Behnke, _Aus Kölns Franzosenzeit_ (Cologne, 1901);
+  Helmken, _Köln und seine Sehenswürdigkeiten_ (20th ed., Cologne,
+  1903). For sources see L. Ennen and G. Eckertz, _Quellen zur
+  Geschichte der Stadt Köln_ (6 vols., Cologne, 1860-1879); later
+  sources will be found in U. Chevalier, _Répertoire des sources hist.
+  Topo-bibliographie_ (Montbéliard, 1894-1899), s.v. Cologne, which
+  gives also a full list of works on everything connected with the city;
+  also in Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde_ (ed. Leipzig, 1906), p. 17,
+  Nos. 252, 253. For the archdiocese and electorate of Cologne see
+  Binterim and Mooren, _Die Erzdiözese Köln bis zur französischen
+  Staatsumwälzung_, new ed. by A. Mooren in 2 vols. (Düsseldorf, 1892,
+  1893).
+
+
+
+
+COLOMAN (1070-1116), king of Hungary, was the son of King Geza of
+Hungary by a Greek concubine. King Ladislaus would have made the
+book-loving youth a monk, and even designated him for the see of Eger;
+but Coloman had no inclination for an ecclesiastical career, and, with
+the assistance of his friends, succeeded in escaping to Poland. On the
+death of Ladislaus (1095), he returned to Hungary and seized the crown,
+passing over his legitimately born younger brother Almos, the son of the
+Greek princess Sinadene. Almos did not submit to this usurpation, and
+was more or less of an active rebel till 1108, when the emperor Henry V.
+espoused his cause and invaded Hungary. The Germans were unsuccessful;
+but Coloman thought fit to be reconciled with his kinsman and restored
+to him his estates. Five years later, however, fearing lest his brother
+might stand in the way of his heir, the infant prince Stephen, Coloman
+imprisoned Almos and his son Béla in a monastery and had them blinded.
+Despite his adoption of these barbarous Byzantine methods, Coloman was a
+good king and a wise ruler. In foreign affairs he preserved the policy
+of St Ladislaus by endeavouring to provide Hungary with her greatest
+need, a suitable seaboard. In 1097 he overthrew Peter, king of Croatia,
+and acquired the greater part of Dalmatia, though here he encountered
+formidable rivals in the Greek and German emperors, Venice, the pope and
+the Norman-Italian dukes, all equally interested in the fate of that
+province, so that Coloman had to proceed cautiously in his expansive
+policy. By 1102, however, Zara, Traú, Spalato and all the islands as far
+as the Cetina were in his hands. But it was as a legislator and
+administrator that Coloman was greatest (see HUNGARY: _History_). He was
+not only one of the most learned, but also one of the most statesmanlike
+sovereigns of the earlier middle ages. Coloman was twice married, (1)
+in 1097 to Buzella, daughter of Roger, duke of Calabria, the chief
+supporter of the pope, and (2) in 1112 to the Russian princess,
+Euphemia, who played him false and was sent back in disgrace to her
+kinsfolk the following year. Coloman died on the 3rd of February 1116.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD (1831-1899), British vice-admiral, historian,
+critic and inventor, the son of General G. T. Colomb, was born in
+Scotland, on the 29th of May 1831. He entered the navy in 1846, and
+served first at sea off Portugal in 1847; afterwards, in 1848, in the
+Mediterranean, and from 1848 to 1851 as midshipman of the "Reynard" in
+operations against piracy in Chinese waters; as midshipman and mate of
+the "Serpent" during the Burmese War of 1852-53; as mate of the
+"Phoenix" in the Arctic Expedition of 1854; as lieutenant of the
+"Hastings" in the Baltic during the Russian War, taking part in the
+attack on Sveaborg. He became what was known at that time as a "gunner's
+lieutenant" in 1857, and from 1859 to 1863 he served as flag-lieutenant
+to rear-admiral Sir Thomas Pasley at Devonport. Between 1858 and 1868 he
+was employed in home waters on a variety of special services, chiefly
+connected with gunnery, signalling and the tactical characteristics and
+capacities of steam warships. From 1868 to 1870 he commanded the
+"Dryad," and was engaged in the suppression of the slave trade. In 1874,
+while captain of the "Audacious," he served for three years as
+flag-captain to vice-admiral Ryder in China; and finally he was
+appointed, in 1880, to command the "Thunderer" in the Mediterranean.
+Next year he was appointed captain of the steam reserve at Portsmouth;
+and after serving three years in that capacity, he remained at
+Portsmouth as flag-captain to the commander-in-chief until 1886, when he
+was retired by superannuation before he had attained flag rank.
+Subsequently he became rear-admiral, and finally vice-admiral on the
+retired list.
+
+Few men of his day had seen more active and more varied service than
+Colomb. But the real work on which his title to remembrance rests is the
+influence he exercised on the thought and practice of the navy. He was
+one of the first to perceive the vast changes which must ensue from the
+introduction of steam into the navy, which would necessitate a new
+system of signals and a new method of tactics. He set himself to devise
+the former as far back as 1858, but his system of signals was not
+adopted by the navy until 1867.
+
+What he had done for signals Colomb next did for tactics. Having first
+determined by experiment--for which he was given special facilities by
+the admiralty--what are the manoeuvring powers of ships propelled by
+steam under varying conditions of speed and helm, he proceeded to devise
+a system of tactics based on these data. In the sequel he prepared a new
+evolutionary signal-book, which was adopted by the royal navy, and still
+remains in substance the foundation of the existing system of tactical
+evolutions at sea. The same series of experimental studies led him to
+conclusions concerning the chief causes of collisions at sea; and these
+conclusions, though stoutly combated in many quarters at the outset,
+have since been generally accepted, and were ultimately embodied in the
+international code of regulations adopted by the leading maritime
+nations on the recommendation of a conference at Washington in 1889.
+
+After his retirement Colomb devoted himself rather to the history of
+naval warfare, and to the large principles disclosed by its intelligent
+study, than to experimental inquiries having an immediate practical aim.
+As in his active career he had wrought organic changes in the ordering,
+direction and control of fleets, so by his historic studies, pursued
+after his retirement, he helped greatly to effect, if he did not
+exclusively initiate, an equally momentous change in the popular, and
+even the professional, way of regarding sea-power and its conditions. He
+did not invent the term "sea-power,"--it is, as is shown elsewhere (see
+SEA-POWER), of very ancient origin,--nor did he employ it until Captain
+Mahan had made it a household word with all. But he thoroughly grasped
+its conditions, and in his great work on naval warfare (first published
+in 1891) he enunciated its principles with great cogency and with keen
+historic insight. The central idea of his teaching was that naval
+supremacy is the condition precedent of all vigorous military offensive
+across the seas, and, conversely, that no vigorous military offensive
+can be undertaken across the seas until the naval force of the enemy has
+been accounted for--either destroyed or defeated and compelled to
+withdraw to the shelter of its own ports, or at least driven from the
+seas by the menace of a force it dare not encounter in the open. This
+broad and indefeasible principle he enunciated and defended in essay
+after essay, in lecture after lecture, until what at first was rejected
+as a paradox came in the end to be accepted as a commonplace. He worked
+quite independently of Captain Mahan, and his chief conclusions were
+published before Captain Mahan's works appeared.
+
+He died quite suddenly and in the full swing of his literary activity on
+the 13th of October 1899, at Steeple Court, Botley, Hants. His latest
+published work was a biography of his friend Sir Astley Cooper Key, and
+his last article was a critical examination of the tactics adopted at
+Trafalgar, which showed his acumen and insight at their best.
+
+His younger brother, SIR JOHN COLOMB (1838-1909), was closely associated
+in the pioneer work done for British naval strategy and Imperial
+defence, and his name stands no less high among those who during this
+period promoted accurate thinking on the subject of sea-power. Entering
+the Royal Marines in 1854, he rose to be captain in 1867, retiring in
+1869; and thenceforth he devoted himself to the study of naval and
+military problems, on which he had already published some excellent
+essays. His books on _Colonial Defence and Colonial Opinions_ (1873),
+_The Defence of Great and Greater Britain_ (1879), _Naval Intelligence
+and the Protection of Commerce_ (1881), _The Use and the Application of
+Marine Forces_ (1883), _Imperial Federation: Naval and Military_ (1887),
+followed later by other similar works, made him well known among the
+rising school of Imperialists, and he was returned to parliament
+(1886-1892) as Conservative member for Bow, and afterwards (1895-1906)
+for Great Yarmouth. In 1887 he was created C.M.G., and in 1888 K.C.M.G.
+He died in London on the 27th of May 1909. In Kerry, Ireland, he was a
+large landowner, and became a member of the Irish privy council (1903),
+and in 1906 he sat on the Royal Commission dealing with congested
+districts.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBES, a town of France in the department of Seine, arrondissement of
+St Denis, 7 m. N.N.W. of Paris. Pop. (1906) 28,920. It has a
+16th-century church with 12th-century tower, a race-course, and numerous
+villa residences and boarding-schools. Manufactures include oil, vinegar
+and measuring-instruments. A castle formerly stood here, in which died
+Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. of England.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBEY, a village of Lorraine, 4 m. E. of Metz, famous as the scene of
+a battle between the Germans and the French fought on the 14th of August
+1870. It is often called the battle of Borny, from another village 2½ m.
+E. of Metz. (See METZ and FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.)
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBIA, a republic of South America occupying the N.W. angle of that
+continent and bounded N. by the Caribbean Sea and Venezuela, E. by
+Venezuela and Brazil, S. by Brazil, Peru and Ecuador, and W. by Ecuador,
+the Pacific Ocean, Panama and the Caribbean Sea. The republic is very
+irregular in outline and has an extreme length from north to south of
+1050 m., exclusive of territory occupied by Peru on the north bank of
+the upper Amazon, and an extreme width of 860 m. The approximate area of
+this territory, according to official calculations, is 481,979 sq. m.,
+which is reduced to 465,733 sq. m. by Gotha planimetrical measurements.
+This makes Colombia fourth in area among the South American states.
+
+The loss of the department of Panama left the republic with unsettled
+frontiers on every side, and some of the boundary disputes still
+unsolved in 1909 concern immense areas of territory. The boundary with
+Costa Rica was settled in 1900 by an award of the President of France,
+but the secession of Panama in 1903 gave Colombia another unsettled line
+on the north-west. If the line which formerly separated the Colombian
+departments of Cauca and Panama is taken as forming the international
+boundary, this line follows the water-parting between the streams which
+flow eastward to the Atrato, and those which flow westward to the Gulf
+of San Miguel, the terminal points being near Cape Tiburon on the
+Caribbean coast, and at about 7° 10' N. lat. on the Pacific coast. The
+boundary dispute with Venezuela was referred in 1883 to the king of
+Spain, and the award was made in 1891. Venezuela, however, refused to
+accept the decision. The line decided upon, and accepted by Colombia,
+starts from the north shore of Calabozo Bay on the west side of the Gulf
+of Maracaibo, and runs west and south-west to and along the
+water-parting (Sierra de Perija) between the drainage basins of the
+Magdalena and Lake Maracaibo as far as the source in lat. 8° 50' N. of a
+small branch of the Catatumbo river, thence in a south-easterly
+direction across the Catatumbo and Zulia rivers to a point in 72° 30' W.
+long., 8° 12' N. lat., thence in an irregular southerly direction across
+the Cordillera de Mérida to the source of the Sarare, whence it runs
+eastward along that river, the Arauca, and the Meta to the Orinoco.
+Thence the line runs south and south-east along the Orinoco, Atabapo and
+Guainia to the Pedra de Cucuhy, which serves as a boundary mark for
+three republics. Of the eastern part of the territory lying between the
+Meta and the Brazilian frontier, Venezuela claims as far west as the
+meridian of 69° 10'. Negotiations for the settlement of the boundary
+with Brazil (q.v.) were resumed in 1906, and were advanced in the
+following year to an agreement providing for the settlement of
+conflicting claims by a mixed commission. With Ecuador and Peru the
+boundary disputes are extremely complicated, certain parts of the
+disputed territory being claimed by all three republics. Colombia holds
+possession as far south as the Napo in lat. 2° 47' S., and claims
+territory occupied by Peru as far south as the Amazon. On the other hand
+Peru claims as far north as La Chorrera in 0° 49' S. lat., including
+territory occupied by Colombia, and the eastern half of the Ecuadorean
+department of Oriente, and Ecuador would extend her southern boundary
+line to the Putumayo, in long. 71° 1' S., and make that river her
+northern boundary as far north as the Peruvian claim extends. The
+provisional line starts from the Japura river (known as the Caqueta in
+Colombia) in lat. 1° 30' S., long. 69° 24' W., and runs south-west to
+the 70th meridian, thence slightly north of west to the Igaraparana
+river, thence up that stream to the Peruvian military post of La
+Chorrera, in 0° 49' S. lat., thence west of south to Huiririmachico, on
+the Napo. Thence the line runs north-west along the Napo, Coca and San
+Francisco rivers to the Andean watershed, which becomes the dividing
+line northward for a distance of nearly 80 m., where the line turns
+westward and reaches the Pacific at the head of Panguapi Bay, into which
+the southern outlet of the Mira river discharges (about 1° 34' N. lat.).
+
+  _Physical Geography._--Colombia is usually described as an extremely
+  mountainous country, which is true of much less than half its total
+  area. Nearly one half its area lies south-east of the Andes and
+  consists of extensive _llanos_ and forested plains, traversed by
+  several of the western tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoco. These
+  plains slope gently toward the east, those of the Amazon basin
+  apparently lying in great terraces whose escarpments have the
+  character of low, detached ranges of hills forming successive rims to
+  the great basin which they partly enclose. The elevation and slope of
+  this immense region, which has an approximate length of 640 m. and
+  average width of 320 m., may be inferred from the elevations of the
+  Caqueta, or Japura river, which was explored by Crevaux in 1878-1879.
+  At Santa Maria, near the Cordillera (about 75° 30' W. long.), the
+  elevation is 613 ft. above sea-level, on the 73rd meridian it is 538
+  ft., and near the 70th meridian 426 ft.--a fall of 187 ft. in a
+  distance of about 400 m. The northern part of this great region has a
+  somewhat lower elevation and gentler slope, and consists of open
+  grassy plains, which are within the zone of alternating wet and dry
+  seasons. In the south and toward the great lower basin of the Amazon,
+  where the rainfall is continuous throughout the year, the plains are
+  heavily forested. The larger part of this territory is unexplored
+  except along the principal rivers, and is inhabited by scattered
+  tribes of Indians. Near the Cordilleras and along some of the larger
+  rivers there are a few small settlements of whites and mestizos, but
+  their aggregate number is small and their economic value to the
+  republic is inconsiderable. There are some cattle ranges on the open
+  plains, however, but they are too isolated to have much importance. A
+  small part of the northern Colombia, on the lower courses of the
+  Atrato and Magdalena, extending across the country from the Eastern
+  to the Western Cordilleras with a varying width of 100 to 150 m., not
+  including the lower river basins which penetrate much farther inland,
+  also consists of low, alluvial plains, partly covered with swamps and
+  intricate watercourses, densely overgrown with vegetation, but in
+  places admirably adapted to different kinds of tropical agriculture.
+  These plains are broken in places by low ranges of hills which are
+  usually occupied by the principal industrial settlements of this part
+  of the republic, the lower levels being for the most part swampy and
+  unsuited for white occupation.
+
+  [Illustration: COLOMBIA]
+
+  The other part of the republic, which may be roughly estimated at
+  two-fifths of its total area, consists of an extremely rugged
+  mountainous country, traversed from south to north by the parallel
+  river valleys of the Magdalena, Cauca and Atrato. The mountain chains
+  which cover this part of Colombia are the northern terminal ranges of
+  the great Andean system. In northern Ecuador the Andes narrows into a
+  single massive range which has the character of a confused mass of
+  peaks and ridges on the southern frontier of Colombia. There are
+  several lofty plateaus in this region which form a huge central
+  watershed for rivers flowing east to the Amazon, west to the Pacific,
+  and north to the Caribbean Sea. The higher plateaus are called
+  _paramos_, cold, windswept, mist-drenched deserts, lying between the
+  elevations of 10,000 and 15,000 ft., which are often the only passes
+  over the Cordilleras, and yet are almost impassable because of their
+  morasses, heavy mists, and cold, piercing winds. The _paramos_ of Cruz
+  Verde (11,695 ft.) and Pasto, and the volcanoes of Chiles (15,900
+  ft.), Chumbul (15,715 ft.), and Pasto (13,990 ft.) are prominent
+  landmarks of this desolate region. North of this great plateau the
+  Andes divides into three great ranges, the Western, Central and
+  Eastern Cordilleras. The Central is the axis of the system, is
+  distinguished by a line of lofty volcanoes and _paramos_, some of
+  which show their white mantles 2000 to 3000 ft. above the line of
+  perpetual snow (approx. 15,000 ft. in this latitude), and is sometimes
+  distinguished with the name borne by the republic for the time being.
+  This range runs in a north-north-east direction and separates the
+  valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca, terminating in some low hills
+  south-west of El Banco, a small town on the lower Magdalena. The
+  principal summits of this range are Tajumbina (13,534 ft.), Pan de
+  Azucar (15,978 ft.), Purace (15,420 ft.), Sotara (15,420 ft.), Huila
+  (over 18,000 ft.), Tolima (18,432 ft.), Santa Isabel (16,700 ft.),
+  Ruiz (18,373 ft.), and Mesa de Herveo (18,300 ft.). The last named
+  affords a magnificent spectacle from Bogotá, its level top which is 5
+  or 6 m. across, and is formed by the rim of an immense crater, having
+  the appearance of a table, down the sides of which for more than 3000
+  ft. hangs a spotless white drapery of perpetual snow. The Western
+  Cordillera branches from the main range first and follows the coast
+  very closely as far north as the 4th parallel, where the San Juan and
+  Atrato rivers, though flowing in opposite directions and separated
+  near the 5th parallel by a low transverse ridge, combine to interpose
+  valleys between it and the Cordillera de Baudo, which thereafter
+  becomes the true coast range. It then forms the divide between the
+  Cauca and Atrato valleys, and terminates near the Caribbean coast. The
+  general elevation of this range is lower than that of the others, its
+  culminating points being the volcano Munchique (11,850 ft.)and Cerro
+  Leon (10,847 ft.). The range is covered with vegetation and its
+  Pacific slopes are precipitous and humid. The Cordillera de Baudo,
+  which becomes the coast range above lat. 4° N., is the southern
+  extension of the low mountainous chain forming the backbone of the
+  Isthmus of Panama, and may be considered the southern termination of
+  the great North American system. Its elevations are low and heavily
+  wooded. It divides on the Panama frontier, the easterly branch forming
+  the watershed between the Atrato and the rivers of eastern Panama, and
+  serving as the frontier between the two republics. The passes across
+  these ranges are comparatively low, but they are difficult because of
+  the precipitous character of their Pacific slopes and the density of
+  the vegetation on them. The Eastern Cordillera is in some respects the
+  most important of the three branches of the Colombian Andes. Its
+  general elevation is below that of the Central Cordillera, and it has
+  few summits rising above the line of perpetual snow, the highest being
+  the Sierra Nevada de Cocui, in lat. 6° 30' N. Between Cocui and the
+  southern frontier of Colombia there are no noteworthy elevations
+  except the so-called Paramo de Suma Paz near Bogotá, the highest point
+  of which is 14,146 ft. above sea-level, and the Chita _paramo_, or
+  range, north-east of Bogotá (16,700 ft.). Between the 5th and 6th
+  parallels the range divides into two branches, the eastern passing
+  into Venezuela, where it is called the Cordillera de Merida, and the
+  northern continuing north and north-east as the Sierra de Perija and
+  the Sierra de Oca, to terminate at the north-eastern extremity of the
+  Goajira peninsula. The culminating point in the first-mentioned range
+  is the Cerro Pintado (11,800 ft.). West of this range, and lying
+  between the 10th parallel and the Caribbean coast, is a remarkable
+  group of lofty peaks and knotted ranges known as the Sierra Nevada de
+  Santa Marta, the highest snow-crowned summit of which rises 17,389 ft.
+  above the sea according to some, and 16,728 according to other
+  authorities. This group of mountains, covering an approximate area of
+  6500 sq. m., lies immediately on the coast, and its highest summits
+  were long considered inaccessible. It stands detached from the lower
+  ranges of the Eastern Cordillera, and gives the impression that it is
+  essentially independent. The eastern Cordillera region is noteworthy
+  for its large areas of plateau and elevated valley within the limits
+  of the vertical temperate zone. In this region is to be found the
+  greater part of the white population, the best products of Colombian
+  civilization, and the greatest industrial development. The "sabana" of
+  Bogotá is a good illustration of the higher of these plateaus (8563
+  ft., according to Stieler's _Hand-Atlas_), with its mild temperature,
+  inexhaustible fertility and numerous productions of the temperate
+  zone. It has an area of about 2000 sq. m. The lower valleys, plateaus
+  and mountain slopes of this range are celebrated for their coffee,
+  which, with better means of transportation, would be a greater source
+  of prosperity for the republic than the gold-mines of Antioquia. The
+  mountainous region of Colombia is subject to volcanic disturbances and
+  earthquake shocks are frequent, especially in the south. These shocks,
+  however, are less severe than in Venezuela or in Ecuador.
+
+
+    Islands.
+
+  There are few islands on the coast of Colombia, and the great majority
+  of these are too small to appear on the maps in general use. Gorgona
+  is one of the larger islands on the Pacific coast, and is situated
+  about 25 m. from the mainland in lat. 3° N. It is 5¾ m. long by 1¾ m.
+  wide, and rises to an extreme elevation of 1296 ft. above sea-level.
+  It is a beautiful island, and is celebrated as one of Pizarro's
+  stopping places. It has been used by the Colombian government for
+  political offenders. Malpelo island, 282 m. west by south of
+  Charambira point, in lat. 3° 40' N., long. 81° 24' W., nominally
+  belongs to Colombia. It is a small, rocky, uninhabited island, rising
+  to an elevation of 846 ft. above the sea, and has no ascertained
+  value. The famous Pearl islands of the Gulf of Panama are claimed by
+  Colombia, and their pearl oyster fisheries are considered a rentable
+  asset by the government. The group covers an area of about 450 sq. m.,
+  and consists of 16 islands and several rocks. The largest is Rey
+  Island, which is about 17 m. long, north to south, and 8 m. broad,
+  with an extreme elevation of 600 ft. The other larger islands are San
+  José, Pedro Gonzales, Casaya, Saboga and Pacheca. There are several
+  fishing villages whose inhabitants are largely engaged in the pearl
+  fisheries, and a number of cocoa-nut plantations. The islands belong
+  chiefly to Panama merchants. There are several groups of small islands
+  on the northern coast, and a few small islands so near the mainland as
+  to form sheltered harbours, as at Cartagena. The largest of these
+  islands is Baru, lying immediately south of the entrance to Cartagena
+  harbour. North-west of Colombia in the Caribbean Sea are several small
+  islands belonging to the republic, two of which (Great and Little Corn
+  Is.) lie very near the coast of Nicaragua. The largest and most
+  important of these islands is Vieja Providencia (Old Providence), 120
+  m. off the Mosquito Coast, 4½ m. long, which supports a small
+  population.
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  The rivers of Colombia may be divided, for convenience of description,
+  into three general classes according to the destination of their
+  waters, the Pacific, Caribbean and Atlantic--the last reaching their
+  destination through the Amazon and Orinoco. Of these, the Caribbean
+  rivers are of the greatest economic importance to the country, though
+  those of the eastern plains may at some time become nearly as
+  important as transportation routes in a region possessing forest
+  products of great importance and rich in agricultural and pastoral
+  possibilities. It is worthy of note that the principal rivers of these
+  three classes--the Patia, Cauca, Magdalena, Caquetá and Putumayo--all
+  have their sources on the high plateaus of southern Colombia and
+  within a comparatively limited area. The Pacific coast rivers are
+  numerous, and discharge a very large volume of water into the ocean in
+  proportion to the area of their drainage basins, because of the heavy
+  rainfall on the western slopes of the Coast range. The proximity of
+  this range to the coast limits them to short, precipitous courses,
+  with comparatively short navigable channels. The principal rivers of
+  this group, starting from the southern frontier, are the Mira, Patia,
+  Iscuande, Micai, Buenaventura or Dagua, San Juan and Baudo. The Mira
+  has its principal sources in Ecuador, and for a short distance forms
+  the boundary line between the two republics, but its outlets and
+  navigable channel are within Colombia. It has a large delta in
+  proportion to the length of the river, which is visible evidence of
+  the very large quantity of material brought down from the neighbouring
+  mountain slopes. The Patia is the longest river of the Pacific group,
+  and is the only one having its sources on the eastern side of the
+  Western Cordillera. It is formed by the confluence of the Sotara and
+  Guaitara at the point where the united streams turn westward to cut
+  their way through the mountains to the sea. The Sotara or upper Patia
+  rises on the southern slope of a transverse ridge or dyke, between the
+  Central and Western Cordilleras, in the vicinity of Popayan, and flows
+  southward about 120 m. to the point of confluence with the Guaitara.
+  The latter has its sources on the elevated plateau of Tuquerres and
+  flows north-west to meet the Sotara. The canyon of the Patia through
+  the Western Cordillera is known as the "Minima gorge," and has been
+  cut to a depth of 1676 ft., above which the perpendicular mountain
+  sides rise like a wall some thousands of feet more. The upper course
+  of the Guaitara is known as the Carchi, which for a short distance
+  forms the boundary line between Colombia and Ecuador. At one point in
+  its course it is crossed by the Rumichaca arch, a natural arch of
+  stone, popularly known as the "Inca's bridge," which with the Minima
+  gorge should be classed among the natural wonders of the world. There
+  is a narrow belt of low, swampy country between the Cordillera and the
+  coast, traversed at intervals by mountain spurs, and across this the
+  river channels are usually navigable. The San Juan has built a large
+  delta at its mouth, and is navigable for a distance of 140 m. inland,
+  the river flowing parallel with the coast for a long distance instead
+  of crossing the coastal plain. It rises in the angle between the
+  Western Cordillera and a low transverse ridge connecting it with the
+  Baudo coast range, and flows westward down to the valley between the
+  two ranges, and then southward through this valley to about lat. 4°
+  15' N., where it turns sharply westward and crosses a narrow belt of
+  lowland to the coast. It probably has the largest discharge of water
+  of the Pacific group, and has about 300 m. of navigable channels,
+  including its tributaries, although the river itself is only 190 m.
+  long and the sand-bars at its mouth have only 7 or 8 ft. of water on
+  them. The San Juan is distinguished for having been one of the
+  proposed routes for a ship canal between the Caribbean and Pacific.
+  At one point in its upper course it is so near the Atrato that,
+  according to a survey by Captain C. S. Cochrane, R.N., in 1824, a
+  canal 400 yds. long with a maximum cutting of 70 ft., together with
+  some improvements in the two streams, would give free communication.
+  His calculations were made, of course, for the smaller craft of that
+  time.
+
+  The rivers belonging to the Caribbean system, all of which flow in a
+  northerly direction, are the Atrato, Bacuba, Sinú, Magdalena and
+  Zulia. The Bacuba, Suriquilla or Leon, is a small stream rising on the
+  western slopes of the Cordillera and flowing into the upper end of the
+  Gulf of Uraba. Like the Atrato it brings down much silt, which is
+  rapidly filling that depression. There are many small streams and one
+  important river, the Sinú, flowing into the sea between this gulf and
+  the mouth of the Magdalena. The Sinú rises on the northern slopes of
+  the Alto del Viento near the 7th parallel, and flows almost due north
+  across the coastal plain for a distance of about 286 m. to the Gulf of
+  Morosquillo. It has a very sinuous channel which is navigable for
+  small steamers for some distance, but there is no good port at its
+  outlet, and a considerable part of the region through which it flows
+  is malarial and sparsely settled. The most important rivers of
+  Colombia, however, are the Magdalena and its principal tributary, the
+  Cauca. They both rise on the high table-land of southern Colombia
+  about 14,000 ft. above sea-level--the Magdalena in the Laguna del Buey
+  (Ox Lake) on the Las Papas plateau, and the Cauca a short distance
+  westward in the Laguna de Santiago on the Paramo de Guanacas--and flow
+  northward in parallel courses with the great Central Cordillera,
+  forming the water-parting between their drainage basins. The principal
+  tributaries of the Magdalena are the Suaza, Neiva, Cabrera, Prado,
+  Fusagasaga, Funza or Bogotá, Carare, Opon, Sogamoso, Lebrija and
+  Cesar, and the western the La Plata, Paez, Saldaña, Cuello, Guali,
+  Samana or Miel, Nare or Negro and Cauca. There are also many smaller
+  streams flowing into the Magdalena from both sides of the valley. Of
+  those named, the Funza drains the "sabana" of Bogotá and is celebrated
+  for the great fall of Tequendama, about 480 ft. in height; the
+  Sogamoso passes through some of the richest districts of the republic;
+  and the Cesar rises on the elevated slopes of the Sierra Nevada de
+  Santa Marta and flows southward across a low plain, in which are many
+  lakes, to join the Magdalena where it bends westward to meet the
+  Cauca. The course of the Magdalena traverses nine degrees of latitude
+  and is nearly 1000 m. long. It is navigable for steamers up to La
+  Dorada, near Honda, 561 m. above its mouth, which is closed by
+  sand-bars to all but light-draught vessels, and for 93 m. above the
+  rapids at Honda, to Girardot. The river is also navigable at high
+  water for small steamers up to Neiva, 100 m. farther and 1535 ft.
+  above sea-level, beyond which point it descends precipitously from the
+  plateaus of southern Colombia. The Honda rapids have a fall of only 20
+  ft. in a distance of 2 m., but the current is swift and the channel
+  tortuous for a distance of 20 m., which make it impossible for the
+  light-draught, flat-bottomed steamers of the lower river to ascend
+  them. The Cauca differs much from the Magdalena, although its
+  principal features are the same. The latter descends 12,500 ft. before
+  it becomes navigable, but at 10,000 ft. below its source the Cauca
+  enters a long narrow valley with an average elevation of 3500 ft.,
+  where it is navigable for over 200 m., and then descends 2500 ft.
+  through a series of impetuous rapids for a distance of about 250 m.,
+  between Cartago and Cáceres, with a break of 60 m. above Antioquia,
+  where smooth water permits isolated navigation. While, therefore, the
+  Magdalena is navigable throughout the greater part of its course, or
+  from Girardot to the coast, with an abrupt break of only 20 ft. at
+  Honda which could easily be overcome, the Cauca has only 200 m. of
+  navigable water in the upper valley and another 200 m. on its lower
+  course before it joins the Magdalena in lat. 9° 30', the two being
+  separated by 250 m. of canyon and rapids. So difficult is the country
+  through which the Cauca has cut its tortuous course that the fertile
+  upper valley is completely isolated from the Caribbean, and has no
+  other practicable outlet than the overland route from Cali to
+  Buenaventura, on the Pacific. The upper sources of the Cauca flow
+  through a highly volcanic region, and are so impregnated with
+  sulphuric and other acids that fish cannot live in them. This is
+  especially true of the Rio Vinagre, which rises on the Purace volcano.
+  The principal tributaries are the Piendamó, Ovejas, Palo, Amaime and
+  Nechi, from the central Cordillera, of which the last named is the
+  most important, and the Jamundi and a large number of small streams
+  from the Western. The largest branch of the Cauca on its western side,
+  however, is the San Jorge, which, though rising in the Western
+  Cordillera on the northern slopes of the Alto del Viento, in about
+  lat. 7° N., and not far from the sources of the Sinú and Bacuba, is
+  essentially a river of the plain, flowing north-east across a level
+  country filled with small lakes and subject to inundations to a
+  junction with the Cauca just before it joins the Magdalena. Both the
+  San Jorge and Nechi are navigable for considerable distances. The
+  valley of the Cauca is much narrower than that of the Magdalena, and
+  between Cartago and Cáceres the mountain ranges on both sides press
+  down upon the river and confine it to a narrow canyon. The Cauca
+  unites with the Magdalena about 200 m. from the sea through several
+  widely separated channels, which are continually changing through the
+  wearing away of the alluvial banks. These changes in the channel are
+  also at work in the Lower Magdalena. The remaining rivers of the
+  Caribbean system, exclusive of the smaller ones rising in the Sierra
+  Nevada de Santa Marta, are the Zulia and Catatumbo, which rise in the
+  mountains of northern Santander and flow across the low plains of the
+  Venezuelan state of Zulia into Lake Maracaibo.
+
+  Of the rivers of the great eastern plains, whose waters pass through
+  the Orinoco and Amazon to the Atlantic, little can be said beyond the
+  barest geographical description. The size and courses of many of their
+  affluents are still unknown, as this great region has been only
+  partially explored. The largest of these rivers flow across the plains
+  in an easterly direction, those of the Orinoco system inclining
+  northward, and those of the Amazon system southward. The first include
+  the Guaviare or Guayabero, the Vichada, the Meta, and the upper course
+  of the Arauca. The Guaviare was explored by Crevaux in 1881. It rises
+  on the eastern slopes of the Eastern Cordillera between the 3rd and
+  4th parallels, about 75 m. south of Bogotá, and flows with a slight
+  southward curve across the llanos to the Orinoco, into which it
+  discharges at San Fernando de Atabapo in lat. 4° N. Its largest
+  tributary is the Inirida, which enters from the south. The Guaviare
+  has about 600 m. of navigable channel. The Meta rises on the opposite
+  side of the Cordillera from Bogotá, and flows with a sluggish current
+  east-north-east across the llanos to the Orinoco, into which it
+  discharges below the Atures rapids, in lat. 6° 22' N. It is navigable
+  throughout almost its whole length, small steamers ascending it to a
+  point within 100 m. of Bogotá. Its principal tributaries, so far as
+  known, are the Tuca, Chire and Casanare. The principal rivers of the
+  Amazon system are the Napo, the upper part of which forms the
+  provisional boundary line with Ecuador, the Putumayo or Iça, and the
+  Caqueta or Japurá (Yapurá), which flow from the Andes entirely across
+  the eastern plains, and the Guainia, which rises on the northern
+  slopes of the Serra Tunaji near the provisional Brazilian frontier,
+  and flows with a great northward curve to the Venezuelan and Brazilian
+  frontiers, and is thereafter known as the Rio Negro, one of the
+  largest tributaries of the Amazon. There are many large tributaries of
+  these rivers in the unexplored regions of south-eastern Colombia, but
+  their names as well as their courses are still unsettled.
+
+
+    Coasts.
+
+  The coast of Colombia faces on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean
+  Sea, and is divided by the Isthmus of Panama into two completely
+  separated parts. The Pacific coast-line, omitting minor convolutions,
+  has a length of about 500 m., while that of the Caribbean is about 700
+  m. The former has been of slight service in the development of the
+  country because of the unsettled and unhealthy character of the coast
+  region, and the high mountain barriers between its natural ports and
+  the settled parts of the republic. There are only two commercial ports
+  on the coast, Tumaco and Buenaventura, though there are several
+  natural harbours which would be of great service were there any demand
+  for them. The rivers Mira, Patia and San Juan permit the entrance of
+  small steamers, as also some of the smaller rivers. The larger bays on
+  this coast are Tumaco, Chocó, Magdalena, Cabita, Coqui, Puerto Utria,
+  Solano, Cupica and Octavia--some of them affording exceptionally safe
+  and well-sheltered harbours. The Caribbean coast of Colombia has only
+  four ports engaged in international trade--Barranquilla, Cartagena,
+  Santa Marta and Rio Hacha. There are some smaller ports on the coast,
+  but they are open only to vessels of light draft and have no trade
+  worth mention. Barranquilla, the principal port of the republic, is
+  situated on the Magdalena, and its seaport, or landing-place, is
+  Puerto Colombia at the inner end of Savanilla Bay, where a steel pier
+  4000 ft. long has been built out to deep water, alongside which
+  ocean-going vessels can receive and discharge cargo. The bay is slowly
+  filling up, however, and two other landing-places--Salgar and
+  Savanilla--had to be abandoned before Puerto Colombia was selected.
+  The pier-head had 24 ft. of water alongside in 1907, but the silt
+  brought down by the Magdalena is turned westward by the current along
+  this coast, and may at any time fill the bay with dangerous shoals.
+  The oldest and best port on the coast is Cartagena, 65 m. south-west
+  of Barranquilla, which has a well-sheltered harbour protected by
+  islands, and is connected with the Magdalena at Calamar by railway.
+  The next best port is that of Santa Marta, about 46 m. east-north-east
+  of Barranquilla (in a straight line), with which it is connected by 23
+  m. of railway and 50 m. of inland navigation on the Ciénaga de Santa
+  Marta and eastern outlets of the Magdalena. Santa Marta is situated on
+  a small, almost landlocked bay, well protected from prevailing winds
+  by high land on the north and north-east, affording excellent
+  anchorage in waters free from shoaling through the deposit of silt.
+  The depth of the bay ranges from 4½ to 19 fathoms. The town stands at
+  the foot of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, which restricts the area
+  of cultivatable land in its immediate vicinity, and the enclosing high
+  lands make the climate hot and somewhat dangerous for foreigners.
+  Since the development of the fruit trade on the shores of the
+  Caribbean sea and Gulf of Mexico by an important American company,
+  which owns a large tract of land near Santa Marta devoted to banana
+  cultivation, and has built a railway 50 m. inland principally for the
+  transportation of fruit, the trade of the port has greatly increased.
+  The population of this region, however, is sparse, and its growth is
+  slow. The fourth port on this coast is Rio Hacha, an open roadstead,
+  about 93 m. east of Santa Marta, at the mouth of the small river
+  Rancheira descending from the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de
+  Santa Marta. It has little trade, and the undeveloped, unpopulated
+  state of the country behind it affords no promise of immediate growth.
+  There are other small towns on the coast which are ports for the small
+  vessels engaged in the coasting and river trade, but they have no
+  international importance because of their inaccessibility to
+  ocean-going steamers, or the extremely small volume of their trade.
+  The Gulf of Uraba is a large bight or southerly extension of the Gulf
+  of Darien. It receives the waters of the Atrato, Bacuba, and a number
+  of small rivers, and penetrates the land about 50 m., but has very
+  little commercial importance because of the unhealthy and unsettled
+  character of the neighbouring country, and because of the bar across
+  its entrance formed by silt from the Atrato. The Gulf of Morosquillo,
+  a broad shallow indentation of the coast south of Cartagena, receives
+  the waters of the Rio Sinú, at the mouth of which is the small port of
+  Cispata. Between the mouth of the Magdalena and Santa Marta is the
+  Ciénaga de Santa Marta, a large marshy lagoon separated from the sea
+  by a narrow sand spit, having its "boca" or outlet at its eastern
+  side. There is some traffic in small steamers on its shallow waters,
+  which is increasing with the development of fruit cultivation on its
+  eastern and southern sides. It extends inland about 31 m., and marks a
+  deep indentation of the coast like the Gulf of Uraba.
+
+  _Geology._--The geology of Colombia is very imperfectly known, and it
+  is only by a comparison with the neighbouring regions that it is
+  possible to form any clear idea of the geological structure and
+  succession. The oldest rocks are gneisses and schists, together with
+  granite and other eruptive rocks. These are overlaid by sandstones,
+  slates and limestones, alternating with porphyries and porphyrites
+  sometimes in the form of sheets, sometimes as breccias and
+  conglomerates. Cretaceous fossils have been found abundantly in this
+  series, but it is still possible that earlier systems may be
+  represented. Coal-bearing beds, possibly of Tertiary age, occur in
+  Antioquia and elsewhere. Structurally, the four main chains of
+  Colombia differ considerably from one another in geological
+  constitution. The low Cordilleras of the Chocos, on the west coast,
+  are covered by soft Quaternary sandstones and marls containing shells
+  of extant species, such as still inhabit the neighbouring ocean. The
+  Western Cordillera is the direct continuation of the Western
+  Cordillera of Ecuador, and, like the latter, to judge from the
+  scattered observations which are all that are available, consists
+  chiefly of sandstones and porphyritic rocks of the Cretaceous series.
+  Between the Western and the Central Cordilleras is a longitudinal
+  depression along which the river Cauca finds its way towards the sea.
+  On the western side of this depression there are red sandstones with
+  coal-seams, possibly Tertiary; the floor and the eastern side consist
+  chiefly of ancient crystalline and schistose rocks. The Central
+  Cordillera is the direct continuation of the Eastern Cordillera of
+  Ecuador, and is formed chiefly of gneiss and other crystalline rocks,
+  but sedimentary deposits of Cretaceous age also occur. Finally the
+  Eastern branch, known as the Cordillera of Bogotá, is composed almost
+  entirely of Cretaceous beds thrown into a series of regular
+  anticlinals and synclinals similar to those of the Jura Mountains. The
+  older rocks occasionally appear in the centre of the anticlinals. In
+  all these branches of the Andes the folds run approximately in the
+  direction of the chains, but the Sierra de Santa Marta appears to
+  belong to a totally distinct system of folding, the direction of the
+  folds being from west to east, bending gradually towards the
+  south-east. Although volcanoes are by no means absent, they are much
+  less important than in Ecuador, and their products take a far smaller
+  share in the formation of the Andes. In Ecuador the depression between
+  the Eastern and Western Cordilleras is almost entirely filled with
+  modern lavas and agglomerates; in Colombia the corresponding Cauca
+  depression is almost free from such deposits. In the Central
+  Cordillera volcanoes extend to about 5° N.; in the Western Cordillera
+  they barely enter within the limits of Colombia; in the Cordillera of
+  Bogotá they are entirely absent.[1]
+
+  _Climate._--Were it not for the high altitudes of western Colombia,
+  high temperatures would prevail over the whole country, except where
+  modified by the north-east trade winds and the cold ocean current
+  which sweeps up the western coast. The elevated plateaus and summits
+  of the Andes are responsible, however, for many important and profound
+  modifications in climate, not only in respect to the lower
+  temperatures of the higher elevations, but also in respect to the
+  higher temperatures of the sheltered lowland valleys and the varying
+  climatic conditions of the neighbouring plains. The republic lies
+  almost wholly within the north torrid zone, a comparatively small part
+  of the forested Amazonian plain extending beyond the equator into the
+  south torrid zone. The great Andean barrier which crosses the republic
+  from the south to north acts as a condenser to the prevailing easterly
+  winds from the Atlantic, and causes a very heavy rainfall on their
+  eastern slopes and over the forested Amazon plain. High temperatures
+  as well as excessive humidity prevail throughout this region. Farther
+  north, on the open llanos of the Orinoco tributaries, the year is
+  divided into equal parts, an alternating wet and dry season, the sun
+  temperatures being high followed by cool nights, and the temperatures
+  of the rainy season being even higher. The rainfall is heavy in the
+  wet season, causing many of the rivers to spread over extensive areas,
+  but in the dry season the inundated plains become dry, the large
+  rivers fed by the snows and rainfall of the Andes return within their
+  banks, the shallow lagoons and smaller streams dry up, vegetation
+  disappears, and the level plain becomes a desert. The northern plains
+  of the republic are swept by the north-east trades, and here, too, the
+  mountain barriers exercise a strongly modifying influence. The low
+  ridges of the Sierra de Perijá do not wholly shut out these
+  moisture-laden winds, but they cause a heavy rainfall on their eastern
+  slopes, and create a dry area on their western flanks, of which the
+  Vale of Upar is an example. The higher masses of the Sierra Nevada de
+  Santa Marta cover a very limited area, leaving the trade winds a
+  comparatively unbroken sweep across the northern plains until checked
+  by the Western Cordillera, the Panama ranges and the Sierra de Baudo,
+  where a heavy precipitation follows. Farther south the coast ranges
+  cause a very heavy rainfall on their western slopes, which are quite
+  as uninhabitable because of rain and heat as are the coasts of
+  southern Chile through rain and cold. The rainfall on this coast is
+  said to average 73 in., though it is much higher at certain points and
+  in the Atrato Valley. As a result the coastal plain is covered with
+  swamps and tangled forests, and is extremely unhealthy, except at a
+  few favoured points on the coast. High temperatures prevail throughout
+  the greater part of the Magdalena and Cauca valleys, because the
+  mountain ranges which enclose them shut out the prevailing winds. At
+  Honda, on the Magdalena, 664 ft. above sea-level, the mean temperature
+  for the year is 82° F., and the mercury frequently rises to 102° in
+  the shade. These lowland plains and valleys comprise the climatic
+  tropical zone of Colombia, which is characterized by high
+  temperatures, and by excessive humidity and dense forests, an
+  exception to the last-named characteristic being the open llanos where
+  dry summers prevail. Above this tropical zone in the mountainous
+  regions are to be found all the varying gradations of climate which we
+  are accustomed to associate with changes in latitude. There are the
+  subtropical districts of the valleys and slopes between 1500 and 7500
+  ft. elevation, which include some of the most fertile and productive
+  areas in Colombia; the temperate districts between 7500 and 10,000
+  ft., the cold, bleak and inhospitable _paramos_ between 10,000 and
+  15,000 ft., and above these the arctic wastes of ice and snow. The
+  temperate and subtropical regions cover the greater part of the
+  departments traversed by the Eastern Cordillera, the northern end of
+  the Central Cordillera, the Santa Marta plateaus, and the Upper Cauca
+  Valley. They include the larger part of the white population and the
+  chief productive industries of the country. There is no satisfactory
+  record of temperatures and rainfall in these widely different climatic
+  zones from which correct averages can be drawn and compared.
+  Observations have been made and recorded at Bogotá and at some other
+  large towns, but for the greater part of the country we have only
+  fragmentary reports. The mean annual temperature on the eastern
+  plains, so far as known, ranges from 87° F. on the forested slopes to
+  90° and 91° on the llanos of the Meta and Arauca. On the Caribbean
+  coastal plain it ranges from 80° to 84°, but at Tumaco, on the Pacific
+  coast, within two degrees of the equator, it is only 79°. At Medellin,
+  in the mountainous region of Antioquia, 4950 ft. above sea-level, the
+  mean annual temperature is 70°, and the yearly rainfall 55 in., while
+  at Bogotá, 8563 ft., the former is 57° and the latter 44 in. At
+  Tuquerres, near the frontier of Ecuador, 10,200 ft. elevation, the
+  mean annual temperature is said to be 55°. The changes of seasons are
+  no less complicated and confusing. A considerable part of the republic
+  is covered by the equatorial belt of calms, whose oscillations divide
+  the year into a wet and dry season. This division is modified,
+  however, by the location of mountain ranges and by elevation. In the
+  Amazon region there is no great change during the year, and on the
+  northern plains the so-called dry season is one of light rains except
+  where mountain ranges break the sweep of the north-east trades. The
+  alternating wet and dry seasons are likewise to be found on the
+  Pacific coastal plain, though this region is not entirely dry and
+  vegetation never dries up as on the _llanos_. Above the lowland plains
+  the seasons vary in character according to geographical position and
+  elevation. The two-season division rules in the departments of
+  Santander and Antioquia, but without the extremes of humidity and
+  aridity characteristic of the eastern plains. Farther south, at
+  elevations between 800 and 9500 ft., the year is divided into four
+  distinct seasons--two wet and two dry--the former called _inviernos_
+  (winters) and the latter _veranos_ (summers). These seasons are
+  governed by the apparent movements of the sun, the winters occurring
+  at the equinoxes and the summers at the solstices. The _sabana_ of
+  Bogotá and neighbouring districts are subject to these changes of
+  season. At higher altitudes long, cold, wet winters are experienced,
+  with so short and cold a summer between them that the bleak _paramos_
+  are left uninhabited except by a few shepherds in the short dry
+  season.
+
+  _Fauna._--The geographical position of Colombia gives to it a fauna
+  and flora largely characteristic of the great tropical region of the
+  Amazon on the south-east, and of the mountainous regions of Central
+  America on the north-west. At the same time it is rich in animal and
+  plant types of its own, especially the latter, and is considered one
+  of the best fields in South America for the student and collector. The
+  fauna is essentially tropical, though a few species characteristic of
+  colder regions are to be found in the higher Andes. Of the Quadrumana
+  there are at least seventeen distinct species, and this number may be
+  increased after a thorough exploration of the forested eastern plains.
+  They are all arboreal in habit, and are to be found throughout the
+  forested lowlands and lower mountain slopes. The carnivora are
+  represented by seven or eight species of the Felidae, the largest of
+  which are the puma (_Felis concolor_) and the jaguar (_F. onca_).
+  These animals, together with the smaller ocelot, have a wide
+  geographical range, and are very numerous in the valley of the
+  Magdalena. Two species of bear and the "coatí" (_Nasua_) represent the
+  plantigrades and inhabit the mountain slopes, and, of Pachydermata,
+  the peccary (_Dicotyles_) and "danta" or tapir (_Tapirus_) have a wide
+  distribution throughout the lowland and lower plateau forests. The
+  Colombian tapir is known as the _Tapirus Roulini_, and is slightly
+  smaller than the Brazilian species (_T. americanus_). There are deer
+  in the forests and on the open savannahs, the rabbit and squirrel are
+  to be seen on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and partly amphibious
+  rodents, the "capybara" (_Hydrochoerus_) and "guagua" (_Coelogenys
+  subniger_), are very numerous along the wooded watercourses. The
+  sloth, armadillo, opossum, skunk and a species of fox complete the
+  list of the more common quadrupeds so far as known, though it is
+  certain that a careful biological survey would discover many others.
+  The large rivers of Colombia and the lakes of the lowlands are filled
+  with alligators, turtles, and fish, and several species of fish are
+  highly esteemed by the natives as food. The saurians are represented
+  on land by several species of lizard, some of them conspicuous for
+  their brilliant colouring, and by the large "iguana," whose flesh is
+  considered a great delicacy. Among the ophidians, which include many
+  harmless species, are the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, the dreaded
+  _Lachesis_ and the coral snake. The "manatee" (_Manatus americanus_)
+  is found in the Atrato and other large Colombian rivers.
+
+  In bird and insect life Colombia is second only to Brazil. The condor,
+  which inhabits the higher Cordilleras, is peculiar to the whole Andean
+  region, and is the largest of the Raptores. Among other members of
+  this order are the eagle, osprey, vulture, buzzard, kite and hawk,
+  with about a dozen species in all. Parrots and paroquets are numerous
+  everywhere in the tropical and subtropical regions, as also the
+  gorgeously coloured macaw and awkward toucan. The largest class,
+  perhaps, is that formed by the astonishing number of water-fowl which
+  throng the shallow lagoons and river beaches at certain seasons of the
+  year. They are mostly migratory in habit, and are to be found in many
+  other countries. Among these are the large white crane and small
+  crane, the blue heron, the snowy-white egret, the roseate spoonbill
+  (_Platalea ajaja_), stork, bittern and many species of ducks. The
+  largest and most conspicuous member of this interesting family is the
+  _Mycteria americana_, the gigantic stork so frequently seen in the
+  Amazon valley, and even more numerous about the lagoons of northern
+  Colombia. One of the best game-birds of the forest is the "crested
+  curassow" (_Crax alector_), sometimes weighing 12lb, which feeds on
+  arboreal fruits and rarely comes to the ground. Colombia also
+  possesses many species of the beautiful little humming-bird, among
+  which are the tiny _Steganura Underwoodi_ and the sword-bill,
+  _Docimastes ensiferus_, which were found by Mr Albert Millican on a
+  bleak _paramo_ 12,000 ft. above sea-level. One of the most interesting
+  birds found in the country is the "weaver-bird" (_Cassicus persicus_),
+  which lives in colonies and suspends its long, pouch-like nest from
+  the end of a horizontal branch of some high, isolated tree. In regard
+  to insects, what has been said of Brazil will apply very closely to
+  Colombia. Mosquitoes, butterflies, spiders, beetles and ants are
+  infinitely numerous, and some of the species are indescribably
+  troublesome.
+
+  _Flora._--The Colombian flora is richer in species and individual
+  characteristics than the fauna, owing in part to its greater
+  dependence on climatic conditions. It ranges from the purely tropical
+  types of the lowlands to the Alpine species of the more elevated
+  _paramos_. It should be remembered, however, that large areas of the
+  lowland plains have only a very limited arboreal growth. These plains
+  include the extensive llanos of the Orinoco tributaries where coarse,
+  hardy grasses and occasional clumps of palms are almost the only
+  vegetation to be seen. There are other open plains in northern
+  Colombia, sometimes covered with a shrubby growth, and the "mesas"
+  (flat-topped mountains) and plateaus of the Cordilleras are frequently
+  bare of trees. Farther up, on the cold, bleak _paramos_, only stunted
+  and hardy trees are to be found. On the other hand, a luxuriant forest
+  growth covers a very large part of the republic, including the
+  southern plains of the Amazon tributaries, the foothills, slopes and
+  valleys of the Cordilleras, a larger part of the northern plains, and
+  the whole surface of the Western Cordillera and coast. The most
+  conspicuous and perhaps the most universal type in all these regions,
+  below an approximate elevation of 10,000 ft., is the palm, whose
+  varieties and uses are incredibly numerous. On the eastern plains are
+  to be found the "miriti" (_Mauritia flexuosa_) and the "pirijao" or
+  peach palm (_Guilielma speciosa_), called the "pupunha" on the Amazon,
+  whose fruit, fibre, leaf, sap, pith and wood meet so large a part of
+  the primary needs of the aborigines. A noteworthy palm of the eastern
+  Andean slopes is the "corneto" (_Deckeria_), whose tall, slender trunk
+  starts from the apex of a number of aerial roots, rising like a cone 6
+  to 8 ft. above the ground. It is one of the most fruitful of palms,
+  its clusters weighing from 120 to 200 lb each. Extensive groves of the
+  coco-nut palm are to be found on the Caribbean coast, the fruit and
+  fibre of which figure among the national exports. In north-eastern
+  Colombia, where a part of the year is dry, the "curuas" form the
+  prevailing species, but farther south, on the slopes of the
+  Cordilleras up to an elevation of 10,000 ft., the wax-palm, or "palma
+  de cera" (_Ceroxylon andicola_), is said to be the most numerous. It
+  is a tall slender palm, and is the source of the vegetable wax so
+  largely used in some parts of the country in the manufacture of
+  matches, a single stem sometimes yielding 16-20 lb. Another widely
+  distributed species in central Colombia is known as the "palmita del
+  Azufral" in some localities, and as the "palma real" and "palma dolce"
+  in others. Humboldt says it is not the "palma real" of Cuba (_Oreodoxa
+  regia_), but in the Rio Sinú region is the _Cocos butyracea_, or the
+  "palma dolce," from which palm wine is derived. Another palm of much
+  economic importance in Colombia is the "tagua" (_Phytelephas
+  macrocarpa_), which grows abundantly in the valleys of the Magdalena,
+  Atrato and Patia, and produces a large melon-shaped fruit in which are
+  found the extremely hard, fine-grained nuts or seeds known in the
+  commercial world as vegetable ivory. The Colombian "Panama hat" is
+  made from the fibres extracted from the ribs of the fan-shaped leaves
+  of still another species of palm, _Carludovica palmata_, while in the
+  Rio Sinú region the natives make a kind of butter ("manteca de
+  Corozo") from the _Elaeis melanococca_, Mart., by peeling the nuts in
+  water and then purifying the oil extracted in this way by boiling.
+  This oil was formerly used for illuminating purposes. The forests are
+  never made up wholly of palms, but are composed of trees of widely
+  different characters, including many common to the Amazon region,
+  together with others found in Central American forests, such as
+  mahogany and "vera" or lignum vitae (_Zygophyllum arboreum_).
+  Brazilwood (_Caesalpinia echinata_), valuable for its timber and
+  colouring extract, and "roco" (_Bixa orellana_), the "urucú" of Brazil
+  which furnishes the anatto of commerce, are widely distributed in
+  central and southern Colombia, and another species of the first-named
+  genus, the _C. coariaria_, produces the "divi-divi" of the Colombian
+  export trade--a peculiarly shaped seed-pod, rich in tannic and gallic
+  acids, and used for tanning leather. The rubber-producing _Hevea
+  guayanensis_ is found in abundance on the Amazon tributaries, and the
+  _Castilloa elastica_ is common to all the Caribbean river valleys.
+  Southern Colombia, especially the eastern slopes of the Andes,
+  produces another valuable tree, the _Cinchona calisaya_, from the bark
+  of which quinine is made. These are but a few of the valuable cabinet
+  woods, dye-woods, &c., which are to be found in the forests, but have
+  hardly been reached by commerce because of their inaccessibility and
+  the unsettled state of the country. The adventurous orchid-hunter,
+  however, has penetrated deeply into their recesses in search of choice
+  varieties, and collectors of these valuable plants are largely
+  indebted to Colombia for their specimens of _Cattleya Mendelli_,
+  _Warscewiczii_ and _Trianae_; _Dowiana aurea_; _Odontoglossum
+  crispum_, _Pescatorei_, _vexillarium_, _odoratum_, _coronarium_,
+  _Harryanum_, and _blandum_; _Miltonia vexillaria_; _Oncidium
+  carthaginense_ and _Kramerianum_; _Masdevalliae_, _Epidendra_,
+  _Schomburgkiae_ and many others. Colombia is also the home of the
+  American "Alpine rose" (_Befaria_), which is to be found between 9000
+  and 11,000 ft. elevation, and grows to a height of 5-6 ft. Tree ferns
+  have a remarkable growth in many localities, their stems being used in
+  southern Cundinamarca to make corduroy roads. The South American
+  bamboo (_Bambusa guadia_) has a very wide range, and is found nearly
+  up to the limit of perpetual snow. The cactus is also widely
+  distributed, and is represented by several well-known species. Among
+  the more common fruit-trees, some of which are exotics, may be
+  mentioned cacáo (_Theobroma_), orange, lemon, lime, pine-apple,
+  banana, guava (_Psidium_), breadfruit (_Artocarpus_), cashew
+  (_Anacardium_), alligator pear (_Persea_), with the apple, peach,
+  pear, and other fruits of the temperate zone on the elevated plateaus.
+  Other food and economic plants are coffee, rice, tobacco, sugar-cane,
+  cotton, indigo, vanilla, cassava or "yucca," sweet and white potatoes,
+  wheat, maize, rye, barley, and vegetables of both tropical and
+  temperate climates. It is claimed in Colombia that a species of wild
+  potato found on the _paramos_ is the parent of the cultivated potato.
+
+_Population._--The number of the population of Colombia is very largely
+a matter of speculation. A census was taken in 1871, when the population
+was 2,951,323. What the vegetative increase has been since then (for
+there has been no immigration) is purely conjectural, as there are no
+available returns of births and deaths upon which an estimate can be
+based. Civil war has caused a large loss of life, and the withdrawal
+from their homes of a considerable part of the male population, some of
+them for military service and a greater number going into concealment to
+escape it, and it is certain that the rate of increase has been small.
+Some statistical authorities have adopted 1½% as the rate, but this is
+too high for such a period. All things considered, an annual increase of
+1% for the thirty-five years between 1871 and 1906 would seem to be more
+nearly correct, which would give a population in the latter
+year--exclusive of the population of Panama--of a little over 3,800,000.
+The _Statesman's Year Book_ for 1907 estimates it at 4,279,674 in 1905,
+including about 150,000 wild Indians, while Supan's _Die Bevölkerung der
+Erde_ (1904) places it at 3,917,000 in 1899. Of the total only 10% is
+classed as white and 15% as Indian, 40% as _mestizos_ (white and Indian
+mixture), and 35% negroes and their mixtures with the other two races.
+The large proportion of mestizos, if these percentages are correct, is
+significant because it implies a persistence of type that may largely
+determine the character of Colombia's future population, unless the more
+slowly increasing white element can be reinforced by immigration.
+
+The white contingent in the population of Colombia is chiefly composed
+of the descendants of the Spanish colonists who settled there during the
+three centuries following its discovery and conquest. Mining enterprises
+and climate drew them into the highlands of the interior, and there they
+have remained down to the present day, their only settlements on the
+hot, unhealthy coast being the few ports necessary for commercial and
+political intercourse with the mother country. The isolation of these
+distant inland settlements has served to preserve the language, manners
+and physical characteristics of these early colonists with less
+variation than in any other Spanish-American state. They form an
+intelligent, high-spirited class of people, with all the defects and
+virtues of their ancestry. Their isolation has made them ignorant to
+some extent of the world's progress, while a supersensitive patriotism
+blinds them to the discredit and disorganization which political strife
+and misrule have brought upon them. A very small proportion of the white
+element consists of foreigners engaged in commercial and industrial
+pursuits, but they very rarely become permanently identified with the
+fortunes of the country. The native whites form the governing class, and
+enjoy most of the powers and privileges of political office.
+
+Of the original inhabitants there remain only a few scattered tribes in
+the forests, who refuse to submit to civilized requirements, and a much
+larger number who live in organized communities and have adopted the
+language, customs and habits of the dominant race. Their total number is
+estimated at 15% of the population, or nearly 600,000, including the
+120,000 to 150,000 credited to the uncivilized tribes. Many of the
+civilized Indian communities have not become wholly Hispanicized and
+still retain their own dialects and customs, their attitude being that
+of a conquered race submitting to the customs and demands of a social
+organization of which they form no part. According to Uricoechea there
+are at least twenty-seven native languages spoken in the western part of
+Colombia, fourteen in Tolima, thirteen in the region of the Caquetá,
+twelve in Panama, Bolívar and Magdalena, ten in Bogotá and Cundinamarca,
+and thirty-four in the region of the Meta, while twelve had died out
+during the preceding century. The tribes of the Caribbean seaboard, from
+Chiriqui to Goajira, are generally attached to the great Carib stock;
+those of the eastern plains show affinities with the neighbouring
+Brazilian races; those of the elevated Tuquerres district are of the
+Peruvian type; and the tribes of Antioquia, Cauca, Popayan and Neiva
+preserve characteristics more akin to those of the Aztecs than to any
+other race. At the time of the Spanish Conquest the most important of
+these tribes was the Muyscas or Chibchas, who inhabited the tablelands
+of Bogotá and Tunja, and had attained a considerable degree of
+civilization. They lived in settled communities, cultivated the soil to
+some extent, and ascribed their progress toward civilization to a
+legendary cause remarkably similar to those of the Aztecs of Mexico and
+the Incas of Peru. They are represented by some tribes living on the
+head-waters of the Meta, and their blood flows in the veins of the
+_mestizos_ of the Bogotá plateau. Their ancient language has been partly
+preserved through the labours of Gonzalo Bermudez, José Dadei, Bernardo
+de Lugo, and Ezequiel Uricoechea, the last having made it the subject of
+a special study. According to this author the Chibchas were composed of
+three loosely united nationalities governed by three independent
+chiefs--the _Zipa_ of Muequetá (the present Funza), the _Zaque_ of Hunsa
+(now Tunja), and the _Jeque_ of Iraca, who was regarded as the successor
+of the god Nemterequeteba, whom they worshipped as the author of their
+civilization. The latter had his residence at Suamoz, or Sogamoso.
+
+The Tayronas, of the Santa Marta highlands, who have totally
+disappeared, were also remarkable for the progress which they had made
+toward civilization. Evidence of this is to be found in the excellent
+roads which they constructed, and in the skilfully made gold ornaments
+which have been found in the district which they occupied, as well as in
+the contemporary accounts of them by their conquerors. Among the tribes
+which are still living in a savage state are the Mesayas, Caquetas,
+Mocoas, Amarizanos, Guipanabis and Andaquies of the unsettled eastern
+territories; the Goajiros, Motilones, Guainetas, and Cocinas of the Rio
+Hacha, Upar and Santa Marta districts; and the Dariens, Cunacunas, and
+Chocos of the Atrato basin. These tribes have successfully resisted all
+efforts to bring them under political and ecclesiastical control, and
+their subjection is still a matter of no small concern to the Colombian
+government. As late as the year 1900 Mr Albert Millican, while
+collecting orchids on the Opon river, a tributary of the Magdalena
+between Bogotá and the Caribbean coast, was attacked by hostile Indians,
+and one of his companions was killed by a poisoned arrow. These hostile
+tribes are usually too small to make much trouble, but they are able to
+make exploration and settlement decidedly dangerous in some districts.
+
+The _mestizos_, like the whites and Indians, chiefly inhabit the more
+elevated regions of the interior. They are of a sturdy, patient type,
+like their Indian ancestors, and are sufficiently industrious to carry
+on many of the small industries and occupations, and to meet the labour
+requirements of the inhabited plateau districts. Those of the urban
+middle classes are shopkeepers and artizans, and those of the lower
+class are domestics and day labourers. The whites of Spanish descent
+object to manual labour, and this places all such occupations in the
+hands of the coloured races. In the country the _mestizos_ are small
+agriculturists, herders, labourers and fishermen; but there are many
+educated and successful merchants and professional men among them. There
+are no social barriers in their intercourse with the whites, nor race
+barriers against those who have political aspirations. The negroes of
+pure blood are to be found principally on the coastal plains and in the
+great lowland river valleys, where they live in great part on the
+bounties of nature. A small percentage of them are engaged in trade and
+other occupations; a few are small agriculturists.
+
+Bogotá was reputed to be a centre of learning in colonial times, but
+there was no great breadth and depth to it, and it produced nothing of
+real value. By nature the Spanish-American loves art and literature, and
+the poetic faculty is developed in him to a degree rarely found among
+the Teutonic races. Writing and reciting poetry are universal, and fill
+as important a place in social life as instrumental music. In Colombia,
+as elsewhere, much attention has been given to belles-lettres among the
+whites of Spanish descent, but as yet the republic has practically
+nothing of a permanent character to show for it. The natural sciences
+attracted attention very early through the labours of José Celestino
+Mútis, who was followed by a number of writers of local repute, such as
+Zea, Cabal, Cáldas, Pombo, Cespedes, Camacho and Lozano. We are indebted
+to Humboldt for our earliest geographical descriptions of the northern
+part of the continent, but to the Italian, Augustin Codazzi, who became
+a Colombian after the War of Independence, Colombia is indebted for the
+first systematic exploration of her territory. Geographical description
+has had a peculiar fascination for Colombian writers, and there have
+been a number of books issued since the appearance of Codazzi's
+_Resumen_ and _Atlas_. Historical writing has also received much
+attention, beginning with the early work of José Manuel Restrepo (1827),
+and a considerable number of histories, compendiums and memoirs have
+been published, but none of real importance. Some good work has been
+done in ethnography and archaeology by some writers of the colonial
+period, and by Ezequiel Uricoechea and Ernesto Restrepo.
+
+_Territorial Divisions and Towns._--Previously to 1903 the republic was
+divided into nine departments, which were then reduced to eight by the
+secession of Panama. This division of the national territory was
+modified in 1905, by creating seven additional departments from detached
+portions of the old ones, and by cutting up the unsettled districts of
+Goajira and the great eastern plains into four _intendencias_. The
+fifteen departments thus constituted, with the official estimates of
+1905 regarding their areas and populations, are as follows:--
+
+                       Area      Estimated                   Estimated
+  Department.         sq. m.     Population.   Capital.      Population.
+
+  Antioquia            24,400     750,000     Medellin        60,000
+  Atlantico             1,080     104,674     Barranquilla    40,115
+  Bolívar              23,940     250,000     Cartagena       14,000
+  Boyacá                4,630     350,000     Tunja           10,000
+  Cáldas                7,920     150,000     Manizales       20,000
+  Cauca                26,030     400,000     Popayán         10,000
+  Cundinamarca          5,060     225,000     Facatativá      12,000
+  Galán                 6,950     300,000     San Gil         15,000
+  Huila                 8,690     150,000     Neiva           10,000
+  Magdalena            20,460     100,000     Santa Marta      6,000
+  Nariño               10,040     200,000     Pasto            6,000
+  Quesada               2,900     300,000     Zipaquirá       12,000
+  Santander            11,970     300,000     Bucaramanga     20,000
+  Tolima               10,900     200,000     Ibagué          12,000
+  Tundama               2,390     300,000     Santa Rosa       6,000
+  Federal District       ..       200,000     Bogotá         120,000
+  Intendencias (4)    277,620       ..          ..             ..
+                      -------   ---------     ------         ------
+        Totals        444,980   4,279,674       ..             ..
+
+Of these departments the original eight are Antioquia, Bolívar, Boyacá
+(or Bojacá), Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Santander and Tolima. The
+four intendencias are called Goajira, Meta, Alto Caquetá and Putumayo,
+and their aggregate area is estimated to be considerably more than half
+of the republic. The first covers the Goajira peninsula, which formerly
+belonged to the department of Magdalena, and the other three roughly
+correspond to the drainage basins of the three great rivers of the
+eastern plains whose names they bear. These territories formerly
+belonged to the departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca and Cauca. The seven
+new departments are: Atlantico, taken from the northern extremity of
+Bolívar; Cáldas, the southern part of Antioquia; Galán, the southern
+districts of Santander, including Charalá, Socorro, Velez, and its
+capital San Gil; Huila, the southern part of Tolima, including the
+headwaters of the Magdalena and the districts about Neiva and La Plata;
+Nariño, the southern part of Cauca extending from the eastern Cordillera
+to the Pacific coast; Quesada, a cluster of small, well-populated
+districts north of Bogotá formerly belonging to Cundinamarca, including
+Zipaquirá, Guatavita, Ubaté and Pacho; and Tundama, the northern part of
+Boyacá lying on the frontier of Galán in the vicinity of its capital
+Santa Rosa. The Federal District consists of a small area surrounding
+the national capital taken from the department of Cundinamarca. These
+fifteen departments are subdivided into provinces, 92 in all, and these
+into municipalities, of which there are 740.
+
+The larger cities and towns of the republic other than the department
+capitals, with their estimated populations in 1904, are:--
+
+  Aguadas (Antioquia)              13,000
+  Antioquia    "                   13,000
+  Barbacoas (Nariño)               16,000
+  Buga (Cauca)                     12,500
+  Cali (Cauca)                     16,000
+  Chiquinquira (Boyacá)            18,000
+  La Mesa (Cundinamarca)           10,000
+  Pamplona (Santander)             11,000
+  Palmira (Cauca)                  15,000
+  Pié de Cuesta (Santander)        12,000
+  Puerto Nacional                  16,000
+  Rio Negro (Antioquia)            12,000
+  Santa Rosa de Osos (Antioquia)   11,000
+  Sonson                           15,000
+  San José de Cúcuta (Santander)   13,000
+  Soatá (Boyacá)                   16,000
+  Socorro (Galán)                  20,000
+  Velez     "                      15,000
+
+Among the smaller towns which deserve mention are Ambalema on the upper
+Magdalena, celebrated for its tobacco and cigars; Buenaventura (q.v.);
+Chaparral (9000), a market town of Tolima in the valley of the Saldaña,
+with coal, iron and petroleum in its vicinity; Honda (6000), an
+important commercial centre at the head of navigation on the lower
+Magdalena; Girardot, a railway centre on the upper Magdalena; and
+Quibdó, a small river town at the head of navigation on the Atrato.
+
+_Communications._--The railway problem in Colombia is one of peculiar
+difficulty. The larger part of the inhabited and productive districts of
+the republic is situated in the mountainous departments of the interior,
+and is separated from the coast by low, swampy, malarial plains, and by
+very difficult mountain chains. These centres of production are also
+separated from each other by high ridges and deep valleys, making it
+extremely difficult to connect them by a single transportation route.
+The one common outlet for these districts is the Magdalena river, whose
+navigable channel penetrates directly into the heart of the country.
+From Bogotá the Spaniards constructed two partially-paved highways, one
+leading down to the Magdalena in the vicinity of Honda, while the other
+passed down into the upper valley of the same river in a south-westerly
+direction, over which communication was maintained with Popayan and
+other settlements of southern Colombia and Ecuador. This highway was
+known as the _camino real_. Political independence and misrule led to
+the abandonment of these roads, and they are now little better than the
+bridle-paths which are usually the only means of communication between
+the scattered communities of the Cordilleras. In some of the more
+thickly settled and prosperous districts of the Eastern Cordillera these
+bridle paths have been so much improved that they may be considered
+reasonably good mountain roads, the traffic over them being that of pack
+animals and not of wheeled vehicles. Navigation on the lower Magdalena
+closely resembles that of the Mississippi, the same type of light-draft,
+flat-bottomed steamboat being used, and similar obstacles and dangers to
+navigation being encountered. There is also the same liability to change
+its channel, as shown in the case of Mompox, once an important and
+prosperous town of the lower plain situated on the main channel, now a
+decaying, unimportant place on a shallow branch 20 m. east of the main
+river. Small steamers also navigate the lower Cauca and Nechi rivers,
+and a limited service is maintained on the upper Cauca.
+
+With three exceptions all the railway lines of the country lead to the
+Magdalena, and are dependent upon its steamship service for
+transportation to and from the coast. In 1906, according to an official
+statement, these lines were: (1) The Barranquilla and Savanilla (Puerto
+Colombia), 17½ m. in length; (2) the Cartagena and Calamar, 65 m.; (3)
+the La Dorada & Arancaplumas (around the Honda rapids), 20½ m.; (4) the
+Colombian National, from Girardot to Facatativá, 80 m., of which 48½ m.
+were completed in 1906; (5) the Girardot to Espinal, 13½ m., part of a
+projected line running south-west from Girardot; (6) the Sabana railway,
+from Bogotá to Facatativá, 25 m.; (7) the Northern, from Bogotá to
+Zipaquirá, 31 m.; (8) the Southern, from Bogotá to Sibaté, 18 m.; and
+(9) the Puerto Berrio & Medellin, about 78 m. long, of which 36 are
+completed. The three lines which do not connect with the Magdalena are:
+(1) the Cúcuta and Villamazar, 43½ m., the latter being a port on the
+Zulia river near the Venezuelan frontier; (2) the Santa Marta railway,
+running inland from that port through the banana-producing districts,
+with 41½ m. in operation in 1907; and (3) the Buenaventura and Cali, 23
+m. in operation inland from the former. This gives a total extension of
+383 m. in 1906, of which 226 were built to connect with steamship
+transportation on the Magdalena, 49 to unite Bogotá with neighbouring
+localities, and 108 to furnish other outlets for productive regions.
+There is no system outlined in the location of these detached lines,
+though in 1905-1908 President Reyes planned to connect them in such a
+way as to form an extensive system radiating from the national capital.
+Tramway lines were in operation in Bogotá, Barranquilla and Cartagena in
+1907.
+
+The telegraph and postal services are comparatively poor, owing to the
+difficulty of maintaining lines and carrying mails through a rugged and
+uninhabited tropical country. The total length of telegraph lines in
+1903 was 6470 m., the only cable connexion being at Buenaventura, on the
+Pacific coast. All the principal Caribbean ports and department capitals
+are connected with Bogotá, but interruptions are frequent because of the
+difficulty of maintaining lines through so wild a country.
+
+There are only five ports, Buenaventura, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa
+Marta and Rio Hacha, which are engaged in foreign commerce, though
+Tumaco and Villamazar are favourably situated for carrying on a small
+trade with Ecuador and Venezuela. Colombia has no part in the carrying
+trade, however, her merchants marine in 1905 consisting of only one
+steamer of 457 tons and five sailing vessels of 1385 tons. Aside from
+these, small steamers are employed on some of the small rivers with
+barges, called "bongoes," to bring down produce and carry back
+merchandise to the inland trading centres. The coasting trade is
+insignificant, and does not support a regular service of even the
+smallest boats. The foreign carrying trade is entirely in the hands of
+foreigners, in which the Germans take the lead, with the British a close
+second. The Caribbean ports are in frequent communication with those of
+Europe and the United States.
+
+  _Agriculture._--The larger part of the Colombian population is engaged
+  in agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Maize, wheat and other cereals
+  are cultivated on the elevated plateaus, with the fruits and
+  vegetables of the temperate zone, and the European in Bogotá is able
+  to supply his table very much as he would do at home. The plains and
+  valleys of lower elevation are used for the cultivation of coffee and
+  other sub-tropical products, the former being produced in nearly all
+  the departments at elevations ranging from 3500 to 6500 ft. This
+  industry has been greatly prejudiced by civil wars, which not only
+  destroyed the plantations and interrupted transportation, but deprived
+  them of the labouring force essential to their maintenance and
+  development. It is estimated that the revolutionary struggle of
+  1899-1903 destroyed 10% of the able-bodied agricultural population of
+  the Santa Marta district, and this estimate, if true, will hold good
+  for all the inhabited districts of the Eastern Cordillera. The best
+  coffee is produced in the department of Cundinamarca in the almost
+  inaccessible districts of Fusagasagá and La Palma. Tolima coffee is
+  also considered to be exceptionally good. The department of Santander,
+  however, is the largest producer, and much of its output in the past
+  has been placed upon the market as "Maracaibo," the outlet for this
+  region being through the Venezuelan port of that name. Coffee
+  cultivation in the Santa Marta region is receiving much attention on
+  account of its proximity to the coast.
+
+  The tropical productions of the lower plains include, among others,
+  many of the leading products of the world, such as cacáo, cotton,
+  sugar, rice, tobacco, and bananas, with others destined wholly for
+  home consumption, as yams, cassava and arracacha. Potatoes are widely
+  cultivated in the temperate and sub-tropical regions, and sweet
+  potatoes in the sub-tropical and tropical. Although it is found
+  growing wild, cacáo is cultivated to a limited extent, and the product
+  is insufficient for home consumption. Cotton is cultivated only on a
+  small scale, although there are large areas suitable for the plant.
+  The staple product is short, but experiments have been initiated in
+  the Santa Marta region to improve it. Sugar cane is another plant
+  admirably adapted to the Colombian lowlands, but it is cultivated to
+  so limited an extent that the sugar produced is barely sufficient for
+  home consumption. Both cultivation and manufacture have been carried
+  on in the old time way, by the rudest of methods, and the principal
+  product is a coarse brown sugar, called _panela_, universally used by
+  the poorer classes as an article of food and for making a popular
+  beverage. Antiquated refining processes are also used in the
+  manufacture of an inferior white sugar, but the quantity produced is
+  small, and it is unable to compete with beet-sugar from Germany. A
+  considerable part of the sugar-cane produced is likewise devoted to
+  the manufacture of _chicha_ (rum), the consumption of which is common
+  among the Indians and half-breeds of the Andean regions.
+
+  Rice is grown to a very limited extent, though it is a common article
+  of diet and the partially submerged lowlands are naturally adapted to
+  its production. Tobacco was cultivated in New Granada and Venezuela in
+  colonial times, when its sale was a royal monopoly and its cultivation
+  was restricted to specified localities. The Colombian product is best
+  known through the Ambalema, Girardot, and Palmira tobacco, especially
+  the Ambalema cigars, which are considered by some to be hardly
+  inferior to those of Havana, but the plant is cultivated in other
+  places and would probably be an important article of export were it
+  possible to obtain labourers for its cultivation. Banana cultivation
+  for commercial purposes is a comparatively modern industry, dating
+  from 1892 when the first recorded export of fruit was made. Its
+  development is due to the efforts of an American fruit-importing
+  company, which purchased lands in the vicinity of Santa Marta for the
+  production of bananas and taught the natives that the industry could
+  be made profitable. A railway was built inland for the transportation
+  of fruit to Santa Marta, and is being extended toward the Magdalena as
+  fast as new plantations are opened. The growth of the industry is
+  shown in the export returns, which were 171,891 bunches for 1892, and
+  1,397,388 bunches for 1906, the area under cultivation being about
+  7000 acres in the last-mentioned year. Yams, sweet potatoes, cassava
+  and arracacha are chiefly cultivated for domestic needs, but in common
+  with other fruits and vegetables they give occupation to the small
+  agriculturalists near the larger towns.
+
+  The pastoral industry dates from colonial times and engages the
+  services of a considerable number of people, but its comparative
+  importance is not great. The open plains, "mesas," and plateaus of the
+  north support large herds of cattle, and several cattle ranches have
+  been established on the Meta and its tributaries. Live cattle, to a
+  limited extent, are exported to Cuba and other West Indian markets,
+  but the chief produce from this industry is hides. The department of
+  Santander devotes considerable attention to horse-breeding. Goats are
+  largely produced for their skins, and in some localities, as in Cauca,
+  sheep are raised for their wool. Swine are common to the whole
+  country, and some attention has been given to the breeding of mules.
+
+  _Minerals._--The mineral resources of Colombia are commonly believed
+  to be the principal source of her wealth, and this because of the
+  precious metals extracted from her mines since the Spanish invasion.
+  The estimate aggregate for three and a half centuries is certainly
+  large, but the exact amount will probably never be known, because the
+  returns in colonial times were as defective as those of disorderly
+  independence have been. Humboldt and Chevalier estimated the total
+  output down to 1845 at £1,200,000, which Professor Soetbeer
+  subsequently increased to £169,422,750. A later Colombian authority,
+  Vicente Restrepo, whose studies of gold and silver mining in Colombia
+  have been generally accepted as conclusive and trustworthy, after a
+  careful sifting of the evidence on which these two widely diverse
+  conclusions were based and an examination of records not seen by
+  Humboldt and Soetbeer, reaches the conclusion that the region
+  comprised within the limits of the republic, including Panama, had
+  produced down to 1886 an aggregate of £127,800,000 in gold and
+  £6,600,000 in silver. This aggregate he distributes as follows:--
+
+    16th century      £10,600,000
+    17th    "          34,600,000
+    18th    "          41,000,000
+    19th    "          41,600,000
+
+  According to his computations the eight Colombian departments,
+  omitting Panama, had produced during this period in gold and silver:--
+
+    Antioquia         £50,000,000
+    Cauca              49,800,000
+    Tolima             10,800,000
+    Santander           3,000,000
+    Bolívar             1,400,000
+    Cundinamarca          360,000
+    Magdalena             200,000
+    Boyacá                 40,000
+                     ------------
+                     £115,600,000
+
+  Three-fourths of the gold production, he estimates, was derived from
+  alluvial deposits. Large as these aggregates are, it will be seen that
+  the annual production was comparatively small, the highest average,
+  that for the 19th century, being less than £500,000 a year. Toward the
+  end of the 19th century, after a decline in production due to the
+  abolition of slavery and to civil wars, increased interest was shown
+  abroad in Colombian mining operations. Medellin, the capital of
+  Antioquia, is provided with an electrolytic refining establishment,
+  several assaying laboratories, and a mint. The department of Cauca is
+  considered to be the richest of the republic in mineral deposits, but
+  it is less conveniently situated for carrying on mining operations.
+  Besides this, the extreme unhealthiness of its most productive
+  regions, the Chocó and Barbacoas districts on the Pacific slope, has
+  been a serious obstacle to foreign enterprise. Tolima is also
+  considered to be rich in gold and (especially) silver deposits. East
+  of the Magdalena the production of these two metals has been
+  comparatively small. In compensation the famous emerald mines of Muzo
+  and Coscuez are situated in an extremely mountainous region north of
+  Bogotá and near the town of Chiquinaquirá, in the department of
+  Boyacá. The gems are found in a matrix of black slate in what appears
+  to be the crater of a volcano, and are mined in a very crude manner.
+  The mines are owned by the government. The revenue was estimated at
+  £96,000 for 1904. Platinum is said to have been discovered in Colombia
+  in 1720, and has been exported regularly since the last years of the
+  18th century. It is found in many parts of the country, but chiefly in
+  the Chocó and Barbacoas districts, the annual export from the former
+  being about 10,000 in value. Of the bulkier and less valuable minerals
+  Colombia has copper, iron, manganese, lead, zinc and mercury. Coal is
+  also found at several widely-separated places, but is not mined. There
+  are also indications of petroleum in Tolima and Bolívar. These
+  minerals, however, are of little value to the country because of their
+  distance from the seaboards and the costs of transportation. Salt is
+  mined at Zipaquirá, near Bogotá, and being a government monopoly, is a
+  source of revenue to the national treasury.
+
+  _Manufactures._--The Pradera iron works, near Bogotá, carry on some
+  manufacturing (sugar boilers, agricultural implements, &c.) in
+  connexion with their mining and reducing operations. Pottery and
+  coarse earthenware are made at Espinal, in Tolima, where the natives
+  are said to have had a similar industry before the Spanish conquest.
+  There are woollen mills at Popayan and Pasto, and small cigar-making
+  industries at Ambalema and Palmira. Hat-making from the "jipijapa"
+  fibre taken from the _Carludovica_ palm is a domestic industry in many
+  localities, and furnishes an article of export. Friction matches are
+  made from the vegetable wax extracted from the _Ceroxylon_ palm, and
+  are generally used throughout the interior. Rum and sugar are products
+  of a crude manufacturing industry dating from colonial times. A modern
+  sugar-mill and refinery at Sincerin, 28 m. from Cartagena, was the
+  first of its kind erected in the republic. It is partially supported
+  by the government, and the concession provides that the production of
+  sugar shall not be less than 2,600,000 lb per annum.
+
+  _Commerce._--In the Barranquilla customs returns for 1906 the imports
+  were valued at $6,787,055 (U.S. gold), on which the import duties were
+  $4,333,028, or an average rate of 64%. According to a statistical
+  summary issued in 1906 by the U.S. Bureau of Statistics, entitled
+  "Commercial America in 1905," the latest official return to the
+  foreign trade of Colombia was said to be that of 1898, which was:
+  imports 11,083,000 _pesos_, exports 19,158,000 _pesos_. Uncertainty in
+  regard to the value of the _peso_ led the compiler to omit the
+  equivalents in U.S. gold, but according to foreign trade returns these
+  totals represent gold values, which at 4s. per peso are: imports
+  £2,216,600, exports £3,831,600. In his annual message to congress on
+  the 1st of April 1907, President Reyes stated that the imports for
+  1904 were $14,453,000, and the exports $12,658,000, presumably U.S.
+  gold, as the figures are taken from the _Monthly Bulletin_ of the
+  Bureau cf American Republics (July 1907). An approximate equivalent
+  would be: imports £3,011,000, exports £2,637,000; which shows a small
+  increase in the first and a very large decrease in the second. The
+  imports include wheat flour, rice, barley, prepared foods, sugar,
+  coal, kerosene, beer, wines and liquors, railway equipment, machinery
+  and general hardware, fence wire, cotton and other textiles, drugs,
+  lumber, cement, paper, &c., while the exports comprise coffee,
+  bananas, hides and skins, tobacco, precious metals, rubber, cabinet
+  woods, divi-divi, dye-woods, vegetable ivory, Panama hats, orchids,
+  vanilla, &c.
+
+_Government._--The government of Colombia is that of a centralized
+republic composed of 15 departments, 1 federal district, and 4
+intendencias (territories). It is divided into three co-ordinate
+branches, legislative, executive and judicial, and is carried on under
+the provisions of the constitution of 1886, profoundly modified by the
+amendments of 1905. Previous to 1886, the departments were practically
+independent, but under the constitution of that year the powers of the
+national government were enlarged and strengthened, while those of the
+departments were restricted to purely local affairs. The departments are
+provided with biennial departmental assemblies, but their governors are
+appointees of the national executive.
+
+The legislative branch consists of a senate and chamber of deputies,
+which meets at Bogotá biennially (after 1908) on February 1st for an
+ordinary session of ninety days. The Senate is composed of 48 members--3
+from each department chosen by the governor and his departmental
+council, and 3 from the federal district chosen by the president himself
+and two of his cabinet ministers. Under this arrangement the president
+practically controls the choice of senators. Their term of office is
+four years, and is renewed at the same time and for the same period as
+those of the lower house. The chamber is composed of 67 members, elected
+by popular suffrage in the departments, on the basis of one
+representative for each 50,000 of population. The intendencias are
+represented by one member each, who is chosen by the intendant, his
+secretary, and 3 citizens elected by the municipal council of the
+territorial capital. As the constituent assembly which amended the
+constitution, according to the president's wishes in 1905, was to
+continue in office until 1908 and to provide laws for the regulation of
+elections and other public affairs, it appeared that the president would
+permit no expression of popular dissent to interfere with his purpose to
+establish a dictatorial régime in Colombia similar to the one in Mexico.
+
+The executive power is vested in a president chosen by Congress for a
+period of four years. The first presidential period, dating from the 1st
+of January 1905, was for ten years, and no restriction was placed upon
+the choice of President Rafael Reyes to succeed himself. The constituent
+assembly gave the president exceptional powers to deal with all
+administrative matters. He is assisted by a cabinet of six ministers,
+interior, foreign affairs, finance, war, public instruction and public
+works, who are chosen and may be removed by himself. The office of
+vice-president is abolished, and the president is authorized to choose a
+temporary substitute from his cabinet, and in case of his death or
+resignation his successor is chosen by the cabinet or the governor of a
+department who happens to be nearest Bogotá at the time. The president
+is authorized to appoint the governors of departments, the intendants of
+territories, the judges of the supreme and superior courts, and the
+diplomatic representatives of the republic. His salary, as fixed by the
+1905 budget, is £3600 a year, and his cabinet ministers receive £1200
+each. The council of state is abolished and the senate is charged with
+the duty of confirming executive appointments.
+
+The judicial branch of the government, like the others, has been in
+great measure reorganized. It consists of a supreme court of seven
+members at Bogotá, and a superior court in each judicial district. There
+are various inferior courts also, including magistrates or _jueces de
+paz_, but their organization and functions are loosely defined and not
+generally understood outside the republic. The supreme court has
+appellate jurisdiction in judicial matters, and original jurisdiction in
+impeachment trials and in matters involving constitutional
+interpretation. Under the constitution of 1886 the judges of the higher
+courts were appointed for life, but the reforms of 1905 changed their
+tenure to five years for the supreme court and four years for the
+superior courts, the judges being eligible for re-appointment.
+
+The departments, which are administered by governors representing the
+national executive, are permitted to exercise restricted legislative
+functions relating to purely local affairs. Municipal councils are also
+to be found in the larger towns. The governor is assisted by a
+departmental council consisting of his secretaries and the president of
+the Corte de Cuentas, which places the political administration of the
+department under the direct control of the president at Bogotá.
+
+The strength of the army is determined annually by congress, but every
+able-bodied citizen is nominally liable to military service. Its peace
+footing in 1898 was 1000 men. After the war of 1899-1903 its strength
+was successively reduced to 10,000 and 5000, a part of this force being
+employed in the useful occupation of making and repairing public roads.
+The navy in 1906 consisted of only three small cruisers on the Caribbean
+coast, and two cruisers, two gunboats, one troopship and two steam
+launches on the Pacific. There was also one small gunboat on the
+Magdalena.
+
+  _Education._--Although Bogotá was reputed to be an educational centre
+  in colonial times, so slight an influence did this exert upon the
+  country that Colombia ended the 19th century with no effective public
+  school system, very few schools and colleges, and fully 90% of
+  illiteracy in her population. This is due in great measure to the long
+  reign of political disorder, but there are other causes as well. As in
+  Chile, the indifference of the ruling class to the welfare of the
+  common people is a primary cause of their ignorance and poverty, to
+  which must be added the apathy, if not opposition, of the Church.
+  Under such conditions primary schools in the villages and rural
+  districts were practically unknown, and the parish priest was the only
+  educated person in the community. Nominally there was a school system
+  under the supervision of the national and departmental governments,
+  but its activities were limited to the larger towns, where there were
+  public and private schools of all grades. There were universities in
+  Bogotá and Medellin, the former having faculties of letters and
+  philosophy, jurisprudence and political science, medicine and natural
+  sciences, and mathematics and engineering, with an attendance of 1200
+  to 1500 students. The war of 1899-1903 so completely disorganized this
+  institution that only one faculty, medicine and natural sciences, was
+  open in 1907. There were also a number of private schools in the
+  larger towns, usually maintained by religious organizations. The
+  reform programme of President Reyes included a complete reorganization
+  of public instruction, to which it is proposed to add normal schools
+  for the training of teachers, and agricultural and technical schools
+  for the better development of the country's material resources. The
+  supreme direction of this branch of the public service is entrusted to
+  the minister of public instruction, and state aid is to be extended to
+  the secondary, as well as to the normal, technical and professional
+  schools. The secondary schools receiving public aid, however, have
+  been placed in charge of religious corporations of the Roman Catholic
+  Church. The expenditure on account of public instruction, which
+  includes schools of all grades and descriptions, is unavoidably small,
+  the appropriation for the biennium 1905-1906 being only £167,583. The
+  school and college attendance for 1906, according to the president's
+  review of that year, aggregated 218,941, of whom 50,691 were in
+  Antioquia, where the whites are more numerous than in any other
+  department; 4916 in Atlantico, which includes the city of
+  Barranquilla, and in which the negro element preponderates; and only
+  12,793 in the federal district and city of Bogotá where the _mestizo_
+  element is numerous. Although primary instruction is gratuitous it is
+  not compulsory, and these figures clearly demonstrate that school
+  privileges have not been extended much beyond the larger towns. The
+  total attendance, however, compares well with that of 1897, which was
+  143,096, although it shows that only 5% of the population,
+  approximately, is receiving instruction.
+
+  _Religion._--The religious profession of the Colombian people is Roman
+  Catholic, and is recognized as such by the constitution, but the
+  exercise is permitted of any other form of worship which is not
+  contrary to Christian morals or to the law. There is one Protestant
+  church in Bogotá, but the number of non-Catholics is small and
+  composed of foreign residents. There has been a long struggle between
+  liberals and churchmen in Colombia, and at one time the latter
+  completely lost their political influence over the government, but the
+  common people remained loyal to the Church, and the upper classes
+  found it impossible to sever the ties which bound them to it. The
+  constitution of 1861 disestablished the Church, confiscated a large
+  part of its property, and disfranchised the clergy, but in 1886
+  political rights were restored to the latter and the Roman Catholic
+  religion was declared to be the faith of the nation. The rulers of the
+  Church have learned by experience, however, that they can succeed best
+  by avoiding partisan conflicts, and the archbishop of Bogotá gave
+  effect to this in 1874 by issuing an edict instructing priests not to
+  interfere in politics. The Church influence with all classes is
+  practically supreme and unquestioned, and it still exercises complete
+  control in matters of education. The Colombian hierarchy consists of
+  an archbishop, residing at Bogotá, 10 bishops, 8 vicars-general, and
+  2170 priests. There were also in 1905 about 750 members of 10 monastic
+  and religious orders. There were 270 churches and 312 chapels in the
+  republic. Each diocese has its own seminary for the training of
+  priests.
+
+  _Finance._--In financial matters Colombia is known abroad chiefly
+  through repeated defaults in meeting her bonded indebtedness, and
+  through the extraordinary depreciation of her paper currency. The
+  public revenues are derived from import duties on foreign merchandise,
+  from export duties on national produce, from internal taxes and
+  royalties on liquors, cigarettes and tobacco, matches, hides and salt,
+  from rentals of state emerald mines and pearl fisheries, from stamped
+  paper, from port dues and from postal and telegraph charges. The
+  receipts and expenditure are estimated for biennial periods, but it
+  has not been customary to publish detailed results. Civil wars have of
+  course been a serious obstacle, but it was announced by President
+  Reyes in 1907 that the revenues were increasing. For the two years
+  1905 and 1906 the revenues were estimated to produce (at $5 to the £1
+  sterling) £4,203,823, the expenditures being fixed at the same amount.
+  The expenditures, however, did not include a charge of £424,000,
+  chiefly due on account of war claims and requisitions. During the
+  first year of this period the actual receipts, according to the
+  council of the corporation of foreign bondholders, were $9,149,591
+  gold (£1,829,918) and the payments $7,033,317 gold (£1,406,663). It
+  was expected by the government that the 1906 revenues would largely
+  exceed 1905, but the expectation was not fully realized, chiefly, it
+  may be assumed, because of the inability of an impoverished people to
+  meet an increase in taxation. An instance of this occurred in the
+  promising export of live cattle to Cuba and Panama, which was
+  completely suppressed in 1906 because of a new export tax of $3 gold
+  per head. Of the expenditures about one-fourth is on account of the
+  war department.
+
+  The foreign debt, according to the 1896 arrangement with the
+  bondholders which was renewed in 1905, is £2,700,000, together with
+  unpaid interest since 1896 amounting to £351,000 more. Under the 1905
+  arrangement the government undertook to pay the first coupons at 2½%
+  and succeeding ones at 3%, pledging 12 to 15% of the customs receipts
+  as security. The first payments were made according to agreement, and
+  it was believed in 1907 that the succeeding ones, together with
+  one-half of the unpaid interest since 1896, would also be met. It is
+  worthy of note that this debt, principal and accumulated interest,
+  exceeded six and a half millions sterling in 1873, and that the
+  bondholders surrendered about 60% of the claim in the hope of securing
+  the payment of the balance. It is also worthy of note that Panama
+  refused to assume any part of this debt without a formal recognition
+  of her independence by Colombia, and even then only a sum
+  proportionate to her population. The internal debt of Colombia in June
+  1906 was as follows:--
+
+    Consolidated   5,476,887 dollars silver,
+    Floating       2,345,658   "     gold.
+
+  Whether or not this included the unpaid war claims was not stated.
+
+  _Money._---The monetary system, which has been greatly complicated by
+  the use of two depreciated currencies, silver and paper, has been
+  undergoing a radical reform since 1905, the government proposing to
+  redeem the depreciated paper and establish a new uniform currency on a
+  gold basis. The paper circulation in 1905 exceeded 700,000,000
+  _pesos_. The issue began in 1881 through the Banco Nacional de
+  Colombia, its value then being equal to that of the silver coinage.
+  Political troubles in 1884-1885 led to a suspension of cash payments
+  in 1885, and in 1886 Congress made the notes inconvertible and of
+  forced circulation. In 1894 the Banco Nacional ceased to exist as a
+  corporation, and thenceforward the currency was issued for account of
+  the national treasury. On October 16, 1899--the outstanding
+  circulation then amounting to 46,000,000 _pesos_,--the government
+  decreed an unlimited issue to meet its expenditures in suppressing the
+  revolution, and later on the departments of Antioquia, Bolívar, Cauca,
+  and Santander were authorized to issue paper money for themselves.
+  This suicidal policy continued until February 28, 1903, when,
+  according to an official statement, the outstanding paper circulation
+  was:--
+
+                                 Pesos.
+    National government issues   600,398,581
+    Department of Antioquia       35,938,495.60
+         "     "  Bolívar         18,702,100
+         "     "  Cauca           44,719,688.70
+         "     "  Santander          750,000
+                                 --------------
+                                 700,598,865.30
+
+  So great was the depreciation of this currency that before the end of
+  the war 100 American gold dollars were quoted at 22,500 _pesos_. The
+  declaration of peace brought the exchange rate down to the
+  neighbourhood of 10,000, where it remained, with the exception of a
+  short period during the Panama Canal negotiations, when it fell to
+  6000. This depreciation (10,000) was equivalent to a loss of 99% of
+  the nominal value of the currency, a paper _peso_ of 100 _centavos_
+  being worth only one centavo gold. International commercial
+  transactions were based on the American gold dollar, which was usually
+  worth 100 _pesos_ of this depreciated currency. Even at this
+  valuation, the recognized outstanding circulation (for there had been
+  fraudulent issues as well) amounted to more than £1,400,000. In 1903
+  Congress adopted a gold dollar of 1.672 grammes weight .900 fine
+  (equal to the U.S. gold dollar) as the monetary standard created a
+  redemption bureau for the withdrawal of the paper circulation,
+  prohibited the further issue of such currency, and authorized free
+  contracts in any currency. Previous to that time the law required all
+  contracts to specify payments in paper currency. Certain rents and
+  taxes were set aside for the use of the redemption bureau, and a
+  nominally large sum has been withdrawn from circulation through this
+  channel. On the 1st of January 1906, another monetary act came into
+  operation, with additional provisions for currency redemption and
+  improvement of the monetary system. A supplementary act of 1906 also
+  created a new national banking institution, called the Banco Central,
+  which is made a depository of the public revenues and is charged with
+  a considerable part of their administration, including payments on
+  account of the foreign debt and the conversion of the paper currency
+  into coin. The new law likewise reaffirmed the adoption of a gold
+  dollar of 1.672 grammes .900 fine as the unit of the new coinage,
+  which is:--
+
+    _Gold_:--
+        Double condor      =  20 dollars.
+        Condor             =  10   "
+        Half condor        =   5   "
+        Dollar (mon. unit) = 100 cents.
+    _Silver_:--
+        Half dollar        =  50 cents.
+        Peseta             =  20   "
+        Real               =  10   "
+    _Nickel_:--5 cents.
+    _Bronze_:--2 cents and 1 cent.
+
+  The silver coinage (.900 fine) is limited to 10%, and the nickel and
+  bronze coins to 2% of the gold coinage. The new customs tariff, which
+  came into force at the same time, was an increase of 70% on the rates
+  of 1904, and provided that the duties should be paid in gold, or in
+  paper at the current rate of exchange. This measure was designed to
+  facilitate the general resumption of specie payments.
+
+  _Weights and Measures._--The metric system of weights and measures has
+  been the legal standard in Colombia since 1857, but its use is
+  confined almost exclusively to international trade. In the interior
+  and in all domestic transactions the old Spanish weights and measures
+  are still used--including the Spanish _libra_ of 1.102 lb avoirdupois,
+  the _arroba_ of 25 _libras_ (12½ kilogrammes), the quintal of 100
+  _libras_ (50 kilog.), the _carga_ of 250 _libras_ (125 kilogs.), the
+  _vara_ of 80 centimetres, and the _fanega_. The litre is the standard
+  liquid measure.     (A. J. L.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+The coast of Colombia was one of the first parts of the American
+continent visited by the Spanish navigators. Alonso de Ojeda touched at
+several points in 1499 and 1501; and Columbus himself visited Veragua,
+Portobello, and other places in his last voyage in 1502. In 1508 Ojeda
+obtained from the Spanish crown a grant of the district from Cape Vela
+westward to the Gulf of Darien, while the rest of the country from the
+Gulf of Darien to Cape Gracias-a-Dios was bestowed on his
+fellow-adventurer, Nicuessa. The two territories designated respectively
+Nueva Andalucia and Castella de Oro were united in 1514 into the
+province of Tierra-firma, and entrusted to Pedro Arias de Avila. In
+1536-1537 an expedition under Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada made their way
+from Santa Marta inland by the river Magdalena, and penetrated to
+Bogotá, the capital of the Muiscas or Chibchas. Quesada gave to the
+country the name of New Granada.
+
+By the middle of the century the Spanish power was fairly established,
+and flourishing communities arose along the coasts, and in the
+table-lands of Cundinamarca formerly occupied by the Muiscas. For the
+better government of the colony the Spanish monarch erected a presidency
+of New Granada in 1564, which continued till 1718, when it was raised to
+the rank of a viceroyalty. In the following year, however, the second
+viceroy, D. Jorge Villalonga, Count de la Cueva, expressing his opinion
+that the maintenance of this dignity was too great a burden on the
+settlers, the viceroyalty gave place to a simple presidency. In 1740 it
+was restored, and it continued as long as the Spanish authority,
+including within its limits not only the present Colombia, but also
+Venezuela and Ecuador. An insurrection against the home government was
+formally commenced in 1811, and an incessant war against the Spanish
+forces was waged till 1824.
+
+In 1819 the great national hero, Bolivar (q.v.), effected a union
+between the three divisions of the country, to which was given the title
+of the Republic of Colombia; but in 1829 Venezuela withdrew, and in
+1830, the year of Bolivar's death, Quito or Ecuador followed her
+example. The Republic of New Granada was founded on the 21st of November
+1831; and in 1832 a constitution was promulgated, and the territory
+divided into eighteen provinces, each of which was to have control of
+its local affairs. The president was to hold office for four years; and
+the first on whom the dignity was bestowed was General Francisco de
+Paula Santander. His position, however, was far from enviable; for the
+country was full of all the elements of unrest and contention. One of
+his measures, by which New Granada became responsible for the half of
+the debts of the defunct republic of Colombia, gave serious offence to a
+large party, and he was consequently succeeded not, as he desired, by
+José Maria Obando, but by a member of the opposition, José Ignacio de
+Marquez. This gave rise to a civil war, which lasted till 1841, and not
+only left the country weak and miserable, but afforded an evil precedent
+which has since been too frequently followed. The contest terminated in
+favour of Marquez, and he was succeeded in May 1841 by Pedro Alcantara
+Herran, who had assisted to obtain the victory. In 1840 the province of
+Cartagena had seceded, and the new president had hardly taken office
+before Panama and Veragua also declared themselves independent, under
+the title of the State of the Isthmus of Panama. Their restoration was,
+however, soon effected; the constitution was reformed in 1843; education
+was fostered, and a treaty concluded with the English creditors of the
+republic. Further progress was made under General Tomas de Mosquera from
+1845 to 1848; a large part of the domestic debt was cleared off,
+immigration was encouraged, and free trade permitted in gold and
+tobacco. The petty war with Ecuador, concluded by the peace of Santa
+Rosa de Carchi, is hardly worthy of mention. From 1849 to 1852 the reins
+were in the hands of General José Hilario Lopez, a member of the
+democratic party, and under him various changes were effected of a
+liberal tendency. In January 1852 slavery was entirely abolished. The
+next president was José Maria Obando, but his term of office had to be
+completed by vice-presidents Obaldia and Mallarino.
+
+In 1853 an important alteration of the constitution took place, by which
+the right was granted to every province to declare itself independent,
+and to enter into merely federal connexion with the central republic,
+which was now known as the Granadine Confederation. In 1856 and 1857
+Antioquia and Panama took advantage of the permission. The Conservative
+party carried their candidate in 1857, Mariano Ospino, a lawyer by
+profession; but an insurrection broke out in 1859, which was fostered by
+the ex-president Mosquera, and finally took the form of a regular civil
+war. Bogotá was captured by the democrats in July 1861, and Mosquera
+assumed the chief power. A congress at Bogotá established a republic,
+with the name of the United States of Colombia, adopted a new federal
+constitution, and made Mosquera dictator. Meanwhile the opposite party
+was victorious in the west; and their leader, Julio Arboleda, formed an
+alliance with Don Garcia Moreno, the president of Ecuador. He was
+assassinated, however, in 1862; and his successor, Leonardo Canal, came
+to terms with Mosquera at Cali. The dictatorship was resigned into the
+hands of a convention (February 1863) at Rio Negro, in Antioquia; a
+provisional government was appointed, a constitution was drawn up, and
+Mosquera elected president till 1864. An unsuccessful attempt was also
+made to restore the union between the three republics of the former
+federation. The presidency of Manuel Murillo Toro (1864-1866) was
+disturbed by various rebellions, and even Mosquera, who next came to the
+helm, found matters in such a disorganized condition that he offered to
+retire. On the refusal of his resignation, he entered into a struggle
+with the majority in the congress, and ultimately resorted to an
+adjournment and the unconstitutional arrest of 68 of the senators and
+representatives. To the decree of impeachment published by the congress
+he replied by a notice of dissolution and a declaration of war; but he
+soon found that the real power was with his opponents, who effected his
+arrest, and condemned him first to two years' imprisonment, but
+afterwards by commutation to two years' exile. The presidency of Santos
+Gutierrez (1868-1870) was disturbed by insurrections in different parts
+of the republic, the most important of which was that in Panama, where
+the most absolute disorganization prevailed. Under his successor,
+General E. Salgar, a Liberal candidate elected in opposition to General
+Herran, a treaty was finally concluded with the United States in
+connexion with an interoceanic canal, a bank was established at Bogotá,
+and educational reforms instituted. Manuel Murillo Toro (1872-1874) and
+Santiago Perez (1874-1876) saw the country apparently acquiring
+constitutional equilibrium, and turning its energies to the development
+of its matchless resources.
+
+The election for the presidential term 1876-1878 resulted in favour of
+Aquiles Parra, who was succeeded in April 1878 by General Julian
+Trujillo. His administration was marked by a strong effort to place the
+financial position of the government on a more satisfactory footing, and
+the internal indebtedness was substantially reduced during his rule. In
+April 1880 Señor Rafael Nuñez acceded to the presidency. During his term
+of office revolutionary disturbances occurred in the provinces of Cauca
+and Antioquia, but were suppressed with no great difficulty. Provision
+was made in 1880 for a settlement of the boundary dispute with Costa
+Rica, and in July of that year the federal Congress authorized the
+formation of a naval squadron. A movement was now set afoot in favour of
+a confederation of the three republics of Colombia, Ecuador and
+Venezuela on the basis of the original conditions existing after the
+expulsion of Spanish authority, and a resolution was passed by the
+chamber of deputies to that effect. The opposition shown by Venezuela
+and Ecuador to this project prevented any definite result from being
+achieved. In April 1882 Señor Francisco J. Laldua became president, but
+his death occurring a year later, General José Eusebio Otalora was
+nominated to exercise the executive power for the unexpired portion of
+the term. In 1883 the dispute in connexion with the boundary between
+Colombia and Venezuela was submitted by the two governments to the
+arbitration of Alphonso XII., king of Spain, and a commission of five
+members was appointed to investigate the merits of the respective
+claims. The decision in this dispute was finally given by the queen
+regent of Spain on the 16th of March 1891. In April 1884 Señor Rafael
+Nuñez was again proclaimed president of the republic in his absence
+abroad. Pending his return the administration was left in the hands of
+General Campo Serrano and General Eliseo Payan. The Liberal party had
+been instrumental in the re-election of Nuñez, and looked for a policy
+in conformity with their views and political convictions. President
+Nuñez had no sooner returned to Colombia than the Liberals discovered
+that his political opinions had changed and had become strongly
+Conservative. Discontent at this condition of affairs soon spread. Nuñez
+from motives of ill-health did not openly assume the presidential
+office, but from his house near Cartagena he practically directed the
+government of the republic. The Liberals now began to foment a series of
+revolutionary movements, and these led in 1885 to a civil war extending
+over the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena and Panama.
+General Reyes and General Velez were the two principal leaders of the
+revolt. In order to protect the passage of the traffic across the
+Isthmus of Panama during these disturbed times detachments of United
+States marines were landed at Panama and Colon, in accordance with the
+terms of the concession under which the railway had been constructed.
+After a number of defeats the leaders of the revolt surrendered in
+August 1885, and on the 5th of September following peace was officially
+proclaimed. Nuñez, who had meanwhile assumed the presidential duties,
+now brought about a movement in favour of a fresh Act of Constitution
+for Colombia, and a new law to that effect was finally approved and
+promulgated on 4th August 1886. Under the terms of this act the federal
+system of government for Colombia was abolished, the states becoming
+departments, the governors of these political divisions being appointed
+by the president of the republic. Each department has a local
+legislative assembly elected by the people. The national congress is
+constituted of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate
+is composed of twenty-seven members elected for six years, one-third
+retiring every two years, three of whom are nominated by each of the
+nine departments. The House of Representatives comprises members elected
+for four years by universal suffrage, each department forming a
+constituency and returning one member for every 50,000 inhabitants.
+Congress convenes every two years. The presidential term of office under
+the new act was fixed at six years in place of the two years formerly
+prevailing. The judiciary was irremovable, and trial by jury was allowed
+for criminal offences. Capital punishment was re-established, and the
+press was made responsible for matter published. The unlicensed trade in
+arms and ammunition thitherto existing was prohibited. Previous to 1886
+the crime of murder was only punishable by 10 years' imprisonment, a
+sentence which in practice was reduced to two-thirds of that term;
+slander and libel were formerly offences which the law had no power to
+restrain, and no responsibility attached to seditious publications.
+
+After the promulgation of this new Act of Constitution President Nuñez
+was proclaimed as president of the republic for the term ending in 1892.
+He was unable, however, in consequence of ill-health, to reside at
+Bogotá and discharge the presidential duties, and consequently in August
+1888 Señor Cárlos Holguin was designated to act for him. In 1892
+President Nuñez was again elected to the presidency for a term of six
+years, his continued ill-health, however, forcing him to place the
+active performance of his duties in the hands of the vice-president,
+Señor Miguel Caro. In 1895 the Liberals made another attempt to seize
+the government of the country, but the movement was suppressed without
+any very great difficulty. In this same year Nuñez died, and
+Vice-President Caro became the actual president, an office he had
+practically filled during the three previous years. In 1898 Señor M. A.
+Sanclemente, a strong Conservative, and supported by the Church party,
+was elected to the presidency for the period ending in 1904. In October
+1899 the Liberals organized another revolutionary outbreak for the
+purpose of trying to wrest the power from Conservatives, but this
+attempt had no better success than the movements of 1885 and 1895. In
+January 1900, however, Vice-President José Marroquin seized upon the
+government, imprisoned President Sanclemente (who died in prison in
+March 1902), and another period of disturbance began. The rebels were
+defeated in May in a desperate battle at Cartagena; and continuous
+fighting went on about Panama, where British marines had to be landed to
+protect foreign interests. As the year 1900 advanced, the conflict went
+on with varying success, but the government troops were generally
+victorious, and in August Vice-President Marroquin was recognized as the
+acting head of the executive, with a cabinet under General Calderon. In
+1901 the rebellion continued, and severe fighting took place about
+Colon. Further complications arose in August, when trouble occurred
+between Colombia and Venezuela. On the one hand, there were grounds for
+believing that the Clericals and Conservatives in both countries were
+acting together; and, on the other, it was expected that President
+Castro of Venezuela would not be sorry to unite his own countrymen, and
+to divert their attention from internal affairs, by a war against
+Colombia. The Colombian revolutionary leaders had made use of the
+Venezuelan frontier as a base of operations, and the result was an
+invasion of Venezuelan territory by Colombian government troops, an
+incident which at once caused a diplomatic quarrel. The United States
+government in September offered its good offices, but President Castro
+refused them, and the state of affairs became gradually more menacing.
+Meanwhile both Panama and Colon were seriously threatened by the rebel
+forces, who in November succeeded in capturing Colon by surprise. The
+situation was complicated by the fact that the railway traffic on the
+Isthmus was in danger of interruption, and on the capture of Colon it
+became necessary for the American, British and French naval authorities
+to land men for the protection of the railway and of foreign interests.
+
+On the 18th of September the Venezuelans, who had entered Colombia, were
+totally routed near La Hacha, and after fierce fighting the insurgents
+at Colon were compelled to surrender on the 29th of November. But the
+Civil War was not yet ended. For another eight months it was to
+continue, causing immense damage to property and trade, and the loss of
+tens of thousands of lives. In many towns and villages the male
+population was almost entirely destroyed. Not till June 1903 was
+internal peace finally restored. In the autumn of that same year
+Colombia, exhausted and half ruined, was to suffer a further severe loss
+in the secession of Panama.
+
+The abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty in 1901, and the failure of
+the second French company to construct a canal between Colon and Panama
+(see PANAMA CANAL) had, after many hesitations, induced the United
+States government to abandon the Nicaragua route and decide on adopting
+that of Panama. Negotiations were set on foot with Colombia, and an
+arrangement--under what was known as the Hay-Herran treaty--was made to
+the following effect. Colombia agreed (1) to the transfer of the rights,
+under the concession, of the French company to the United States; (2) to
+cede, on a hundred years' lease, a right of way for the canal, and a
+strip of land 5m. broad on either side of the waterway, and the two
+ports of Colon and Panama. The United States agreed to pay Colombia (1)
+£2,000,000 down in cash, and, ten years later, an annual rental of
+£50,000, and further a share of the price paid to the French company,
+_i.e._ £8,000,000, in which Colombia held 50,000 shares. This treaty was
+signed by the plenipotentiaries and ratified by the United States
+Senate. The Colombian Congress, however, refused to ratify the treaty on
+the ground that when the negotiations had taken place the country was in
+a state of siege, really in the hope of securing a larger money payment.
+The adjournment took place on the 31st of October. On the 3rd of
+November a revolution broke out at Panama, and the state seceded from
+Colombia and declared itself to be an independent republic. This
+opportune revolution was no doubt fomented by persons interested in the
+carrying through of the United States scheme for piercing the isthmus,
+but their task was one that presented no difficulties, for the isthmian
+population had been in a state of perennial insurrection against the
+central government for many years. Whoever may have instigated the
+rising, this much is certain, that American warships prevented the
+Colombian troops from landing to suppress the revolt. On the 7th of
+November the United States government formally recognized the
+independence of the republic of Panama (q.v.). The other powers in
+succession likewise recognized the new state; the recognition of Great
+Britain was given on the 26th of December. Colombia thus sacrificed a
+great opportunity of obtaining, by the ratification of the Hay-Herran
+treaty, such a pecuniary recompense for the interest in the territory
+through which the canal was to be constructed as would have gone far to
+re-establish her ruined financial credit.
+
+In 1904 the troubled term of President Marroquin came to an end, and by
+the narrowest of majorities General Rafael Reyes was elected in his
+place. He had been sent as a special envoy to Washington to protest
+against the recognition of Panama, and to attempt to revive the
+Hay-Herran treaty, and to secure favourable terms for Colombia in the
+matter of the canal. He failed to do so, but it was recognized that he
+had discharged his difficult task with great skill and ability. On his
+accession to office as president he found the country exhausted and
+disorganized, more especially in the department of finance, and the
+congress was on the whole hostile to him. Finding himself hampered in
+his efforts to reform abuses, the president dissolved the congress, and
+summoned a national constituent and legislative assembly to meet on the
+15th of March 1905, and with its aid proceeded to modify the
+constitution.
+
+Having personal acquaintance with the success of the rule of President
+Porfirio Diaz in Mexico, General Reyes determined to set about the
+regeneration of Colombia by similar methods. His tenure of the
+presidency was extended to a term of ten years from the 1st of January
+1905, and the restriction as to re-election at the end of that term was
+withdrawn, other alterations being made in the constitution with the
+effect of placing General Reyes really in the position of a dictator. He
+soon proved that he had the ability and the integrity of purpose to use
+his great opportunity for the benefit of his country. His firm and
+masterful government and wise measures did much to allay the spirit of
+unrest which had so long been the bane of Colombia, and though an
+attempt at assassination was made in the spring of 1906, the era of
+revolution appeared to be over.
+
+The chief foreign treaties entered into by Colombia in the last quarter
+of the 19th century were:--(1) A treaty with Great Britain, signed on
+the 27th of October 1888, for the extradition of criminals; (2) a treaty
+of friendship, commerce and navigation with Italy, signed on the 27th of
+October 1892; (3) two protocols with Italy, signed respectively on the
+24th of May and on the 25th of August 1886, in connexion with the affair
+of the Italian subject Cerruti; (4) a consular convention with Holland,
+signed on the 20th of July 1881; (5) a treaty of peace and friendship
+with Spain, signed on the 30th of January 1881; (6) a convention with
+Spain for the reciprocal protection of intellectual property; (7) a
+concordat with the Vatican, signed on the 31st of December 1887; (8) an
+agreement with the Vatican, signed on the 20th of August 1892, in
+connexion with ecclesiastical jurisdiction; (9) an agreement with the
+republic of San Salvador, signed on the 24th of December 1880, in regard
+to the despatch of a delegate to an international congress; (10) a
+treaty of peace, friendship and commerce with Germany, signed on the
+23rd of July 1892; (11) a treaty with the republic of Costa Rica, signed
+in 1880, for the delimitation of the boundary; (12) the postal
+convention, signed at Washington, on the 4th of July 1891; (13) a
+convention with Great Britain, signed on the 31st of July 1896, in
+connexion with the claim of Messrs Punchard, M'Taggart, Lowther & Co.;
+(14) a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation with Peru, signed
+on the 6th of August 1898; (15) an extradition treaty with Peru, signed
+on the 6th of August 1898; (16) a treaty of peace, friendship and
+defensive alliance with Venezuela, signed on the 21st of November 1896,
+and on the same date a treaty regulating the frontier commerce. (G. E.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--C. E. Akers, _A History of South America, 1854-1904_
+  (New York, 1905); J. J. Borda, _Compendio de historia de Colombia_
+  (Bogotá, 1890); Salvador Roldan Camacho, _Notas de viaje_ (Bogotá,
+  1890), and _Escritos varios_ (Bogotá, 1892); Dr Alfred Hettner,
+  _Reisen in den colombianischen Anden_ (Leipzig, 1888); Angel Lemos,
+  _Compendio de geografia de la Républica de Colombia_ (Medellin, 1894);
+  Albert Millican, _Travels and Adventures of an Orchid Hunter_ (London,
+  1891); J. M. Cordovez Mauro, _Reminiscencias Santafé y Bogotá_
+  (Bogotá, 1899); Norris and Laird (Bureau of Navigation), _Telegraphic
+  Determination of Longitudes in Mexico, Central America, the West
+  Indies, and on the North Coast of South America_ (Washington, 1891);
+  R. Nuñez and H. Jalhay, _La République de Colombia, géographie,
+  histoire, &c._ (Bruxelles, 1893); J. M. Q. Otero, _Historia Patria_
+  (Bogotá, 1891); Lisimaco Palaü, _La Républica de Colombia_ (1893); M.
+  Paz and F. Perez, _Atlas geográfico e histórico de la República de
+  Colombia_ (1893); R. S. Pereira, _Les États Unis de Colombia_ (Paris,
+  1883); Felipe Perez, _Geografia general, fisica y politica de los
+  Estados Unidos de Colombia_ (Bogotá, 1883); F. Loraine Petrie, _The
+  Republic of Colombia_ (London, 1906); Elisée Réclus, _Geografia de
+  Colombia_ (Bogotá, 1893); W. Reiss and A. Stübel, _Reisen in
+  Südamerika. Geologische Studien in der Republik Colombia_ (Berlin,
+  1893); Ernesto Restrepo, _Ensayo etnografico y arqueologico de la
+  provincia de los Quimbayas_ (Bogotá, 1892), and _Estudios sobre los
+  aborigines de Colombia_ (Bogotá, 1892); Vicente Restrepo, _Estudio
+  sobre las minas de oro y plata de Colombia_ (Bogotá, 1888, translated
+  by C. W. Fisher, New York, 1886); W. L. Scruggs, _The Colombian and
+  Venezuelan Republics_ (London, 1899; Boston, 1900); W. Sievers,
+  _Reisen in der Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta_ (Leipzig, 1887); F. J.
+  Vergara y Velasco, _Nueva geografia de Colombia_ (Bogotá, 1892); Frank
+  Vincent, _Around and About South America_ (New York, 1890); R. G.
+  Watson, _Spanish and Portuguese South America during the Colonial
+  Period_ (2 vols., London, 1884).
+
+  See also the diplomatic and consular reports of Great Britain and the
+  United States; publications of the International Bureau of American
+  Republics (Washington, D.C.); Bureau of Statistics, _Commercial
+  America in 1905_ (Washington, 1906).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See A. Hettner and G. Linck, "Beiträge zur Geologie und
+    Petrographie der columbianischen Anden," _Zeits. deutsch. geol. Ges._
+    vol. xl. (1888), pp. 204-230; W. Sievers, "Die Sierra Nevada de Santa
+    Marta und die Sierra de Perijá," _Zeits. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, vol.
+    xxiii. (1888), pp. 1-158 and p. 442, Pls. i. and iii.; A. Hettner,
+    "Die Kordillere von Bogotá," _Peterm. Mitt._, Ergänzungsheft 104
+    (1892), and "Die Anden des westlichen Columbiens," _Peterm. Mitt._
+    (1893), pp. 129-136; W. Reiss and A. Stübel, _Reisen in Süd America.
+    Geologische Studien in der Republik Colombia_ (Berlin, 1892-1899),--a
+    good geological bibliography will be found in part ii. of this work.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBIER, PIERRE BERTRAND DE (1299-1361), French cardinal and
+diplomatist, was born at Colombier in Ardèche. He was nephew and
+namesake of Cardinal Pierre Bertrand of Annonay. After a careful
+juristic education he was successively advocate at the parlement of
+Paris, intendant of the council of the count of Nevers (1321), and
+counsellor-clerk to the parlement (1329). Having taken holy orders, he
+became dean of St Quentin in 1330, and was employed to negotiate the
+marriage of the duke of Normandy, the future king John the Good of
+France, with the daughter of the king of Bohemia. In 1335 he became
+bishop of Nevers, in 1339 of Arras, and contributed to bring the county
+of Flanders into the kingdom of France. Created cardinal priest of St
+Susanna in 1344, he was employed by the pope on important missions,
+notably to negotiate peace or an armistice between France and England.
+Having become bishop of Ostia in 1353, he was sent next year to Charles
+IV. of Germany, and induced him to come to Italy to be crowned emperor
+at Rome, 1355. In 1356 he went to France to try to arrange a peace with
+England, and died in 1361 at the priory of Montaud near Avignon.
+
+  See A. Mazon, _Essai historique sur l'état du Vivarais pendant la
+  guerre de cent ans_ (Paris, 1889), with references there.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBO, the capital and principal seaport of Ceylon, situated on the
+west coast of the island. Pop. (1901) 154,691. Colombo stands to the
+south of the mouth of the river Kelani. The coast-land is here generally
+low-lying, but broken by slight eminences. The great artificial harbour,
+enclosed by breakwaters, is bounded on the south by a slight promontory.
+This is occupied by the quarter of the city known as the Fort, from the
+former existence of a fort founded by the Portuguese and reconstructed
+by the Dutch. In 1869 the governor, Sir Hercules Robinson (afterwards
+Lord Rosmead), obtained authority to demolish the fortifications, which
+were obsolete for purposes of defence, and required 6000 men to man them
+properly. The levelling of the walls and filling up of the moat made the
+Fort much more accessible and healthy, and since then it has become the
+business centre of the city. Here are situated Queen's House, the
+governor's residence; the secretariat or government offices, and other
+government buildings, such as the fine general post office and the
+customs house. Here also are most of the principal hotels, which have a
+peculiarly high reputation among European hotels in the East. A lofty
+tower serves as the principal lighthouse of the port and also as a
+clock-tower. On the south side of the Fort are extensive barracks. The
+old banqueting-hall of the Dutch governors is used as the garrison
+church of St Peter.
+
+To the north-east of the Fort, skirting the harbour, are the Pettah, the
+principal native quarter, the districts of Kotahena and Mutwall, and
+suburbs beyond. In this direction the principal buildings are the
+Wolfendahl church, a massive Doric building of the Dutch (1749); the
+splendid Roman Catholic cathedral of St Lucia (completed in 1904); and
+St Thomas's College (1851), which follows the lines of an English public
+school. Close to this last is the Anglican cathedral of Christ Church.
+The Kotahena temple is the chief Buddhist temple in Colombo.
+
+To the north-east of the Fort is the Lake, a ramifying sheet of fresh
+water, which adds greatly to the beauty of the site of Colombo, its
+banks being clothed with luxuriant foliage and flowers. The narrow
+isthmus between this lake and the sea, south of the Fort, is called
+Galle Face, and is occupied chiefly by promenades and recreation
+grounds. The peninsula enclosed by two arms of the Lake is known as
+Slave Island, having been the site of a slave's prison under the Dutch.
+South-east of this is the principal residential quarter of Colombo, with
+the circular Victoria Park as its centre. To the east of the park a
+series of parallel roads, named after former British governors, are
+lined with beautiful bungalows embowered in trees. This locality is
+generally known as the Cinnamon Gardens, as it was formerly a Dutch
+reserve for the cultivation of the cinnamon bush, many of which are
+still growing here. In the park is the fine Colombo Museum, founded by
+Sir William Gregory; and near the neighbouring Campbell Park are the
+handsome buildings of a number of institutions, such as Wesley College,
+and the General, Victoria Memorial Eye and other hospitals. South of
+Victoria Park is the Havelock racecourse. Among educational
+establishments not hitherto mentioned are the Royal College, the
+principal government institution, the government technical college and
+St Joseph's Roman Catholic college. Most of the town is lighted by gas,
+and certain quarters with electric light, and electric tramways have
+been laid over several miles of the city roads. The water-supply is
+drawn from a hill region 30 m. distant.
+
+Under British rule Colombo has shared in the prosperity brought to the
+island by the successive industries of coffee and tea-planting. At the
+height of the coffee-growing enterprise 20,000 men, women and children,
+chiefly Sinhalese and Tamils, found employment in the large factories
+and stores of the merchants scattered over the town, where the coffee
+was cleaned, prepared, sorted and packed for shipment. Tea, on the
+contrary, is prepared and packed on the estates; but there is a
+considerable amount of work still done in the Colombo stores in sorting,
+blending and repacking such teas as are sold at the local public sales;
+also in dealing with cacao, cardamoms, cinchona bark and the remnant
+still left of the coffee industry. But it is to its position as one of
+the great ports of call of the East that Colombo owes its great and
+increasing importance. A magnificent breakwater, 4200 ft. long, the
+first stone of which was laid by the prince of Wales in 1875, was
+completed in 1884. This breakwater changed an open roadstead into a
+harbour completely sheltered on the most exposed or south-west side; but
+there was still liability in certain months to storms from the
+north-west and south-east. Two additional arms were therefore
+constructed, consisting of a north-east and north-west breakwater,
+leaving two openings, one 800 ft. and the other 700 ft. wide, between
+the various sections. The area enclosed is 660 acres. A first-class
+graving-dock, of which the Admiralty bore half the cost, has also been
+added. These improvements caused Galle to be abandoned as a port of call
+for steamers in favour of Colombo, while Trincomalee has been abandoned
+as a naval station. The port has assumed first-class importance, mail
+steamers calling regularly as well as men-of-war and the mercantile
+marine of all nations; and it is now one of the finest artificial
+harbours in the world. The extension of railways also has concentrated
+the trade of the island upon the capital, and contributed to its rise in
+prosperity.
+
+Colombo was originally known as the Kalantotta or Kalany ferry. By the
+Arabs the name was changed to Kolambu, and the town was mentioned by Ibn
+Batuta in 1346 as the largest and finest in Serendib. In 1517 the
+Portuguese effected a settlement, and in 1520 they fortified their port
+and bade defiance to the native besiegers. In 1586 the town was invested
+by Raja Singh, but without success. On its capture by the Dutch in 1656
+it was a flourishing colony with convents of five religious orders,
+churches and public offices, inhabited by no fewer than 900 noble
+families and 1500 families dependent on mercantile or political
+occupations. In 1796 it was surrendered to the British.
+
+
+
+
+COLON (formerly known as ASPINWALL), a city of the Republic of Panama,
+on the Atlantic coast, in the Bay of Limon, and 47 m. by rail N.W. of
+the city of Panama. Pop. (1908) about 3000, consisting largely of
+Jamaica negroes and natives of mixed Spanish, Indian and African
+descent. It is served by the Panama railway, which crosses the Isthmus
+of Panama from ocean to ocean. Colon has a deep, though poorly sheltered
+harbour, and is either the terminus or a place of call for seven lines
+of steamships. It thus serves as an entrepôt for much of the commerce
+between Atlantic and Pacific ports, and between the interior towns of
+Central and South America and the cities of Europe and the United
+States. The city lies on the west side of the low island of Manzanillo,
+is bordered on the landward sides by swamp, and consists mainly of
+unimposing frame houses and small shops. The most attractive parts are
+the American quarter, where the employés of the Panama railway have
+their homes, and the old French quarter, where dwelt the French officers
+during their efforts to build the canal. In this last district, near the
+mouth of the old canal, stands a fine statue of Christopher Columbus,
+the gift of the empress Eugénie in 1870. Here also stands the mansion
+erected and occupied by Ferdinand de Lesseps during his residence on the
+isthmus. With the exception of railway shops, there are no important
+industrial establishments.
+
+Colon dates its origin from the year 1850, when the island of Manzanillo
+was selected as the Atlantic terminus of the Panama railway. The
+settlement was at first called Aspinwall, in honour of William H.
+Aspinwall (1807-1875), one of the builders of the railway; but some
+years afterwards its name was changed by legislative enactment to Colon,
+in honour of Christopher Columbus, who entered Limon Bay in 1502. The
+original name, however, survived among the English-speaking inhabitants
+for many years after this change. With the completion of the railway in
+1855, the town supplanted Chagres (q.v.) as the principal Atlantic port
+of the isthmus. Later it acquired increased importance through its
+selection by de Lesseps as the site for the Atlantic entrance to his
+canal. During the revolution of 1885 it was partly burned and was
+rebuilt on a somewhat larger plan. As the city has always been
+notoriously unhealthful, the United States, on undertaking the
+construction of the Panama Canal (q.v.), became interested in preventing
+its becoming a centre of infection for the Canal Zone, and by the treaty
+of November 1903 secured complete jurisdiction in the city and harbour
+over all matters relating to sanitation and quarantine, and engaged to
+construct a system of waterworks and sewers in the municipality, which
+had been practically completed in 1907. The United States government has
+also opened a port at Cristobal, within the Canal Zone.
+
+
+
+
+COLON, a town of Matanzas province, Cuba, on the railway between
+Matanzas and Santa Clara, and the centre of a rich sugar-planting
+country. Pop. (1907) 7124.
+
+
+
+
+COLON, (1) (Gr. [Greek: kolon], miswritten and mispronounced as [Greek:
+kôlon], the term being taken from [Greek: kolos], curtailed), in
+anatomy, that part of the greater intestine which extends from the
+caecum to the rectum (see ALIMENTARY CANAL). (2.) (Gr. [Greek: kôlon], a
+member or part), originally in Greek rhetoric a short clause longer
+than the "comma," hence a mark (:), in punctuation, used to show a break
+in construction greater than that marked by the semicolon (;), and less
+than that marked by the period or full stop. The sign is also used in
+psalters and the like to mark off periods for chanting. The word is
+applied in palaeography to a unit of measure in MSS., amounting in
+length to a hexameter line.
+
+
+
+
+COLONEL (derived either from Lat. _columna_, Fr. _colonne_, column, or
+Lat. _corona_, a crown), the superior officer of a regiment of infantry
+or cavalry; also an officer of corresponding rank in the general army
+list. The colonelcy of a regiment formerly implied a proprietary right
+in it. Whether the colonel commanded it directly in the field or not, he
+always superintended its finance and interior economy, and the
+emoluments of the office, in the 18th century, were often the only form
+of pay drawn by general officers. The general officers of the 17th and
+18th centuries were invariably colonels of regiments, and in this case
+the active command was exercised by the lieutenant-colonels. At the
+present day, British general officers are often, though not always,
+given the colonelcy of a regiment, which has become almost purely an
+honorary office. The sovereign, foreign sovereigns, royal princes and
+others, hold honorary colonelcies, as colonels-in-chief or honorary
+colonels of many regiments. In other armies, the regiment being a
+fighting unit, the colonel is its active commander; in Great Britain the
+lieutenant-colonel commands in the field the battalion of infantry and
+the regiment of cavalry. Colonels are actively employed in the army at
+large in staff appointments, brigade commands, &c. extra-regimentally.
+Colonel-general, a rank formerly used in many armies, still survives in
+the German service, a colonel-general (_General-Oberst_) ranking between
+a general of infantry, cavalry or artillery, and a general field marshal
+(_General-Feldmarschall_). Colonels-general are usually given the
+honorary rank of general field marshal.
+
+
+
+
+COLONIAL OFFICE, the department of the administration of the United
+Kingdom which deals with questions affecting the various colonial
+possessions of the British crown. The department as it now exists is of
+comparatively modern creation, dating only from 1854. The affairs of the
+English colonies began to assume importance at the Restoration, and were
+at first entrusted to a committee of the privy council, but afterwards
+transferred to a commission created by letters patent. From 1672 to 1675
+the council for trade was combined with this commission, but in the
+latter year the colonies were again placed under the control of the
+privy council. This arrangement continued until 1695, when a Board of
+Trade and Plantations was created; its duty, however, was confined to
+collecting information and giving advice when required. The actual
+executive work was performed by the secretary of state for the southern
+department, who was assisted, from 1768 to 1782, by a secretary of state
+for the colonies. Both the Board of Trade and Plantations and the
+additional secretary were abolished in 1782, and the executive business
+wholly given over to the home office. In 1794 a third secretary of state
+was reappointed, and in 1801 this secretary was designated as secretary
+of state for war and the colonies. In 1854 the two offices were
+separated, and a distinct office of secretary of state for the colonies
+created.
+
+The secretary of state for the colonies is the official medium of
+communication with colonial governments; he has certain administrative
+duties respecting crown colonies, and has a right of advising the veto
+of an act of a colonial legislature--this veto, however, is never
+exercised in the case of purely local statutes. He is assisted by a
+permanent and a parliamentary under-secretary and a considerable
+clerical staff.
+
+As reorganized in 1907 the colonial office consists of three chief
+departments: (1) the Dominions Department, dealing with the affairs of
+the self-governing over-sea dominions of the British crown, and of
+certain other possessions geographically connected with those dominions;
+(2) the Colonial Department, dealing with the affairs of crown colonies
+and protectorates; (3) the General Department, dealing with legal,
+financial and other general business. In addition to these three
+departments, standing committees exist to take a collective view of
+such matters as contracts, concessions, mineral and other leases, and
+patronage.
+
+
+
+
+COLONNA, a noble Roman family, second only to the Gaetani di Sermoneta
+in antiquity, and first of all the Roman houses in importance. The popes
+Marcellinus, Sixtus III., Stephen IV. and Adrian III. are said to have
+been members of it, but the authentic pedigree of the family begins with
+Pietro, lord of Columna, Palestrina and Paliano (about 1100), probably a
+brother of Pope Benedict IX. His great grandson Giovanni had two sons,
+respectively the founders of the Colonna di Paliano and Colonna di
+Sciarra lines. The third, or Colonna-Romano line, is descended from
+Federigo Colonna (1223). In the 12th century we find the Colonna as
+counts of Tusculum, and the family was then famous as one of the most
+powerful and turbulent of the great Roman clans; its feuds with the
+Orsini and the Gaetani are a characteristic feature of medieval Rome and
+the Campagna; like the other great nobles of the Campagna the Colonna
+plundered travellers and cities, and did not even spare the pope himself
+if they felt themselves injured by him. Boniface VIII. attempted to
+break their power, excommunicated them in 1297, and confiscated their
+estates. He proclaimed a crusade against them and captured Palestrina,
+but they afterwards revenged themselves by besieging him at Anagni, and
+Sciarra Colonna laid violent hands on His Holiness, being with
+difficulty restrained from actually murdering him (1303). In 1347 the
+Colonna, at that time almost an independent power, were defeated by Cola
+di Rienzi, but soon recovered. Pope Martin V. (1417-1431) was a Colonna,
+and conferred immense estates on his family, including Marino, Frascati,
+Rocca di Papa, Nettuno, Palinao, &c., in the Campagna, and other fiefs
+in Romagna and Umbria. Their goods were frequently confiscated and
+frequently given back, and the house was subject to many changes of
+fortune; during the reign of Pope Alexander VI. they were again humbled,
+but they always remained powerful and important, and members of the
+family rose to eminence as generals, prelates and statesmen in the
+service of the Church or other powers. In the war of 1522 between France
+and Spain there were Colonna on both sides, and at the battle of Lepanto
+(1571) Marc Antonio Colonna, who commanded the papal contingent, greatly
+distinguished himself. A detailed record of the Colonna family would be
+a history of Rome. To-day there are three lines of Colonna: (1) Colonna
+di Paliano, with two branches, the princes and dukes of Paliano, and the
+princes of Stigliano; (2) Colonna di Sciarra, with two branches, Colonna
+di Sciarra, princes of Carbagnano, and Barberini-Colonna, princes of
+Palestrina; and (3) Colonna-Romano. The Colonna palace, one of the
+finest in Rome, was begun by Martin V. and contains a valuable picture
+and sculpture gallery.
+
+  See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Berlin, 1868),
+  containing an elaborate account of the family; F. Gregorovius,
+  _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Stuttgart, 1872); _Almanack de Gotha_.
+       (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO (_circa_ 1637-1695), Italian musician, was born
+in Bologna about 1637 and died in the same city on the 28th of November
+1695. He was a pupil of Filippuzzi in Bologna, and of Abbatini and
+Benevoli in Rome, where for a time he held the post of organist at S.
+Apollinare. A dated poem in praise of his music shows that he began to
+distinguish himself as a composer in 1659. In that year he was chosen
+organist at S. Petronio in Bologna, where on the 1st of November 1674 he
+was made chapel-master. He also became president of the Philharmonic
+Academy of Bologna. Most of Colonna's works are for the church,
+including settings of the psalms for three, four, five and eight voices,
+and several masses and motets. He also composed an opera, under the
+title _Amilcare_, and an oratorio, _La Profezia d' Eliseo_. The emperor
+Leopold I. received a copy of every composition of Colonna, so that the
+imperial library in Vienna possesses upwards of 83 church compositions
+by him. Colonna's style is for the most part dignified, but is not free
+from the inequalities of style and taste almost unavoidable at a period
+when church music was in a state of transition, and had hardly learnt
+to combine the gravity of the old style with the brilliance of the new.
+
+
+
+
+COLONNA, VITTORIA (1490-1547), marchioness of Pescara, Italian poet,
+daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, grand constable of the kingdom of Naples,
+and of Anna da Montefeltro, was born at Marino, a fief of the Colonna
+family. Betrothed when four years old at the instance of Ferdinand, king
+of Naples, to Ferrante de Avalos, son of the marquis of Pescara, she
+received the highest education and gave early proof of a love of
+letters. Her hand was sought by many suitors, including the dukes of
+Savoy and Braganza, but at nineteen, by her own ardent desire, she was
+married to de Avalos on the island of Ischia. There the couple resided
+until 1511, when her husband offered his sword to the League against the
+French. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Ravenna (1512) and
+conveyed to France. During the months of detention and the long years of
+campaigning which followed, Vittoria and Ferrante corresponded in the
+most passionate terms both in prose and verse. They saw each other but
+seldom, for Ferrante was one of the most active and brilliant captains
+of Charles V.; but Vittoria's influence was sufficient to keep him from
+joining the projected league against the emperor after the battle of
+Pavia (1525), and to make him refuse the crown of Naples offered to him
+as the price of his treason. In the month of November of the same year
+he died of his wounds at Milan. Vittoria, who was hastening to tend him,
+received the news of his death at Viterbo; she halted and turned off to
+Rome, and after a brief stay departed for Ischia, where she remained for
+several years. She refused several suitors, and began to produce those
+_Rime spirituali_ which form so distinct a feature in her works. In 1529
+she returned to Rome, and spent the next few years between that city,
+Orvieto, Ischia and other places. In 1537 we find her at Ferrara, where
+she made many friends and helped to establish a Capuchin monastery at
+the instance of the reforming monk Bernardino Ochino, who afterwards
+became a Protestant. In 1539 she was back in Rome, where, besides
+winning the esteem of Cardinals Reginald Pole and Contarini, she became
+the object of a passionate friendship on the part of Michelangelo, then
+in his sixty-fourth year. The great artist addressed some of his finest
+sonnets to her, made drawings for her, and spent long hours in her
+society. Her removal to Orvieto and Viterbo in 1541, on the occasion of
+her brother Ascanio Colonna's revolt against Paul III., produced no
+change in their relations, and they continued to visit and correspond as
+before. She returned to Rome in 1544, staying as usual at the convent of
+San Silvestro, and died there on the 25th of February 1547.
+
+Cardinal Bembo, Luigi Alamanni and Baldassare Castiglione were among her
+literary friends. She was also on intimate terms with many of the
+Italian Protestants, such as Pietro Carnesecchi, Juan de Valdes and
+Ochino, but she died before the church crisis in Italy became acute,
+and, although she was an advocate of religious reform, there is no
+reason to believe that she herself became a Protestant. Her life was a
+beautiful one, and goes far to counteract the impression of the
+universal corruption of the Italian Renaissance conveyed by such careers
+as those of the Borgia. Her amatory and elegiac poems, which are the
+fruits of a sympathetic and dainty imitative gift rather than of any
+strong original talent, were printed at Parma in 1538; a third edition,
+containing sixteen of her _Rime Spirituali_, in which religious themes
+are treated in Italian, was published at Florence soon afterwards; and a
+fourth, including a still larger proportion of the pious element, was
+issued at Venice in 1544.
+
+  A great deal has been written about Vittoria Colonna, but perhaps the
+  best account of her life is A. Luzio's _Vittoria Colonna_ (Modena,
+  1885); A. von Reumont's _Vita di Vittoria Colonna_ (Italian corrected
+  edit., Turin, 1883) is also excellent; F. le Fèvre's _Vittoria
+  Colonna_ (Paris, 1856) is somewhat inaccurate, but T. Roscoe's
+  _Vittoria Colonna_ (London, 1868) may be recommended to English
+  readers; P. E. Visconti's _Le Rime di Vittoria Colonna_ (Rome, 1846)
+  deals with her poems.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+COLONNADE, in architecture, a range of columns (Ital. _colonna_) in a
+row. When extended so as to enclose a temple, it is called a peristyle,
+and the same term applies when round an open court, as in the houses at
+Pompeii. When projecting in front of a building, it is called a portico,
+as in the Pantheon at Rome and the National Gallery in London. When
+enclosed between wings, as in Perrault's façade to the Louvre, it is
+correctly described as a colonnade. Colonnades lined the streets of the
+towns in Syria and Asia Minor, and they were largely employed in Rome.
+
+
+
+
+COLONSAY, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scotland, 10 m.
+S. of the Ross of Mull. It is 7½ m. long by 3 m. broad. The highest
+point is Carnan Eoin (470 ft.). Towards the middle of the island lies
+Loch Fada, nearly 2 m. long but very narrow, and there are two other
+small lakes and a few streams. The coast-line, with frequent beautiful
+sandy reaches, is much indented, the chief bays being Kiloran,
+Kilchattan and Staosunaig. On the north-western coast the cliffs are
+particularly fine. To the south, separated by a strait that is fordable
+at low water, lies the isle of ORONSAY, 2¼ m. long by 2¾ m. wide. Both
+islands contain a number of ecclesiastical remains, standing stones, and
+some beautiful sculptured crosses. They are named after Columba and
+Oran, who are said to have stopped here after they left Ireland. There
+is regular communication between Scalasaig and Glasgow and the Clyde
+ports. The golf-course at Kilchattan lends a touch of modernity to these
+remote islands. Near Scalasaig a granite obelisk has been erected to the
+memory of Sir Duncan M'Neill (1794-1874), a distinguished Scottish
+lawyer, who took the title of Lord Colonsay when he became a lord of
+appeal. The soil of both islands is fertile, potatoes and barley being
+raised and cattle pastured. Population: Colonsay (1901), 301; Oronsay
+(1901), 12.
+
+
+
+
+COLONY (Lat. _colonia_, from _colonus_, a cultivator), a term most
+commonly used to denote a settlement of the subjects of a sovereign
+state in lands beyond its boundaries, owning no allegiance to any
+foreign power, and retaining a greater or less degree of dependence on
+the mother country. The founding and the growth of such communities
+furnish matter for an interesting chapter in the history as well of
+ancient as of modern civilization; and the regulation of the relations
+between the parent state and its dependencies abroad gives rise to
+important problems alike in national policy and in international
+economics.
+
+It was mainly the spirit of commercial enterprise that led the
+Phoenicians to plant their colonies upon the islands and along the
+southern coast of the Mediterranean; and even beyond the Pillars of
+Hercules this earliest great colonizing race left enduring traces of its
+maritime supremacy. Carthage, indeed, chief of the Phoenician
+settlements, sent forth colonies to defend her conquests and strengthen
+her military power; and these sub-colonies naturally remained in strict
+subjection to her power, whereas the other young Phoenician states
+assumed and asserted entire independence.
+
+In this latter respect the Greek colonies resembled those of the
+Phoenicians. From a very early period the little civic communities of
+Greece had sent forth numerous colonizing streams. At points so far
+asunder as the Tauric Chersonese, Cyrene and Massilia were found
+prosperous centres of Greek commercial energy; but the regions most
+thickly peopled by settlers of Greek descent were the western seaboard
+of Asia Minor, Sicily and the southern parts of the Italian peninsula.
+Nor were the least prosperous communities those which were sprung from
+earlier colonies. The causes that led to the foundation of the Greek
+colonies were very various. As in Phoenicia, pressure created by the
+narrow limits of the home country coincided with an adventurous desire
+to seek new sources of wealth beyond seas; but very many Greek
+emigrations were caused by the expulsion of the inhabitants of conquered
+cities, or by the intolerable domination of a hated but triumphant
+faction within the native state. The polity of the new community, often
+founded in defiance of the home authorities, might either be a copy of
+that just left behind or be its direct political antithesis. But
+wherever they went, and whether, as apparently in Asia Minor, Greek
+blood was kept free from barbaric mixture, or whether, as in Magna
+Graecia and Sicily, it was mingled with that of the aboriginal races,
+the Greek emigrants carried with them the Hellenic spirit and the
+Hellenic tongue; and the colonies fostered, not infrequently more
+rapidly and more brilliantly than at home, Greek literature, Greek art
+and Greek speculation. The relation to be preserved towards the mother
+states was seldom or never definitely arranged. But filial feeling and
+established custom secured a measure of kindly sympathy, shown by
+precedence yielded at public games, and by the almost invariable
+abstinence of the colony from a hostile share in wars in which the
+mother city was engaged.
+
+The relation of Rome to her colonies was altogether different. No Roman
+colony started without the sanction and direction of the public
+authority; and while the _Colonia Romano_ differed from the _Colonia
+Latina_ in that the former permitted its members to retain their
+political rights intact, the colony, whether planted within the bounds
+of Italy or in provinces such as Gaul or Britain, remained an integral
+part of the Roman state. In the earlier colonies, the state allotted to
+proposing emigrants from amongst the needy or discontented class of
+citizens portions of such lands as, on the subjection of a hostile
+people, the state took into its possession as public property. At a
+later time, especially after the days of Sulla, the distribution of the
+territories of a vanquished Roman party was employed by the victorious
+generals as an easy means of satisfying the claims of the soldiery by
+whose help they had triumphed. The Roman colonies were thus not merely
+valuable as _propugnacula_ of the state, as permanent supports to Roman
+garrisons and armies, but they proved a most effective means of
+extending over wide bounds the language and the laws of Rome, and of
+inoculating the inhabitants of the provinces with more than the
+rudiments of Roman civilization.
+
+The occupation of the fairest provinces of the Roman empire by the
+northern barbarians had little in common with colonization. The Germanic
+invaders came from no settled state; they maintained loosely, and but
+for a short while, any form of brotherhood with the allied tribes. A
+nearer parallel to Greek colonization may be found in Iceland, whither
+the adherents of the old Norse polity fled from the usurpation of Harold
+Haarfager; and the early history of the English pale in Ireland shows,
+though not in orderliness and prosperity, several points of resemblance
+to the Roman colonial system.
+
+Though both Genoese and Venetians in their day of power planted numerous
+trading posts on various portions of the Mediterranean shores, of which
+some almost deserve the name of colonies, the history of modern
+colonization on a great scale opens with the Spanish conquests in
+America. The first Spanish adventurers came, not to colonize, but to
+satisfy as rapidly as possible and by the labour of the enslaved
+aborigines, their thirst for silver and gold. Their conquests were
+rapid, but the extension of their permanent settlements was gradual and
+slow. The terrible cruelty at first exercised on the natives was
+restrained, not merely by the zeal of the missionaries, but by effective
+official measures; and ultimately home-born Spaniards and Creoles lived
+on terms of comparative fairness with the Indians and with the
+half-breed population. Till the general and successful revolt of her
+American colonies, Spain maintained and employed the latter directly and
+solely for what she conceived to be her own advantage. Her commercial
+policy was one of most irrational and intolerable restriction and
+repression; and till the end of Spanish rule on the American continent,
+the whole political power was retained by the court at Madrid, and
+administered in the colonies by an oligarchy of home-bred Spaniards.
+
+The Portuguese colonization in America, in most respects resembling that
+of Spain, is remarkable for the development there given to an
+institution sadly prominent in the history of the European colonies. The
+nearness of Brazil to the coast of Africa made it easy for the
+Portuguese to supply the growing lack of native labour by the wholesale
+importation of purchased or kidnapped Africans.
+
+Of the French it is admitted that in their colonial possessions they
+displayed an unusual faculty for conciliating the prejudices of native
+races, and even for assimilating themselves to the latter. But neither
+this nor the genius of successive governors and commanders succeeded in
+preserving for France her once extensive colonies in Canada or her great
+influence in India. In Algeria and West Africa the French government has
+not merely found practical training schools for her own soldiers, but by
+opening a recruiting field amongst the native tribes it has added an
+available contingent to the French army.
+
+The Dutch took early a leading share in the carrying trade of the
+various European colonies. They have still extensive colonies in the
+East Indian Archipelago, as well as possessions in the West Indies. The
+Danish dependencies in the Antilles are but trifling in extent or
+importance.
+
+It is the English-speaking race, however, that has shown the most
+remarkable energy and capacity for colonization. The English settlements
+in Virginia, New England, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania,
+Delaware, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia had, between the
+first decade of the 17th and the seventh decade of the 18th century,
+developed into a new nation, the United States of America. It is
+unnecessary here to deal with the development of what have since been
+the two great independent branches of the English-speaking people--those
+of the United States (q.v.) and of the British Empire (q.v.), as their
+history is given elsewhere. But the colonizing genius which, with the
+British Isles as centre, has taken up the "white man's burden" in all
+quarters of the globe, is universally recognized. In the problems of
+government raised by the organization of the British dominions beyond
+the seas the system of colonization has been developed to an extent
+unknown under any other national flag.
+
+
+
+
+COLOPHON, an ancient city of Ionia, situated inland about 15 m. N. of
+Ephesus. Its port was at Notium or New Colophon. The site, now called
+_Tracha_ (only recognized towards the end of the 19th century), lies
+near Diermendere, 5 m. S. of Develikeui station on the Smyrna-Aidin
+railway, and about 2 m. from the farms and hamlet of Malkajik. It is
+almost entirely under cultivation, and there is little to be seen but
+remains of the walls and certain tumuli. Rich tombs, however, have been
+found beside the old roads leading to it, and the site is usually
+regarded as a particularly promising one for excavation, since Colophon
+was a very flourishing city in the great period of Ionia and had
+declined and been largely superseded by Notium before the Roman age. The
+common belief, however, that it had no existence after the time of
+Lysimachus is not borne out by the remains on the site. Founded by
+Andracmon of Pylos, it was at the acme of its prosperity in the 8th and
+7th centuries B.C. up to the epoch of its sack by Gyges of Lydia in 665.
+It claimed to have produced Homer, but its greatest genuine literary
+name was Mimnermus. It seems to have been ruled by a rich aristocracy
+which provided a famous troop of horse; and, from the Greek saying,
+usually supposed to refer to the decisive effect of the final charge of
+this troop in battle, the word _colophon_ has come to be used for the
+final note appended to old printed books, containing date, &c. In 287
+Lysimachus transferred a part of the population to his new city at
+Ephesus. Though an Ionian colony Colophon did not share in the common
+festival of the _Apaturia_ and seems to have been isolated for some
+reason among its neighbours, with one of whom, Ephesus, it was
+constantly at enmity. The forts by which Ephesus protected itself
+against Colophonian invasion are still to be seen on the hills north of
+the Caystrus.
+
+Notium or New Colophon contained the important shrine of the Clarian
+Apollo, whose site has recently been identified with probability by Th.
+Makridy Bey during excavations conducted for the Ottoman museum.
+
+  See C. Schuchardt in _Athen. Mitteil._ (1886); W. M. Ramsay, _Hist.
+  Geog. of Asia Minor_ (addenda) (1890).     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+COLOPHON, a final paragraph in some manuscripts and many early printed
+books (see BOOK), giving particulars as to authorship, date and place of
+production, &c. Before the invention of printing, a scribe when he had
+finished copying a book occasionally added a final paragraph at the end
+of the text in which he recorded the fact, and (if he were so minded)
+expressed his thankfulness to God, or asked for the prayers of readers.
+In the famous Bodleian MS. 264 of the _Roman d'Alexandre_ there is an
+unusually full note of this kind recording the completion of the copy on
+the 18th of December 1338 and ending--
+
+  "Explicit iste liber, scriptor sit crimine liber,
+   Christus scriptorem custodiat ac det honorem."
+
+Both in manuscripts and also in early printed books authors made use of
+such a final paragraph for expressing similar feelings. Thus the
+Guillermus who made a famous collection of sermons on the gospels for
+Sundays and saints' days records its completion in 1437 and submits it
+to the correction of charitable readers, and Sir Thomas Malory notes
+that his _Morte d'Arthur_ "was ended the ix yere of the reygne of Kyng
+Edward the fourth," and bids his readers "praye for me whyle I am on
+lyue that God sende me good delyuerance, and whan I am deed I praye you
+all praye for my soule." So again Jacobus Bergomensis records that his
+_Supplementum Chronicarum_ was finished "anno salutis nostre 1483. 3º
+Kalendas Julii in ciuitate Bergomi: mihi vero a natiuitate quadragesimo
+nono," and in the subsequent editions which he revised brings both the
+year and his own age up to date. Before printing was invented, however,
+such paragraphs were exceptional, and many of the early printers,
+notably Gutenberg himself, were content to allow their books to go out
+without any mention of their own names. Fust and Schoeffer, on the other
+hand, printed at the end of their famous psalter of 1457 the following
+paragraph in red ink:--_Presens spalmorum (sic for psalmorum) codex
+venustate capitalium decoratus Rubricationibusque sufficienter
+distinctus, Adinuentione artificiosa imprimendi ac caracterizandi absque
+calami vlla exaracione sic effigiatus, Et ad eusebiam dei industrie est
+consummatus, Per Iohannem fust ciuem maguntinum, Et Petrum Schoffer de
+Gernszheim Anno domini Millesimo. cccc. lvii In vigilia Assumpcionis_.
+Similar paragraphs in praise of printing and of Mainz as the city where
+the art was brought to perfection appear in most of the books issued by
+the partners and after Fust's death by Schoeffer alone, and were widely
+imitated by other printers. In their Latin Bible of 1462 Fust and
+Schoeffer added a device of two shields at the end of the paragraph, and
+this addition was also widely copied. Many of these final paragraphs
+give information of great value for the history of printing; many also,
+especially those to the early editions of the classics printed in Italy,
+are written in verse. As the practice grew up of devoting a separate
+leaf or page to the title of a book at its beginning, the importance of
+these final paragraphs slowly diminished, and the information they gave
+was gradually transferred to the title-page. Complete title-pages
+bearing the date and name of the publishers are found in most books
+printed after 1520, and the final paragraph, if retained at all, was
+gradually reduced to a bare statement of the name of the printer. From
+the use of the word in the sense of a "finishing stroke," such a final
+paragraph as has been described is called by bibliographers a "colophon"
+(Gr. [Greek: kolophôn]), but at what period this name for it was first
+used has not been ascertained. It is quite possibly not earlier than the
+18th century. (For origin see COLOPHON [city].)     (A. W. PO.)
+
+
+
+
+COLORADO, a state of the American union, situated between 41° and 37° N.
+lat. and 102° and 109° W. long., bounded N. by Wyoming and Nebraska, E.
+by Nebraska and Kansas, S. by Oklahoma and New Mexico, and W. by Utah.
+Its area is 103,948 sq. m. (of which 290 are water surface). It is the
+seventh largest state of the Union.
+
+_Physiography._--Colorado embraces in its area a great variety of
+plains, mountains and plateaus. It lies at the junction of the Great
+Plains--which in their upward slant to the westward attain an average
+elevation of about 4000 ft. along the east boundary of the state--with
+the Rocky Mountains, to the west of which is a portion of the Colorado
+Plateau. These are the three physiographic provinces of the state (see
+also UNITED STATES, section _Geology_, ad fin., for details of
+structure). The last-named includes a number of lofty plateaus--the Roan
+or Book, Uncompahgre, &c., which form the eastern continuation of the
+high plateaus of Utah--and covers the western quarter of the state. Its
+eastern third consists of rich, unbroken plains. On their west edge lies
+an abrupt, massive, and strangely uniform chain of mountains, known in
+the neighbourhood of Colorado Springs as the Rampart Range, and in the
+extreme north as the Front Range, and often denominated as a whole by
+the latter name. The upturning of the rocks of the Great Plains at the
+foot of the Front Range develops an interesting type of topography, the
+harder layers weathering into grotesquely curious forms, as seen in the
+famous Garden of the Gods at the foot of Pike's Peak. Behind this
+barrier the whole country is elevated 2000 ft. or so above the level of
+the plains region. In its lowest portions just behind the front ranges
+are the natural "parks"--great plateaus basined by superb enclosing
+ranges; and to the west of these, and between them, and covering the
+remainder of the state east of the plateau region, is an entanglement of
+mountains, tier above tier, running from north to south, buttressed
+laterally with splendid spurs, dominated by scores of magnificent peaks,
+cut by river valleys, and divided by mesas and plateaus. These various
+chains are known by a multitude of local names. Among the finest of the
+chains are the Rampart, Sangre de Cristo, San Juan, Sawatch (Saguache)
+and Elk ranges. The first, like the other ranges abutting from north to
+south upon the region of the prairie, rises abruptly from the plain and
+has a fine, bold outline. It contains a number of fine summits dominated
+by Pike's Peak (14,108 ft.). Much more beautiful as a whole is the
+Sangre de Cristo range. At its southern end are Blanca Peak (14,390) and
+Old Baldy (14,176, Hayden), both in Costilla county; to the northward
+are Rito Alto Peak (12,989, Wheeler), in Custer county, and many others
+of almost equal height and equal beauty. The mountains of the south-west
+are particularly abrupt and jagged. Sultan Mountain (13,366, Hayden), in
+San Juan county, and Mt. Eolus (14,079), in La Plata county, dominate
+the fine masses of the San Juan ranges; and Mt. Sneffels (14,158,
+Hayden), Ouray county, and Uncompahgre Peak (14,289), Hinsdale county,
+the San Miguel and Uncompahgre ranges, which are actually parts of the
+San Juan. Most magnificent of all the mountains of Colorado, however,
+are the Sawatch and adjoining ranges in the centre of the state. The
+former (the name is used a little loosely) consists of almost a solid
+mass of granite, has an average elevation of probably 13,000 ft.,
+presents a broad and massive outline, and has a mean breadth of 15 to 20
+m. Mt. Ouray (13,956 ft.), in Chaffee county, may be taken as the
+southern end, and in Eagle county, the splendid Mount of the Holy Cross
+(14,170)--so named from the figure of its snow-filled ravines--as the
+northern. Between them lie: in Chaffee county, Mt. Shavano (14,239,
+Hayden), Mt. Princeton (14,196, Hayden), Mt. Yale (14,187, Hayden), Mt.
+Harvard (14,375, Hayden), and La Plata Peak (14,342); in Pitkin county,
+Grizzly Peak (13,956, Hayden); in Lake county, Elbert Peak (14,421), and
+Massive mountain (14,424), the highest peak in the state; on the
+boundary between Summit and Park counties, Mt. Lincoln (14,297, Hayden);
+and, in Summit county, Mt. Fletcher (14,265). The Elk range is
+geologically interesting for the almost unexampled displacement of the
+strata of which it is composed, and the apparent confusion which has
+thence arisen. Among the most remarkable of its separate summits, which
+rise superbly in a crescent about Aspen, are North Italian Peak
+(13,225), displaying the red, white and green of Italy's national
+colours, White Rock Mountain (13,532), Mt. Owen (13,102), Teocalli
+Mountain (13,220), Snow Mass (13,970, Hayden) and Maroon (14,003,
+Hayden) mountains, Castle Peak (14,259), Capitol Mountain (13,997,
+Hayden), Pyramid Peak (13,885, Hayden), Taylor Peak (13,419), and about
+a dozen other summits above 12,000 ft. A few miles to the north and
+north-east of the Mount of the Holy Cross are Red Mountain (13,333,
+Wheeler), in Eagle county, Torrey Peak (14,336, Hayden) and Gray's Peak
+(14,341, Hayden), in Summit county, Mt. Evans (14,330, Hayden), in Clear
+Creek county, and Rosalie Peak (13,575), in Park county; a little
+farther north, in Gilpin, Grand and Clear Creek counties, James Peak
+(13,283, Hayden), and, in Boulder county, Long's Peak (14,271, Hayden).
+Many fine mountains are scattered in the lesser ranges of the state.
+Altogether there are at least 180 summits exceeding 12,000 ft. in
+altitude, more than 110 above 13,000 and about 40 above 14,000.
+
+Cirques, valley troughs, numberless beautiful cascades, sharpened alpine
+peaks and ridges, glacial lakes, and valley moraines offer everywhere
+abundant evidence of glacial action, which has modified profoundly
+practically all the ranges. The Park Range east of Leadville, and the
+Sawatch Range, are particularly fine examples. Much of the grandest
+scenery is due to glaciation.
+
+One of the most remarkable orographical features of the state are the
+great mountain "parks"--North, Estes, Middle, South and San
+Luis--extending from the northern to the southern border of the state,
+and lying (with the exception of Middle Park) just east of the
+continental divide. These "parks" are great plateaus, not all of them
+level, lying below the barriers of surrounding mountain chains. North
+Park, the highest of all, is a lovely country of meadow and forest.
+Middle Park is not level, but is traversed thickly by low ranges like
+the Alleghanies; in the bordering mountain rim are several of the
+grandest mountain peaks and some of the most magnificent scenery of the
+state. Estes Park is small, only 20 m. long and never more than 2 m.
+broad; it is in fact the valley of Thompson Creek. Its surface is one of
+charming slopes, and by many it is accounted among the loveliest of
+Colorado valleys. Seven ranges lie between it and the plains. South Park
+is similarly quiet and charming in character. Much greater than any of
+these is San Luis Park. The surface is nearly as flat as a lake, and it
+was probably at one time the bed of an inland sea. In the centre there
+is a long narrow lake fed by many streams. It has no visible outlet, but
+is fresh. The San Luis Park, which runs into New Mexico, is traversed by
+the Rio Grande del Norte and more than a dozen of its mountain
+tributaries. These parks are frequented by great quantities of large
+game, and--especially the North and Middle--are famous hunting-grounds.
+They are fertile, too, and as their combined area is something like
+13,000 sq. m. they are certain to be of great importance in Colorado's
+agricultural development.
+
+The drainage system of the state is naturally very complicated. Eleven
+topographical and climatic divisions are recognized by the United States
+Weather Bureau within its borders, including the several parks, the
+continental divide, and various river valleys. Of the rivers, the North
+Platte has its sources in North Park, the Colorado (the Gunnison and
+Grand branches) in Middle Park, the Arkansas and South Platte in South
+Park--where their waters drain in opposite directions from Palmer's
+Lake--the Rio Grande in San Luis Park. Three of these flow east and
+south-east to the Missouri, Mississippi and the Gulf; but the waters of
+the Colorado system flow to the south-west into the Gulf of California.
+Among the other streams, almost countless in number among the mountains,
+the systems of the Dolores, White and Yampa, all in the west, are of
+primary importance. The scenery on the head-waters of the White and
+Bear, the upper tributaries of the Gunnison, and on many of the minor
+rivers of the south-west is wonderfully beautiful. The South Platte
+falls 4830 ft. in the 139 m. above Denver; the Grand 3600 ft. in the 224
+m. between the mouth of the Gunnison and the Forks; the Gunnison 6477
+ft. in 200 m. to its mouth (and save for 16 m. never with a gradient of
+less than 10 ft.); the Arkansas 7000 ft. in its 338 m. west of the
+Kansas line. Of the smaller streams the Uncompahgre falls 2700 ft. in
+134 m., the Las Animas 7190 ft. in 113 m., the Los Pinos 4920 ft. in 75
+m., the Roaring Fork 5923 ft. in 64 m., the Mancos 5000 ft. in 62 m.,
+the La Plata 3103 ft. in 43 m., the Eagle 4293 ft. in 62 m., the San
+Juan 3785 in 303, the Lake Fork of the Gunnison 6047 in 59. The canyons
+formed in the mountains by these streams are among the glories of
+Colorado and of America. The grandest are the Toltec Gorge near the
+Southern boundary line, traversed by the railway 1500 ft. above the
+bottom; the Red Gorge and Rouge Canyon of the Upper Grand, and a
+splendid gorge 16 m. long below the mouth of the Eagle, with walls
+2000-2500 ft. in height; the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas (8 m.) above
+Canyon City, with granite walls towering 2600 ft. above the boiling
+river at the Royal Gorge; and the superb Black Canyon (15 m.) of the
+Gunnison and the Cimarron. But there are scores of others which, though
+less grand, are hardly less beautiful. The exquisite colour contrasts of
+the Cheyenne canyons near Colorado Springs, Boulder Canyon near the city
+of the same name, Red Cliff and Eagle River Canyons near Red Cliff,
+Clear Creek Canyon near Denver--with walls at places 1000 ft. in
+height--the Granite Canyon (11 m.) of the South Platte west of
+Florissant, and the fine gorge of the Rio de las Animas (1500 ft.),
+would be considered wonderful in any state less rich in still more
+marvellous scenery. One peculiar feature of the mountain landscapes are
+the mines. In districts like that of Cripple Creek their enormous ore
+"dumps" dot the mountain flanks like scores of vast ant-hills; and in
+Eagle River canyon their mouths, like dormer windows into the granite
+mountain roof, may be seen 2000 ft. above the railway.
+
+Many parts of the railways among the mountains are remarkable for
+altitude, construction or scenery. More than a dozen mountain passes lie
+above 10,000 ft. Argentine Pass (13,000 ft.), near Gray's Peak, is one
+of the highest wagon roads of the world; just east of Silverton is Rio
+Grande Pass, about 12,400 ft. above sea-level, and in the Elk Mountains
+between Gunnison and Pitkin counties is Pearl Pass (12,715 ft.). Many
+passes are traversed by the railways, especially the splendid scenic
+route of the Denver and Rio Grande. Among the higher passes are Hoosier
+Pass (10,309 ft.) in the Park Range, and Hayden Divide (10,780) and Veta
+Pass (9390); both of these across the Sangre de Cristo range; the
+crossing of the San Miguel chain at Lizard Head Pass (10,250) near Rico;
+of the Uncompahgre at Dallas Divide (8977) near Ouray; of the Elk and
+Sawatch ranges at Fremont (11,320), Tennessee (10,229), and Breckenridge
+(11,470) passes, and the Busk Tunnel, all near Leadville; and Marshall
+Pass (10,846) above Salida. Perhaps finer than these for their
+wide-horizoned outlooks and grand surroundings are the Alpine Tunnel
+under the continental divide of the Lower Sawatch chain, the scenery of
+the tortuous line along the southern boundary in the Conejos and San
+Juan mountains, which are crossed at Cumbres (10,003 ft.), and the
+magnificent scenery about Ouray and on the Silverton railway over the
+shoulder of Red Mountain (attaining 11,235 ft.). Notable, too, is the
+road in Clear Creek Canyon--where the railway track coils six times upon
+itself above Georgetown at an altitude of 10,000 ft.
+
+_Climate._--The climate of Colorado is exceptional for regularity and
+salubrity. The mean annual temperature for the state is about 46°. The
+mean yearly isothermals crossing the state are ordinarily 35° to 50° or
+55° F. Their course, owing to the complex orography of the state, is
+necessarily extremely irregular, and few climatic generalizations can be
+made. It can be said, however, that the south-east is the warmest
+portion of the state, lying as it does without the mountains; that the
+north-central region is usually coldest; that the normal yearly rainfall
+for the entire state is about 15.5 in., with great local variations
+(rarely above 27 in.). Winds are constant and rather high (5 to 10 m.),
+and for many persons are the most trying feature of the climate. Very
+intense cold prevails of course in winter in the mountains, and intense
+heat (110° F. or more in the shade) is often experienced in summer,
+temperatures above 90° being very common. The locality of least annual
+thermometric range is Lake Moraine (10,268 ft. above the sea)--normally
+91° F.; at other localities the range may be as great as 140°, and for
+the whole state of course even greater (155° or slightly more). The
+lowest monthly mean in 16 years (1887-1903) was 17.30. Nevertheless, the
+climate of Colorado is not to be judged severe, and that of the plains
+region is in many ways ideal. In the lowlands the snow is always slight
+and it disappears almost immediately, even in the very foothills of the
+mountains, as at Denver or Colorado Springs. However hot the summer day,
+its night is always cool and dewless. Between July and October there is
+little rain, day after day bringing a bright and cloudless sky. Humidity
+is moderate (annual averages for Grand Junction, Pueblo, Denver and
+Cheyenne, Wyo., for 6 A.M. about 50 to 66; for 6 P.M. 33 to 50); it is
+supposed to be increasing with the increasing settlement of the country.
+Sunshine is almost continuous, and splendidly intense. The maximum
+number of "rainy" days (with a rainfall of more than 0.01 in.) rarely
+approaches 100 at the most unfortunate locality; for the whole state the
+average of perfectly "clear" days is normally above 50%, of "partly
+cloudy" above 30, of "cloudy" under 20, of "rainy" still less. At
+Denver, through 11 years, the actual sunlight was 70% of the possible;
+many other points are even more favoured; very many enjoy on a third to
+a half of the days of the year above 90% of possible sunshine. All
+through the year the atmosphere is so dry and light that meat can be
+preserved by the simplest process of desiccation. "An air more delicious
+to breathe," wrote Bayard Taylor, "cannot anywhere be found; it is
+neither too sedative nor too exciting, but has that pure, sweet,
+flexible quality which seems to support all one's happiest and
+healthiest moods." For asthmatic and consumptive troubles its
+restorative influence is indisputable. Along with New Mexico and
+Arizona, Colorado has become more and more a sanitarium for the other
+portions of the Union. Among the secondary hygienic advantages are the
+numerous mineral wells.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--The life zones of Colorado are simple in
+arrangement. The boreal embraces the highest mountain altitudes; the
+transition belts it on both sides of the continental divide; the upper
+Sonoran takes in about the eastern half of the plains region east of the
+mountains, and is represented further by two small valley penetrations
+from Utah. Timber is confined almost wholly to the high mountain sides,
+the mountain valleys and the parks being for the most part bare. Nowhere
+is the timber large or dense. The timber-line on the mountains is at
+about 10,000 ft., and the snow line at about 11,000. It is supposed that
+the forests were much richer before the settlement of the state, which
+was followed by reckless consumption and waste, and the more terrible
+ravages of fire. In 1872-1876 the wooded area was estimated at 32% of
+the state's area. It is certainly much less now. The principal trees,
+after the yellow and lodgepole pines, are the red-fir, so-called hemlock
+and cedar, the Engelmann spruce, the cottonwood and the aspen (_Populus
+tremuloides_). In 1899 Federal forest reserves had been created,
+aggregating 4849 sq. m. in extent, and by 1910 this had been increased
+to 24,528 sq. m. The reserves cover altitudes of 7000 to 14,000 ft. The
+rainfall is ample for their needs, but no other reserves in the country
+showed in 1900 such waste by fire and pillage. The minor flora of the
+country is exceedingly rich. In the plains the abundance of flowers,
+from spring to autumn, is amazing.
+
+Large game is still very abundant west of the continental divide. The
+great parks are a favourite range and shelter. Deer and elk frequent
+especially the mountains of the north-west, in Routt and Rio Blanco
+counties, adjoining the reservations of the Uncompahgre (White River
+Ute) and Uintah-Ute Indians--from whose depredations, owing to the
+negligence of Federal officials, the game of the state has suffered
+enormous losses. The bison have been exterminated. Considerable bands of
+antelope live in the parks and even descend to the eastern plains, and
+the mule-deer, the most common of large game, is abundant all through
+the mountains of the west. Grizzly or silver-tip, brown and black bears
+are also abundant in the same region. Rarest of all is the magnificent
+mountain sheep. Game is protected zealously, if not successfully, by the
+state, and it was officially estimated in 1898 that there were then
+probably 7000 elk, as many mountain sheep, 25,000 antelope and 100,000
+deer within its borders (by far the greatest part in Routt and Rio
+Blanco counties). Fish are not naturally very abundant, but the mountain
+brooks are the finest home for trout, and these as well as bass,
+cat-fish and some other varieties have been used to stock the streams.
+
+_Soil._--The soils of the lowlands are prevailing sandy loams, with a
+covering of rich mould. The acreage of improved lands in 1900 was
+returned by the federal census as 2,273,968, three times as much being
+unimproved; the land improved constituted 3.4% of the state's area. The
+lands available for agriculture are the lowlands and the mountain parks
+and valleys.
+
+Speaking generally, irrigation is essential to successful cultivation,
+but wherever irrigation is practicable the soil proves richly
+productive. Irrigation ditches having been exempted from taxation in
+1872, extensive systems of canals were soon developed, especially after
+1880. The Constitution of Colorado declares the waters of its streams
+the property of the state, and a great body of irrigation law and
+practice has grown up about this provision. The riparian doctrine does
+not obtain in Colorado. In no part of the semi-arid region of the
+country are the irrigation problems so diverse and difficult. In 1903
+there were, according to the governor, 10 canals more than 50 m. in
+length, 51 longer than 20 m., and hundreds of reservoirs. In 1899 there
+were 7374 m. of main ditches. The average annual cost of water per acre
+was then estimated at about 79 cents. The acres under ditch in 1902 were
+greater (1,754,761) than in any other state; and the construction cost
+of the system was then $14,769,561 (an increase of 25.6% from 1899 to
+1902). There are irrigated lands in every county. Their area increased
+8.9% in 1899-1902, and 80.9% from 1890 to 1900; in the latter year they
+constituted 70.9% of the improved farm-land of the state, as against
+48.8 in 1890. The land added to the irrigated area in the decade was in
+1890 largely worthless public domain; its value in 1900 was about
+$29,000,000. As a result of irrigation the Platte is often dry in
+eastern Colorado in the summer, and the Arkansas shrinks so below Pueblo
+that little water reaches Kansas. The water is almost wholly taken from
+the rivers, but underflow is also utilized, especially in San Luis Park.
+The South Platte is much the most important irrigating stream. Its
+valley included 660,495 acres of irrigated land in 1902, no other valley
+having half so great an area. The diversion of the waters of the
+Arkansas led to the bringing of a suit against Colorado by Kansas in the
+United States Supreme Court in 1902, on the ground that such diversion
+seriously and illegally lessened the waters of the Arkansas in Kansas.
+In 1907 the Supreme Court of the United States declared that Colorado
+had diverted waters of the Arkansas, but, since it had not been shown
+that Kansas had suffered, the case was dismissed, without prejudice to
+Kansas, should it be injured in future by diversion of water from the
+river. The exhaustion, or alleged exhaustion, by irrigation in Colorado
+of the waters of the Rio Grande has raised international questions of
+much interest between Mexico and the United States, which were settled
+in 1907 by a convention pledging the United States to deliver 60,000
+acre-feet of water annually in the bed of the Rio Grande at the Acequia
+Madre, just above Juarez, in case of drought this supply being
+diminished proportionately to the diminution in the United States. As a
+part of the plans of the national government for reclamation of land in
+the arid states, imposing schemes have been formulated for such work in
+Colorado, including a great reservoir on the Gunnison. One of the
+greatest undertakings of the national reclamation service is the
+construction of 77 m. of canal and of a six-mile tunnel, beneath a
+mountain, between the canyon of the Gunnison and the valley of the
+Uncompahgre, designed to make productive some 140,000 acres in the
+latter valley.
+
+Apart from mere watering, cultivation is in no way intensive. One of the
+finest farming regions is the lowland valley of the Arkansas. It is a
+broad, level plain, almost untimbered, given over to alfalfa, grains,
+vegetables and fruits. Sugar-beet culture has been found to be
+exceptionally remunerative in this valley as well as in those of the
+South Platte and Grand rivers. The growth of this interest has been
+since 1899 a marked feature in the agricultural development of the
+state; and in 1905, 1906 and 1907 the state's product of beets and of
+sugar was far greater than that of any other state; in 1907, 1,523,303
+tons of beets were worked--more than two-fifths of the total for the
+United States. There are various large sugar factories (in 1903, 9, and
+in 1907, 16), mainly in the north; also at Grand Junction and in the
+Arkansas valley. The total value of all farm property increased between
+1880 and 1900 from $42,000,000 to $161,045,101 and 45.9% from 1890 to
+1900. In the latter year $49,954,311 of this was in live-stock
+(increase 1890-1900, 121.1%), the remaining value in land with
+improvements and machinery. The total value of farm products in 1899 was
+$33,048,576; of this sum 97% was almost equally divided between crop
+products and animal products, the forests contributing the remainder. Of
+the various elements in the value of all farm produce as shown by the
+federal census of 1900, live-stock, hay and grains, and dairying
+represented 87.2%. The value of cereals ($4,700,271)--of which wheat and
+oats represent four-fifths--is much exceeded by that of hay and forage
+($8,159,279 in 1899). Wheat culture increased greatly from 1890 to 1900.
+Flour made from Colorado wheat ranks very high in the market. As a
+cereal-producing state Colorado is, however, relatively unimportant; nor
+in value of product is its hay and forage crop notable, except that of
+alfalfa, which greatly surpasses that of any other state. In 1906 the
+state produced 3,157,136 bushels of Indian corn, valued at $1,578,568;
+8,266,538 bushels of wheat, valued at $5,373,250; 5,962,394 bushels of
+oats, valued at $2,683,077; 759,771 bushels of barley, valued at
+$410,276; 43,580 bushels of rye, valued at $24,405; and 1,596,542 tons
+of hay, valued at $15,167,149. The value of vegetable products, of
+fruits, and of dairy products was, relatively, equally small (only
+$7,346,415 in 1899). Natural fruits are rare and practically worthless.
+Apples, peaches, plums, apricots, pears, cherries and melons have been
+introduced. The best fruit sections are the Arkansas valley, and in the
+western and south-western parts of the state. Melons are to some extent
+exported, and peaches also; the musk-melons of the Arkansas valley
+(Rocky Ford Canteloupes) being in demand all over the United States. The
+fruit industry dates practically from 1890. The dairy industry is
+rapidly increasing. In the holdings of neat cattle (1,453,971) and sheep
+(2,045,577) it ranked in 1900 respectively seventeenth and tenth among
+the states of the Union; in 1907, according to the _Yearbook_ of the
+Department of Agriculture, there were in the state 1,561,712 neat cattle
+and 1,677,561 sheep. Stock-raising has always been important. The parks
+and mountain valleys are largely given over to ranges. The native
+grasses are especially adapted for fodder. The grama, buffalo and bunch
+varieties cure on the stem, and furnish throughout the winter an
+excellent ranging food. These native grasses, even the thin bunch
+varieties of dry hills, are surprisingly nutritious, comparing very
+favourably with cultivated grasses. Large areas temporarily devoted to
+cultivation with poor success, and later allowed to revert to ranges,
+have become prosperous and even noted as stock country. This is true of
+the sandhill region of eastern Colorado. The grass flora of the lowlands
+is not so rich in variety nor so abundant in quality as that of high
+altitudes. Before the plains were fenced large herds drifted to the
+south in the winter, but now sufficient hay and alfalfa are cut to feed
+the cattle during the storms, which at longest are brief. An account of
+Colorado agriculture would not be complete without mentioning the
+depredations of the grasshopper, which are at times extraordinarily
+destructive, as also of the "Colorado Beetle" (_Doryphora
+decemlineata_), or common potato-bug, which has extended its fatal
+activities eastward throughout the prairie states.
+
+_Minerals._--Colorado is pre-eminently a mineral region, and to this fact
+it owes its colonization. It possesses unlimited supplies, as yet not
+greatly exploited, of fine building stones, some oil and asphalt, and
+related bituminous products, a few precious and semi-precious stones
+(especially tourmalines, beryls and aquamarines found near Canyon near
+the Royal Gorge of the Arkansas river), rare opalized and jasperized wood
+(in the eastern part of the El Paso county), considerable wealth of lead
+and copper, enormous fields of bituminous coal, and enormous wealth of
+the precious metals. In the exploitation of the last there have been
+three periods: that before the discovery of the lead-carbonate silver
+ores of Leadville in 1879, in which period gold-mining was predominant;
+the succeeding years until 1894, in which silver-mining was predominant;
+and the period since 1894, in which gold has attained an overwhelming
+primacy. The two metals are found in more than 50 counties, San Miguel,
+Gilpin, Boulder, Clear Creek, Lake, El Paso and Teller being the leading
+producers. The Cripple Creek field in the last-named county is one of the
+most wonderful mining districts, past or present, of America. Leadville,
+in Lake county, is another. The district about Silverton (product
+1870-1900 about $35,000,000, principally silver and lead, and mostly
+after 1881) has also had a remarkable development; and Creede, in the
+years of its brief prosperity, was a phenomenal silver-field. From 1858
+up to and including 1904 the state produced, according to the State
+Bureau of Mines (whose statistics have since about 1890 been brought into
+practical agreement with those of the national government) a value of no
+less than $889,203,323 in gold, silver, lead, copper and zinc at market
+prices. (If the value of silver be taken at coinage value this total
+becomes vastly greater.) The yield of gold was $353,913,695-$229,236,997
+from 1895 to 1904; of silver, $386,455,463-$115,698,366 from 1889 to
+1893; of lead, $120,742,674--its importance beginning in 1879; of copper,
+$17,879,446-$8,441,783 from 1898 to 1904; and of zinc, $10,212,045--all
+this from 1902 to 1904. Silver-mining ceased to be highly remunerative
+beginning with the closing of the India mints and repeal of the Sherman
+Law in 1893; since 1900 the yield has shown an extraordinary decrease--in
+1905 it was $6,945,581, and in 1907 $7,411,652--and it is said that as a
+result of the great fall in the market value of the metal the mines can
+now be operated only under the most favourable conditions and by exercise
+of extreme economy. In Lake county, for example, very much of the
+argentiferous ore that is too low for remunerative extraction (limit 1903
+about $12.00 per ton) is used for fluxes.[1] The copper output was of
+slight importance until 1889--$1,457,749 in 1905, and $1,544,918 in 1907;
+and that of zinc was nil until 1902, when discoveries made it possible to
+rework for this metal enormous dumps of waste material about the mines,
+and in 1906 the zinc output was valued at $5,304,884. Lead products
+declined with silver, but a large output of low ores has continued at
+Leadville, and in 1905 the product was valued at $5,111,570, and in 1906
+at $5,933,829. Up to 1895 the gold output was below ten million dollars
+yearly; from 1898 to 1904 it ran from 21.6 to 28.7 millions. In 1897 the
+product first exceeded that of California. In 1907 the value was
+$20,826,194. Silver values ran, in the years 1880-1902, from 11.3 to 23.1
+million dollars; and the quantities in the same years from 11.6 to 26.3
+million ounces. In 1907 it was 11,229,776 oz., valued at $7,411,652.
+Regarding again the total combined product of the above five metals, its
+growth is shown by these figures for its value in the successive periods
+indicated: 1858-1879, $77,380,140; 1879-1888, $220,815,709; 1889-1898,
+$322,878,362; 1899-1904, $268,229,112. From 1900 to 1903 Colorado
+produced almost exactly a third of the total gold and silver (market
+value) product of the entire country.
+
+In addition, iron ores (almost all brown hematite) occur abundantly, and
+all material for making steel of excellent quality. But very little iron
+is mined, in 1907 only 11,714 long tons, valued at $21,085. Of much more
+importance are the manganiferous and the silver manganiferous ores,
+which are much the richest of the country. Their product trebled from
+1889 to 1903; and in 1907 the output of manganiferous ores amounted to
+99,711 tons, valued at $251,207. A small amount is used for
+spiegeleisen, and the rest as a flux.
+
+The stratified rocks of the Great Plains, the Parks, and the Plateaus
+contain enormous quantities of coal. The coal-bearing rocks are confined
+to the Upper Cretaceous, and almost wholly to the Laramie formation. The
+main areas are on the two flanks of the Rockies, with two smaller fields
+in the Parks. The east group includes the fields of Canyon City (whose
+product is the ideal domestic coal of the western states), Raton and the
+South Platte; the Park group includes the Cones field and the Middle
+Park; the west group includes the Yampa, La Plata and Grand River
+fields--the last prospectively (not yet actually) the most valuable of
+all as to area and quality. About three-fifths of all the coal produced
+in the state comes from Las Animas and Huerfano counties. In 1901 about
+a third and in 1907 nearly two-fifths of the state's output came from
+Las Animas county. The Colorado fields are superior to those of all the
+other Rocky Mountain states in area, and in quality of product. In 1907
+Colorado ranked seventh among the coal-producing states of the Union,
+yielding 10,790,236 short tons (2.2% of the total for the United
+States). The total includes every variety from typical lignite to
+typical anthracite. The aggregate area of beds is estimated by the
+United States Geological Survey at 18,100 sq. m. (seventh in rank of the
+states of the Union); and the accessible coal, on other authority, at
+33,897,800,000 tons. The industry began in 1864, in which year 500 tons
+were produced. The product first exceeded one million tons in 1882, two
+in 1888, three in 1890, four in 1893, five in 1900. From 1897 to 1902
+the yield almost doubled, averaging 5,267,783 tons (lignite,
+semi-bituminous, bituminous, and a steady average production of 60,038
+tons of anthracite). About one-fifth of the total product is made into
+coke, the output of which increased from 245,746 tons in 1890 to
+1,421,579 tons (including a slight amount from Utah) in 1907; in 1907
+the coke manufactured in Colorado (and Utah) was valued at $4,747,436.
+Colorado holds the same supremacy for coal and coke west of the
+Mississippi that Pennsylvania holds for the country as a whole. The true
+bituminous coal produced, which in 1897 was only equal to that of the
+lignitic and semi-bituminous varieties (1.75 million tons), had come by
+1902 to constitute three-fourths (5.46 million tons) of the entire coal
+output. Much of the bituminous coal, especially that of the Canyon City
+field, is so hard and clean as to be little less desirable than
+anthracite; it is the favoured coal for domestic uses in all the
+surrounding states.
+
+Petroleum occurs in Fremont and Boulder counties. There have been very
+few flowing wells. The product increased from 76,295 barrels in 1887 to
+above 800,000 in the early 'nineties; it fell thereafter, averaging
+about 493,269 barrels from 1899 to 1903; in 1905 the yield was 376,238
+barrels; and in 1907, 331,851 barrels. In 1905 the state ranked
+eleventh, in 1907 twelfth, in production of petroleum. It is mostly
+refined at Florence, the centre of the older field. The Boulder district
+developed very rapidly after 1902; its product is a high-grade
+illuminant with paraffin base. Asphalt occurs in the high north rim of
+Middle Park (c. 10,000 ft.). Tungsten is found in wolframite in Boulder
+county. In 1903 about 37,000 men were employed in the mines of Colorado.
+Labour troubles have been notable in state history since 1890.
+
+Mineral springs have already been mentioned. They are numerous and occur
+in various parts of the state. The most important are at Buena Vista,
+Ouray, Wagon Wheel Gap, Poncha or Poncho Springs (90°-185° F.), Canyon
+City, Manitou, Idaho Springs and Glenwood Springs (120°-140° F., highly
+mineralized). The last three places, all beautifully situated--the first
+at the base of Pike's Peak, the second in the Clear Creek Canyon, and
+the third at the junction of the Roaring Fork with the Grand river--have
+an especially high repute. In 1904 it was competently estimated that the
+mineral yield and agricultural yield of the state were almost
+equal--somewhat above $47,000,000 each.[2]
+
+In 1900 only 4.6% of the population were engaged in manufactures. They
+are mainly dependent on the mining industry. There are many large
+smelters and reduction plants in the state, most of them at Denver,
+Leadville, Durango and Pueblo; at the latter place there are also
+blast-furnaces, a steel plant and rolling mills. Use is made of the most
+improved methods of treating the ore. The cyanide process, introduced
+about 1890, is now one of the most important factors in the utilization
+of low-grade and refractory gold and silver ores. The improved dioxide
+cyanide process was adopted about 1895. The iron and steel
+product--mainly at Pueblo--is of great importance, though relatively
+small as compared with that of some other states. Nevertheless, the very
+high rank in coal and iron interests of the state among the states west
+of the Mississippi, the presence of excellent manganiferous ores, a
+central position for distribution, and much the best railway system of
+any mountain state, indicate that Colorado will almost certainly
+eventually entirely or at least largely control the trans-Mississippi
+market in iron and steel. The Federal census of 1900 credited the
+manufacturing establishments of the state with a capital of $62,825,472
+and a product of $102,830,137 (increase 1890-1900, 142.1%); of which
+output the gold, silver, lead and copper smelted amounted to
+$44,625,305. Of the other products, iron and steel ($6,108,295),
+flouring and grist-mill products ($4,528,062), foundry and machine-shop
+products ($3,986,985), steam railway repair and construction work
+($3,141,602), printing and publishing, wholesale slaughtering and meat
+packing, malt liquors, lumber and timber, and coke were the most
+important. The production of beet sugar is relatively important, as more
+of it was produced in Colorado in 1905 than in any other state; in 1906
+334,386,000 lb (out of a grand total for the United States of
+967,224,000 lb) were manufactured here; the value of the product in 1905
+was $7,198,982, being 29.2% of the value of all the beet sugar produced
+in the United States in that year.[3]
+
+_Railways._--On the 1st of January 1909 there were 5403.05 m. of railway
+in operation. The Denver Pacific, built from Cheyenne, Wyoming, reached
+Denver in June 1870, and the Kansas Pacific, from Kansas City, in August
+of the same year. Then followed the building of the Denver & Rio Grande
+(1871), to which the earlier development of the state is largely due.
+The great Santa Fé (1873), Burlington (1882), Missouri Pacific (1887)
+and Rock Island (1888) systems reached Pueblo, Denver and Colorado
+Springs successively from the east. In 1888 the Colorado Midland started
+from Colorado Springs westward, up the Ute Pass, through the South Park
+to Leadville, and thence over the continental divide to Aspen and
+Glenwood Springs. The Colorado & Southern, a consolidation of roads
+connecting Colorado with the south, has also become an important system.
+
+_Population._--The population of the state in 1870 was 39,864; in 1880,
+194,327[4]; in 1890, 413,249; in 1900, 539,700; and in 1910, 799,024. Of
+the 1900 total, males constituted 54.7%, native born 83.1%. The 10,654
+persons of coloured race included 1437 Indians and 647 Chinese and
+Japanese, the rest being negroes. Of 185,708 males twenty-one or more
+years of age 7689 (4.1%) were illiterate (unable to write), including a
+fourth of the Asiatics, a sixth of the Indians, one-nineteenth of the
+negroes, one in twenty-four of the foreign born, and one in 147.4 of the
+native born. Of 165 incorporated cities, towns and villages, 27 had a
+population exceeding 2000, and 7 a population of above 5000. The latter
+were Denver (133,859), Pueblo (28,137), Colorado Springs (21,085),
+Leadville (12,455), Cripple Creek (10,147), Boulder (6150) and Trinidad
+(5345). Creede, county-seat of Mineral county, was a phenomenal silver
+camp from its discovery in 1891 until 1893; in 1892 it numbered already
+7000 inhabitants, but the rapid depreciation of silver soon thereafter
+caused most of its mines to be closed, and in 1910 the population was
+only 741. Grand Junction (pop. in 1910, 7754) derives importance from
+its railway connexions, and from the distribution of the fruit and other
+products of the irrigated valley of the Grand river. Roman Catholics are
+in the majority among church adherents, and Methodists and Presbyterians
+most numerous of the Protestant denominations. The South Ute Indian
+Reservation in the south of the state is the home of the Moache, Capote
+and Wiminuche Utes, of Shoshonean stock.
+
+_Administration._--The first and only state constitution was adopted in
+1876. It requires a separate popular vote on any amendment--though as
+many as six may be (since 1900) voted on at one election. Amendments
+have been rather freely adopted. The General Assemblies are biennial,
+sessions limited to 90 days (45 before 1884); state and county elections
+are held at the same time (since 1902). A declared intention to become a
+United States citizen ceased in 1902 to be sufficient qualification for
+voters, full citizenship (with residence qualifications) being made
+requisite. An act of 1909 provides that election campaign expenses shall
+be borne "only by the state and by the candidates," and authorized
+appropriations for this purpose. Full woman suffrage was adopted in 1893
+(by a majority of about 6000 votes). Women have served in the
+legislature and in many minor offices; they are not eligible as jurors.
+The governor may veto any separate item in an appropriation bill. The
+state treasurer and auditor may not hold office during two consecutive
+terms. Convicts are deprived of the privilege of citizenship only during
+imprisonment. County government is of the commissioner type. There is a
+State Voter's League similar to that of Illinois.
+
+In 1907 the total bonded debt of the state was $393,500; the General
+Assembly in 1906 authorized the issue of $900,000 worth of bonds to fund
+outstanding military certificates of indebtedness incurred in
+suppressing insurrections at Cripple Creek and elsewhere in 1903-1904.
+The question of issuing bonds for all outstanding warrants was decided
+to be voted on by the people in November 1908. Taxation has been very
+erratic. From 1877 to 1893 the total assessment rose steadily from
+$3,453,946 to $238,722,417; it then fell at least partly owing to the
+depreciation in and uncertain values of mining property, and from 1894
+to 1900 fluctuated between 192.2 and 216.8 million dollars; in 1901 it
+was raised to $465,874,288, and fluctuated in the years following; the
+estimated total assessment for 1907 was $365,000,000.
+
+Of charitable and reformatory institutions a soldiers' and sailors' home
+(1889) is maintained at Monte Vista, a school for the deaf and blind
+(1874) at Colorado Springs, an insane asylum (1879) at Pueblo, a home
+for dependent and neglected children (1895) at Denver, an industrial
+school for girls (1887) near Morrison, and for boys (1881) at Golden, a
+reformatory (1889) at Buena Vista, and a penitentiary (1868) at Canyon
+City. Denver was one of the earliest cities in the country to institute
+special courts for juvenile offenders; a reform that is widening in
+influence and promise. The parole system is in force in the state
+reformatory; and in the industrial school at Golden (for youthful
+offenders) no locks, bars or cells are used, the theory being to treat
+the inmates as "students." The state has a parole law and an
+indeterminate-sentence law for convicts.
+
+[Illustration: Colorado map]
+
+The public school system of Colorado dates from 1861, when a school law
+was passed by the Territorial legislation; this law was superseded by
+that of 1876, which with subsequent amendments is still in force. In
+expenditure for the public schools per capita of total population from
+1890 to 1903 Colorado was one of a small group of leading states. In
+1906 there were 187,836 persons of school age (from 6 to 21) in the
+state, and of these 144,007 were enrolled in the schools; the annual
+cost of education was $4.34 per pupil. In 1902-1903, 92.5% of persons
+from 5 to 18 years of age were enrolled in the schools. The institutions
+of the state are: the University of Colorado, at Boulder, opened 1877;
+the School of Mines, at Golden (1873); the Agricultural College, at Fort
+Collins (1870); the Normal School (1891) at Greeley; and the
+above-mentioned industrial schools. All are supported by special taxes
+and appropriations--the Agricultural College receiving also the usual
+aid from the federal government. Experiment stations in connexion with
+the college are maintained at different points. Colorado College (1874)
+at Colorado Springs, Christian but not denominational, and the
+University of Denver, Methodist, are on independent foundations. The
+United States maintains an Indian School at Grand Junction.
+
+_History._--According as one regards the Louisiana purchase as including
+or not including Texas to the Rio Grande (in the territorial meaning of
+the state of Texas of 1845), one may say that all of Colorado east of
+the meridian of the head of the Rio Grande, or only that north of the
+Arkansas and east of the meridian of its head, passed to the United
+States in 1803. At all events the corner between the Rio Grande and the
+Arkansas was Spanish from 1819 to 1845, when it became American
+territory as a part of the state of Texas; and in 1850, by a boundary
+arrangement between that state and the federal government, was
+incorporated in the public domain. The territory west of the divide was
+included in the Mexican cession of 1848. Within Colorado there are
+pueblos and cave dwellings commemorative of the Indian period and
+culture of the south-west. Coronado may have entered Colorado in 1540;
+there are also meagre records of indisputable Spanish explorations in
+the south in the latter half of the 18th century (friars Escallante and
+Dominguez in 1776). In 1806 Zebulon M. Pike, mapping the Arkansas and
+Red rivers of the Louisiana Territory for the government of the United
+States, followed the Arkansas into Colorado, incidentally discovering
+the famous peak that bears his name. In 1819 Major S. H. Long explored
+the valleys of the South Platte and Arkansas, pronouncing them
+uninhabited and uncultivable (as he also did the valley of the Missouri,
+whence the idea of the "Great American Desert"). His work also is
+commemorated by a famous summit of the Rockies. There is nothing more of
+importance in Colorado annals until 1858. From 1804 to 1854 the whole or
+parts of Colorado were included, nominally, under some half-dozen
+territories carved successively out of the Trans-Mississippi country;
+but not one of these had any practical significance for an uninhabited
+land. In 1828 (to 1832) a fortified trading post was established near La
+Junta in the Arkansas valley on the Santa Fé trail; in 1834-1836 several
+private forts were erected on the Platte; in 1841 the first overland
+emigrants to the Pacific coast crossed the state, and in 1846-1847 the
+Mormons settled temporarily at the old Mexican town of Pueblo. John C.
+Frémont had explored the region in 1842-1843 (and unofficially in later
+years for railway routes), and gave juster reports of the country to the
+world than his predecessors. Commerce was tributary in these years to
+the (New) Mexican town of Taos.
+
+Colorado was practically an unknown country when in 1858 gold was
+discovered in the plains, on the tributaries of the South Platte, near
+Denver. In 1859 various discoveries were made in the mountains. The
+history of Denver goes back to this time. Julesburg, in the extreme
+north-east corner, at the intersection of the Platte valley and the
+overland wagon route, became transiently important during the rush of
+settlers that followed. Emigration from the East was stimulated by the
+panic and hard times following 1857. During 1860, 1861 and 1862 there
+was a continuous stream of immigration. Denver (under its present name),
+Black Hawk, Golden, Central City, Mount Vernon and Nevada City were all
+founded in 1859; Breckenridge, Empire, Gold Hill, Georgetown and Mill
+City date from 1860 and 1861. The political development of the next few
+years was very complicated. "Arapahoe County," including all Colorado,
+was organized as a part of Kansas Territory in 1858; but a delegate was
+also sent to Congress to work for the admission of an independent
+territory (called "Jefferson"). At the same time, early in 1860, a
+movement for statehood was inaugurated, a constitution being framed and
+submitted to the people, who rejected it, adopting later in the year a
+constitution of territorial government. Accordingly the Territory of
+Jefferson arose, assuming to rule over six degrees of latitude (37°-43°)
+and eight of longitude (102°-110°). Then there was the Kansas
+territorial government also, and under this a full county organization
+was maintained. Finally, peoples' court, acting wholly without reference
+to Kansas, and with no more than suited them (some districts refusing
+taxes) to the local "provisional" legislature, secured justice in the
+mining country. The provisional legislature of the Territory of
+Jefferson maintained a wholly illegal but rather creditable existence
+somewhat precariously and ineffectively until 1861. Its acts, owing to
+the indifference of the settlers, had slight importance. Some, such as
+the first charter of Denver, were later re-enacted under the legal
+territorial government, organized by the United States in February 1861.
+Colorado City was the first capital, but was soon replaced by Golden,
+which was the capital from 1862 until 1868, when Denver was made the
+seat of government (in 1881 permanently, by vote of the people). In 1862
+some Texas forces were defeated by Colorado forces in an attempt to
+occupy the territory for the Confederacy. From 1864 to 1870 there was
+trouble with the Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians. A sanguinary attack on
+an Indian camp in Kiowa county in 1864 is known as the Sand Creek
+Massacre. In 1867 the Republican party had prepared for the admission of
+Colorado as a state, but the enabling act was vetoed by President
+Johnson, and statehood was not gained until 1876. Finally, under a
+congressional enabling act of the 3rd of March 1875, a constitution was
+framed by a convention at Denver (20th of December 1875 to 14th of March
+1876) and adopted by the people on the 1st of July 1876. The admission
+of Colorado to the Union was thereupon proclaimed on the 1st of August
+1876.
+
+From this time on the history of the state was long largely that of her
+great mining camps. After 1890 industrial conditions were confused and
+temporarily set greatly backward by strikes and lockouts in the mines,
+particularly in 1894, 1896-1897 and 1903-1904, several times threatening
+civil war and necessitating the establishment of martial law. Questions
+of railways, of franchises, union scales and the recognition of the
+union in contracts, questions of sheep and cattle interests, politics,
+civic, legal and industrial questions, all entered into the economic
+troubles of these years. The Colorado "labour wars" were among the most
+important struggles between labour and capital, and afforded probably
+the most sensational episodes in the story of all labour troubles in the
+United States in these years. A state board of arbitration was created
+in 1896, but its usefulness was impaired by an opinion of the state
+attorney-general (in 1901) that it could not enforce subpoenas, compel
+testimony or enforce decisions. A law establishing an eight-hour day for
+underground miners and smelter employees (1899) was unanimously voided
+by the state supreme court, but in 1902 the people amended the
+constitution and ordered the general assembly to re-enact the law for
+labourers in mines, smelters and dangerous employments. Following the
+repeal of the Sherman Law and other acts and tendencies unfavourable to
+silver coinage in 1893 and thereafter, the silver question became the
+dominant issue in politics, resulting in the success of the
+Populist-Democratic fusion party in three successive elections, and
+permanently and greatly altering prior party organizations.
+
+The governors of Colorado have been as follows:--
+
+_Territorial._
+
+    W. Gilpin     1861      E. M. McCook  1869
+    J. Evans      1862      S. H. Elbert  1873
+    A. Cummings   1865      E. M. McCook  1874
+    A. C. Hunt    1867      J. L. Routt   1875
+
+_State._
+
+    J. L. Routt          Republican      1876
+    F. W. Pitkin             "           1879
+    J. B. Grant          Democrat        1883
+    B. H. Eaton          Republican      1885
+    A. Adams             Democrat        1887
+    J. A. Cooper         Republican      1890
+    J. L. Routt              "           1891
+    D. H. Waite          Populist        1893
+    A. W. M'Intire       Republican      1895
+    A. Adams             Dem.-Populist   1897
+    C. S. Thomas               "         1899
+    J. B. Orman                "         1901
+    J. H. Peabody        Republican      1903
+    A. Adams             Democrat        1905[5]
+    Jesse F. M'Donald    Republican      1905[5]
+    Henry A. Buchtel           "         1907
+    John H. Shafroth     Democrat        1909
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For _topography and general description_: Hayden and
+  assistants, reports on _Colorado_, U.S. Department of the Interior,
+  Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (13 vols.,
+  1867-1878), various reports, especially annual report for 1874;
+  Captain J. C. Frémont, _Report of the Exploring Expedition to the
+  Rocky Mountains in 1842_, published 1845 as Congressional document
+  28th Congress, 2nd Session, House Executive Document No. 166, and
+  various other editions. Other early exploring reports are: _The
+  Expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike ... Through Louisiana Territory
+  and in New Spain in the Years 1805-6-7_, edited by E. Coues (3 vols.,
+  New York, 1895); _Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the
+  Rocky Mountains, 1819-20, under the Command of Major S. H. Long;
+  compiled ... by Edwin James_ (3 vols., London; 2 vols., Philadelphia,
+  1823); Captain H. Stansbury, _Exploration of the Valley of the Great
+  Salt Lake_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1852; also as Senate Executive
+  Document No. 3, 32nd Congress Special Session); Francis Parkman, _The
+  California and Oregon Trail_ (New York, 1849; revised ed., Boston,
+  1892),--a narrative of personal experience, as are the two following
+  books: Bayard Taylor, _Colorado; A Summer Trip_ (New York, 1867);
+  Samuel Bowles, _The Switzerland of America, A Summer Vacation in
+  Colorado_ (Springfield, Mass., 1869); F. Fossett, _Colorado; A
+  Historical, Descriptive and Statistical Work on the Rocky Mountain
+  Gold and Silver Region_ (Denver, 1878; New York, 1879, 2nd ed., 1880).
+
+  On _fauna and flora_: United States Biological Survey, _Bulletins_
+  (especially No. 10), &c.; the _Biennial Report_ of the State Game and
+  Fish Commissioner; United States Geological Survey, _10th Annual
+  Report_, pt. v., and 20th A.R., pt. 5, and various publications of the
+  United States Forestry Division for forest and forest reserves; Porter
+  and Coulter, _Synopsis of the Flora of Colorado_ (1879); and scattered
+  papers in scientific periodicals. On _climate_: United States
+  Department of Agriculture, _Colorado Climate and Crop Service_
+  (monthly). On _soil and agriculture_: _Annual Report_ of the State
+  Board of Agriculture (since 1878), of the State Agricultural College,
+  Agricultural Experiment Station (since 1887), and of the State Board
+  of Horticulture; _Biennial Report_ of the State Board of Land
+  Commissioners (since 1879); publications of the United States
+  Department of Agriculture, various bulletins on agrostology, water
+  supply and irrigation, &c. (See Department bibliographies); United
+  States Census, 1900 (States), _Bulletin_ 177, "Agriculture in
+  Colorado" (Special), _Bulletin_ 16, "Irrigation in the United States"
+  (1902), &c.; United States Geological Survey, various materials,
+  consult bibliographies in its Bulletins 100, 177, 215, 301, &c. On
+  _manufactures_: publications of United States Census, 1900, and the
+  special census of manufactures, 1905. On _mineral industries_: United
+  States Geological Survey, _Annual Report_, annual volume on "Mineral
+  Resources"; also the annual _Mineral Industry_ (Rothwell's New
+  York-London); Colorado State Bureau of Mines, _Biennial Report_,
+  Inspector of Coal Mines, _Biennial Report_ (since 1883-1884); and an
+  enormous quantity of information in the publications of the United
+  States Geological Survey. For labour troubles see below. On
+  _railways_, see annual _Statistics of Railways_ of the United States
+  Interstate Commerce Commission, and Poor's Manual (Annual, New York).
+  _Rivers_, see _Index to Reports of the Chief of Engineers_, United
+  States Army (3 vols., 1900, covering 1866-1900); publications United
+  States Geological Survey. On _population_: United States Census, 1900.
+  _Administration_: J. W. Mills' _Annotated Statutes of the State of
+  Colorado ..._ (2 vols., Denver, 1891; vol. iii. 1896); Helen L.
+  Sumner, _Equal Suffrage in Colorado_ (New York, 1909,); J. E. Snook,
+  _Colorado History and Government_ (Denver, 1904), is a reliable school
+  epitome.
+
+  On _history_: F. L. Paxson, "A Preliminary Bibliography of Colorado
+  History," being vol. iii., No. 3, of _University of Colorado Studies_
+  (June 1906); H. H. Bancroft, _History of ... Nevada, Colorado and
+  Wyoming, 1540-1888_ (San Francisco, 1890); on _labour conditions and
+  troubles_ consult: _Reports_ of the State Bureau of Labour Statistics
+  (since 1892); _Annual Reports_ of the State Board of Arbitration
+  (since 1898); publications of United States Bureau of Labour
+  (bibliographies); also especially Senate Document 122, 58th Congress,
+  3rd Session, covering the years 1880-1904. See also CRIPPLE CREEK and
+  LEADVILLE.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The market value of silver varied in the years 1870-1885 from
+    $1.32 to $1.065 an ounce; 1886-1893, $0.995 to $0.782; 1894-1904,
+    $0.630 to $0.5722.
+
+  [2] The mineral yield for 1907, according to _The Mineral Resources
+    of the United States_, 1907, amounted to $71,105,128.
+
+  [3] The special census of manufactures of 1905 was concerned only
+    with the manufacturing establishments of the state conducted under
+    the so-called factory system. The capital invested in such
+    establishments was $107,663,500, and the product was valued at
+    $100,143,999. The corresponding figures for 1900 reduced to the same
+    standard for purposes of comparison were $58,172,865 and $89,067,879.
+    Thus during the five years the capital invested in factories
+    increased 85.1%, and the factory product 12.4%. The increase in
+    product would undoubtedly have been much greater but for the labour
+    disturbances (described later in the article), which occurred during
+    this interval. Of the total product in 1905 more than four-fifths
+    were represented by the smelting of lead, copper and zinc ores, the
+    manufacture of iron and steel, the production of coke, and the
+    refining of petroleum. The value of the flour and grist-mill product
+    was $5,783,421.
+
+  [4] Census figures before 1890 do not include Indians on
+    reservations.
+
+  [5] Adams was inaugurated on the 10th of January, having been elected
+    on the return of the vote, which had been notoriously corrupted in
+    Denver and elsewhere. The Republican legislature, after investigating
+    the election and upon receiving from Peabody a written promise that
+    he would resign in twenty-four hours, declared on the 16th of March
+    that Peabody was elected. His resignation on the 17th of March made
+    Lieutenant-Governor M'Donald governor of the state.
+
+
+
+
+COLORADO RIVER, a stream in the south of the Argentine Republic. It has
+its sources on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the lat. of the
+Chilean volcano Tinguiririca (about 34° 48' S.), and pursues a general
+E.S.E. course to the Atlantic, where it discharges through several
+channels of a delta extending from lat. 39° 30' to 39° 30' S. Its total
+length is about 620 m., of which about 200 m. from the coast up to
+Pichemahuida is navigable for vessels of 7 ft. draft. It has been
+usually described as being formed by the confluence of the Grande and
+Barrancas, but as the latter is only a small stream compared with the
+Grande it is better described as a tributary, and the Grande as a part
+of the main river under another name. After leaving the vicinity of the
+Andes the Colorado flows through a barren, arid territory and receives
+no tributary of note except the Curaco, which has its sources in the
+Pampa territory and is considered to be part of the ancient outlet of
+the now closed lacustrine basin of southern Mendoza. The bottom lands of
+the Colorado in its course across Patagonia are fertile and wooded, but
+their area is too limited to support more than a small, scattered
+population.
+
+
+
+
+COLORADO RIVER, a stream in the south-west of the United States of
+America, draining a part of the high and arid plateau between the Rocky
+mountains and the Sierra Nevada in California. The light rainfall
+scarcely suffices over much of the river's course to make good the loss
+by evaporation from the waters drained from mountain snows at its
+source. Its headwaters are known as the Green river, which rises in
+north-west Wyoming and after a course of some 700 m. due south unites in
+south-east Utah with the Grand river, flowing down from Colorado, to
+form the main trunk of the Colorado proper. The Green cuts its way
+through the Uinta mountains of Wyoming; then flowing intermittently in
+the open, it crosses successive uplifts in a series of deep gorges, and
+flows finally at the foot of canyon walls 1500 ft. high near its
+junction with the Grand.
+
+The Colorado in its course below the junction has formed a region that
+is one of the most wonderful of the world, not only for its unique and
+magnificent scenery, but also because it affords the most remarkable
+example known of the work of differential weathering and erosion by wind
+and water and the exposure of geologic strata on an enormous scale.
+Above the Paria the river flows through scenery comparatively tame until
+it reaches the plateau of the Marble Canyon, some 60 m. in length. The
+walls here are at first only a few score of feet in height, but increase
+rapidly to almost 5000 ft. At its southern end is the Little Colorado.
+Above this point eleven rivers with steep mountain gradients have joined
+either the Green or the Grand or their united system. The Little
+Colorado has cut a trench 1800 ft. deep into the plateau in the last 27
+m. as it approaches the Colorado, and empties into it 2625 ft. above the
+sea. Here the Colorado turns abruptly west directly athwart the folds
+and fault line of the plateau, through the Grand Canyon (q.v.) of the
+Colorado, which is 217 m. long and from 4 to 20 m. wide between the
+upper cliffs. The walls, 4000 to 6000 ft. high, drop in successive
+escarpments of 500 to 1600 ft., banded in splendid colours, toward the
+gloomy narrow gorge of the present river. Below the confluence of the
+Virgin river of Nevada the Colorado abruptly turns again, this time
+southward, and flows as the boundary between Arizona and California and
+in part between Arizona and Nevada, and then through Mexican territory,
+some 450 m. farther to the Gulf of California. Below the Black Canyon
+the river lessens in gradient, and in its lower course flows in a broad
+sedimentary valley--a distinct estuarine plain extending northward
+beyond Yuma--and the channel through much of this region is bedded in a
+dyke-like embankment lying above the flood-plain over which the escaping
+water spills in time of flood. This dyke cuts off the flow of the river
+to the remarkable low area in southern California known as the Salton
+Sink, or Coahuila Valley, the descent to which from the river near Yuma
+is very much greater than the fall in the actual river-bed from Yuma to
+the gulf. In the autumn of 1904, the diversion flow from the river into
+a canal heading in Mexican territory a few miles below Yuma, and
+intended for irrigation of California south of the Sink, escaped
+control, and the river, taking the canal as a new channel, recreated in
+California a great inland sea--to the bed of which it had frequently
+been turned formerly, for example, in 1884 and 1891--and for a time
+practically abandoned its former course through Mexican territory to the
+Gulf of California. But it was effectively dammed in the early part of
+1907 and returned to its normal course, from which, however, there was
+still much leakage to Salton Sea; in July 1907 the permanent dam was
+completed. From the Black Canyon to the sea the Colorado normally flows
+through a desert-like basin, to the west of which, in Mexico, is Laguna
+Maquata (or Salada), lying in the so-called Pattie Basin, which was
+formerly a part of the Gulf of California, and which is frequently
+partially flooded (like Coahuila Valley) by the delta waters of the
+Colorado. Of the total length of the Colorado, about 2200 m., 500 m. or
+more from the mouth are navigable by light steamers, but channel
+obstacles make all navigation difficult at low water, and impossible
+about half the year above Mojave. The whole area drained by the river
+and its tributaries is about 225,000 sq. m.; and it has been estimated
+by Major J. W. Powell that in its drainage basin there are fully 200,000
+sq. m. that have been degraded on an average 6000 ft. It is still a
+powerful eroding stream in the canyon portion, and its course below the
+canyons has a shifting bed much obstructed by bars built of sediment
+carried from the upper course. The desert country toward the mouth is
+largely a sandy or gravelly aggradation plain of the river. The regular
+floods are in May and June. Others, due to rains, are rare. The rise of
+the water at such times is extraordinarily rapid. Enormous drift is left
+in the canyons 30 or 40 ft. above the normal level. The valley near Yuma
+is many miles wide, frequently inundated, and remarkably fertile; it is
+often called the "Nile of America" from its resemblance in climate,
+fertility, overflows and crops. These alluvial plains are covered with a
+dense growth of mesquite, cottonwood, willow, arrowwood, quelite and
+wild hemp. Irrigation is essential to regular agriculture. There is a
+fine delta in the gulf. The Colorado is remarkable for exceedingly high
+tides at its mouth and for destructive bores.
+
+In 1540, the second year that Spaniards entered Arizona, they discovered
+the Colorado. Hernando de Alarcon co-operating with F. V. de Coronado,
+explored with ships the Gulf of California and sailed up the lower
+river; Melchior Diaz, marching along the shores of the gulf, likewise
+reached the river; and Captain Gárcia López de Cárdenas, marching from
+Zuñi, reached the Grand Canyon, but could not descend its walls. In 1604
+Juan de Oñate crossed Arizona from New Mexico and descended the Santa
+Maria, Bill Williams and Colorado to the gulf. The name Colorado was
+first applied to the present Colorado Chiquito, and probably about 1630
+to the Colorado of to-day. But up to 1869 great portions of the river
+were still unknown. James White, a miner, in 1867, told a picturesque
+story (not generally accepted as true) of making the passage of the
+Grand Canyon on the river. In 1869, and in later expeditions, the feat
+was accomplished by Major J. W. Powell. There have been since then
+repeated explorations and scientific studies.
+
+  See C. E. Dutton, "Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon," _U.S.
+  Geological Survey, Monograph II_. (1882); J. W. Powell, _Exploration
+  of the Colorado River_ (Washington, 1875), and _Canyons of the
+  Colorado_ (Meadville, Pa. 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, _Romance of the
+  Colorado River_ (New York, 1902), and _Canyon Voyage_ (1908); G. W.
+  James, _Wonders of the Colorado Desert_ (2 vols., Boston, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+COLORADO SPRINGS, a city and the county-seat of El Paso county,
+Colorado, U.S.A., about 75 m. S. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 11,140; (1900)
+21,085, of whom 2300 were foreign-born; (1910) 29,078. The city is
+served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fè, the Denver & Rio Grande, the
+Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific (of which the city is a terminus), the
+Colorado & Southern, the Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek District
+(controlled by the Colorado & Southern), and the Colorado Midland
+railways, of which the first three are continental systems. Continuous
+on the west with Colorado Springs is Colorado City (pop. in 1900, 2914),
+one of the oldest settlements of Colorado, and the first capital (1861).
+Colorado Springs is superbly situated where the Rocky Mountains rise
+from the great plains of the prairie states, surrounded on all sides by
+foothills save in the south-east, where it is open to the prairie. To
+the south of the mesa (tableland) on which it lies is the valley of
+Fountain Creek. To the west is the grand background of the canyon-riven
+Rampart range, with Pike's Peak (q.v.) dominating a half-dozen other
+peaks (among them Cameron Cone, Mt. Rosa, Cheyenne Mt.) 9000 to 12,000
+ft. in height. Monument Creek traverses the city. The streets are of
+generous width (100-140 ft.), and are well shaded by trees. There are
+several fine parks. The city is the seat of a state asylum for the
+deaf, dumb and blind, of a printers' home for union men, which was
+endowed in 1892 by Anthony J. Drexel and George W. Childs, and of
+Colorado College (1874), one of the leading educational institutions of
+the Rocky Mountain states, and the oldest institution for higher
+education in the state. The college is coeducational and non-sectarian.
+In 1908 it had a permanent endowment of about $425,000, a faculty of 46
+and 607 students; the library contained 40,000 bound volumes and as many
+pamphlets. The departments of the institution are a college of arts;
+schools of engineering (1903), music, and (1906) forestry; and the
+Cutler Academy, a preparatory school under the control of the college.
+In 1905 Gen. W. J. Palmer (1836-1909) and W. A. Bell gave to the college
+Manitou Park, a tract of forest land covering about 13,000 acres and
+situated about 20 m. from Colorado Springs.
+
+Bright sunshine and a pleasant climate (mean annual temperature about
+48° F., rainfall 14 in., falling almost wholly from April to September,
+relative humidity 59), combined with beautiful scenery, have made the
+city a favourite health resort and place of residence. Land deeds for
+city property have always excluded saloons. The municipality owns and
+operates the water system, water being drawn from lakes near Pike's
+Peak. The scenery about the city is remarkable. Manitou (6100-6300 ft.)
+a popular summer resort, lies about 6 m. (by rail) north-west of
+Colorado Springs, in a glen at the opening of Ute Pass (so-named because
+it was formerly used by the Ute Indians), with the mountains rising from
+its edge. Its springs of soda and iron belong to the class of weak
+compound carbonated soda waters. In the neighbourhood are the Cave of
+the Winds, the Grand Caverns, charming glens, mountain lakes and
+picturesque canyons; and the Garden of the Gods (owned by the
+city)--approached between two tremendous masses of red rock 330 ft.
+high, and strewn (about 500 acres) with great rocks and ridges of
+brightly coloured sandstone, whose grotesque shapes and fantastic
+arrangement have suggested a playground of superhuman beings. At the
+southern end of the Rampart range is Cheyenne Mt. (9407 ft.), on whose
+slope was buried Helen Hunt Jackson ("H.H."), who has left many pictures
+of this country in her stories. The two Cheyenne Canyons, with walls as
+high as 1000 ft. and beautiful falls, and the road over the mountain
+side toward Cripple Creek, afford exquisite views. Monument Park (10 m.
+N.) is a tract of fantastically eroded sandstone rocks, similar to those
+in the Garden of the Gods.
+
+In 1859 a winter mining party coming upon the sunny valley near the
+present Manitou, near the old Fontaine-qui-Bouille, settled "El Dorado."
+Colorado City is practically on the same site. In 1870, as part of the
+town development work of the Denver & Rio Grande railway, of which
+General W. J. Palmer was the president, a land company founded Colorado
+Springs. In 1872 Manitou (first La Fontaine) was founded. Colorado
+Springs was laid out in 1871, was incorporated in 1872, and was first
+chartered as a city in 1878. A new charter (May 1909) provided for the
+recall of elective officials. A road over the Ute Pass to South Park and
+Leadville was built, and at one time about 12,000 horses and mules were
+employed in freighting to the Leadville camps. The Chicago, Rock Island
+& Pacific railway reached the city in 1888. The greatest part of the
+Cripple Creek mining properties is owned in Colorado Springs, where the
+exchange is one of the greatest in the world.
+
+
+
+
+COLOSSAE, once the great city of south-west Phrygia, was situated on
+rising ground (1150 ft.) on the left bank of the Lycus (_Churuk Su_), a
+tributary of the Maeander, at the upper end of a narrow gorge 2½ m.
+long, where the river runs between cliffs from 50 to 60 ft. high. It
+stood on the great trade route from Sardis to Celaenae and Iconium, and
+was a large, prosperous city (Herod, vii. 30; Xenophon, _Anab._ i. 2, §
+6), until it was ruined by the foundation of Laodicea in a more
+advantageous position. The town was celebrated for its wool, which was
+dyed a purple colour called _colossinus_. Colossae was the seat of an
+early Christian church, the result of St Paul's activity at Ephesus,
+though perhaps actually founded by Epaphras. The church, to which St
+Paul wrote a letter, was mainly composed of mingled Greek and Phrygian
+elements deeply imbued with fantastic and fanatical mysticism. Colossae
+lasted until the 7th and 8th centuries, when it was gradually deserted
+under pressure of the Arab invasions. Its place was taken by Khonae
+(_Khonas_)--a strong fortress on a rugged spur of Mt. Kadmus, 3 m. to
+the south, which became a place of importance during the wars between
+the Byzantines and Turks, and was the birthplace of the historian,
+Nicetas Khoniates. The worship of angels alluded to by St Paul (Col. ii.
+18), and condemned in the 4th century by a council at Laodicea,
+reappears in the later worship of St Michael, in whose honour a
+celebrated church, destroyed by the Seljuks in the 12th century, was
+built on the right bank of the Lycus.
+
+  See Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+COLOSSAL CAVERN, a cave in Kentucky, U.S.A., the main entrance of which
+is at the foot of a steep hill beyond Eden Valley, and 1½ m. from
+Mammoth Cave. It is connected with what has long been known as the Bed
+Quilt Cave. Several entrances found by local explorers were rough and
+difficult. They were closed when the property was bought in 1896 by the
+Louisville & Nashville railway and a new approach made as indicated on
+the accompanying map. From the surface to the floor is 240 ft.; under
+Chester Sandstone and in the St Louis Limestone. Fossil corals fix the
+geological age of the rock. The temperature is uniformly 54° Fahr., and
+the atmosphere is optically and chemically pure. Lovely incrustations
+alternate with queer and grotesque figures. There are exquisite gypsum
+rosettes and intricately involved helictites.
+
+[Illustration: map of Colossal Cavern.]
+
+Tremendous forces have been at work, suggesting earthquakes and
+eruptions; but really all is due to the chemical and mechanical action
+of water. The so-called "Ruins of Carthage" fill a hall 400 ft. long by
+100 ft. wide and 30 ft. high, whose flat roof is a vast homogeneous
+limestone block. Isolated detached blocks measure from 50 to 100 ft. in
+length. Edgar Vaughan and W. L. Marshall, civil engineers, surveyed
+every part of the cave. Vaughan's Dome is 40 ft. wide, 300 ft. long, and
+79 ft. high. Numerous other domes exist, and many deep pits. The
+grandest place of all is the Colossal Dome, which used to be entered
+only from the apex by windlass and a rope reaching 135 ft. to the floor.
+This is now used only for illumination by raising and lowering a
+fire-basket. The present entrance is by a gateway buttressed by
+alabaster shafts, one of which, 75 ft. high, is named Henry Clay's
+Monument. The dome walls arise in a series of richly tinted rings, each
+8 or 10 ft. thick, and each fringed by stalactites. The symmetry is
+remarkable, and the reverberations are strangely musical. The Pearly
+Pool, in a chamber near a pit 86 ft. deep, glistens with countless cave
+pearls. The route beyond is between rows of stately shafts, and ends in
+a copious chalybeate spring. Blind flies, spiders, beetles and crickets
+abound; and now and then a blind crawfish darts through the waters; but
+as compared with many caverns the fauna and flora are not abundant. It
+is conjectured, not without some reason, that there is a connexion, as
+yet undiscovered, between the Colossal and the Mammoth caves. It seems
+certain that Eden Valley, which now lies between them, is a vast
+"tumble-down" of an immense cavern that formerly united them into one.
+     (H. C. H.)
+
+
+
+
+COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, the twelfth book of the New Testament, the
+authorship of which is ascribed to the Apostle Paul. Colossae, like the
+other Phrygian cities of Laodicea and Hierapolis, had not been visited
+by Paul, but owed its belief in Jesus Christ to Epaphras, a Colossian,
+who had been converted by Paul, perhaps in Ephesus, and had laboured not
+only in his native city but also in the adjacent portions of the Lycus
+valley,--a Christian in whom Paul reposed the greatest confidence as one
+competent to interpret the gospel of whose truth Paul was convinced (i.
+7; iv. 12, 13). This Epaphras, like the majority of the Colossians, was
+a Gentile. It is probable, however, both from the letter itself and from
+the fact that Colossae was a trade centre, that Jews were there with
+their synagogues (cf. also Josephus, _Ant._ xii. 149). And it is further
+probable that some of the Gentiles, who afterwards became Christians,
+were either Jewish proselytes or adherents who paid reverence to the God
+of the Jews. At all events, the letter indicates a sensitiveness on the
+part of the Christians not only to oriental mysticism and theosophy (cf.
+Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, and _Church in the
+Roman Empire_), but also to the Judaism of the Diaspora.
+
+Our first definite knowledge of the Colossian Church dates from the
+presence of Epaphras in Rome in A.D. 62-64 (or A.D. 56-58), when Paul
+was a prisoner. He arrived with news, perhaps with a letter (J. R.
+Harris, _Expositor_, Dec. 1898, pp. 404 ff.), touching the state of
+religion in Colossae. Paul learns, to his joy, of their faith, hope and
+love; of the order and stability of their faith; and of their reception
+of Christ Jesus the Lord (i. 4, 8; ii. 5-7). He sees no sign of an
+attack upon him or his gospel. On the contrary, loyalty to him and
+sympathy with him in his sufferings are everywhere manifest (i. 9, 24;
+ii. 2; iv. 8); and the gospel of Christ is advancing here as elsewhere
+(i. 6). At the same time he detects a lack of cheerfulness and a lack of
+spiritual understanding in the Church. The joy of the gospel, expressing
+itself in songs and thanksgivings, is damped (iii. 15, 16), and, above
+all, the message of Christ does not dwell richly enough in them. Though
+the believers know the grace of God they are not filled with a knowledge
+of his will, so that their conduct is lacking in that strength and joy
+and perfection, that richness of the fulness of knowledge expected of
+those who had been made full in Christ (i. 6, 9-11, 28; ii. 2, 7, 10).
+The reason for this, Paul sees, is the influence of the claim made by
+certain teachers in Colossae that the Christians, in order to attain
+unto and be assured of _full_ salvation, must supplement Paul's message
+with their own fuller and more perfect wisdom, and must observe certain
+rites and practices (ii. 16, 21, 23) connected with the worship of
+angels (ii. 18, 23) and elementary spirits (ii. 8, 20).
+
+The origin and the exact nature of this religious movement are alike
+uncertain. (1) If it represents a type of syncretism as definite as that
+known to have existed in the developed gnostic systems of the 2nd
+century, it is inconceivable that Paul should have passed it by as
+easily as he did. (2) As there is no reference to celibacy, communism
+and the worship of the sun, it is improbable that the movement is
+identical with that of the Essenes. (3) The phenomena might be explained
+solely on the basis of Judaism (von Soden, Peake). Certainly the
+asceticism and ritualism might so be interpreted, for there was among
+the Jews of the Dispersion an increasing tendency to asceticism, by way
+of protest against the excesses of the Gentiles. The reference in ii. 23
+to severity of the body may have to do with fasting preparatory to
+seeing visions (cf. _Apoc. Baruch_, xxi. 1, ix. 2, v. 7). Even the
+worship of angels, not only as mediators of revelation and visions, but
+also as cosmical beings, is a well-known fact in late Judaism (_Apoc.
+Bar._ lv. 3; _Ethiopic Enoch_, lx. 11, lxi. 10; Col. ii. 8, 20; Gal. iv.
+3). As for the word "philosophy" (ii. 8), it is not necessary to take it
+in the technical Greek sense when the usage of Philo and Josephus
+permits a looser meaning. Finally the references to circumcision,
+_paradosis_ (ii. 8) and _dogmata_ (ii. 20), directly suggest a Jewish
+origin. If we resort solely to Judaism for explanation, it must be a
+Judaism of the Diaspora type. (4) The difficulty with the last-mentioned
+position is that it under-estimates the speculative tendencies of the
+errorists and ignores the direct influence of oriental theosophy. It is
+quite true that Paul does not directly attack the speculative position,
+but rather indicates the practical dangers inherent therein (the denial
+of the supremacy of Christ and of full salvation through Him); he does
+not say that the errorists hold Christ to be a mere angel or an aeon, or
+that words like _pleroma_ (borrowed perhaps from their own vocabulary)
+involve a rigorous dualism. Yet his characterization of the movement as
+an arbitrary religion (ii. 23), a philosophy which is empty deceit (ii.
+8), according to elemental spirits and not according to Christ, and a
+higher knowledge due to a mind controlled by the flesh (ii. 18); his
+repeated emphasis on Christ, as supreme over all things, over men and
+angels, agent in creation as well as in redemption, in whom dwelt bodily
+the fulness of the Godhead; and his constant stress upon knowledge,--all
+these combine to reveal a speculation real and dangerous, even if naïve
+and regardless of consequences, and to suggest (with Jülicher and
+McGiffert) that in addition to Jewish influence there is also the direct
+influence of Oriental mysticism.
+
+To meet the pressing need in Colossae, Paul writes a letter and entrusts
+it to Tychichus, who is on his way to Colossae with Onesimus, Philemon's
+slave (iv. 7, 9). (On the relation of this letter to Ephesians and to
+the letter to be sent from Laodicea to Colossae, see EPHESIANS, EPISTLE
+TO THE.) His attitude is prophylactic, rather than polemic, for the
+"philosophy" has not as yet taken deep root. His purpose is to restore
+in the hearts of the readers the joy of the Spirit, by making them see
+that Christ fulfils every need, and that through faith in Him and love
+from faith, the advance is made unimpeded unto the perfect man. He will
+eliminate foreign accretions, that the gospel of Christ may stand forth
+in its native purity, and that Christ Himself may in all things have the
+pre-eminence.
+
+The letter begins with a thanksgiving to God for the spiritual growth of
+the Colossians, and continues with a prayer for their fuller knowledge
+of the divine will, for a more perfect Christian life, and for a spirit
+of thanksgiving, seeing that it is God who guarantees their salvation in
+Christ (i. 1-14). It is Christ who is supreme, not angels, for He is the
+agent in creation; and it is solely on the basis of faith in Him, a
+faith expressing itself in love, that redemption is appropriated, and
+not on the basis of any further requirements such as ascetic practices
+and the worship of angels (i. 15-23). It is with a full message that
+Paul has been entrusted, the message of Christ, who alone can lead to
+all the riches of fulness of knowledge. And for this adequate knowledge
+the readers should be thankful (i. 23--ii. 7). Again he urges, that
+since redemption is in Christ alone, and that, too, full redemption and
+on the basis of faith alone, the demand for asceticism and meaningless
+ceremonies is folly, and moreover robs Christ, in whom dwells the divine
+fulness, of His rightful supremacy (ii. 8-23). And he exhorts them as
+members of the Body of Christ to manifest their faith in Christian love,
+particularly in their domestic relations and in their contact with
+non-Christians (iii. i-iv. 6). He closes by saying that Tychichus will
+give them the news. Greetings from all to all (iv. 7-18).
+
+A letter like this, clear cut in its thought, teeming with ideas
+emanating from an unique religious experience, and admirably adjusted to
+known situations, bears on the face of it the marks of genuineness even
+without recourse to the unusually excellent external attestation. It is
+not strange that there is a growing consensus of opinion that Paul is
+the author. With the critical renaissance of the early part of the 19th
+century, doubts were raised as to the genuineness of the letter (e.g. by
+E. T. Mayerhoff, 1838). Quite apart from the difficulties created by the
+Tübingen theory, legitimate difficulties were found in the style of the
+letter, in the speculation of the errorists, and in the theology of the
+author. (1) As to style, it is replied that if there are peculiarities
+in _Colossians_, so also in the admittedly genuine letters, _Romans_,
+_Corinthians_, _Galatians_. Moreover, if _Philippians_ is Pauline, so
+also the stylistically similar _Colossians_ (cf. von Soden). (2) As to
+the speculation of the errorists, it is replied that it is explicable in
+the lifetime of Paul, that some of the elements of it may have their
+source in pre-Christian Jewish theories, and that recourse to the
+developed gnosticism of the 2nd century is unnecessary. (3) As to the
+Christology of the author, it is replied that it does not go beyond what
+we have already in Paul except in emphasis, which itself is occasioned
+by the circumstances. What is implicit in _Corinthians_ is explicit in
+_Colossians_. H. J. Holtzmann (1872) subjected both _Colossians_ and
+_Ephesians_ to a rigorous examination, and found in _Colossians_ at
+least a nucleus of Pauline material. H. von Soden (1885), with
+well-considered principles of criticism, made a similar examination and
+found a much larger nucleus, and later still, (1893), in his commentary,
+reduced the non-Pauline material to a negligible minimum. Harnack,
+Jülicher and McGiffert, however, agree with Lightfoot, Weiss, Zahn (and
+early tradition) in holding that the letter is wholly Pauline--a
+position which is proving more and more acceptable to contemporary
+scholarship.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the literature already mentioned, see the
+  articles of Sanday on "Colossians" and Robertson on "Ephesians" in
+  Smith's _Bible Dictionary_ (2nd ed., 1893), and the article of A.
+  Jülicher on "Colossians and Ephesians" in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_
+  (1899); the Introductions of H. J. Holtzmann (1892), B. Weiss (1897),
+  Th. Zahn (1900) and Jülicher (1906); the histories of the apostolic
+  age by C. von Weizsäcker (1892), A. C. M'Giffert (1897) and O.
+  Pfleiderer (_Urchristentum_, 1902); and the commentaries of J. B.
+  Lightfoot (1875), H. von Soden (1893) T. K. Abbott (1897), E. Haupt
+  (1902), Peake (1903) and P. Ewald (1905).     (J. E. F.)
+
+
+
+
+COLOSSUS, in antiquity a term applied generally to statues of great size
+(hence the adjective "colossal"), and in particular to the bronze statue
+of the sun-god Helios in Rhodes, one of the wonders of the world, made
+from the spoils left by Demetrius Poliorcetes when he raised the siege
+of the city. The sculptor was Chares, a native of Lindus, and of the
+school of Lysippus, under whose influence the art of sculpture was led
+to the production of colossal figures by preference. The work occupied
+him twelve years, it is said, and the finished statue stood 70 cubits
+high. It stood near the harbour ([Greek: epi limeni]), but at what point
+is not certain. When, and from what grounds, the belief arose that it
+had stood across the entrance to the harbour, with a beacon light in its
+hand and ships passing between its legs, is not known, but the belief
+was current as early as the 16th century. The statue was thrown down by
+an earthquake about the year 224 B.C.; then, after lying broken for
+nearly 1000 years, the pieces were bought by a Jew from the Saracens,
+and probably reconverted into instruments of war.
+
+Other Greek colossi were the Apollo of Calamis; the Zeus and Heracles of
+Lysippus; the Zeus at Olympia, the Athena in the Parthenon, and the
+Athena Promachos on the Acropolis--all the work of Pheidias.
+
+The best-known Roman colossi are: a statue of Jupiter on the Capitol; a
+bronze statue of Apollo in the Palatine library; and the colossus of
+Nero in the vestibule of his Golden House, afterwards removed by Hadrian
+to the north of the Colosseum, where the basement upon which it stood is
+still visible (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 18).
+
+
+
+
+COLOUR (Lat. _color_, connected with _celare_, to hide, the root
+meaning, therefore, being that of a covering). The visual apparatus of
+the eye enables us to distinguish not only differences of form, size and
+brilliancy in the objects looked upon, but also differences in the
+character of the light received from them. These latter differences,
+familiar to us as differences in _colour_, have their physical origin in
+the variations in wave-length (or frequency) which may exist in light
+which is capable of exciting the sensation of vision. From the physical
+point of view, light of a _pure colour_, or homogeneous light, means
+light whose undulations are mathematically of a simple character and
+which cannot be resolved by a prism into component parts. All the
+visible pure colours, as thus defined, are to be found in the spectrum,
+and there is an infinite number of them, corresponding to all the
+possible variations of wave-length within the limits of the visible
+spectrum (see SPECTROSCOPY). On this view, there is a strict analogy
+between variations of _colour_ in light and variations of _pitch_ in
+sound, but the visible spectrum contains a range of frequency extending
+over about one octave only, whereas the range of audibility embraces
+about eleven octaves.
+
+Of all the known colours it might naturally be thought that white is the
+simplest and purest, and, till Sir Isaac Newton's time, this was the
+prevailing opinion. Newton, however, showed that white light could be
+decomposed by a prism into the spectral colours red, orange, yellow,
+green, blue, indigo and violet; the colours appearing in this order and
+passing gradually into each other without abrupt transitions. White is
+therefore not a simple colour, but is merely the colour of sunlight, and
+probably owes its apparently homogeneous character to the fact that it
+is the average colour of the light which fills the eye when at rest. The
+colours of the various objects which we see around us are not due (with
+the exception of self-luminous and fluorescent bodies) to any power
+possessed by these objects of creating the colours which they exhibit,
+but merely to the exercise of a selective action on the light of the
+sun, some of the constituent rays of the white light with which they are
+illuminated being absorbed, while the rest are reflected or scattered in
+all directions, or, in the case of transparent bodies, transmitted.
+White light is thus the basis of all other colours, which are derived
+from it by the suppression of some one or more of its parts. A red
+flower, for instance, absorbs the blue and green rays and most of the
+yellow, while the red rays and usually some yellow are scattered. If a
+red poppy is illuminated successively by red, yellow, green and blue
+light it will appear a brilliant red in the red light, yellow in the
+yellow light, but less brilliant if the red colour is pure; and black in
+the other colours, the blackness being due to the almost complete
+absorption of the corresponding colour.
+
+Bodies may be classified as regards colour according to the nature of
+the action they exert on white light. In the case of ordinary opaque
+bodies a certain proportion of the incident light is irregularly
+reflected or scattered from their surfaces. A white object is one which
+reflects nearly all the light of all colours; a black object absorbs
+nearly all. A body which reflects only a portion of the light, but which
+exhibits no predominance in any particular hue, is called _grey_. A
+white surface looks grey beside a similar surface more brilliantly
+illuminated.
+
+The next class is that of most transparent bodies, which owe their
+colour to the light which is transmitted, either directly through, or
+reflected back again at the farther surface. A body which transmits all
+the visible rays equally well is said to be colourless; pure water, for
+example, is nearly quite colourless, though in large masses it appears
+bluish-green. A translucent substance is one which partially transmits
+light. Translucency is due to the light being scattered by minute
+embedded particles or minute irregularities of structure. Some fibrous
+specimens of tremolite and gypsum are translucent in the direction of
+the fibres, and practically opaque in a transverse direction. Coloured
+transparent objects vary in shade and hue according to their size; thus,
+a conical glass filled with a red liquid commonly appears yellow at the
+bottom, varying through orange up to red at the upper part. A coloured
+powder is usually of a much lighter tint than the substance in bulk, as
+the light is reflected back after transmission through only a few thin
+layers. For the same reason the powders of transparent substances are
+opaque.
+
+Polished bodies, whether opaque or transparent, when illuminated with
+white light and viewed at the proper angle, reflect the incident light
+regularly and appear white, without showing much of their distinctive
+colours.
+
+Some bodies reflect light of one colour and transmit that of another;
+such bodies nearly always possess the properties of _selective_ or
+_metallic reflection_ and _anomalous dispersion_. Most of the coal-tar
+dyes belong to this category. Solid eosin, for example, reflects a
+yellowish-green and transmits a red light. Gold appears yellow under
+ordinary circumstances, but if the light is reflected many times from
+the surface it appears a ruby colour. On the other hand, a powerful beam
+of light transmitted through a thin gold-leaf appears green.
+
+Some solutions exhibit the curious phenomenon of _dichromatism_ (from
+[Greek: di-], double, and [Greek: chrôma], colour), that is, they appear
+of one colour when viewed in strata of moderate thickness, but of a
+different colour in greater thicknesses (see Absorption of Light).
+
+The blue colour of the sky (q.v.) has been explained by Lord Rayleigh as
+due to the scattering of light by small suspended particles and air
+molecules, which is most effective in the case of the shorter waves
+(blue). J. Tyndall produced similar effects in the laboratory. The green
+colour of sea-water near the shore is also due to a scattering of light.
+
+The colours of bodies which are gradually heated to white incandescence
+occur in the order--red, orange, yellow, white. This is because the
+longer waves of red light are first emitted, then the yellow as well, so
+that orange results, then so much green that the total effect is yellow,
+and lastly all the colours, compounding to produce white. Fluorescent
+bodies have the power of converting light of one colour into that of
+another (see FLUORESCENCE).
+
+Besides the foregoing kinds of colorization, a body may exhibit, under
+certain circumstances, a colouring due to some special physical
+conditions rather than to the specific properties of the material; such
+as the colour of a white object when illuminated by light of some
+particular colour; the colours seen in a film of oil on water or in
+mother-of-pearl, or soap-bubbles, due to interference (q.v.); the
+colours seen through the eyelashes or through a thin handkerchief held
+up to the light, due to diffraction (q.v.); and the colours caused by
+ordinary refraction, as in the rainbow, double refraction and
+polarization (qq.v.).
+
+_Composition of Colours._--It has been already pointed out that white
+light is a combination of all the colours in the spectrum. This was
+shown by Newton, who recombined the spectral colours and produced white.
+Newton also remarks that if a froth be made on the surface of water
+thickened a little with soap, and examined closely, it will be seen to
+be coloured with all the colours of the spectrum, but at a little
+distance it looks white owing to the combined effect on the eye of all
+the colours.
+
+The question of the composition of colours is largely a physiological
+one, since it is possible, by mixing colours, say red and yellow, to
+produce a new colour, orange, which appears identical with the pure
+orange of the spectrum, but is physically quite different, since it can
+be resolved by a prism into red and yellow again. There is no doubt that
+the sensation of colour-vision is threefold, in the sense that any
+colour can be produced by the combination, in proper proportions, of
+three standard colours. The question then arises, what are the three
+primary colours? Sir David Brewster considered that they were red,
+yellow and blue; and this view has been commonly held by painters and
+others, since all the known brilliant hues can be derived from the
+admixture of red, yellow and blue pigments. For instance, vermilion and
+chrome yellow will give an orange, chrome yellow and ultramarine a
+green, and vermilion and ultramarine a purple mixture. But if we
+superpose the pure spectral colours on a screen, the resulting colours
+are quite different. This is especially the case with yellow and blue,
+which on the screen combine to produce white, generally with a pink
+tint, but cannot be made to give green. The reason of this difference in
+the two results is that in the former case we do not get a true
+combination of the colours at all. When the mixed pigments are
+illuminated by white light, the yellow particles absorb the red and blue
+rays, but reflect the yellow along with a good deal of the neighbouring
+green and orange. The blue particles, on the other hand, absorb the red,
+orange and yellow, but reflect the blue and a good deal of green and
+violet. As much of the light is affected by several particles, most of
+the rays are absorbed except green, which is reflected by both pigments.
+Thus, the colour of the mixture is not a mixture of the colours yellow
+and blue, but the remainder of white light after the yellow and blue
+pigments have absorbed all they can. The effect can also be seen in
+coloured solutions. If two equal beams of white light are transmitted
+respectively through a yellow solution of potassium bichromate and a
+blue solution of copper sulphate in proper thicknesses, they can be
+compounded on a screen to an approximately white colour; but a single
+beam transmitted through both solutions appears green. Blue and yellow
+pigments would produce the effect of white only if very sparsely
+distributed. This fact is made use of in laundries, where cobalt blue is
+used to correct the yellow colour of linen after washing.
+
+Thomas Young suggested red, green and violet as the primary colours, but
+the subsequent experiments of J. Clerk Maxwell appear to show that they
+should be red, green and blue. Sir William Abney, however, assigns
+somewhat different places in the spectrum to the primary colours, and,
+like Young, considers that they should be red, green and violet. All
+other hues can be obtained by combining the three primaries in proper
+proportions. Yellow is derived from red and green. This can be done by
+superposition on a screen or by making a solution which will transmit
+only red and green rays. For this purpose Lord Rayleigh recommends a
+mixture of solutions of blue litmus and yellow potassium chromate. The
+litmus stops the yellow and orange light, while the potassium chromate
+stops the blue and violet. Thus only red and green are transmitted, and
+the result is a full compound yellow which resembles the simple yellow
+of the spectrum in appearance, but is resolved into red and green by a
+prism. The brightest yellow pigments are those which give both the pure
+and compound yellow. Since red and green produce yellow, and yellow and
+blue produce white, it follows that red, green and blue can be
+compounded into white. H. von Helmholtz has shown that the only pair of
+simple spectral colours capable of compounding to white are a
+greenish-yellow and blue.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+Just as musical sounds differ in pitch, loudness and quality, so may
+colours differ in three respects, which Maxwell calls _hue_, _shade_ and
+_tint_. All hues can be produced by combining every pair of primaries in
+every proportion. The addition of white alters the tint without
+affecting the hue. If the colour be darkened by adding black or by
+diminishing the illumination, a variation in shade is produced. Thus the
+hue red includes every variation in tint from red to white, and every
+variation in shade from red to black, and similarly for other hues. We
+can represent every hue and tint on a diagram in a manner proposed by
+Young, following a very similar suggestion of Newton's. Let RGB (fig. 1)
+be an equilateral triangle, and let the angular points be coloured red,
+green and blue of such intensities as to produce white if equally
+combined; and let the colour of every point of the triangle be
+determined by combining such proportions of the three primaries, that
+three weights in the same proportion would have their centre of gravity
+at the point. Then the centre of the triangle will be a neutral tint,
+white or grey; and the middle points of the sides Y, S, P will be
+yellow, greenish-blue and purple. The hue varies all round the
+perimeter. The tint varies along any straight line through W. To vary
+the shade, the whole triangle must be uniformly darkened.
+
+The simplest way of compounding colours is by means of Maxwell's colour
+top, which is a broad spinning-top over the spindle of which coloured
+disks can be slipped (fig. 2). The disks are slit radially so that they
+can be slipped partially over each other and the surfaces exposed in any
+desired ratio. Three disks are used together, and a match is obtained
+between these and a pair of smaller ones mounted on the same spindle. If
+any five colours are taken, two of which may be black and white, a match
+can be got between them by suitable adjustment. This shows that a
+relation exists between any four colours (the black being only needed to
+obtain the proper intensity) and that consequently the number of
+independent colours is three. A still better instrument for combining
+colours is Maxwell's colour box, in which the colours of the spectrum
+are combined by means of prisms. Sir W. Abney has also invented an
+apparatus for the same purpose, which is much the same in principle as
+Maxwell's colour box. Several methods of colour photography depend on
+the fact that all varieties of colour can be compounded from red, green
+and blue in proper proportions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: (After Müller-Pouillet's _Lehrbuch der Physik_, 1897.)
+FIG. 3.]
+
+Any two colours which together give white are called _complementary_
+colours. Greenish-yellow and blue are a pair of complementaries, as
+already mentioned. Any number of pairs may be obtained by a simple
+device due to Helmholtz and represented in fig. 3. A beam of white
+light, decomposed by the prism P, is recompounded into white light by
+the lens l and focussed on a screen at f. If the thin prism p is
+inserted near the lens, any set of colours may be deflected to another
+point n, thus producing two coloured and complementary images of the
+source of light.
+
+_Nature of White Light._--The question as to whether white light
+actually consists of trains of waves of regular frequency has been
+discussed in recent years by A. Schuster, Lord Rayleigh and others, and
+it has been shown that even if it consisted of a succession of somewhat
+irregular impulses, it would still be resolved, by the dispersive
+property of a prism or grating, into trains of regular frequency. We may
+still, however, speak of white light as compounded of the rays of the
+spectrum, provided we mean only that the two systems are mathematically
+equivalent, and not that the homogeneous trains exist as such in the
+original light.
+
+  See also Newton's _Opticks_, bk. i. pt. ii.; Maxwell's _Scientific
+  Papers_; Helmholtz's papers in _Poggendorf's Annalen_; Sir G. G.
+  Stokes, _Burnett Lectures for 1884-5-6_; Abney's _Colour Vision_
+  (1895).     (J. R. C.)
+
+
+
+
+COLOURS, MILITARY, the flags carried by infantry regiments and
+battalions, sometimes also by troops of other arms. Cavalry regiments
+and other units have as a rule standards and guidons (see FLAG). Colours
+are generally embroidered with mottoes, symbols, and above all with the
+names of battles.
+
+From the earliest time at which men fought in organized bodies of
+troops, the latter have possessed some sort of insignia visible over all
+the field of battle, and serving as a rallying-point for the men of the
+corps and an indication of position for the higher leaders and the men
+of other formed bodies. In the Roman army the eagle, the _vexillum_, &c.
+had all the moral and sentimental importance of the colours of to-day.
+During the dark and the middle ages, however, the basis of military
+force being the individual knight or lord, the banner, or other flag
+bearing his arms, replaced the regimental colour which had signified the
+corporate body and claimed the devotion of each individual soldier in
+the ranks, though the original meaning of the colour as a corps, not a
+personal distinction, was sometimes maintained by corporate bodies (such
+as trade-gilds) which took the field as such. An example is the famous
+_carroccio_ or standard on wheels, which was frequently brought into the
+field of battle by the citizen militia of the Italian cities, and was
+fought for with the same ardour as the royal standard in other medieval
+battles.
+
+The application of the word "colour" to such insignia, however, dates
+only from the 16th century. It has been suggested that, as the
+professional captain gradually ousted the nobleman from the command of
+the drilled and organized companies of foot--the man of gentle birth, of
+course, maintained his ascendancy in the cavalry far longer--the leaders
+of such bodies, no longer possessing coat-armour and individual banners,
+had recourse to small flags of distinctive colour instead. "Colour" is
+in the 16th century a common name in England and middle Europe for the
+unit of infantry; in German the _Fähnlein_ (colour) of landsknechts was
+a strong company of more than 300 foot. The ceremonial observances and
+honours paid nowadays to the colours of infantry were in fact founded
+for the most part by the landsknechts, for whom the flag (carried by
+their "ensign") was symbolical of their intense regimental life and
+feeling. The now universal customs of constituting the colour guard of
+picked men and of saluting the colours were in equal honour then; before
+that indeed, the appearance of the personal banner of a nobleman implied
+his actual presence with it, and the due honours were paid, but the
+colour of the 16th century was not the distinction of one man, but the
+symbol of the corporate life and unity of the regiment, and thus the new
+colour ceremonial implied the same allegiance to an impersonal
+regimental spirit, which it has (with the difference that the national
+spirit has been blended with the regimental) retained ever since. The
+old soldier rallied to the colours as a matter of habit in the confusion
+of battle, and the capture or the loss of a colour has always been
+considered a special event, glorious or the reverse, in the history of a
+regiment, the importance of this being chiefly sentimental, but having
+as a very real background the fact that, if its colour was lost, a
+regiment was to all intents and purposes dissolved and dispersed.
+Frederick the Great and Napoleon always attached the highest importance
+to the maintenance at all costs of the regimental colours. Even over
+young troops the influence of the colour has been extraordinary, and
+many generals have steadied their men in the heat of battle by taking a
+regimental colour themselves to lead the advance or to form up the
+troops. Thus in the first battle of Bull Run (1861) the raw Confederate
+troops were rallied under a heavy fire by General Joseph Johnston, their
+commander-in-chief, who stood with a colour in his hand until the men
+gathered quickly in rank and file. The archduke Charles at Aspern (1809)
+led his young troops to the last assault with a colour in his hand.
+Marshal Schwerin was killed at the battle of Prague while carrying a
+regimental colour.
+
+In the British army colours are carried by guards and line (except
+rifle) battalions, each battalion having two colours, the king's and the
+regimental. The size of the colour is 3 ft. 9 in. by 3 ft., and the
+length of the stave 8 ft. 7 in. The colour has a gold fringe and gold
+and crimson tassels, and bears various devices and "battle honours."
+Both colours are carried by subaltern officers, and an escort of
+selected non-commissioned officers forms the rest of the colour party.
+The ceremony of presenting new colours is most impressive. The old
+colours are "trooped" (see below) before being cased and taken to the
+rear. The new colours are then placed against a pile of drums and then
+uncased by the senior majors and the senior subalterns. The consecration
+follows, after which the colours are presented to the senior subalterns.
+The battalion gives a general salute when the colours are unfurled, and
+the ceremony concludes with a march past. "Trooping the colour" is a
+more elaborate ceremonial peculiar to the British service, and is said
+to have been invented by the duke of Cumberland. In this, the colour is
+posted near the left of the line, the right company or guard moves up to
+it, and an officer receives it, after which the guard with the colour
+files between the ranks of the remainder from left to right until the
+right of the line is reached.
+
+In the United States army the infantry regiment has two colours, the
+national and the regimental. They are carried in action.
+
+In the French army one colour (_drapeau_) is carried by each infantry
+regiment. It is carried by an officer, usually a _sous-lieutenant_, and
+the guard is composed of a non-commissioned officer and a party of
+"first class" soldiers. Regiments which have taken an enemy's colour or
+standard in battle have their own colours "decorated," that is, the
+cross of the Legion of Honour is affixed to the stave near the point.
+Battle honours are embroidered on the white of the tricolour. The
+_eagle_ was, in the First and Third Empires, the infantry colour, and
+was so called from the gilt eagle which surmounted the stave. The
+_chasseurs à pied_, like the rifles of the British army, carry no
+colours, but the battalion quartered for the time being at Vincennes
+carries a colour for the whole arm in memory of the first _chasseurs de
+Vincennes_. As in other countries, colours are saluted by all armed
+bodies and by individual officers and men. When the _drapeau_ is not
+present with the regiment its place is taken by an ordinary flag.
+
+The colours of the German infantry, foot artillery and engineers vary in
+design with the states to which the corps belong in the first instance;
+thus, black and white predominate in Prussian colours, red in those of
+Württemberg regiments, blue in Bavarian, and so on. The point of the
+colour stave is decorated in some cases with the iron cross, in memory
+of the War of Liberation and of the war of 1870. Each battalion of an
+infantry regiment has its own colour, which is carried by a
+non-commissioned officer, and guarded as usual by a colour party. The
+colour is fastened to the stave by silver nails, and the ceremony of
+driving the first nail into the stake of a new colour is one of great
+solemnity. Rings of silver on the stave are engraved with battle
+honours, the names of those who have fallen in action when carrying the
+colour, and other commemorative names and dates. The oath taken by each
+recruit on joining is sworn on the colour (_Fahneneid_).
+
+The practice in the British army of leaving the colours behind on taking
+the field dates from the battle of Isandhlwana (22nd January 1879), in
+which Lieutenants Melvill and Coghill lost their lives in endeavouring
+to save the colours of the 24th regiment. In savage warfare, in which
+the British regular army is more usually engaged, it is true that no
+particular reason can be adduced for imperilling the colours in the
+field. It is questionable, however, whether this holds good in civilized
+warfare. Colours were carried in action by both the Russians and the
+Japanese in the war of 1904-5, and they were supplemented on both sides
+by smaller flags or camp colours. The conception of the colour as the
+emblem of union, the rallying-point, of the regiment has been mentioned
+above. Many hold that such a rallying-point is more than ever required
+in the modern _guerre de masses_, when a national short-service army is
+collected in all possible strength on the decisive battle-field, and
+that scarcely any risks or loss of life would be disproportionate to the
+advantages gained by the presence of the colours. There is further a
+most important factor in the problem, which has only arisen in recent
+years through modern perfection in armament. In the first stages of an
+attack, the colours could remain, as in the past, with the closed
+reserves or line of battle, and they would not be uncased and sent into
+the thick of the fight at all hazards until the decisive assault was
+being delivered. Then, it is absolutely essential, as a matter of
+tactics, that the artillery (q.v.), which covers the assault with all
+the power given it by modern science and training, should be well
+informed as to the progress of the infantry. This covering fire was
+maintained by the Japanese until the infantry was actually in the smoke
+of their own shrapnel. With uniforms of neutral tint the need of some
+means whereby the artillery officers can, at 4000 yds. range,
+distinguish their own infantry from that of the enemy, is more
+pronounced than ever. The best troops are apt to be unsteadied by being
+fired into by their own guns (e.g. at Elandslaagte), and the more
+powerful the shell, and the more rapid and far-ranging the fire of the
+guns, the more necessary it becomes to prevent such accidents. A
+practicable solution of the difficulty would be to display the colours
+as of old, and this course would not only have to an enhanced degree the
+advantages it formerly possessed, but would also provide the simplest
+means for ensuring the vitally necessary co-operation of infantry and
+artillery in the decisive assault. The duty of carrying the colours was
+always one of special danger, and sometimes, in the old short-range
+battles, every officer who carried a flag was shot. That this fate would
+necessarily overtake the bearer under modern conditions is far from
+certain, and in any case the few men on the enemy's side who would be
+brave enough to shoot accurately under heavy shell fire would, however
+destructive to the colour party, scarcely inflict as much damage on the
+battalion as a whole, as a dozen or more accidental shells from the
+massed artillery of its own side.
+
+
+
+
+COLOUR-SERGEANT, a non-commissioned officer of infantry, ranking, in the
+British army, as the senior non-commissioned officer of each company. He
+is charged with many administrative duties, and usually acts as pay
+sergeant. A special duty of the colour-sergeants of a battalion is that
+of attending and guarding the colours and the officers carrying them. In
+some foreign armies the colours are actually carried by
+colour-sergeants. The rank was created in the British army in 1813.
+
+
+
+
+COLOURS OF ANIMALS. Much interest attaches in modern biology to the
+questions involved in the colours of animals. The subject may best be
+considered in two divisions: (1) as regards the uses of colour in the
+struggle for existence and in sexual relationships; (2) as regards the
+chemical causation.
+
+
+1. BIONOMICS
+
+_Use of Colour for Concealment._--_Cryptic colouring_ is by far the
+commonest use of colour in the struggle for existence. It is employed
+for the purpose of attack (_aggressive resemblance_ or _anticryptic
+colouring_) as well as of defence (_protective resemblance_ or
+_procryptic colouring_). The fact that the same method, concealment, may
+be used both for attack and defence has been well explained by T. Belt
+(_The Naturalist in Nicaragua_, London, 1888), who suggests as an
+illustration the rapidity of movement which is also made use of by both
+pursuer and pursued, which is similarly raised to a maximum in both by
+the gradual dying out of the slowest through a series of generations.
+Cryptic colouring is commonly associated with other aids in the struggle
+for life. Thus well-concealed mammals and birds, when discovered, will
+generally endeavour to escape by speed, and will often attempt to defend
+themselves actively. On the other hand, small animals which have no
+means of active defence, such as large numbers of insects, frequently
+depend upon concealment alone. Protective resemblance is far commoner
+among animals than aggressive resemblance, in correspondence with the
+fact that predaceous forms are as a rule much larger and much less
+numerous than their prey. In the case of insectivorous Vertebrata and
+their prey such differences exist in an exaggerated form. Cryptic
+colouring, whether used for defence or attack, may be either _general_
+or _special_. In _general resemblance_ the animal, in consequence of its
+colouring, produces the same effect as its environment, but the
+conditions do not require any special adaptation of shape and outline.
+General resemblance is especially common among the animals inhabiting
+some uniformly coloured expanse of the earth's surface, such as an ocean
+or a desert. In the former, animals of all shapes are frequently
+protected by their transparent blue colour; on the latter, equally
+diverse forms are defended by their sandy appearance. The effect of a
+uniform appearance may be produced by a combination of tints in
+startling contrast. Thus the black and white stripes of the zebra blend
+together at a little distance, and "their proportion is such as exactly
+to match the pale tint which arid ground possesses when seen by
+moonlight" (F. Galton, _South Africa_, London, 1889). _Special
+resemblance_ is far commoner than general, and is the form which is
+usually met with on the diversified surface of the earth, on the shores,
+and in shallow water, as well as on the floating masses of Algae on the
+surface of the ocean, such as the Sargasso Sea. In these environments
+the cryptic colouring of animals is usually aided by special
+modifications of shape, and by the instinct which leads them to assume
+particular attitudes. Complete stillness and the assumption of a certain
+attitude play an essential part in general resemblance on land; but in
+special resemblance the attitude is often highly specialized, and
+perhaps more important than any other element in the complex method by
+which concealment is effected. In special resemblance the combination of
+colouring, shape and attitude is such as to produce a more or less exact
+resemblance to some one of the objects in the environment, such as a
+leaf or twig, a patch of lichen, or flake of bark. In all cases the
+resemblance is to some object which is of no interest to the enemy or
+prey respectively. The animal is not hidden from view by becoming
+indistinguishable from its background, as in the cases of general
+resemblance, but it is mistaken for some well-known object.
+
+In seeking the interpretation of these most interesting and elaborate
+adaptations, attempts have been made along two lines. First, it is
+sought to explain the effect as a result of the direct influence of the
+environment upon the individual (G. L. L. Buffon), or by the inherited
+effects of effort and the use and disuse of parts (J. B. P. Lamarck).
+Second, natural selection is believed to have produced the result, and
+afterwards maintained it by the survival of the best concealed in each
+generation. The former suggestions break down when the complex nature of
+numerous special resemblances is appreciated. Thus the arrangement of
+colours of many kinds into an appropriate pattern requires the
+co-operation of a suitable shape and the rigidly exact adoption of a
+certain elaborate attitude. The latter is instinctive, and thus depends
+on the central nervous system. The cryptic effect is due to the exact
+co-operation of all these factors; and in the present state of science
+the only possible hope of an interpretation lies in the theory of
+natural selection, which can accumulate any and every variation which
+tends towards survival. A few of the chief types of methods by which
+concealment is effected may be briefly described. The colours of large
+numbers of Vertebrate animals are darkest on the back, and become
+gradually lighter on the sides, passing into white on the belly. Abbott
+H. Thayer (_The Auk_, vol. xiii., 1896) has suggested that this
+gradation obliterates the appearance of solidity, which is due to
+shadow. The colour-harmony, which is also essential to concealment, is
+produced because the back is of the same tint as the environment (_e.g._
+earth) bathed in the cold blue-white of the sky, while the belly, being
+cold blue-white bathed in shadow and yellow earth reflections, produces
+the same effect. Thayer has made models (in the natural history museums
+at London, Oxford and Cambridge) which support his interpretation in a
+very convincing manner. This method of neutralizing shadow for the
+purpose of concealment by increased lightness of tint was first
+suggested by E. B. Poulton in the case of a larva (_Trans. Ent. Soc.
+Lond._, 1887, p. 294) and a pupa (_Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._, 1888, pp.
+596, 597), but he did not appreciate the great importance of the
+principle. In an analogous method an animal in front of a background of
+dark shadow may have part of its body obliterated by the existence of a
+dark tint, the remainder resembling, e.g., a part of a leaf (W. Müller,
+_Zool. Jahr. J. W. Spengel_, Jena, 1886). This method of rendering
+invisible any part which would interfere with the resemblance is well
+known in mimicry. A common aid to concealment is the adoption by
+different individuals of two or more different appearances, each of
+which resembles some special object to which an enemy is indifferent.
+Thus the leaf-like butterflies (_Kallima_) present various types of
+colour and pattern on the under side of the wings, each of which closely
+resembles some well-known appearance presented by a dead leaf; and the
+common British yellow under-wing moth (_Tryphaena pronuba_) is similarly
+polymorphic on the upper side of its upper wings, which are exposed as
+it suddenly drops among dead leaves. Caterpillars and pupae are also
+commonly _dimorphic_, green and brown. Such differences as these extend
+the area which an enemy is compelled to search in order to make a
+living. In many cases the cryptic colouring changes appropriately
+during the course of an individual life, either seasonally, as in the
+ptarmigan or Alpine hare, or according as the individual enters a new
+environment in the course of its growth (such as larva, pupa, imago,
+&c.). In insects with more than one brood in the year, _seasonal
+dimorphism_ is often seen, and the differences are sometimes appropriate
+to the altered condition of the environment as the seasons change. The
+causes of change in these and Arctic animals are insufficiently worked
+out: in both sets there are observations or experiments which indicate
+changes from within the organism, merely following the seasons and not
+caused by them, and other observations or experiments which prove that
+certain species are susceptible to the changing external influences. In
+certain species concealment is effected by the use of adventitious
+objects, which are employed as a covering. Examples of this
+_allocryptic_ defence are found in the tubes of the caddis worms
+(_Phryganea_), or the objects made use of by crabs of the genera _Hyas_,
+_Stenorhynchus_, &c. Such animals are concealed in any environment. If
+sedentary, like the former example, they are covered up with local
+materials; if wandering, like the latter, they have the instinct to
+reclothe. Allocryptic methods may also be used for aggressive purposes,
+as the ant-lion larva, almost buried in sand, or the large frog
+_Ceratophrys_, which covers its back with earth when waiting for its
+prey. Another form of allocryptic defence is found in the use of the
+colour of the food in the digestive organs showing through the
+transparent body, and in certain cases the adventitious colour may be
+dissolved in the blood or secreted in superficial cells of the body:
+thus certain insects make use of the chlorophyll of their food (Poulton,
+_Proc. Roy. Soc._ liv. 417). The most perfect cryptic powers are
+possessed by those animals in which the individuals can change their
+colours into any tint which would be appropriate to a normal
+environment. This power is widely prevalent in fish, and also occurs in
+Amphibia and Reptilia (the chameleon affording a well-known example).
+Analogous powers exist in certain Crustacea and Cephalopoda. All these
+rapid changes of colour are due to changes in shape or position of
+superficial pigment cells controlled by the nervous system. That the
+latter is itself stimulated by light through the medium of the eye and
+optic nerve has been proved in many cases. Animals with a short
+life-history passed in a single environment, which, however, may be very
+different in the case of different individuals, may have a different
+form of _variable cryptic colouring_, namely, the power of adapting
+their colour once for all (many pupae), or once or twice (many larvae).
+In these cases the effect appears to be produced through the nervous
+system, although the stimulus of light probably acts on the skin and not
+through the eyes. Particoloured surfaces do not produce particoloured
+pupae, probably because the antagonistic stimuli neutralize each other
+in the central nervous system, which then disposes the superficial
+colours so that a neutral or intermediate effect is produced over the
+whole surface (Poulton, _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._, 1892, p. 293). Cryptic
+colouring may incidentally produce superficial resemblances between
+animals; thus desert forms concealed in the same way may gain a likeness
+to each other, and in the same way special resemblances, e.g. to lichen,
+bark, grasses, pine-needles, &c., may sometimes lead to a tolerably
+close similarity between the animals which are thus concealed. Such
+likeness may be called _syncryptic_ or _common protective_ (or
+_aggressive_) _resemblance_, and it is to be distinguished from mimicry
+and common warning colours, in which the likeness is not incidental, but
+an end in itself. Syncryptic resemblances have much in common with those
+incidentally caused by functional adaptation, such as the mole-like
+forms produced in the burrowing Insectivora, Rodentia and Marsupialia.
+Such likeness may be called _syntechnic resemblance_, incidentally
+produced by dynamic similarity, just as syncryptic resemblance is
+produced by static similarity.
+
+_Use of Colour for Warning and Signalling, or Sematic Coloration._--The
+use of colour for the purpose of warning is the exact opposite of the
+one which has been just described, its object being to render the animal
+conspicuous to its enemies, so that it can be easily seen, well
+remembered, and avoided in future. Warning colours are associated with
+some quality or weapon which renders the possessor unpleasant or
+dangerous, such as unpalatability, an evil odour, a sting, the
+poison-fang, &c. The object being to warn an enemy off, these colours
+are also called _aposematic_. Recognition markings, on the other hand,
+are _episematic_, assisting the individuals of the same species to keep
+together when their safety depends upon numbers, or easily to follow
+each other to a place of safety, the young and inexperienced benefiting
+by the example of the older. Episematic characters are far less common
+than aposematic, and these than cryptic; although, as regards the latter
+comparison, the opposite impression is generally produced from the very
+fact that concealment is so successfully attained. Warning or aposematic
+colours, together with the qualities they indicate, depend, as a rule,
+for their very existence upon the abundance of palatable food supplied
+by the animals with cryptic colouring. Unpalatability, or even the
+possession of a sting, is not sufficient defence unless there is enough
+food of another kind to be obtained at the same time and place (Poulton,
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1887, p. 191). Hence insects with warning colours
+are not seen in temperate countries except at the time when insect life
+as a whole is most abundant; and in warmer countries, with well-marked
+wet and dry seasons, it will probably be found that warning colours are
+proportionately less developed in the latter. In many species of African
+butterflies belonging to the genus _Junonia_ (including _Precis_) the
+wet-season broods are distinguished by the more or less conspicuous
+under sides of the wings, those of the dry season being highly cryptic.
+Warning colours are, like cryptic, assisted by special adaptations of
+the body-form, and especially by movements which assist to render the
+colour as conspicuous as possible. On this account animals with warning
+colours generally move or fly slowly, and it is the rule in butterflies
+that the warning patterns are similar on both upper and under sides of
+the wings. Many animals, when attacked or disturbed, "sham death" (as it
+is commonly but wrongly described), falling motionless to the ground. In
+the case of well-concealed animals this instinct gives them a second
+chance of escape in the earth or among the leaves, &c., when they have
+been once detected; animals with warning colours are, on the other hand,
+enabled to assume a position in which their characters are displayed to
+the full (J. Portschinsky, _Lepidopterorum Rossiae Biologia_, St
+Petersburg, 1890, plate i. figs. 16, 17). In both cases a definite
+attitude is assumed, which is not that of death. Other warning
+characters exist in addition to colouring: thus sound is made use of by
+the disturbed rattlesnake and the Indian _Echis_, &c. Large birds, when
+attacked, often adopt a threatening attitude, accompanied by a
+terrifying sound. The cobra warns an intruder chiefly by attitude and
+the dilation of the flattened neck, the effect being heightened in some
+species by the "spectacles." In such cases we often see the combination
+of cryptic and sematic methods, the animal being concealed until
+disturbed, when it instantly assumes an aposematic attitude. The
+advantage to the animal itself is clear: a poisonous snake gains nothing
+by killing an animal it cannot eat; while the poison does not cause
+immediate death, and the enemy would have time to injure or destroy the
+snake. In the case of small unpalatable animals with warning colours the
+enemies would only first become aware of the unpleasant quality by
+tasting and often destroying their prey; but the species would gain by
+the experience thus conveyed, even though the individual might suffer.
+An insect-eating animal does not come into the world with knowledge: it
+has to be educated by experience, and warning colours enable this
+education as to what to avoid to be gained by a small instead of a large
+waste of life. Furthermore, great tenacity of life is usually possessed
+by animals with warning colours. The tissues of aposematic insects
+generally possess great elasticity and power of resistance, so that
+large numbers of individuals can recover after very severe treatment.
+
+The brilliant warning colours of many caterpillars attracted the
+attention of Darwin when he was thinking over his hypothesis of sexual
+selection, and he wrote to A. R. Wallace on the subject (C. Darwin,
+_Life and Letters_, London, 1887, iii. 93). Wallace, in reply, suggested
+their interpretation as warning colours, a suggestion since verified by
+experiment (_Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond._, 1867, p. lxxx; _Trans. Ent. Soc.
+Lond._, 1869, pp. 21 and 27). Although animals with warning colours are
+probably but little attacked by the ordinary enemies of their class,
+they have special enemies which keep the numbers down to the average.
+Thus the cuckoo appears to be an insectivorous bird which will freely
+devour conspicuously coloured unpalatable larvae. The effect of the
+warning colours of caterpillars is often intensified by gregarious
+habits. Another aposematic use of colours and structures is to divert
+attention from the vital parts, and thus give the animal attacked an
+extra chance of escape. The large, conspicuous, easily torn wings of
+butterflies and moths act in this way, as is found by the abundance of
+individuals which may be captured with notches bitten symmetrically out
+of both wings when they were in contact. The eye-spots and "tails" so
+common on the hinder part of the hind wing, and the conspicuous apex so
+frequently seen on the fore wing, probably have this meaning. Their
+position corresponds to the parts which are most offen found to be
+notched. In some cases (e.g. many _Lycaenidae_) the "tail" and eye-spot
+combine to suggest the appearance of a head with antennae at the
+posterior end of the butterfly, the deception being aided by movements
+of the hind wings. The flat-topped "tussocks" of hair on many
+caterpillars look like conspicuous fleshy projections of the body, and
+they are held prominently when the larva is attacked. If seized, the
+"tussock" comes out, and the enemy is greatly inconvenienced by the fine
+branched hairs. The tails of lizards, which easily break off, are to be
+similarly explained, the attention of the pursuer being probably still
+further diverted by the extremely active movements of the amputated
+member. Certain crabs similarly throw off their claws when attacked, and
+the claws continue to snap most actively. The tail of the dormouse,
+which easily comes off, and the extremely bushy tail of the squirrel,
+are probably of use in the same manner. Animals with warning colours
+often tend to resemble each other superficially. This fact was first
+pointed out by H. W. Bates in his paper on the theory of mimicry
+(_Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xxiii., 1862, p. 495). He showed that the
+conspicuous, presumably unpalatable, tropical American butterflies,
+belonging to very different groups, which are mimicked by others, also
+tend to resemble each other, the likeness being often remarkably exact.
+These resemblances were not explained by his theory of mimicry, and he
+could only suppose that they had been produced by the direct influence
+of a common environment. The problem was solved in 1879 by Fritz Müller
+(see _Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond._, 1879, p. xx.), who suggested that life is
+saved by this resemblance between warning colours, inasmuch as the
+education of young inexperienced enemies is facilitated. Each species
+which falls into a group with common warning (_synaposematic_) colours
+contributes to save the lives of the other members. It is sufficiently
+obvious that the amount of learning and remembering, and consequently of
+injury and loss of life involved in the process, are reduced when many
+species in one place possess the same aposematic colouring, instead of
+each exhibiting a different "danger-signal." These resemblances are
+often described as "Müllerian mimicry," as distinguished from true or
+"Batesian mimicry" described in the next section. Similar synaposematic
+resemblances between the specially protected groups of butterflies were
+afterwards shown to exist in tropical Asia, the East Indian Islands and
+Polynesia by F. Moore (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1883, p. 201), and in Africa
+by E. B. Poulton (_Report Brit. Assoc._, 1897, p. 688). R. Meldola
+(_Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ x., 1882, p. 417) first pointed out and
+explained in the same manner the remarkable general uniformity of colour
+and pattern which runs through so many species of each of the
+distasteful groups of butterflies; while, still later, Poulton (_Proc.
+Zool. Soc._, 1887, p. 191) similarly extended the interpretation to the
+synaposematic resemblances between animals of all kinds in the same
+country. Thus, for example, longitudinal or circular bands of the same
+strongly contrasted colours are found in species of many groups with
+distant affinities.
+
+Certain animals, especially the Crustacea, make use of the special
+defence and warning colours of other animals. Thus the English
+hermit-crab, _Pagurus Bernhardus_, commonly carries the sea-anemone,
+_Sagartia parasitica_, on its shell; while another English species,
+_Pagurus Prideauxii_, inhabits a shell which is invariably clothed by
+the flattened _Adamsia palliata_.
+
+The white patch near the tail which is frequently seen in the gregarious
+Ungulates, and is often rendered conspicuous by adjacent black markings,
+probably assists the individuals in keeping together; and appearances
+with probably the same interpretation are found in many birds. The white
+upturned tail of the rabbit is probably of use in enabling the
+individuals to follow each other readily. The difference between a
+typical aposematic character appealing to enemies, and episematic
+intended for other individuals of the same species, is well seen when we
+compare such examples as (1) the huge banner-like white tail,
+conspicuously contrasted with the black or black and white body, by
+which the slow-moving skunk warns enemies of its power of emitting an
+intolerably offensive odour; (2) the small upturned white tail of the
+rabbit, only seen when it is likely to be of use and when the owner is
+moving, and, if pursued, very rapidly moving, towards safety.
+
+_Mimicry_ (see also MIMICRY) or _Pseudo-sematic Colours_.--The fact that
+animals with distant affinities may more or less closely resemble each
+other was observed long before the existing explanation was possible.
+Its recognition is implied in a number of insect names with the
+termination -_formis_, usually given to species of various orders which
+more or less closely resemble the stinging Hymenoptera. The usefulness
+of the resemblance was suggested in Kirby and Spence's _Introduction to
+Entomology_, London, 1817, ii. 223. H. W. Bates (_Trans. Linn. Soc._
+vol. xxiii., 1862, p. 495) first proposed an explanation of mimicry
+based on the theory of natural selection. He supposed that every step in
+the formation and gradual improvement of the likeness occurred in
+consequence of its usefulness in the struggle for life. The subject is
+of additional interest, inasmuch as it was one of the first attempts to
+apply the theory of natural selection to a large class of phenomena up
+to that time well known but unexplained. Numerous examples of mimicry
+among tropical American butterflies were discussed by Bates in his
+paper; and in 1866 A. R. Wallace extended the hypothesis to the
+butterflies of the tropical East (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xxv., 1866,
+p. 19); Roland Trimen (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xxvi., 1870, p. 497) to
+those of Africa in 1870. The term mimicry is used in various senses. It
+is often extended, as indeed it was by Bates, to include all the
+superficial resemblances between animals and any part of their
+environment. Wallace, however, separated the cryptic resemblances
+already described, and the majority of naturalists have followed this
+convenient arrangement. In cryptic resemblance an animal resembles some
+object of no interest to its enemy (or prey), and in so doing is
+concealed; in mimicry an animal resembles some other animal which is
+specially disliked by its enemy, or some object which is specially
+attractive to its prey, and in so doing becomes conspicuous. Some
+naturalists have considered mimicry to include all superficial
+likenesses between animals, but such a classification would group
+together resemblances which have widely different uses. (1) The
+resemblance of a mollusc to the coral on which it lives, or an external
+parasite to the hair or skin of its host, would be _procryptic_; (2)
+that between moths which resemble lichen, _syncryptic_; (3) between
+distasteful insects, _synaposematic_; (4) between the Insectivor mole
+and the Rodent mole-rat, _syntechnic_; (5) the essential element in
+mimicry is that it is a false warning (pseud-aposematic) or false
+recognition (pseud-episematic) character. Some have considered that
+mimicry indicates resemblance to a moving object; but apart from the
+non-mimetic likenesses between animals classified above, there are
+ordinary cryptic resemblances to drifting leaves, swaying bits of twig,
+&c., while truly mimetic resemblances are often specially adapted for
+the attitude of rest. Many use the term mimicry to include synaposematic
+as well as pseudo-sematic resemblances, calling the former "Müllerian,"
+the latter "Batesian," mimicry. The objection to this grouping is that
+it takes little account of the deceptive element which is essential in
+mimicry. In synaposematic colouring the warning is genuine, in
+pseud-aposematic it is a sham. The term mimicry has led to much
+misunderstanding from the fact that in ordinary speech it implies
+deliberate imitation. The production of mimicry in an individual animal
+has no more to do with consciousness or "taking thought" than any of the
+other processes of growth. Protective mimicry is here defined as an
+advantageous and superficial resemblance of one animal to another, which
+latter is specially defended so as to be disliked or feared by the
+majority of enemies of the groups to which both belong--a resemblance
+which appeals to the sense of sight, sometimes to that of hearing, and
+rarely to smell, but does not extend to deep-seated characters except
+when the superficial likeness is affected by them. _Mutatis mutandis_
+this definition will apply to aggressive (pseud-episematic) resemblance.
+The conditions under which mimicry occurs have been stated by
+Wallace:--"(1) that the imitative species occur in the same area and
+occupy the same station as the imitated; (2) that the imitators are
+always the more defenceless; (3) that the imitators are always less
+numerous in individuals; (4) that the imitators differ from the bulk of
+their allies; (5) that the imitation, however minute, is _external_ and
+_visible_ only, never extending to internal characters or to such as do
+not affect the external appearance." It is obvious that conditions 2 and
+3 do not hold in the case of Müllerian mimicry. Mimicry has been
+explained, independently of natural selection, by the supposition that
+it is the common expression of the direct action of common causes, such
+as climate, food, &c.; also by the supposition of independent lines of
+evolution leading to the same result without any selective action in
+consequence of advantage in the struggle; also by the operation of
+sexual selection.
+
+It is proposed, in conclusion, to give an account of the broad aspects
+of mimicry, and attempt a brief discussion of the theories of origin of
+each class of facts (see Poulton, _Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool._, 1898, p.
+558). It will be found that in many cases the argument here made use of
+applies equally to the origin of cryptic and sematic colours. The
+relationship between these classes has been explained: mimicry is, as
+Wallace has stated (_Darwinism_, London, 1889), merely "an exceptional
+form of protective resemblance. "Now, protective (cryptic) resemblance
+cannot be explained on any of the lines suggested above, except natural
+selection; even sexual selection fails, because cryptic resemblance is
+especially common in the immature stages of insect life. But it would be
+unreasonable to explain mimetic resemblance by one set of principles and
+cryptic by another and totally different set. Again, it may be plausible
+to explain the mimicry of one butterfly for another on one of the
+suggested lines, but the resemblance of a fly or moth to a wasp is by no
+means so easy, and here selection would be generally conceded; yet the
+appeal to antagonistic principles to explain such closely related cases
+would only be justified by much direct evidence. Furthermore, the
+mimetic resemblances between butterflies are not haphazard, but the
+models almost invariably belong only to certain sub-families, the
+_Danainae_ and _Acraeinae_ in all the warmer parts of the world, and, in
+tropical America, the _Ithomiinae_ and _Heliconinae_ as well. These
+groups have the characteristics of aposematic species, and no theory but
+natural selection explains their invariable occurrence as models
+wherever they exist. It is impossible to suggest, except by natural
+selection, any explanation of the fact that mimetic resemblances are
+confined to changes which produce or strengthen a superficial likeness.
+Very deep-seated changes are generally involved, inasmuch as the
+appropriate instincts as to attitude, &c., are as important as colour
+and marking. The same conclusion is reached when we analyse the nature
+of mimetic resemblance and realize how complex it really is, being made
+up of _colours_, both pigmentary and structural, _pattern_, _form_,
+_attitude_ and _movement_. A plausible interpretation of colour may be
+wildly improbable when applied to some other element, and there is _no_
+explanation except natural selection which can explain all these
+elements. The appeal to the direct action of local conditions in common
+often breaks down upon the slightest investigation, the difference in
+habits between mimic and model in the same locality causing the most
+complete divergence in their conditions of life. Thus many insects
+produced from burrowing larvae mimic those whose larvae live in the
+open. Mimetic resemblance is far commoner in the female than in the
+male, a fact readily explicable by selection, as suggested by Wallace,
+for the female is compelled to fly more slowly and to expose itself
+while laying eggs, and hence a resemblance to the slow-flying freely
+exposed models is especially advantageous. The facts that mimetic
+species occur in the same locality, fly at the same time of the year as
+their models, and are day-flying species even though they may belong to
+nocturnal groups, are also more or less difficult to explain except on
+the theory of natural selection, and so also is the fact that mimetic
+resemblance is produced in the most varied manner. A spider resembles
+its model, an ant, by a modification of its body-form into a superficial
+resemblance, and by holding one pair of legs to represent antennae;
+certain bugs (Hemiptera) and beetles have also gained a shape unusual in
+their respective groups, a shape which superficially resembles an ant; a
+Locustid (_Myrmecophana_) has the shape of an ant painted, as it were,
+on its body, all other parts resembling the background and invisible; a
+Membracid (Homoptera) is entirely unlike an ant, but is concealed by an
+ant-like shield. When we further realize that in this and other examples
+of mimicry "the likeness is almost always detailed and remarkable,
+however it is attained, while the methods differ absolutely," we
+recognize that natural selection is the only possible explanation
+hitherto suggested. In the cases of aggressive mimicry an animal
+resembles some object which is attractive to its prey. Examples are
+found in the flower-like species of _Mantis_, which attract the insects
+on which they feed. Such cases are generally described as possessing
+"alluring colours," and are regarded as examples of aggressive
+(anticryptic) resemblance, but their logical position is here.
+
+_Colours displayed in Courtship, Secondary Sexual Characters, Epigamic
+Colours._--Darwin suggested the explanation of these appearances in his
+theory of _sexual selection_ (_The Descent of Man_, London, 1874). The
+rivalry of the males for the possession of the females he believed to be
+decided by the preference of the latter for those individuals with
+especially bright colours, highly developed plumes, beautiful song, &c.
+Wallace does not accept the theory, but believes that natural selection,
+either directly or indirectly, accounts for all the facts. Probably the
+majority of naturalists follow Darwin in this respect. The subject is
+most difficult, and the interpretation of a great proportion of the
+examples in a high degree uncertain, so that a very brief account is
+here expedient. That selection of some kind has been operative is
+indicated by the diversity of the elements into which the effects can be
+analysed. The most complete set of observations on epigamic display was
+made by George W. and Elizabeth G. Peckham upon spiders of the family
+_Attidae_ (_Nat. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin_, vol. i., 1889). These
+observations afforded the authors "conclusive evidence that the females
+pay close attention to the love-dances of the males, and also that they
+have not only the power, but the will, to exercise a choice among the
+suitors for their favour." Epigamic characters are often concealed
+except during courtship; they are found almost exclusively in species
+which are diurnal or semi-diurnal in their habits, and are excluded from
+those parts of the body which move too rapidly to be seen. They are very
+commonly directly associated with the nervous system; and in certain
+fish, and probably in other animals, an analogous heightening of effect
+accompanies nervous excitement other than sexual, such as that due to
+fighting or feeding. Although there is epigamic display in species with
+sexes alike, it is usually most marked in those with secondary sexual
+characters specially developed in the male. These are an exception to
+the rule in heredity, in that their appearance is normally restricted to
+a single sex, although in many of the higher animals they have been
+proved to be latent in the other, and may appear after the essential
+organs of sex have been removed or become functionless. This is also the
+case in the Aculeate Hymenoptera when the reproductive organs have been
+destroyed by the parasite _Stylops_. J. T. Cunningham has argued
+(_Sexual Dimorphism in the Animal Kingdom_, London, 1900) that secondary
+sexual characters have been produced by direct stimulation due to
+contests, &c., in the breeding period, and have gradually become
+hereditary, a hypothesis involving the assumption that acquired
+characters are transmitted. Wallace suggests that they are in part to be
+explained as "recognition characters," in part as an indication of
+surplus vital activity in the male.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The following works may also be consulted:--T. Eimer,
+  _Orthogenesis der Schmetterlinge_ (Leipzig, 1898); E. B. Poulton, _The
+  Colours of Animals_ (London, 1890); F. E. Beddard, _Animal Coloration_
+  (London, 1892); E. Haase, _Researches on Mimicry_ (translation,
+  London, 1896); A. R. Wallace, _Natural Selection and Tropical Nature_
+  (London, 1895); _Darwinism_ (London, 1897); A. H. Thayer and G. H.
+  Thayer, _Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom_ (New York,
+  1910).     (E. B. P.)
+
+
+2. CHEMISTRY
+
+The coloration of the _surface_ of animals is caused either by
+_pigments_, or by a certain _structure_ of the surface by means of which
+the light falling on it, or reflected through its superficial
+transparent layers, undergoes diffraction or other optical change. Or it
+may be the result of a combination of these two causes. It plays an
+important part in the relationship of the animal to its environment, in
+concealment, in mimicry, and so on; the presence of a pigment in the
+integument may also serve a more direct physiological purpose, such as a
+respiratory function. The coloration of birds' feathers, of the skin of
+many fishes, of many insects, is partially at least due to structure and
+the action of the peculiar pigmented cells known as "chromatophores"
+(which W. Garstang defines as pigmented cells specialized for the
+discharge of the chromatic function), and is much better marked when
+these have for their background a "reflecting layer" such as is provided
+by guanin, a substance closely related to uric acid. Such a mechanism is
+seen to greatest advantage in fishes. Among these, guanin may be present
+in a finely granular form, causing the light falling on it to be
+scattered, thus producing a white effect; or it may be present in a
+peculiar crystalline form, the crystals being known as "iridocytes"; or
+in a layer of closely apposed needles forming a silvery sheet or mirror.
+In the iris of some fishes the golden red colour is produced by the
+light reflected from such a layer of guanin needles having to pass
+through a thin layer of a reddish pigment, known as a "lipochrome."
+Again, in some lepidopterous insects a white or a yellow appearance is
+produced by the deposition of uric acid or a nearly allied substance on
+the surface of the wings. In many animals, but especially among
+invertebrates, colouring matters or pigments play an important rôle in
+surface coloration; in some cases such coloration may be of benefit to
+the animal, but in others the integument simply serves as an organ for
+the excretion of waste pigmentary substances. Pigments (1) may be of
+direct physiological importance; (2) they may be excretory; or (3) they
+may be introduced into the body of the animal with the food.
+
+Of the many pigments which have been described up to the present time,
+very few have been subjected to elementary chemical analysis, owing to
+the great difficulties attending their isolation. An extremely small
+amount of pigment will give rise to a great amount of coloration, and
+the pigments are generally accompanied by impurities of various kinds
+which cling to them with great tenacity, so that when one has been
+thoroughly cleansed very little of it remains for ultimate analysis.
+Most of these substances have been detected by means of the
+spectroscope, their absorption bands serving for their recognition, but
+mere identity of spectrum does not necessarily mean chemical identity,
+and a few chemical tests have also to be applied before a conclusion can
+be drawn. The absorption bands are referred to certain definite parts of
+the spectrum, such as the Fraunhofer lines, or they may be given in
+wave-lengths. For this purpose the readings of the spectroscope are
+reduced to wave-lengths by means of interpolation curves; or if Zeiss's
+microspectroscope be used, the position of bands in wave-lengths
+(denoted by the Greek letter [lambda]) may be read directly.
+
+Haemoglobin, the red colouring matter of vertebrate blood,
+C758H1203N195S3FeO218, and its derivatives haematin, C32H30N4FeO3, and
+haematoporphyrin, C16H18N2O3, are colouring matters about which we
+possess definite chemical knowledge, as they have been isolated,
+purified and analysed. Most of the bile pigments of mammals have
+likewise been isolated and studied chemically, and all of these are
+fully described in the text-books of physiology and physiological
+chemistry. Haemoglobin, though physiologically of great importance in
+the respiratory process of vertebrate animals, is yet seldom used for
+surface pigmentation, except in the face of white races of man or in
+other parts in monkeys, &c. In some worms the transparent skin allows
+the haemoglobin of the blood to be seen through the integument, and in
+certain fishes also the haemoglobin is visible through the integument.
+It is a curious and noteworthy fact that in some invertebrate animals in
+which no haemoglobin occurs, we meet with its derivatives. Thus haematin
+is found in the so-called bile of slugs, snails, the limpet and the
+crayfish. In sea-anemones there is a pigment which yields some of the
+decomposition-products of haemoglobin, and associated with this is a
+green pigment apparently identical with biliverdin (C16H18N2O4), a green
+bile pigment. Again, haematoporphyrin is found in the integuments of
+star-fishes and slugs, and occurs in the "dorsal streak" of the
+earth-worm _Lumbricus terrestris_, and perhaps in other species.
+Haematoporphyrin and biliverdin also occur in the egg-shells of certain
+birds, but in this case they are derived from haemoglobin. Haemoglobin
+is said to be found as low down in the animal kingdom as the
+Echinoderms, e.g. in _Ophiactis virens_ and _Thyonella gemmata_. It also
+occurs in the blood of _Planorbis corneus_ and in the pharyngeal muscles
+of other mollusca.
+
+A great number of other pigments have been described; for example, in
+the muscles and tissues of animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate,
+are the histohaematins, of which a special muscle pigment, myohaematin,
+is one. In vertebrates the latter is generally accompanied by
+haemoglobin, but in invertebrates--with the exception of the pharyngeal
+muscles of the mollusca--it occurs alone. Although closely related to
+haemoglobin or its derivative haemochromogen, the histohaematins are yet
+totally distinct, and they are found in animals where not a trace of
+haemoglobin can be detected. Another interesting pigment is turacin,
+which contains about 7% of nitrogen, found by Professor A. H. Church in
+the feathers of the Cape lory and other plantain-eaters, from which it
+can be extracted by water containing a trace of ammonia. It has been
+isolated, purified and analysed by Professor Church. From it may be
+obtained turacoporphyrin, which is identical with haematoporphyrin, and
+gives the band in the ultra-violet which J. L. Soret and subsequently A.
+Gamgee have found to be characteristic of haemoglobin and its compounds.
+Turacin itself gives a peculiar two-banded spectrum, and contains about
+7% of copper in its molecule. Another copper-containing pigment is
+haemocyanin, which in the oxidized state gives a blue colour to the
+blood of various Mollusca and Arthropoda. Like haemoglobin, it acts as
+an oxygen-carrier in respiration, but it takes no part in surface
+coloration.
+
+A class of pigments widely distributed among plants and animals are the
+lipochromes. As their name denotes, they are allied to fat and generally
+accompany it, being soluble in fat solvents. They play an important part
+in surface coloration, and may be greenish, yellow or red in colour.
+They contain no nitrogen. As an example of a lipochrome which has been
+isolated, crystallized and purified, we may mention carotin, which has
+recently been found in green leaves. Chlorophyll, which is so often
+associated with a lipochrome, has been found in some Infusoria, and in
+_Hydra_ and _Spongilla_, &c. In some cases it is probably formed by the
+animal; in other cases it may be due to symbiotic algae, while in the
+gastric gland of many Mollusca, Crustacea and Echinodermata it is
+derived from food-chlorophyll. Here it is known as entero-chlorophyll.
+The black pigments which occur among both vertebrate and invertebrate
+animals often have only one attribute in common, viz. blackness, for
+among the discordant results of analysis one thing is certain, viz. that
+the melanins from vertebrate animals are not identical with those from
+invertebrate animals. The melanosis or blackening of insect blood, for
+instance, is due to the oxidation of a chromogen, the pigment produced
+being known as a uranidine. In some sponges a somewhat similar pigment
+has been noticed. Other pigments have been described, such as
+actiniochrome, echinochrome, pentacrinin, antedonin, polyperythrin
+(which appears to be a haematoporphyrin), the floridines,
+spongioporphyrin, &c., which need no mention here; all these pigments
+can only be distinguished by means of the spectroscope.
+
+Most of the pigments are preceded by colourless substances known as
+"chromogens," which by the action of the oxygen of the air and by other
+agencies become changed into the corresponding pigments. In some cases
+the pigments are built up in the tissues of an animal, in others they
+appear to be derived more or less directly from the food. Derivatives of
+chlorophyll and lipochromes especially, seem to be taken up from the
+intestine, probably by the agency of leucocytes, in which they may occur
+in combination with, or dissolved by, fatty matters and excreted by the
+integument. In worms especially, the skin seems to excrete many effete
+substances, pigments included. No direct connexion has been traced
+between the chlorophyll eaten with the food and the haemoglobin of blood
+and muscle. Attention may, however, be drawn to the work of Dr E.
+Schunck, who has shown that a substance closely resembling
+haematoporphyrin can be prepared from chlorophyll; this is known as
+phylloporphyrin. Not only does the _visible_ spectrum of this substance
+resemble that of haematoporphyrin, but the _invisible_ ultra-violet
+also, as shown by C. A. Schunck.
+
+  The reader may refer to E. A. Schäfer's _Text-Book of Physiology_
+  (1898) for A. Gamgee's article "On Haemoglobin, and its Compounds"; to
+  the writer's papers in the _Phil. Trans._ and _Proc. Roy. Soc._ from
+  1881 onwards, and also _Quart. Journ. Micros. Science_ and _Journ. of
+  Physiol._; to C. F. W. Krukenberg's _Vergleichende physiologische
+  Studien_ from 1879 onwards, and to his _Vorträge_. Miss M. I. Newbigin
+  collected in _Colour in Nature_ (1898) most of the recent literature
+  of this subject. Dr E. Schunck's papers will be found under the
+  heading "Contribution to the Chemistry of Chlorophyll" in _Proc. Roy.
+  Soc._ from 1885 onwards; and Mr C. A. Schunck's paper in _Proc. Roy.
+  Soc._ vol. lxiii.     (C. A. MacM.)
+
+
+
+
+COLSTON, EDWARD (1636-1721), English philanthropist, the son of William
+Colston, a Bristol merchant of good position, was born at Bristol on the
+2nd of November 1636. He is generally understood to have spent some
+years of his youth and manhood as a factor in Spain, with which country
+his family was long connected commercially, and whence, by means of a
+trade in wines and oil, great part of his own vast fortune was to come.
+On his return he seems to have settled in London, and to have bent
+himself resolutely to the task of making money. In 1681, the date of his
+father's decease, he appears as a governor of Christ's hospital, to
+which noble foundation he afterwards gave frequently and largely. In the
+same year he probably began to take an active interest in the affairs of
+Bristol, where he is found about this time embarked in a sugar refinery;
+and during the remainder of his life he seems to have divided his
+attention pretty equally between the city of his birth and that of his
+adoption. In 1682 he appears in the records of the great western port as
+advancing a sum of £1800 to its needy corporation; in 1683 as "a free
+burgess and _meire_ (St Kitts) merchant" he was made a member of the
+Merchant's Hall; and in 1684 he was appointed one of a committee for
+managing the affairs of Clifton. In 1685 he again appears as the city's
+creditor for about £2000, repayment of which he is found insisting on in
+1686. In 1689 he was chosen auditor by the vestry at Mortlake, where he
+was residing in an old house once the abode of Ireton and Cromwell. In
+1691, on St Michael's Hill, Bristol, at a cost of £8000, he founded an
+almshouse for the reception of 24 poor men and women, and endowed with
+accommodation for "Six Saylors," at a cost of £600, the merchant's
+almshouses in King Street. In 1696, at a cost of £8000, he endowed a
+foundation for clothing and teaching 40 boys (the books employed were to
+have in them "no tincture of Whiggism"); and six years afterwards he
+expended a further sum of £1500 in rebuilding the school-house. In 1708;
+at a cost of £41,200, he built and endowed his great foundation on Saint
+Augustine's Back, for the instruction, clothing, maintaining and
+apprenticing of 100 boys; and in time of scarcity, during this and next
+year, he transmitted "by a private hand" some £20,000 to the London
+committee. In 1710, after a poll of four days, he was sent to
+parliament, to represent, on strictest Tory principles, his native city
+of Bristol; and in 1713, after three years of silent political life, he
+resigned this charge. He died at Mortlake in 1721, having nearly
+completed his eighty-fifth year; and was buried in All Saints' church,
+Bristol.
+
+Colston, who was in the habit of bestowing large sums yearly for the
+release of poor debtors and the relief of indigent age and sickness, and
+who gave (1711) no less than £6000 to increase Queen Anne's Bounty Fund
+for the augmentation of small livings, was always keenly interested in
+the organization and management of his foundations; the rules and
+regulations were all drawn up by his hand, and the minutest details of
+their constitution and economy were dictated by him. A high churchman
+and Tory, with a genuine intolerance of dissent and dissenters, his name
+and example have served as excuses for the formation of two political
+benevolent societies--the "Anchor" (founded 1769) and the "Dolphin"
+(founded 1749),--and also the "Grateful" (founded 1758), whose rivalry
+has been perhaps as instrumental in keeping their patron's memory green
+as have the splendid charities with which he enriched his native city
+(see BRISTOL).
+
+  See Garrard, _Edward Colston, the Philanthropist_ (4to, Bristol,
+  1852); Pryce, _A Popular History of Bristol_ (1861); Manchee, _Bristol
+  Charities_.
+
+
+
+
+COLT, SAMUEL (1814-1862), American inventor, was born on the 19th of
+July 1814 at Hartford, Connecticut, where his father had a manufactory
+of silks and woollens. At the age of ten he left school for the factory,
+and at fourteen, then being in a boarding school at Amherst,
+Massachusetts, he made a runaway voyage to India, during which (in 1829)
+he constructed a wooden model, still existing, of what was afterwards to
+be the revolver (see PISTOL). On his return he learned chemistry from
+his father's bleaching and dyeing manager, and under the assumed name
+"Dr Coult" travelled over the United States and Canada lecturing on that
+science. The profits of two years of this work enabled him to continue
+his researches and experiments. In 1835, having perfected a
+six-barrelled rotating breech, he visited Europe, and patented his
+inventions in London and Paris, securing the American right on his
+return; and the same year he founded at Paterson, New Jersey, the Patent
+Arms Company, for the manufacture of his revolvers only. As early as
+1837 revolvers were successfully used by United States troops, under
+Lieut.-Colonel William S. Harney, in fighting against the Seminole
+Indians in Florida. Colt's scheme, however, did not succeed; the arms
+were not generally appreciated; and in 1842 the company became
+insolvent. No revolvers were made for five years, and none were to be
+had when General Zachary Taylor wrote for a supply from the seat of war
+in Mexico. In 1847 the United States government ordered 1000 from the
+inventor; but before these could be produced he had to construct a new
+model, for a pistol of the company's make could nowhere be found. This
+commission was the beginning of an immense business. The little armoury
+at Whitneyville (New Haven, Connecticut), where the order for Mexico was
+executed, was soon exchanged for larger workshops at Hartford. These in
+their turn gave place (1852) to the enormous factory of the Colt's
+Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing Company, doubled in 1861, on the banks of
+the Connecticut river, within the city limits of Hartford, where so many
+millions of revolvers with all their appendages have been manufactured.
+Thence was sent, for the Russian and English governments, to Tula and
+Enfield, the whole of the elaborate machinery devised by Colt for the
+manufacture of his pistols. Colt introduced and patented a number of
+improvements in his revolver, and also invented a submarine battery for
+harbour defence. He died at Hartford on the 10th of January 1862.
+
+
+
+
+COLT'S-FOOT, the popular name of a small herb, _Tussilago Farfara_, a
+member of the natural order Compositae, which is common in Britain in
+damp, heavy soils. It has a stout branching underground stem, which
+sends up in March and April scapes about 6 in. high, each bearing a head
+of bright yellow flowers, the male in the centre surrounded by a much
+larger number of female. The flowers are succeeded by the fruits, which
+bear a soft snow-white woolly pappus. The leaves, which appear later,
+are broadly cordate with an angular or lobed outline, and are covered on
+the under-face with a dense white felt. The botanical name, _Tussilago_,
+recalls its use as a medicine for cough (_tussis_). The leaves are
+smoked in cases of asthma.
+
+
+
+
+COLUGO, or COBEGO, either of two species of the zoological genus
+_Galeopithecus_. These animals live in the forests of the Malay
+Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippine Islands, where they feed
+chiefly on leaves, and probably also on insects. In size they may be
+compared with cats; the long slender limbs are connected by a broad fold
+of skin extending outwards from the sides of the neck and body, the
+fingers and toes are webbed, and the hind-limbs joined by an outer
+membrane as in bats. Their habits are nocturnal, and during the daytime
+they cling to the trunks or limbs of trees head downwards in a state of
+repose. With the approach of night their season of activity commences,
+when they may be occasionally seen gliding from tree to tree supported
+on their cutaneous parachute, and they have been noticed as capable of
+traversing in this way a space of 70 yds. with a descent of only about
+one in five. Europeans in the East know these animals as "flying
+lemurs." (See GALEOPITHECUS.)
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBA, SAINT (Irish, _Colum_), Irish saint, was born on the 7th of
+December 521, in all probability at Gartan in Co. Donegal. His father
+Feidlimid was a member of the reigning family in Ireland and was closely
+allied to that of Dalriada (Argyll). His mother Eithne was of Leinster
+extraction and was descended from an illustrious provincial king. To
+these powerful connexions as much as to his piety and ability, he owed
+the immense influence he possessed. Later lives state that the saint was
+also called Crimthann (fox), and Reeves suggests that he may have had
+two names, the one baptismal, the other secular. He was afterwards known
+as Columkille, or Columba of the Church, to distinguish him from others
+of the same name. During his early years the Irish Church was reformed
+by Gildas and Finian of Clonard, and numerous monasteries were founded
+which made Ireland renowned as a centre of learning. Columba himself
+studied under two of the most distinguished Irishmen of his day, Finian
+of Moville (at the head of Strangford Lough) and Finian of Clonard.
+Almost as a matter of course, under such circumstances, he embraced the
+monastic life. He was ordained deacon while at Moville, and afterwards,
+when about thirty years of age, was raised to the priesthood. During his
+residence in Ireland he founded, in addition to a number of churches,
+two famous monasteries, one named Daire Calgaich (Derry) on the banks of
+Lough Foyle, the other Dair-magh (Durrow) in King's county.
+
+In 563 he left his native land, accompanied by twelve disciples, and
+went on a mission to northern Britain, perhaps on the invitation of his
+kinsman Conall, king of Dalriada. Irish accounts represent Columba as
+undertaking this mission in consequence of the censure expressed against
+him by the clergy after the battle of Cooldrevny; but this is probably a
+fabrication. The saint's labours in Scotland must be regarded as a
+manifestation of the same spirit of missionary enterprise with which so
+many of his countrymen were imbued. Columba established himself on the
+island of Hy or Iona, where he erected a church and a monastery. About
+the year 565 he applied himself to the task of converting the heathen
+kingdom of the northern Picts. Crossing over to the mainland he
+proceeded to the residence, on the banks of the Ness, of Brude, king of
+the Picts. By his preaching, his holy life, and, as his earliest
+biographers assert, by the performance of miracles, he converted the
+king and many of his subjects. The precise details, except in a few
+cases, are unknown, or obscured by exaggeration and fiction; but it is
+certain that the whole of northern Scotland was converted by the labours
+of Columba, and his disciples and the religious instruction of the
+people provided for by the erection of numerous monasteries. The
+monastery of Iona was reverenced as the mother house of all these
+foundations, and its abbots were obeyed as the chief ecclesiastical
+rulers of the whole nation of the northern Picts. There were then
+neither dioceses nor parishes in Ireland and Celtic Scotland; and by the
+Columbite rule the bishops themselves, although they ordained the
+clergy, were subject to the jurisdiction of the abbots of Iona, who,
+like the founder of the order, were only presbyters. In matters of
+ritual they agreed with the Western Church on the continent, save in a
+few particulars such as the precise time of keeping Easter and manner of
+tonsure.
+
+Columba was honoured by his countrymen, the Scots of Britain and
+Ireland, as much as by his Pictish converts, and in his character of
+chief ecclesiastical ruler he gave formal benediction and inauguration
+to Aidan, the successor of Conall, as king of the Scots. He accompanied
+that prince to Ireland in 575, and took a leading part in a council held
+at Drumceat in Ulster, which determined once and for all the position of
+the ruler of Dalriada with regard to the king of Ireland. The last years
+of Columba's life appear to have been mainly spent at Iona. There he was
+already revered as a saint, and whatever credit may be given to some
+portions of the narratives of his biographers, there can be no doubt as
+to the wonderful influence which he exercised, as to the holiness of his
+life, and as to the love which he uniformly manifested to God and to his
+neighbour.
+
+In the summer of 597 he knew that his end was approaching. On Saturday
+the 8th of June he was able, with the help of one of his monks, to
+ascend a little hill above the monastery and to give it his farewell
+blessing. Returning to his cell he continued a labour in which he had
+been engaged, the transcription of the Psalter. Having finished the
+verse of the 34th Psalm where it is written, "They who seek the Lord
+shall want no manner of thing that is good," he said, "Here I must
+stop:--what follows let Baithen write"; indicating, as was believed, his
+wish that his cousin Baithen should succeed him as abbot. He was present
+at evening in the church, and when the midnight bell sounded for the
+nocturnal office early on Sunday morning he again went thither
+unsupported, but sank down before the altar and passed away as in a
+gentle sleep.
+
+Several Irish poems are ascribed to Columba, but they are manifestly
+compositions of a later age. Three Latin hymns may, however, be
+attributed to the saint with some degree of certainty.
+
+  The original materials for a life of St Columba are unusually full.
+  The earliest biography was written by one of his successors, Cuminius,
+  who became abbot of Iona in 657. Much more important is the
+  enlargement of that work by Adamnan, who became abbot of Iona in 679.
+  These narratives are supplemented by the brief but most valuable
+  notices given by the Venerable Bede. See W. Reeves, _Life of St
+  Columba, written by Adamnan_ (Dublin, 1857); W. F. Skene, _Celtic
+  Scotland_, vol. ii. "Church and Culture" (Edinburgh, 1877).
+       (E. C. Q.)
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBAN (543-615), Irish saint and writer, was born in Leinster in 543,
+and was educated in the monastery of Bangor, Co. Down. About the year
+585 he left Ireland together with twelve other monks, and established
+himself in the Vosges, among the ruins of an ancient fortification
+called Anagrates, the present Anegray in the department of Haute-Saône.
+His enemies accused him before a synod of French bishops (602) for
+keeping Easter according to the old British and now unorthodox way, and
+a more powerful conspiracy was organized against him at the court of
+Burgundy for boldly rebuking the crimes of King Theuderich II. and the
+queen-mother Brunhilda. He was banished and forcibly removed from his
+monastery, and with St Gall and others of the monks he withdrew into
+Switzerland, where he preached with no great success to the Suebi and
+Alamanni. Being again compelled to flee, he retired to Italy, and
+founded the monastery of Bobbio in the Apennines, where he remained till
+his death, which took place on the 21st of November 615. His writings,
+which include some Latin poems, prove him a man of learning, and he
+appears to have been acquainted not only with the Latin classics, but
+also with Greek, and even Hebrew.
+
+  The collected edition of St Columban's writings was published by
+  Patrick Fleming in his _Collectanea sacra Hiberni_ (Louvain, 1667),
+  and reproduced by Migne, p. 4, vol. lxxxvi. (Paris, 1844). See
+  further, Wright's _Biographia Literaria_. Columban's _Regula
+  Coenobitalis cum Poenitenliali_ is to be found in the _Codex
+  Regularum_ (Paris, 1638). A complete bibliography is given in U.
+  Chevallier, _Répertoire des sources hist_. (Bio. Bibliogr.), vol. i.
+  990 (Paris, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBANI, PLACIDO, Italian architectural designer, who worked chiefly
+in England in the latter part of the 18th century. He belonged to the
+school of the Adams and Pergolesi, and like them frequently designed the
+enrichments of furniture. He was a prolific producer of chimney-pieces,
+which are often mistaken for Adam work, of moulded friezes, and painted
+plaques for cabinets and the like. There can be no question that the
+English furniture designers of the end of the 18th century, and
+especially the Adams, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, owed much to his
+graceful, flowing and classical conceptions, although they are often
+inferior to those of Pergolesi. His books are still a valuable
+store-house of sketches for internal architectural decoration. His
+principal works are:--_Vases and Tripods_ (1770); _A New Book of
+Ornaments, containing a variety of elegant designs for Modern Panels,
+commonly executed in Stucco, Wood or Painting, and used in decorating
+Principal Rooms_ (1775); _A variety of Capitals, Friezes and Corniches,
+and how to increase and decrease them, still retaining their
+proportions_ (1776). He also assisted John Crunden in the production of
+_The Chimneypiece Makers' Daily Assistant_ (1776).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBARIUM (Lat. _columba_, a dove), a pigeon-house. The term is
+applied in architecture to those sepulchral chambers in and near Rome,
+the walls of which were sunk with small niches (_columbaria_) to receive
+the cinerary urns. Vitruvius (iv. 2) employs the term to signify the
+holes made in a wall to receive the ends of the timbers of a floor or
+roof.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA, a city and the county-seat of Boone county, Missouri, U.S.A.,
+situated in the central part of the state, about 145 m. (by rail) W.N.W.
+of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4000; (1900) 5651 (1916 negroes); (1910) 9662.
+Columbia is served by the Wabash and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas
+railways. It is primarily an educational centre, is a market for grain
+and farm products, and has grain elevators, a packing house, a shoe
+factory and brick works. Columbia is the seat of the University of
+Missouri, a coeducational state institution, established in 1839 and
+opened in 1841; it received no direct financial support from the state
+until 1867, and its founding was due to the self-sacrifice of the people
+of the county. It is now liberally supported by the state; in 1908 its
+annual income was about $650,000. In 1908 the university had (at
+Columbia) 200 instructors and 2419 students, including 680 women;
+included in its library is the collection of the State Historical
+Society. The School of Mines of the university is at Rolla, Mo.; all
+other departments are at Columbia. A normal department was established
+in 1867 and opened in 1868; and women were admitted to it in 1869. The
+College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts became a department of the
+university in 1870. The law department was opened in 1872, the medical
+in 1873, and the engineering in 1877. The graduate department was
+established in 1896, and in 1908 a department of journalism was
+organized. On the university campus in the quadrangle is the monument of
+grey granite erected over the grave of Thomas Jefferson, designed after
+his own plans, and bearing the famous inscription written by him. It was
+given to the university by descendants of Jefferson when Congress
+appropriated money for the monument now standing over his grave. Near
+the city is the farm of the agricultural college and the experiment
+station. At Columbia, also, are the Parker Memorial hospital, the
+Teachers College high school, the University Military Academy, the
+Columbia Business College, Christian College (Disciples) for women,
+established in 1851, its charter being the first granted by Missouri for
+the collegiate education of Protestant women; the Bible College of the
+Disciples of Christ in Missouri; and Stephens College (under Baptist
+control) for women, established in 1856. The municipality owns the
+water-works and the electric lighting plant. Columbia was first settled
+about 1821.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA, a borough of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W.
+bank of the Susquehanna river (here crossed by a long steel bridge),
+opposite Wrightsville and about 81 m. W. by N. of Philadelphia. Pop.
+(1890) 10,599; (1900) 12,316, of whom 772 were foreign-born; (1910)
+11,454. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia, Baltimore &
+Washington, the Philadelphia & Reading, and the Northern Central
+railways, and by interurban electric railways. The river here is about a
+mile wide, and a considerable portion of the borough is built on the
+slope of a hill which rises gently from the river-bank and overlooks
+beautiful scenery. The Pennsylvania railway has repair shops here, and
+among Columbia's manufactures are silk goods, embroidery and laces, iron
+and steel pipe, engines, laundry machinery, brushes, stoves, iron toys,
+umbrellas, flour, lumber and wagons; the city is also a busy shipping
+and trading centre. Columbia was first settled, by Quakers, in 1726; it
+was laid out as a town in 1787; and in 1814 it was incorporated. In 1790
+it was one of several places considered in Congress for a permanent site
+of the national capital.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA, the capital city of South Carolina, U.S.A., and the
+county-seat of Richland county, on the E. bank of the Congaree river, a
+short distance below the confluence of the Saluda and the Broad rivers,
+about 130 m. N.W. of Charleston. Pop. (1890) 15,353; (19O0) 21,108, of
+whom 9858 were negroes; and (1910) 26,319. It is served by the Atlantic
+Coast Line, the Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Columbia,
+Newberry & Laurens railways. Columbia is picturesquely situated on the
+level top of a bluff overlooking the Congaree, which falls about 36 ft.
+in passing by, but is navigable for the remainder of its course. The
+surrounding country is devoted chiefly to cotton culture. The state
+house, United States government building and city hall are fine
+structures. Some of the new business houses are ten or more storeys in
+height. The state penitentiary and the state insane asylum are located
+here, and Columbia is an important educational centre, being the seat of
+the university of South Carolina, the Columbia College for women
+(Methodist Episcopal South, 1854), the College for women (Presbyterian,
+1890), and the Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1828); and the Allen
+University (African Methodist Episcopal; coeducational, 1880), and the
+Benedict College (Baptist) for negroes. The University of South
+Carolina, organized in 1801 and opened in 1805, was known as South
+Carolina College in 1805-1863, 1878-1887 and 1891-1906, and as the
+university of South Carolina in 1866-1877, 1888-1891 and after 1906; in
+1907-1908 it had departments of arts, science, pedagogy and law, an
+enrolment of 285 students, and a faculty of 25 instructors. By means of
+a canal abundant water power is furnished by the Congaree, and the city
+has some of the largest cotton mills in the world; it has, besides,
+foundries and machine shops and manufactories of fertilizers and
+hosiery. The manufactures under the factory system were valued at
+$3,133,903 in 1900 and at $4,676,944 in 1905--a gain, greater than that
+of any other city in the state, of 49.2% in five years. In the
+neighbourhood are several valuable granite quarries. The municipality
+owns and operates its water-works.
+
+While much of the site was still a forest the legislature, in 1786,
+chose it for the new capital. It was laid out in the same year, and in
+1790 the legislature first met here. Until 1805, when it was
+incorporated as a village, Columbia was under the direct government of
+the legislature; in 1854 it was chartered as a city. On the morning of
+the 17th of February 1865 General W. T. Sherman, on his march through
+the Carolinas, entered Columbia, and on the ensuing night a fire broke
+out which was not extinguished until most of the city was destroyed. The
+responsibility for this fire was charged by the Confederates upon the
+Federals and by the Federals upon the Confederates.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA, a city and the county-seat of Maury county, Tennessee, U.S.A.,
+situated on the Duck river, in the central part of the state, 46 m. S.
+of Nashville. Pop. (1890) 5370; (1900) 6052 (2716 negroes); (1910) 5754.
+Columbia is served by the Louisville & Nashville, and the Nashville,
+Chattanooga & St Louis railways. It is the seat of the Columbia
+Institute for girls (under Protestant Episcopal control), founded in
+1836, and of the Columbia Military Academy. Columbia is in a fine
+farming region; is engaged extensively in the mining and shipping of
+phosphates; has an important trade in live-stock, especially mules;
+manufactures cotton, lumber, flour, bricks, pumps and woollen goods; and
+has marble and stone works. Columbia was settled about 1807 and was
+incorporated in 1822. During the Civil War it was the base from which
+General N. B. Forrest operated in 1862-1863, and was alternately
+occupied by Confederate and Federal forces during General Hood's
+Nashville campaign (November-December 1864).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA RIVER, a stream of the north-west United States and south-west
+Canada, about 939 m. in length, draining a basin of about 250,000 sq.
+m., of which 38,395 are in British Columbia; some 105,000 sq. m. belong
+to the valley of the Snake and 11,700 to that of the Willamette. The
+source of the river is partly in the Yellowstone country, partly near
+the Titon peaks, and partly in the pine-clad mountains of British
+Columbia. Some American geographers regard the head as that of the Clark
+Fork, but it is most generally taken to be in British Columbia about 80
+m. north of the United States line. From this point it runs some 150 m.
+to the north-west to the "Big Bend," and then in a great curve
+southward, enclosing the superb ranges of the Selkirks, crossing the
+international line near the boundary of Washington and Idaho, where it
+is joined by the Pend Oreille river, or Clark Fork, already referred to.
+This latter river rises in the Rocky Mountains west of Helena, Montana,
+falls with a heavy slope (1323 ft. in 167 m.) to its confluence with the
+Flathead, flows through Lake Pend Oreille (27 m.) in northern Idaho, and
+runs in deep canyons (falling 900 ft. in 200 m.) to its junction with
+the Columbia, which from this point continues almost due south for more
+than 106 m. Here the Columbia is joined by the Spokane, a large river
+with heavy fall, and enters the "Great Plain of the Columbia," an area
+of some 22,000 sq. m., resembling the "parks" of Colorado, shut in on
+all sides by mountains: the Moses range to the north, the Bitter Root
+and Coeur d'Alène on the east, the Blue on the south, and the Cascades
+on the west. The soil is rich, yielding great harvests of grain, and the
+mountains rich in minerals as yet only slightly prospected. After
+breaking into this basin the river turns sharply to the west and skirts
+the northern mountain barrier for about 105 m. Where it strikes the
+confines of the Cascades, it is joined by the Okanogan, turns due south
+in the second Big Bend, and flows about 200 m. to its junction with the
+Snake near Wallula.
+
+After the confluence of the Snake with the Columbia the greater river
+turns west toward the Pacific. Throughout its course to this point it
+may be said that the Columbia has no flood plain; everywhere it is
+cutting its bed; almost everywhere it is characterized by canyons,
+although above the Spokane the valley is much broken down and there is
+considerable timbered and fertile bench land. Below the Spokane the
+canyon becomes more steep and rugged. From the mouth of the Okanogan to
+Priests Rapids extends a superb canyon, with precipitous walls of black
+columnar basalt 1000 to 3000 ft. in height. The finest portion is below
+the Rock Island Rapids. In this part of its course, along the Cascade
+range in the Great Plain and at its passage of the range westward,
+rapids and cascades particularly obstruct the imperfectly opened bed. In
+the lower Columbia, navigation is first interrupted 160 m. from the
+mouth at the Cascades, a narrow gorge across the Cascade range 4.5 m.
+long, where the river falls 24 ft. in 2500; the rapids are evaded by a
+canal constructed (1878-1896) by the Federal government, and by a
+portage railway (1890-1891). Fifty-three miles above this are the
+Dalles, a series of falls, rapids and rock obstructions extending some
+12 m. and ending at Celilo, 115m. below Wallula, with a fall of 20 ft.
+There are also impediments just below the mouth of the Snake; others in
+the lower course of this river below Riparia; and almost continuous
+obstructions in the Columbia above Priests Rapids. The commerce of the
+Columbia is very important, especially that from Portland, Vancouver,
+Astoria, and other outlets of the Willamette valley and the lower
+Columbia. The grain region of the Great Plain, the bottom-land orchards
+and grain field on the plateaus of the Snake, have not since 1880 been
+dependent upon the water navigation for freighting, but in their
+interest costly attempts have been made to open the river below the
+Snake uninterruptedly to commerce.
+
+The Columbia is one of the greatest salmon streams of the world (see
+OREGON). The tonnage of deep-sea vessels in and out over the bar at the
+river's mouth from 1890-1899 was 9,423,637 tons. From 1872-1899 the
+United States government expended for improvement of the Snake and
+Columbia $6,925,649. The mouth of the latter is the only deep-water
+harbour between San Francisco and Cape Flattery (700 m.), and the only
+fresh water harbour of the Pacific coast. To facilitate its entrance,
+which, owing to bars, tides, winds, and the great discharge of the
+river, has always been difficult, a great jetty has been constructed
+(1885-1895, later enlarged) to scour the bars. It was about 4.5 miles
+long, and in 1903 work was begun to make it 2.5 miles longer. The tides
+are perceptible 150 m. above the mouth (mean tide at Astoria _c._ 6.2
+ft.), the average tidal flow at the mouth being about 1,000,000 cub. ft.
+per second; while the fresh water outflow is from 90,000 to 300,000 cub.
+ft. according to the stage of water, and as high as 1,000,000 cub. ft.
+in time of flood. Improvements were undertaken by the Federal government
+and a state commission in 1902 in order to secure a 25-ft. channel from
+Portland to the sea.
+
+In 1792, and possibly also in 1788, the river mouth was entered by
+Captain Robert Gray (1755-1806) of Boston, Mass., who named the river
+after his own vessel, "Columbia," which name has wholly supplanted the
+earlier name, "Oregon." In 1804-1805 the river was explored by
+Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Upon these discoveries the United
+States primarily based its claim to the territory now embraced in the
+states of Oregon and Washington.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, one of the oldest and most important of the higher
+institutions of learning in the United States, located for the most part
+on Morningside Heights, New York city. It embraces Columbia College,
+founded as King's College in 1754; a school of medicine (the College of
+Physicians and Surgeons) founded in 1767, in West 59th Street; a school
+of law, founded in 1858; schools of applied science, including a school
+of mines and schools of chemistry and engineering, separately organized
+in 1896; a school of architecture, organized in 1881; graduate schools
+of political science, organized in 1880, philosophy, organized in 1890,
+and pure science, organized in 1892; and a school of journalism; closely
+affiliated with it are the College of Pharmacy, founded in 1829, in West
+68th Street; Teachers' College, founded in 1886, as the New York College
+for the Training of Teachers, and essentially a part of the university
+since 1899; and Barnard College (for women) founded in 1889, and
+essentially a part of the university since 1900. Reciprocal relations
+also exist between the university and both the General Theological
+Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church and the Union Theological
+Seminary, thus practically adding to the university a theological
+department. Columbia also nominates the American professors who lecture
+at German universities by the reciprocal arrangement made in 1905, the
+German professors lecturing in America being nominated by the Prussian
+ministry of education. Women are now admitted to all the university
+courses except those in law, medicine, technology and architecture.
+Since 1900 a summer session has been held for six weeks and attended
+largely by teachers. Teachers and others, under the direction of the
+Teachers' College, are afforded an opportunity to pursue courses _in
+absentia_ and so meet some of the requirements for an academic degree or
+a teacher's diploma. All students of good ability are enabled to
+complete the requirements for the bachelor's degree together with any
+one of the professional degrees by six years of study at the university.
+Several courses of lectures designed especially for the public--notably
+the Hewitt Lectures, in co-operation with Cooper Union--are delivered at
+different places in the city and at the university.
+
+In 1908 there were in Columbia University in all departments 609
+instructors and 4096 students; of these 420 were in Barnard College, 850
+were in the Teachers' College, and 229 were in the College of Pharmacy.
+The numerous University publications include works embodying the
+results of original research published by the University Press;
+"Studies" published in the form of a series by each of several
+departments, various periodicals edited by some members of the faculty,
+such as the _Columbia University Quarterly_, the _Political Science
+Quarterly_, and the _School of Mines Quarterly_; and several papers or
+periodicals published by the students, among which are the _Columbia
+Spectator_, a daily paper, the _Columbia Law Review_, the _Columbia
+Monthly_ and the _Columbia Jester_.
+
+With two or three unimportant exceptions the buildings of the university
+on Morningside Heights have been erected since 1896. They include,
+besides the several department buildings, a library building, a
+university hall (with gymnasium), Earl Hall (for social purposes), St
+Paul's chapel (dedicated in 1907), two residence halls for men, and one
+for women. The library contains about 450,000 volumes exclusive of
+duplicates and unbound pamphlets. The highest authority in the
+government of the institution is vested in a board of twenty-four
+trustees, vacancies in which are filled by co-optation; but the
+immediate educational interests are directed largely by the members of
+the university council, which is composed of the president of the
+university, the dean and one other representative from the faculty of
+each school. The institution is maintained by the proceeds from an
+endowment fund exceeding $15,000,000, by tuition fees ranging, according
+to the school, from $150 to $250 for each student, and by occasional
+gifts for particular objects.
+
+The charter (1754) providing for the establishment of King's College was
+so free from narrow sectarianism as to name ministers of five different
+denominations for ex-officio governors, and the purpose of the
+institution as set forth by its first president, Dr Samuel Johnson
+(1696-1772) was about as broad as that now realised. In 1756 the
+erection of the first building was begun at the lower end of Manhattan
+Island, near the Hudson, and the institution prospered from the
+beginning. From 1776 to 1784, during the War of Independence, the
+exercises of the college were suspended and the library and apparatus
+were stored in the New York city hall. In 1784 the name was changed to
+Columbia College, and an act of the legislature was passed for creating
+a state university, of which Columbia was to be the basis. But the plan
+was not a success, and three years later, in 1787, the act was repealed
+and the administration of Columbia was entrusted to a board of trustees
+of which the present board is a successor. In 1857 there was an
+extensive re-organization by which the scope of the institution was much
+enlarged, and at the same time it was removed to a new site on Madison
+Avenue between 49th and 50th Streets. From 1890 to 1895 much
+centralization in its administration was effected, in 1896 the name of
+Columbia University was adopted, and in the autumn of 1897 the old site
+and buildings were again abandoned for new, this time on Morningside
+Heights.
+
+  See _A History of Columbia University_, by members of the faculty (New
+  York, 1904); and J. B. Pine, "King's College, now Columbia
+  University," in _Historic New York_ (New York, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBINE (Ital. _columbina_, from _columba_, a dove), in pantomime
+(q.v.) the fairy-like dancer who is courted by Harlequin. In the
+medieval Italian popular comedy she was Harlequin's daughter.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBINE, an erect perennial herbaceous plant known botanically as
+_Aquilegia vulgaris_ (natural order Ranunculaceae). In Med. Latin it was
+known as _Columbina sc. herba_, the dove's plant. The slender stem bears
+delicate, long-stalked, deeply divided leaves with blunt segments, and a
+loose panicle of handsome drooping blue or white flowers, which are
+characterized by having all the five petals spurred. The plant occurs
+wild in woods and thickets in England and Ireland, and flowers in early
+summer. It is well known in cultivation as a favourite spring flower, in
+many varieties, some of which have red flowers.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBITE, a rare mineral consisting of iron niobate, FeNb2O6, in
+which the iron and niobium are replaced by varying amounts of manganese
+and tantalum respectively, the general formula being (Fe, Mn) (Nb,
+Ta)2O6. It was in this mineral that Charles Hatchett discovered,
+in 1801, the element niobium, which he himself called columbium after
+the country (Columbia or America) whence came the specimen in the
+British Museum collection which he examined. The species has also been
+called niobite. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, and the
+black, opaque crystals are often very brilliant with a sub-metallic
+lustre. Twinned crystals are not uncommon, and there is a distinct
+cleavage parallel to the face marked _b_ in the figure. Hardness 6;
+specific gravity 5.3. With increasing amount of tantalum the specific
+gravity increases up to 7.3, and members at this end of the series are
+known as tantalite (FeTa2O6). Specimens in which the iron is
+largely replaced by manganese are known as manganocolumbite or
+manganotantalite, according as they contain more niobium or more
+tantalum. Columbite occurs as crystals and compact masses in granite and
+pegmatite at Rabenstein in Lower Bavaria, the Ilmen Mountains in the
+Urals, Haddam in Connecticut, and several other localities in the United
+States; also in the cryolite of Greenland. Tantalite is from Finland,
+and it has recently been found in some abundance in the deposits of
+cassiterite in the tin-field of Greenbushes in the Blackwood district,
+Western Australia.
+
+[Illustration: Crystal of Columbite.]
+
+Dimorphous with columbite and tantalite are the tetragonal minerals
+tapiolite (= skogbölite) and mossite, so that the four form an
+isodimorphous group with the general formula (Fe, Mn) (Nb, Ta)2O6.
+Mossite is from a pegmatite vein near Moss in Norway, and tapiolite is
+from Finland. All these minerals contain tin in small amount.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIUM, or NIOBIUM (symbol Cb or Nb, atomic weight 94), one of the
+metallic elements of the nitrogen group, first detected in 1801 by C.
+Hatchett in a specimen of columbite (niobite) from Massachusetts (_Phil.
+Trans._ 1802, 49). It is usually found associated with tantalum, the
+chief minerals containing these two elements being tantalite, columbite,
+fergusonite and yttrotantalite; it is also a constituent of pyrochlor,
+euxenite and samarskite. Columbium compounds are usually prepared by
+fusing columbite with an excess of acid potassium sulphate, boiling out
+the fused mass with much water, and removing tin and tungsten from the
+residue by digestion with ammonium sulphide, any iron present being
+simultaneously converted into ferrous sulphide. The residue is washed,
+extracted by dilute hydrochloric acid, and again well washed with
+boiling water. It is then dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and heated in
+order to expel silicon fluoride; finally the columbium, tantalum and
+titanium fluorides are separated by the different solubilities of their
+double fluorides (C. Marignac, _Ann. chim. et phys._ 1866 [4], 8, p. 63;
+1868, 13, p. 28; see also W. Gibbs, _Jahresb._ 1864, p. 685; R. D. Hall
+and E. F. Smith, _Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc._ 1905, 44, p. 177).
+
+The metal was first obtained by C. W. Blomstrand (_Journ. prak. Chem._
+1866, 97, p. 37) by reducing the chloride with hydrogen; it has more
+recently been prepared by H. Moissan by reducing the oxide with carbon
+in the electric furnace (the product obtained always contains from 2-3%
+of combined carbon), and by H. Goldschmidt and C. Vautin (_Journ. Soc.
+Chem. Industry_, 1898, 19, p. 543) by reducing the oxide with aluminium
+powder. As obtained by the reduction of the chloride, it is a steel grey
+powder of specific gravity 7.06. It burns on heating in air; and is
+scarcely attacked by hydrochloric or nitric acids, or by _aqua regia_;
+it is soluble in warm concentrated sulphuric acid.
+
+  _Columbium hydride_, CbH, is obtained as a greyish metallic powder,
+  when the double fluoride, CbF5, 2KF, is reduced with sodium. It
+  burns when heated in air, and is soluble in warm concentrated
+  sulphuric acid. Three oxides of columbium are certainly known, namely
+  the _dioxide_, Cb2O2, the _tetroxide_, Cb2O4, and the
+  _pentoxide_, Cb2O5, whilst a fourth oxide, _columbium trioxide_,
+  Cb2O3, has been described by E. F. Smith and P. Maas (_Zeit. f.
+  anorg. Chem._ 1894, 7, p. 97). _Columbium dioxide_, Cb2O2, is
+  formed when dry potassium columbium oxyfluoride is reduced by sodium
+  (H. Rose, _Pogg. Ann._ 1858, 104, p. 312). It burns readily in air,
+  and is converted into the pentoxide when fused with acid potassium
+  sulphate. _Columbium_ _tetroxide_, Cb2O4 is obtained as a black
+  powder when the pentoxide is heated to a high temperature in a current
+  of hydrogen. It is unattacked by acids. _Columbium pentoxide_
+  (columbic acid), Cb2O5, is obtained from columbite, after the
+  removal of tantalum (see above). The mother liquors are concentrated,
+  and the double salt of composition 2KF·CbOF3·H2O, which
+  separates, is decomposed by sulphuric acid, or by continued boiling
+  with water (C. Marignac; see also G. Krüss and L. F. Nilson, _Ber._
+  1887, 20, p. 1676). It is a white amorphous infusible powder, which
+  when strongly heated in sulphuretted hydrogen, yields an oxysulphide.
+  Several hydrated forms are known, yielding salts known as
+  _columbates_. A _percolumbic acid_, HCbO4·nH2O, has been
+  prepared by P. Melikoff and L. Pissarjewsky (_Zeit. f. anorg. Chem._
+  1899, 20, p. 341), as a yellow amorphous powder by the action of
+  dilute sulphuric acid on the potassium salt, which is formed when
+  columbic acid is fused in a silver crucible with eight times its
+  weight of caustic potash (_loc. cit._). Salts of the acid H3CbO8
+  have been described by C. W. Balke and E. F. Smith (_Jour. Amer. Chem.
+  Soc._ 1908, 30, p. 1637).
+
+  _Columbium trichloride_, CbCl3, is obtained in needles or crystalline
+  crusts, when the vapour of the pentachloride is slowly passed through
+  a red-hot tube. When heated in a current of carbon dioxide it forms
+  the oxychloride CbOCl3, and carbon monoxide. _Columbium
+  pentachloride_, CbCl5, is obtained in yellow needles when a mixture of
+  the pentoxide and sugar charcoal is heated in a current of air-free
+  chlorine. It melts at 194° C. (H. Deville) and boils at 240.5° C. It
+  is decomposed by water, and dissolves in hydrochloric acid. _Columbium
+  oxychloride_, CbOCl3, is formed when carbon tetrachloride, and
+  columbic acid are heated together at 440° C.: 3CCl4 + Cb2O5 = 2CbOCl3
+  + 3COCl2, and also by distilling the pentachloride, in a current of
+  carbon dioxide, over ignited columbic acid. It forms a white silky
+  mass which volatilizes at about 400° C. It deliquesces in moist air,
+  and is decomposed violently by water. _Columbium pentafluoride_, CbF5,
+  is obtained when the pentoxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid. It
+  is only known in solution; evaporation of the solution yields the
+  pentoxide. The _oxyfluoride_, CbOF3, results when a mixture of the
+  pentoxide and fluorspar is heated in a current of hydrochloric acid.
+  It forms many double salts with other metallic fluorides.
+
+  _Columbium oxysulphide_, CbOS3, is obtained as a dark bronze coloured
+  powder when the pentoxide is heated to a white heat in a current of
+  carbon bisulphide vapour; or by gently heating the oxychloride in a
+  current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It burns when heated in air, forming
+  the pentoxide and sulphur dioxide.
+
+  _Columbium nitride_, Cb3N5 (?), is formed when dry ammonia gas is
+  passed into an ethereal solution of the chloride. A heavy white
+  precipitate, consisting of ammonium chloride and columbium nitride, is
+  thrown down, and the ammonium chloride is removed by washing it out
+  with hot water, when the columbium nitride remains as an amorphous
+  residue (Hall and Smith, _loc. cit._).
+
+  _Potassium fluoxy percolumbate_, K2CbO2F5·H2O, is prepared by
+  dissolving potassium columbium oxyfluoride in a 3% solution of
+  hydrogen peroxide. The solution turns yellow in colour, and, when
+  saturated, deposits a pasty mass of crystals. The salt separates from
+  solutions containing hydrofluoric acid in large plates, which are
+  greenish yellow in colour.
+
+  The atomic weight was determined by C. Marignac (_Ann. chim. et phys._
+  1866 (4), 8, p. 16) to be 94 from the analysis of potassium columbium
+  oxyfluoride, and the same value has been obtained by T. W. Richards
+  (_Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc._ 1898, 20, p. 543).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER [in Spanish CRISTOBAL COLÓN] (c. 1446, or perhaps
+rather 1451,-1506) was the eldest son of Domenico Colombo and Suzanna
+Fontanarossa, and was born at Genoa either about 1446 or in 1451, the
+exact date being uncertain. His father was a wool-comber, of some small
+means, who lived till 1498. According to the life of Columbus by his son
+Ferdinand (a statement supported by Las Casas), young Christopher was
+sent to the university of Pavia, where he devoted himself to astronomy,
+geometry and cosmography. Yet, according to the admiral's own statement,
+he became a sailor at fourteen. Evidently this statement, however,
+cannot mean the abandonment of all other employment, for in 1470, 1472,
+and 1473 we find him engaged in trade at Genoa, following the family
+business of weaving, and (in 1473) residing at the neighbouring Savona.
+In 1474-1475 he appears to have visited Chios, where he may have resided
+some time, returning to Genoa perhaps early in 1476. Thence he seems to
+have again set out on a voyage in the summer of 1476, perhaps bound for
+England; on the 13th of August 1476, the four Genoese vessels he
+accompanied were attacked off Cape St Vincent by a privateer, one
+Guillaume de Casenove, surnamed Coullon or Colombo ("Columbus"); two of
+the four ships escaped, with Christopher, to Lisbon. In December 1476,
+the latter resumed their voyage to England, probably carrying with them
+Columbus, who, after a short stay in England, claims to have made a
+voyage in the northern seas, and even to have visited Iceland about
+February 1477. This last pretension is gravely disputed, but it is
+perhaps not to be rejected, and we may also trace the Genoese about this
+time at Bristol, at Galway, and probably among the islands west and
+north of Scotland. Soon after this he returned to Portugal, where
+(probably in 1478) he married a lady of some rank, Felipa Moñiz de
+Perestrello, daughter of Bartholomew Perestrello, a captain in the
+service of Prince Henry the Navigator, and one of the early colonists
+and first governor of Porto Santo. Felipa was also a cousin of the
+archbishop of Lisbon at this time (1478).
+
+
+  Idea of western passage to Asia.
+
+About 1479 Columbus visited Porto Santo, here as in Portugal probably
+employing his time in making maps and charts for a livelihood, while he
+pored over the logs and papers of his deceased father-in-law, and talked
+with old seamen of their voyages, and of the mystery of the western
+seas. About this time, too, if not earlier, he seems to have arrived at
+the conclusion that much of the world remained undiscovered, and step by
+step conceived that design of reaching Asia by sailing west which was to
+result in the discovery of America. In 1474 he is said to have
+corresponded with Paolo Toscanelli, the Florentine physician and
+cosmographer, and to have received from him valuable suggestions, both
+by map and letter, for such a Western enterprise. (The whole of this
+incident has been disputed by some recent critics.) He had perhaps
+already begun his studies in a number of works, especially the _Book_ of
+Marco Polo and the _Imago Mundi_ of Pierre d'Ailly, by which his
+cosmographical and geographical conceptions were largely moulded. His
+views, as finally developed and presented to the courts of Portugal and
+Spain, were supported by three principal lines of argument, derived from
+natural reasons, from the theories of geographers, and from the reports
+and traditions of mariners. He believed the world to be a sphere; he
+underestimated its size; he overestimated the size of the Asiatic
+continent. And the farther that continent extended towards the east, the
+nearer it came towards Spain. Nor were these theories the only supports
+of his idea. Martin Vicente, a Portuguese pilot, was said to have found,
+400 leagues to the westward of Cape St Vincent, and after a westerly
+gale of many days' duration, a piece of strange wood, wrought, but not
+with iron; Pedro Correa, Columbus's own brother-in-law, was said to have
+seen another such waif at Porto Santo, with great canes capable of
+holding four quarts of wine between joint and joint, and to have heard
+of two men being washed up at Flores "very broad-faced, and differing in
+aspect from Christians." West of Europe, now and then, men fancied there
+hove in sight the mysterious islands of St Brandan, of Brazil, of
+Antillia or of the Seven Cities. In his northern journey, too, some
+vague and formless traditions may have reached the explorer's ear of the
+voyages of Leif Ericson and Thorfinn Karlsefne, and of the coasts of
+Markland and Vinland. All were hints and rumours to bid the bold mariner
+sail towards the setting sun, and this he at length determined to do.
+
+
+  Quest of a patron.
+
+The concurrence of some state or sovereign, however, was necessary for
+the success of this design. Columbus, on the accession of John II. of
+Portugal, seems to have entered the service of this country, to have
+accompanied Diego d'Azambuja to the Gold Coast, and to have taken part
+in the construction of the famous fort of St George at El Mina
+(1481-1482). On his return from this expedition, he submitted to King
+John the scheme he had now matured for reaching Asia by a western route
+across the ocean. The king was deeply interested in the rival scheme (of
+an eastern or south-eastern route round Africa to India) which had so
+long held the field, which had been initiated by the Genoese in 1291,
+and which had been revived, for Portugal, by Prince Henry the Navigator;
+but he listened to the Genoese, and referred him to a committee of
+council for geographical affairs. The council's report was adverse; but
+the king, who was yet inclined to favour the theory of Columbus,
+assented to the suggestion of the bishop of Ceuta that the plan should
+be carried out in secret and without its author's knowledge. A caravel
+was despatched; but it returned after a brief absence, the sailors
+having lost heart, and refused to venture farther. Upon discovering
+this treachery, Columbus left Lisbon for Spain (1484), taking with him
+his son Diego, the only issue of his marriage with Felipa Moñiz, who was
+by this time dead. He departed secretly;--according to some writers, to
+give the slip to King John; according to others, to escape his
+creditors.
+
+Columbus next betook himself to the south of Spain, and while meditating
+an appeal to the king of France, opened his plans to the count (from
+1491, duke) of Medina Celi. The latter gave him great encouragement,
+entertained him for two years, and even determined to furnish him with
+three or four caravels, to carry out his great design. Finally, however,
+being deterred by the consideration that the enterprise was too vast for
+a subject, he turned his guest from the determination he had come to of
+making application at the court of France, by writing on his behalf to
+Queen Isabella; and Columbus repaired to the court at Cordova at her
+bidding (1486).
+
+It was an ill moment for the navigator's fortune. Castile and Leon were
+in the thick of that struggle which resulted in the final conquest of
+the Granada Moors; and neither Ferdinand nor Isabella had time as yet to
+give due consideration to Columbus' proposals. The adventurer was indeed
+kindly received; he was handed over to the care of Alonso de
+Quintanilla, whom he speedily converted into an enthusiastic supporter
+of his theory. He made many other friends, and among them Beatriz
+Enriquez, the mother of his second son Fernando. But the committee,
+presided over by the queen's confessor, Fray Hernando de Talavera, which
+had been appointed to consider the new project, reported that it was
+vain and impracticable.
+
+From Cordova Columbus followed the court to Salamanca, having already
+been introduced by Quintanilla to the notice of the grand cardinal,
+Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, "the third king of Spain"; the latter had
+befriended and supported the Genoese, and apparently arranged the first
+interview between him and Queen Isabella. At Salamanca prolonged
+discussions took place upon the questions now raised; the Dominicans of
+San Esteban entertained Columbus during the conferences (1486-1487). In
+1487 Columbus, who had been following the court from place to place
+(billeted in towns as an officer of the sovereigns, and gratified from
+time to time with sums of money towards his expenses), was present at
+the siege of Malaga. In 1488 he was invited by the king of Portugal, his
+"especial friend," to return to that country, and was assured of
+protection against arrest or proceedings of any kind (March 20): he had
+probably made fresh overtures to King John shortly before; and in the
+autumn of 1488 we find him in Lisbon, conferring with his brother
+Bartholomew and laying plans for the future. We have no record of the
+final negotiations of Columbus with the Portuguese government, but they
+clearly did not issue in anything definite, for Christopher now returned
+to Spain (though not till he had witnessed the return of Bartholomew
+Diaz from the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and his reception by
+King John), while Bartholomew proceeded to England with a mission to
+interest King Henry VII. in the Columbian schemes. If the London
+enterprise was unsuccessful (as indeed it proved), it was settled that
+Bartholomew should carry the same invitation to the French court. He did
+so; and here he remained till summoned to Spain in 1493. Meantime
+Christopher, unable throughout 1490 to get a hearing at the Spanish
+court, was in 1491 again referred to a _junta_, presided over by
+Cardinal Mendoza; but this _junta_, to Columbus' dismay, once more
+rejected his proposals; the Spanish sovereigns merely promised him that
+when the Granada war was over, they would reconsider what he had laid
+before them.
+
+Columbus was now in despair. He at once betook himself to Huelva, a
+little maritime town in Andalusia, north-west of Cadiz, with the
+intention of taking ship for France. He halted, however, at the
+monastery of La Rabida, near Huelva, and still nearer Palos, where he
+seems to have made lasting friendships on his first arrival in Spain in
+January 1485, where he especially enlisted the support of Juan Perez,
+the guardian, who invited him to take up his quarters in the monastery,
+and introduced him to Garcia Fernandez, a physician and student of
+geography. Juan Perez had been the queen's confessor; he now wrote to
+her in urgent terms, and was summoned to her presence; and money was
+sent to Columbus to bring him once more to court. He reached Granada in
+time to witness the surrender of the city (January 2, 1492), and
+negotiations were resumed. Columbus believed in his mission, and stood
+out for high terms; he asked for the rank of admiral at once ("Admiral
+of the Ocean" in all those islands, seas, and continents that he might
+discover), the vice-royalty of all he should discover, and a tenth of
+the precious metals discovered within his admiralty. These conditions
+were rejected, and the negotiations were again interrupted. An interview
+with Mendoza appears to have followed; but nothing came of it, and
+before the close of January 1492, Columbus actually set out for France.
+At length, however, on the entreaty of the Queen's confidante, the
+Marquesa de Moya, of Luis de Santangel, receiver of the ecclesiastical
+revenues of the crown of Aragon, and of other courtiers, Isabella was
+induced to determine on the expedition. A messenger was sent after
+Columbus, and overtook him near a bridge called "Pinos," 6 m. from
+Granada. He returned to the camp at Santa Fé; and on the 17th of April
+1492, the agreement between him and their Catholic majesties was signed
+and sealed.
+
+As his aims included not only the discovery of Cipangu or Japan, but
+also the opening up of intercourse with the grand khan of Cathay, he
+received a royal letter of introduction to the latter. The town of Palos
+was ordered to find him two ships, and these were soon placed at his
+disposal. But no crews could be got together, in spite of the indemnity
+offered to criminals and "broken men" who would serve on the expedition;
+and had not Juan Perez succeeded in interesting in the cause the Palos
+"magnates" Martin Alonso Pinzon and Vicente Yañez Pinzon, Columbus'
+departure had been long delayed. At last, however, men, ships and stores
+were ready. The expedition consisted of the "Santa Maria," a decked ship
+of 100 tons with a crew of 52 men, commanded by the admiral in person;
+and of two caravels; the "Pinta" of 50 tons, with 18 men, under Martin
+Pinzon; and the "Nina," of 40 tons, with 18 men, under his brother
+Vicente Yañez, afterwards (1499) the first to cross the line in the
+American Atlantic.
+
+
+  First voyage.
+
+  America discovered.
+
+The adventurers numbered 88-souls; and on Friday, the 3rd of August
+1492, at eight in the morning, the little fleet weighed anchor, and
+stood for the Canary Islands. An abstract of the admiral's diary made by
+Las Casas is yet extant; and from it many particulars may be gleaned
+concerning this first voyage. Three days after the ships had set sail
+the "Pinta" lost her rudder; the admiral was in some alarm, but
+comforted himself with the reflection that Martin Pinzon was energetic
+and ready-witted; they had, however, to put in at Teneriffe, to refit
+the caravel. On the 6th of September they weighed anchor once more with
+all haste, Columbus having been informed that three Portuguese caravels
+were on the look-out to intercept him. On the 13th of September the
+westerly variations of the magnetic needle were for the first time
+observed; on the 15th a meteor fell into the sea at four or five leagues
+distance; soon after they arrived at those vast plains of seaweed called
+the Sargasso Sea; while all the time, writes the admiral, they had most
+temperate breezes, the sweetness of the mornings being especially
+delightful, the weather like an Andalusian April, and only the song of
+the nightingale wanting. On the 17th the men began to murmur; they were
+frightened by the strange phenomena of the variation of the compass, but
+the explanation Columbus gave restored their tranquillity. On the 18th
+they saw many birds, and a great ridge of low-lying cloud; and they
+expected to see land. On the 20th they saw boobies and other birds, and
+were sure the land must be near. In this, however, they were
+disappointed; and thenceforth Columbus, who was keeping all the while a
+double reckoning, one for the crew and one for himself, had great
+difficulty in restraining the evil-disposed from the excesses they
+meditated. On the 25th Martin Alonso Pinzon raised the cry of land, but
+it proved false, as did the rumour to the same effect on the 7th of
+October, from the "Niña." But on the 11th the "Pinta" fished up a cane,
+a pole, a stick which appeared to have been wrought with iron, and a
+board, while the "Niña" sighted a branch covered with berries; "and with
+these signs all of them breathed and were glad." At ten o'clock on that
+night Columbus himself perceived and pointed out a light ahead, and at
+two in the morning of Friday, the 12th of October 1492, Rodrigo de
+Triana, a sailor aboard the "Niña," announced the appearance of what
+proved to be the New World. The land sighted was an island, called by
+the Indians Guanahani, and named by Columbus San Salvador. It is
+generally identified with Watling Island.
+
+The same morning Columbus landed, richly clad, and bearing the royal
+banner of Spain. He was accompanied by the brothers Pinzon, bearing
+banners of the Green Cross (a device of the admiral's), and by great
+part of the crew. When they all had "given thanks to God, kneeling upon
+the shore, and kissed the ground with tears of joy, for the great mercy
+received," the admiral named the island, and took solemn possession of
+it for their Catholic majesties of Castile and Leon. At the same time
+such of the crews as had shown themselves doubtful and mutinous sought
+his pardon weeping, and prostrated themselves at his feet.
+
+Into the remaining detail of this voyage, of highest interest as it is,
+it is impossible to go further. It will be enough to say that it
+resulted in the discovery of the islands of Santa Maria de la Concepcion
+(Rum Cay), Fernandina (Long Island), Isabella (Crooked Island), Cuba or
+_Juana_ (named by Columbus in honour of the young prince of Spain), and
+Hispaniola, Haiti, or San Domingo. Off the last of these the "Santa
+Maria" went aground, owing to the carelessness of the steersman. No
+lives were lost, but the ship had to be unloaded and abandoned; and
+Columbus, who was anxious to return to Europe with the news of his
+achievement, resolved to plant a colony on the island, to build a fort
+out of the material of the stranded hulk, and to leave the crew. The
+fort was called La Navidad; 44 Europeans were placed in charge. On the
+4th of January 1493 Columbus, who had lost sight of Martin Pinzon, set
+sail alone in the "Niña" for the east; and two days afterwards the
+"Pinta" joined her sister-ship. A storm, however, separated the vessels,
+and it was not until the 18th of February that Columbus reached the
+island of Santa Maria in the Azores. Here he was threatened with capture
+by the Portuguese governor, who could not for some time be brought to
+recognize his commission. On the 24th of February, however, he was
+allowed to proceed, and on the 4th of March the "Niña" dropped anchor
+off Lisbon. The king of Portugal received the admiral with the highest
+honours. On the 13th of March the "Niña" put out from the Tagus, and two
+days afterwards, Friday, the 15th of March, she reached Palos.
+
+The court was at Barcelona; and thither, after despatching a letter
+announcing his arrival, Columbus proceeded in person. He entered the
+city in a sort of triumphal procession, was received by their majesties
+in full court, and, seated in their presence, related the story of his
+wanderings, exhibiting the "rich and strange" spoils of the new-found
+lands,--the gold, the cotton, the parrots, the curious arms, the
+mysterious plants, the unknown birds and beasts, and the Indians he had
+brought with him for baptism. All his honours and privileges were
+confirmed to him; the title of Don was conferred on himself and his
+brothers; he rode at the king's bridle; he was served and saluted as a
+grandee of Spain. A new and magnificent scutcheon was also blazoned for
+him (4th May 1493), whereon the royal castle and lion of Castile and
+Leon were combined with the five anchors of his own coat of arms. Nor
+were their Catholic highnesses less busy on their own account than on
+that of their servant. On the 3rd and 4th of May Alexander VI. granted
+bulls confirming to the crowns of Castile and Leon all the lands
+discovered, or to be discovered, west of a line of demarcation drawn 100
+leagues west of the Azores, on the same terms as those on which the
+Portuguese held their colonies along the African coast. A new expedition
+was got in readiness with all possible despatch, to secure and extend
+the discoveries already made.
+
+
+  Second voyage.
+
+After several delays the fleet weighed anchor on the 24th of September
+1493 and steered westwards. It consisted of three great carracks
+(galleons) and fourteen caravels (light frigates), having on board over
+1500 men, besides the animals and materials necessary for colonization.
+Twelve missionaries accompanied the expedition, under the orders of
+Bernardo Buil or Boil, a Benedictine; Columbus had been already directed
+(29th May 1493) to endeavour by all means in his power to Christianize
+the inhabitants of the islands, to make them presents, and to "honour
+them much", while all under him were commanded to treat them "well and
+lovingly," under pain of severe punishment. On the 13th of October the
+ships, which had put in at the Canaries, left Ferro; and on Sunday, the
+3rd of November, after a single storm, "by the goodness of God and the
+wise management of the admiral" an island was sighted to the west, which
+was named Dominica. Northwards from this the isles of Marigalante and
+Guadalupe were next discovered and named; while on the north-western
+course to La Navidad those of Montserrat, Antigua, San Martin, Santa
+Cruz and the Virgin Islands were sighted, and the island now called
+Porto Rico was touched at, hurriedly explored, and named San Juan
+Bautista. On the 22nd of November Columbus came in sight of Hispaniola,
+and sailing westward to La Navidad, found the fort burned and the colony
+dispersed. He decided on building a second fort, and coasting on 30 m.
+east of Monte Cristi, he pitched on a spot where he founded the city of
+Isabella.
+
+The climate proved unhealthy; the colonists were greedy of gold,
+impatient of control, proud, ignorant and mutinous; and Columbus, whose
+inclination drew him westward, was doubtless glad to escape the worry
+and anxiety of his post, and to avail himself of the instructions of his
+sovereigns as to further discoveries. On the 2nd of February 1494 he
+sent home, by Antonio de Torres, that despatch to their Catholic
+highnesses by which he may be said to have founded the West Indian slave
+trade. He established the mining camp of San Tomaso in the gold country
+of Central Hispaniola; and on the 24th of April 1494, having nominated a
+council of regency under his brother Diego, and appointed Pedro Margarit
+his captain-general, he again put to sea. After following the southern
+shore of Cuba for some days, he steered southwards, and discovered (May
+14th) the island of Jamaica, which he named Santiago. He then resumed
+his exploration of the Cuban coast, threaded his way through a labyrinth
+of islets which he named the Garden of the Queen (Jardin de la Reyna),
+and, after coasting westwards for many days, became convinced that he
+had discovered continental land. He therefore caused Perez de Luna, the
+notary, to draw up a document to this effect (12th of June 1494), which
+was afterwards taken round and signed (the admiral's steward witnessing)
+by the officers, men and boys of his three caravels, the "Niña," the
+"Cordera," and the "San Juan." He then stood to the south-east, and
+sighted the island of Evangelista (now Isla de los Pinos), revisited
+Jamaica, coasted the south of Hispaniola, and on the 24th of September
+touched at and named the island of La Mona, in the channel between
+Hispaniola and Porto Rico. Thence he had intended to sail eastwards and
+complete the survey of the Caribbean Archipelago; but he was exhausted
+by the terrible tear and wear of mind and body he had undergone (he says
+himself that on this expedition he was three-and-thirty days almost
+without sleep), and on the day following his departure from La Mona he
+fell into a lethargy, that deprived him of sense and memory, and had
+well-nigh proved fatal to life. At last, on the 29th of September, the
+little fleet dropped anchor off Isabella, and in his new city the
+admiral lay sick for five months.
+
+The colony was in a sad plight. Every one was discontented, and many
+were sick, for the climate was unhealthy and there was nothing to eat.
+Margarit and Boil had deserted the settlement and fled to Spain, but ere
+his departure the former, in his capacity of captain-general, had done
+much to outrage and alienate the Indians. The strongest measures were
+necessary to undo this mischief, and, backed by his brother Bartholomew,
+Columbus proceeded to reduce the natives under Spanish sway. Alonso de
+Ojeda succeeded by a brilliant _coup de main_ in capturing the cacique
+Caonabo, and the rest submitted. Five ship-loads of Indians were sent
+off to Seville (24th June 1495) to be sold as slaves; and a tribute was
+imposed upon their fellows, which must be looked upon as the origin of
+that system of _repartimientos_ or _encomiendas_ which was afterwards to
+work such mischief among the conquered. In October 1495 Juan Aguado
+arrived at Isabella, with a royal commission to report on the state of
+the colony; here he took up the position of a judge of Columbus's
+government; and much recrimination followed. Columbus decided to return
+home; he appointed his brother Bartholomew _adelantado_ of the island;
+and on the 10th of March 1496 he quitted Hispaniola in the "Niña." The
+vessel, after a protracted and perilous voyage, reached Cadiz on the
+11th of June 1496, where the admiral landed, wearing the habit of a
+Franciscan. He was cordially received by his sovereigns, and a new fleet
+of eight vessels was put at his disposal. By royal patent, moreover, a
+tract of land in Hispaniola, of 50 leagues by 20, was offered to him,
+with the title of duke or marquis (which he declined); for three years
+he was to receive an eighth of the gross and a tenth of the net profits
+on each voyage; the right of creating a _mayorazgo_ or perpetual entail
+of titles and estates was granted him; and his two sons were received
+into Isabella's service as pages.
+
+
+  Third voyage.
+
+Meanwhile, however, the preparing of the fleet proceeded slowly, and it
+was not till the 30th of May 1498 that he set sail with his main fleet
+of six ships--two caravels had already been sent on ahead. From San
+Lucar he steered for Porto Santo, Madeira, and Gomera, despatching three
+vessels direct from the Canaries to Hispaniola. He next proceeded to the
+Cape Verde Islands, which he quitted on the 5th of July. On the 31st of
+the same month, being greatly in need of water, and fearing that no land
+lay westwards as he had hoped, Columbus had turned his ship's head
+north, when Alonzo Perez of Huelva saw land about 15 leagues to the
+south-west. It was crowned with three hill-tops, from which
+circumstance, and in fulfilment of a vow made at starting (to name the
+first land discovered on this voyage in honour of the Trinity), the
+admiral named it Trinidad, which name it yet bears. On Wednesday, the
+1st of August, he beheld for the first time the mainland of South
+America, the continent he had sought so long. It seemed to him but an
+insignificant island, and he called it Isla Santa. Sailing westwards,
+next day he saw the Gulf of Paria (named by him the Golfo de la
+Ballena), into which he was borne at immense risk on the ridge of waters
+formed by the meeting of the sea and the Orinoco estuaries. For several
+days he coasted the continent, esteeming as islands the various
+projections he saw, and naming them accordingly, nor was it until he had
+realized the volume poured out by the Orinoco that he began to perceive
+the truly continental character of his last discovery. He was now
+anxious to revisit the colony in Hispaniola; and after sighting Tobago,
+Grenada, and Margarita, made for San Domingo, the new capital of the
+settlement, where he arrived on the 31st of August. He found that
+affairs had not prospered well in his absence. By the vigour and
+activity of the _adelantado_, the whole island had been reduced under
+Spanish sway; but under the leadership of Francisco Roldan the
+malcontent settlers had risen in revolt, and Columbus had to compromise
+matters in order to restore peace. Roldan retained his office of chief
+justice; and such of his followers as chose to remain in the island were
+gratified with _repartimientos_ of land and labour.
+
+At home, however, court favour had turned against Columbus. For one
+thing, the ex-colonists were often bitterly hostile to the admiral and
+his brothers. They were wont to parade their grievances in the very
+court-yards of the Alhambra, to surround the king when he came forth
+with complaints and reclamations, to insult the discoverer's young sons
+with shouts and jeers. Again, the queen began to criticize severely the
+shipment of Indians from the new-found lands to Spain. And once more,
+there was no doubt that the colony itself, whatever the cause, had not
+prospered so well as might have been desired. Ferdinand's support of
+Columbus had never been very hearty, and his inclination to supersede
+the Genoese now prevailed over the queen's friendliness. Accordingly, on
+the 21st of May 1499, Francisco Bobadilla was appointed governor and
+judge of Hispaniola during royal pleasure, with authority to examine
+into all complaints. Columbus was ordered to deliver up his charge to
+Bobadilla, and to accept whatever the latter should deliver him from the
+sovereigns. Bobadilla left Spain in June 1500, and landed in Hispaniola
+on the 23rd of August.
+
+Columbus, meanwhile, had restored such tranquillity as was possible in
+his government. With Roldan's help he had beaten off an attempt on the
+island of the adventurer Ojeda, his old lieutenant; the Indians were
+being collected into villages and Christianized. Gold-mining was
+profitably pursued; in three years, he calculated, the royal revenues
+might be raised to an average of 60,000,000 reals. The arrival of
+Bobadilla, however, speedily changed this state of affairs. On landing,
+he took possession of the admiral's house and summoned him and his
+brothers before him. Accusations of severity, of injustice, of venality
+even, were poured down on their heads, and Columbus anticipated nothing
+less than a shameful death. Bobadilla put all three in irons, and
+shipped them off to Spain.
+
+Alonso Vallejo, captain of the caravel in which the illustrious
+prisoners sailed, still retained a proper sense of the honour and
+respect due to Columbus, and would have removed the fetters; but to this
+Columbus would not consent. He would wear them, he said, until their
+highnesses, by whose order they had been affixed, should order their
+removal; and he would keep them afterwards "as relics and as memorials
+of the reward of his service." He did so. His son Fernando "saw them
+always hanging in his cabinet, and he requested that when he died they
+might be buried with him." Whether this last wish was complied with is
+not known.
+
+A heart-broken and indignant letter from Columbus to Doña Juana de
+Torres, formerly nurse of the infante Don Juan, arrived at court before
+the despatch of Bobadilla. It was read to the queen, and its tidings
+were confirmed by communications from Alonso Vallejo and the alcaide of
+Cadiz. There was a great movement of indignation; the tide of popular
+and royal feeling turned once more in the admiral's favour. He received
+a large sum to defray his expenses; and when he appeared at court, on
+the 17th of December 1500, he was no longer in irons and disgrace, but
+richly apparelled and surrounded with friends. He was received with all
+honour and distinction. The queen is said to have been moved to tears by
+the narration of his story. Their majesties not only repudiated
+Bobadilla's proceedings, but declined to inquire into the charges that
+he at the same time brought against his prisoners, and promised Columbus
+compensation for his losses and satisfaction for his wrongs. A new
+governor, Nicolas de Ovando, was appointed, and left San Lucar on the
+13th of February 1502, with a fleet of thirty ships, to supersede
+Bobadilla. The latter was to be impeached and sent home; the admiral's
+property was to be restored; and a fresh start was to be made in the
+conduct of colonial affairs. Thus ended Columbus's history as viceroy
+and governor of the new Indies which he had presented to the country of
+his adoption.
+
+
+  Fourth voyage.
+
+His hour of rest, however, was not yet come. Ever anxious to serve their
+Catholic highnesses, "and particularly the queen," he had determined to
+find a strait through which he might penetrate westwards into Portuguese
+Asia. After the usual inevitable delays his prayers were granted, and on
+the 9th of May 1502, with four caravels and 150 men, he weighed anchor
+from Cadiz, and sailed on his fourth and last great voyage. He first
+betook himself to the relief of the Portuguese fort of Arzilla, which
+had been besieged by the Moors, but the siege had been raised before he
+arrived. He put to sea westwards once more, and on the 15th of June
+discovered the island of Martinino (probably St Lucia). He had received
+positive instructions from his sovereigns on no account to touch at
+Hispaniola; but his largest caravel was greatly in need of repairs, and
+he had no choice but to abandon her or disobey orders. He preferred the
+latter alternative, and sent a boat ashore to Ovando, asking for a new
+ship and for permission to enter the harbour to weather a hurricane
+which he saw was coming on. But his requests were refused, and he
+coasted the island, casting anchor under lee of the land. Here he
+weathered the storm, which drove the other caravels out to sea, and
+annihilated the homeward-bound fleet, the richest that had till then
+been sent from Hispaniola. Roldan and Bobadilla perished with others of
+the admiral's enemies; and Fernando Columbus, who accompanied his father
+on this voyage, wrote long afterwards, "I am satisfied it was the hand
+of God, for had they arrived in Spain they had never been punished as
+their crimes deserved, but rather been favoured and preferred."
+
+After recruiting his flotilla at Azua, Columbus put in at Jaquimo and
+refitted his four vessels; and on the 14th of July 1502 he steered for
+Jamaica. For several days the ships wandered painfully among the keys
+and shoals he had named the Garden of the Queen, and only an opportune
+easterly wind prevented the crews from open mutiny. The first land
+sighted (July 30th) was the islet of Guanaja, about 40 m. east of the
+coast of Honduras. Here he got news from an old Indian of a rich and
+vast country lying to the eastward, which he at once concluded must be
+the long-sought-for empire of the grand khan. Steering along the coast
+of Honduras, great hardships were endured, but nothing approaching his
+ideal was discovered. On the 12th of September Cape Gracias-a-Dios was
+rounded. The men had become clamorous and insubordinate; not until the
+5th of December, however, would he tack about and retrace his course. It
+now became his intention to plant a colony on the river Veragua, which
+was afterwards to give his descendants a title of nobility; but he had
+hardly put about when he was caught in a storm, which lasted eight days,
+wrenched and strained his crazy, worm-eaten ships severely, and finally,
+on Epiphany Sunday 1503, blew him into an embouchure which he named
+Belem or Bethlehem. Gold was very plentiful in this place, and here he
+determined to found his settlement. By the end of March 1503 a number of
+huts had been run up, and in these the _adelantado_ (Bartholomew
+Columbus), with 80 men, was to remain, while Christopher returned to
+Spain for men and supplies. Quarrels, however, arose with the natives;
+the cacique was made prisoner, but escaped again; and before Columbus
+could leave the coast he had to abandon a caravel, to take the settlers
+on board, and to relinquish the enterprise of colonization. Steering
+eastwards, he left a second caravel at Puerto Bello; he thence bore
+northwards for Cuba, where he obtained supplies from the natives. From
+Cuba he bore up for Jamaica, and there, in the harbour of San Gloria,
+now St Ann's Bay, he ran his ships aground in a small inlet still called
+Don Christopher's Cove (June 23rd, 1503).
+
+The expedition was received with great kindness by the natives, and here
+Columbus remained upwards of a year, awaiting the return of his
+lieutenant Diego Mendez, whom he had despatched to Ovando for
+assistance. During his critical sojourn here, the admiral suffered much
+from disease and from the lawlessness of his followers, whose misconduct
+had alienated the natives, and provoked them to withhold their
+accustomed supplies, until he dexterously worked upon their
+superstitions by prognosticating an eclipse. Two vessels having at last
+arrived for his relief, Columbus left Jamaica on the 28th of June 1504,
+and, after calling at Hispaniola, set sail for Spain on the 12th of
+September. After a tempestuous voyage he landed once more at San Lucar
+on the 7th of November 1504.
+
+As he was too ill to go to court, his son Diego was sent thither in his
+place, to look after his interests and transact his business. Letter
+after letter followed the young man from Seville--one by the hands of
+Amerigo Vespucci. A licence to ride on muleback was granted him on the
+23rd of February 1505; and in the following May he was removed to the
+court at Segovia, and thence again to Valladolid. On the landing of
+Philip and Juana at Coruña (25th of April 1506), although "much
+oppressed with the gout and troubled to see himself put by his rights,"
+he is known to have sent off the _adelantado_ to pay them his duty and
+to assure them that he was yet able to do them extraordinary service.
+The last documentary note of him is contained in a final codicil to the
+will of 1498, made at Valladolid on the 19th of May 1506. By this the
+old will is confirmed; the _mayorazgo_ is bequeathed to his son Diego
+and his heirs male, failing these to Fernando, his second son, and
+failing these to the heirs male of Bartholomew; only in case of the
+extinction of the male line, direct or collateral, is it to descend to
+the females of the family; and those into whose hands it may fall are
+never to diminish it, but always to increase and ennoble it by all means
+possible. The head of the house is to sign himself "The Admiral." A
+tenth of the annual income is to be set aside yearly for distribution
+among the poor relations of the house. A chapel is founded and endowed
+for the saying of masses. Beatriz Enriquez is left to the care of the
+young admiral. Among other legacies is one of "half a mark of silver to
+a Jew who used to live at the gate of the Jewry, in Lisbon." The codicil
+was written and signed with the admiral's own hand. Next day (20th of
+May 1506) he died.
+
+After the funeral ceremonies at Valladolid, Columbus's remains were
+transferred to the Carthusian monastery of Santa Maria de las Cuevas,
+Seville, where the bones of his son Diego, the second admiral, were also
+laid. Exhumed in 1542, the bodies of both father and son were taken over
+sea to Hispaniola and interred in the cathedral of San Domingo. In
+1795-1796, on the cession of that island to the French, the relics were
+re-exhumed and transferred to the cathedral of Havana, whence, after the
+Spanish-American War of 1898 and the loss of Cuba, they were finally
+removed to Seville cathedral, where they remain. The present heir and
+representative of Columbus belongs to the Larreategui family,
+descendants of the discoverer through the female line, and retains the
+titles of admiral and duke of Veragua.
+
+[Illustration: Columbus Cipher.
+
+The interpretation of the seven-lettered cipher, accepting the smaller
+letters of the second line as the final ones of the words, seems to be
+_Salve Christus, Maria, Yosephus_. The name _Christopher_
+(_Christoferens_) appears in the last line.]
+
+In person Columbus was tall and shapely. The only authentic portrait of
+him is that which once belonged to Paulus Jovius, and is still in the
+possession of the de Orchi family (related to Jovius by female descent)
+at Como. It shows us a venerable man with clean-shaven face, thin grey
+hair, high forehead, sad thoughtful eyes. It bears the inscription
+_Columbus Lygur. novi orbis repertor_.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Fernando Columbus, _Historie del Signor Don Fernando
+  Colombo ... e vera relatione della vita ... dell' Ammiraglio D.
+  Christoforo Colombo_ (the Spanish original of this, written before
+  1539, is lost; only the Italian version remains, first published at
+  Venice in 1571; a good edition appeared in London in 1867); Bartolomé
+  de las Casas, _Historia de las Indias_, written 1527-1561, but first
+  printed at Madrid in 1875, after remaining in manuscript more than
+  three centuries; Andres Bernandez, _Historia de los Reyes Catolicos_
+  (contemporary with Fernando Columbus's _Historie_, but first printed
+  at Granada in 1856; best edition, Seville, 1870); Gonzalo Fernandez
+  Oviedo y Valdes, _Historia general de las Indias_ (Seville, 1535; best
+  edition, Madrid, 1851-1855); Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, _Opus
+  Epistolarum_, first published in 1530, and _De Orbe Novo_ (_Decades_),
+  printed in 1511 and 1530; Francisco Lopez de Gomara, _Historia general
+  de las Indias_ (Saragossa, 1552-1553, and Antwerp, 1554); Antonio de
+  Herrera, _Historia general de las Indias occidentales_ (publication
+  first completed in 1615, but best edition perhaps that of 1730,
+  Madrid); Juan Bautista Muñoz, _Historia del Nuevo Mundo_ (Madrid,
+  1793); Martin Fernandez Navarrete, _Coleccion de los Viages y
+  descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los Españoles_ (Madrid,
+  1825-1837); Washington Irving, _History of the Life and Voyages of
+  Christopher Columbus_ (London, 1827-1828); Alex. von Humboldt, _Examen
+  critique_ (Paris, 1836-1839); R. H. Major, _Select Letters of_
+  _Columbus_ (London, Hakluyt Society, 1847); Fernandez Duro, _Colon y
+  Pinzon_ (Madrid, 1883); Henry Harrisse, _Christophe Colomb_ (Paris,
+  1884), and _Christophe Colomb devant l'histoire_ (Paris, 1892); Justin
+  Winsor, _Christopher Columbus_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1891); Josè Maria
+  Asensio, _Cristoval Colon_ (Barcelona, 1892); Clements R. Markham,
+  _Life of Christopher Columbus_ (London, 1892); John Fiske, _Discovery
+  of America_ (Boston and New York, 1892); E. J. Payne, _History of the
+  New World called America_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1892); Paul Gaffarel,
+  _Histoire de la découverte de l'Amérique_ (Paris, 1892); Charles I.
+  Elton, _Career of Columbus_ (London, 1892); _Raccolta Colombiana_
+  (1892, &c.); Sophus Ruge, _Columbus_ (Berlin, 1902); John Boyd
+  Thatcher, _Christopher Columbus_ (New York, 1903-1904); Henry Vignaud,
+  _La Lettre et la carte de Toscanelli_ (Paris, 1901), and _Études
+  critiques sur la vie de Colomb avant ses découvertes_ (Paris, 1905);
+  Filson Young, _Christopher Columbus and the New World of his
+  discovery_ (London, 1906).     (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 6, Slice 6, by Various
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 6
+       "Cockaigne" to "Columbus, Christopher"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 1, 2010 [EBook #31855]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 6 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME VI SLICE VI<br /><br />
+Cockaigne to Columbus, Christopher</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 180%;">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">COCKAIGNE, LAND OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">COLEPEPER, JOHN COLEPEPER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">COCKATOO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">COLERAINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">COCKATRICE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">COLERIDGE, HARTLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">COCKBURN, ALICIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">COLERIDGE, SARA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">COCKER, EDWARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">COLET, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">COLET, LOUISE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">COCKERILL, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">COLEUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">COCKERMOUTH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">COLFAX, SCHUYLER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">COCK-FIGHTING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">COLIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">COCK LANE GHOST</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">COLIGNY, GASPARD DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">COCKLE, SIR JAMES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">COLIMA</a> (coast state of Mexico)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">COCKLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">COLIMA</a> (city of Mexico)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">COCKNEY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">COLIN, ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">COCK-OF-THE-ROCK</a> (bird)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">COLL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">COCK-OF-THE-ROCK</a> (enclosed place)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">COLLAERT, HANS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">COCKROACH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">COLLAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">COCK&rsquo;S-COMB</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">COLLATERAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">COCKTON, HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">COLLATIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">COCKX, HIERONYMUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">COLLATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">COCOA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">COLLÉ, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">COCO DE MER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">COLLECTIVISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">COCOMA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">COLLECTOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">COCO-NUT PALM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">COLLE DI VAL D&rsquo; ELSA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">COCYTUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">COLLEGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">COD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CODA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">COLLETER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CODE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">COLLETTA, PIETRO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CODE NAPOLÉON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">COLLEY, SIR GEORGE POMEROY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CODIAEUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">COLLIER, ARTHUR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CODICIL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">COLLIER, JEREMY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CODILLA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CODINUS, GEORGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">COD-LIVER OIL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">COLLIN D&rsquo;HARLEVILLE, JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">COLLING, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CODRUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">COLLINGWOOD</a> (city of  Australia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">COLLINGWOOD</a> (town of Canada)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CO-EDUCATION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">COLLINS, ANTHONY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">COEFFETEAU, NICOLAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">COEHOORN, MENNO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">COLLINS, MORTIMER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">COELENTERA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">COLLINS, WILLIAM</a> (English poet)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">COELLO, ALONSO SANCHEZ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">COLLINS, WILLIAM</a> (English painter)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">COELLO, ANTONIO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">COLLODION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">COEN, JAN PIETERSZOON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">COLLOT D&rsquo;HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">COENACULUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">COLLUSION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">C&OElig;NWULF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">COLLYER, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">COERCION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">COLMAN, SAINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">C&OElig;UR, JACQUES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">COLMAN, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">C&OElig;UR D&rsquo;ALÊNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">COLMAN, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">COFFEE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">COLMAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">COFFER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">COLNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">COFFERDAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">COLOCYNTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">COFFEYVILLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">COLOGNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">COFFIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">COLOMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">COG</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">COGERS HALL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">COLOMBES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">COGHLAN, CHARLES FRANCIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">COLOMBEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">COGNAC</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">COLOMBIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">COGNITION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">COLOMBIER, PIERRE BERTRAND DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">COGNIZANCE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">COLOMBO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">COHEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">COLON</a> (city of Panama)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">COLON</a> (town of Cuba)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">COHN, GUSTAV</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">COLON</a> (intestine)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">COHOES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">COLONEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">COHORT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">COLONIAL OFFICE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">COIF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">COLONNA</a> (Roman family)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">COIMBATORE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">COIMBRA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">COLONNA, VITTORIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">COÍN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">COLONNADE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">COIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">COLONSAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">COINAGE OFFENCES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">COLONY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">COIR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">COLOPHON</a> (ancient city of Ionia)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">COIRE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">COLOPHON</a> (paragraph in manuscripts)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">COKE, SIR EDWARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">COLORADO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">COKE, SIR JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">COLORADO RIVER</a> (stream of Argentine)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">COKE, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">COLORADO RIVER</a> (stream of U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">COKE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">COLORADO SPRINGS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">COL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">COLOSSAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">COLOSSAL CAVERN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">COLBERT DE CROISSY, CHARLES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">COLBURN, HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">COLOSSUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">COLBURN, ZERAH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">COLOUR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">COLBY, THOMAS FREDERICK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">COLOURS, MILITARY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">COLCHAGUA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">COLOUR-SERGEANT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">COLOURS OF ANIMALS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">COLCHESTER</a> (town of England)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">COLSTON, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">COLCHESTER</a> (township of Vermont)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">COLT, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">COLCHICUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">COLT&rsquo;S-FOOT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">COLCHIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">COLUGO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">COLCOTHAR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">COLUMBA, SAINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">COLD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">COLUMBAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">COLDEN, CADWALLADER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">COLUMBANI, PLACIDO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">COLD HARBOR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">COLUMBARIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">COLDSTREAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">COLUMBIA</a> (city of Missouri)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">COLDWATER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">COLUMBIA</a> (borough of Pennsylvania)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">COLE, SIR HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">COLUMBIA</a> (city of South Carolina)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">COLE, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">COLUMBIA</a> (city of Tennessee)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">COLE, TIMOTHY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">COLUMBIA RIVER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">COLE, VICAT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">COLUMBINE</a> (dancer)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">COLEMANITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">COLUMBINE</a> (plant)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">COLUMBITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">COLENSO</a> (village of Natal)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">COLUMBIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">COLEOPTERA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER</a></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">COCKAIGNE<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Cockayne</span>), <span class="bold">LAND OF</span> (O. Fr. <i>Coquaigne</i>, mod.
+Fr. <i>cocagne</i>, &ldquo;abundance,&rdquo; from Ital. <i>Cocagna</i>; &ldquo;as we say
+&lsquo;Lubberland,&rsquo; the epicure&rsquo;s or glutton&rsquo;s home, the land of all
+delights, so taken in mockerie&rdquo;: Florio), an imaginary country,
+a medieval Utopia where life was a continual round of luxurious
+idleness. The origin of the Italian word has been much disputed.
+It seems safest to connect it, as do Grimm and Littré, ultimately
+with Lat. <i>coquere</i>, through a word meaning &ldquo;cake,&rdquo; the literal
+sense thus being &ldquo;The Land of Cakes.&rdquo; In Cockaigne the
+rivers were of wine, the houses were built of cake and barley-sugar,
+the streets were paved with pastry, and the shops supplied
+goods for nothing. Roast geese and fowls wandered about
+inviting folks to eat them, and buttered larks fell from the skies
+like manna. There is a 13th-century French <i>fabliau</i>, <i>Cocaigne</i>,
+which was possibly intended to ridicule the fable of the mythical
+Avalon, &ldquo;the island of the Blest.&rdquo; The 13th-century English
+poem, <i>The Land of Cockaygne</i>, is a satire on monastic life. The
+term has been humorously applied to London, and by Boileau
+to the Paris of the rich. The word has been frequently confused
+with Cockney (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See D. M. Méon, <i>Fabliaux et contes</i> (4 vols., 1808), and F. J.
+Furnivall, <i>Early English Poems</i> (Berlin, 1862).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKATOO<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (<i>Cacatuidae</i>), a family of parrots characterized
+among Old World forms by their usually greater size, by the crest
+of feathers on the head, which can be raised or depressed at will,
+and by the absence of green in their coloration. They inhabit
+the Indian Archipelago, New Guinea and Australia, and are
+gregarious, frequenting woods and feeding on seeds, fruits and
+the larvae of insects. Their note is generally harsh and unmusical,
+and although they are readily tamed when taken young,
+becoming familiar, and in some species showing remarkable
+intelligence, their powers of vocal imitation are usually limited.
+Of the true cockatoos (<i>Cacatua</i>) the best known is the sulphur-crested
+cockatoo (<i>Cacatua galerita</i>), of a pure white plumage with
+the exception of the crest, which is deep sulphur yellow, and of
+the ear and tail coverts, which are slightly tinged with yellow.
+The crest when erect stands 5 in. high. These birds are found
+in Australia in flocks varying from 100 to 1000 in number, and
+do great damage to newly-sown grain, for which reason they are
+mercilessly destroyed by farmers. They deposit their eggs&mdash;two
+in number, and of a pure white colour&mdash;in the hollows of decayed
+trees or in the fissures of rocks, according to the nature of the
+locality in which they reside. This is one of the species most
+usually kept in Europe as a cage bird. Leadbeater&rsquo;s Cockatoo
+(<i>Cacatua Leadbeateri</i>), an inhabitant of South Australia, excels
+all others in the beauty of its plumage, which consists in great
+part of white, tinged with rose colour, becoming a deep salmon
+colour under the wings, while the crest is bright crimson at the
+base, with a yellow spot in the centre and white at the tip.
+It is exceedingly shy and difficult of approach, and its note is
+more plaintive while less harsh than that of the preceding species.
+In the cockatoos belonging to the genus <i>Calyptorhynchus</i> the
+general plumage is black or dark brown, usually with a large spot
+or band of red or yellow on the tail. The largest of these is known
+as the funereal cockatoo (<i>Calyptorhynchus funereus</i>), from the
+lugubrious note or call which it utters, resembling the two
+syllables Wy&mdash;la&mdash;, the native name of the species. It deposits
+its eggs in the hollows of the large gum-trees of Australia,
+and feeds largely on the larvae of insects, in search of which it
+peels off the bark of trees, and when thus employed it may
+be approached closely. The cockateel (<i>Calopsittacus novaehollandiae</i>),
+the only species in the family smaller than a pigeon,
+and with a long pointed tail, is a common aviary bird, and breeds
+freely in captivity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKATRICE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span>, a fabulous monster, the existence of which
+was firmly believed in throughout ancient and medieval times,&mdash;descriptions
+and figures of it appearing in the natural history
+works of such writers as Pliny and Aldrovandus, those of the
+latter published so late as the beginning of the 17th century.
+Produced from a cock&rsquo;s egg hatched by a serpent, it was believed
+to possess the most deadly powers, plants withering at its touch,
+and men and animals dying poisoned by its look. It stood in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623"></a>623</span>
+awe, however, of the cock, the sound of whose crowing killed
+it, and consequently travelers were wont to take this bird with
+them in travelling over regions supposed to abound in cockatrices.
+The weasel alone among mammals was unaffected by the glance
+of its evil eye, and attacked it at all times successfully; for when
+wounded by the monster&rsquo;s teeth it found a ready remedy in rue&mdash;the
+only plant which the cockatrice could not wither. This myth
+reminds one of the real contests between the weasel-like mungoos
+of India and the deadly cobra, in which the latter is generally
+killed. The term &ldquo;cockatrice&rdquo; is employed on four occasions
+in the English translation of the Bible, in all of which it denotes
+nothing more than an exceedingly venomous reptile; it seems
+also to be synonymous with &ldquo;basilisk,&rdquo; the mythical king of
+serpents.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span>, 10th
+Bart. (1802-1880), lord chief justice of England, was born on
+the 24th of December 1802, of ancient Scottish stock. He was
+the son of Alexander, fourth son of Sir James Cockburn, 6th
+baronet, his three uncles, who had successively held the title,
+dying without heirs. His father was British envoy extraordinary
+and minister plenipotentiary to the state of Columbia, and
+married Yolande, daughter of the vicomte de Vignier. Young
+Alexander was at one time intended for the diplomatic service,
+and frequently during the legal career which he ultimately
+adopted he was able to make considerable use of the knowledge
+of foreign languages, especially French, with which birth and
+early education had equipped him. He was educated at Trinity
+Hall, Cambridge, of which he was elected a fellow, and afterwards
+an honorary fellow. He entered at the Middle Temple in
+1825, and was called to the bar in 1829. He joined the western
+circuit, and for some time such practice as he was able to obtain
+lay at the Devon sessions, quarter sessions at that time affording
+an opening and a school of advocacy to young counsel not to be
+found anywhere fifty years later. In London he had so little
+to do that only the persuasion of friends induced him to keep
+his London chambers open. Three years after his call to the
+bar, however, the Reform Bill was passed, and the petitions
+which followed the ensuing general election gave rise to a large
+number of new questions for the decision of election committees,
+and afforded an opening of which he promptly availed himself.
+The decisions of the committees had not been reported since
+1821, and with M. C. Rowe, another member of the western circuit,
+Cockburn undertook a new series of reports. They only published
+one volume, but the work was well done, and in 1833 Cockburn
+had his first parliamentary brief.</p>
+
+<p>In 1834 Cockburn was well enough thought of to be made a
+member of the commission to inquire into the state of the corporations
+of England and Wales. Other parliamentary work
+followed; but he had ambition to be more than a parliamentary
+counsel, and attended diligently on his circuit, besides appearing
+before committees. In 1841 he was made a Q.C., and in that
+year a charge of simony, brought against his uncle, William,
+dean of York, enabled him to appear conspicuously in a case
+which attracted considerable public attention, the proceedings
+taking the form of a motion for prohibition duly obtained against
+the ecclesiastical court, which had deprived Dr Cockburn of his
+office. Not long after this, Sir Robert Peel&rsquo;s secretary, Edward
+Drummond, was shot by the crazy Scotsman, Daniel M&rsquo;Naughten,
+and Cockburn, briefed on behalf of the assassin, not only made a
+very brilliant speech, which established the defence of insanity,
+but also secured the full publicity of a long report in the <i>Morning
+Chronicle</i> of the 6th of March 1843. Another well-known trial
+in which he appeared a year later was that of <i>Wood</i> v. <i>Peel</i> (<i>The
+Times</i>, 2nd and 3rd of July 1844), the issue being in form to
+determine the winner of a bet (the Gaming Act was passed in the
+following year) as to the age of the Derby winner Running Rein&mdash;in
+substance to determine, if possible, the vexed question
+whether Running Rein was a four-year-old or a three-year-old
+when he was racing as the latter. Running Rein could not be
+produced by Mr Wood, and Baron Alderson took a strong view
+of this circumstance, so that Cockburn found himself on the
+losing side, while his strenuous advocacy of his client&rsquo;s cause had
+led him into making, in his opening speech, strictures on Lord
+George Bentinck&rsquo;s conduct in the case which had better have
+been reserved to a later stage. He was, however, a hard fighter,
+but not an unfair one&mdash;a little irritable at times, but on the
+whole a courteous gentleman, and his practice went on increasing.</p>
+
+<p>In 1847 he decided to stand for parliament, and was elected
+without a contest Liberal M.P. for Southampton. His speech
+in the House of Commons on behalf of the government in the
+Don Pacifico dispute with Greece commended him to Lord John
+Russell, who appointed him solicitor-general in 1850 and
+attorney-general in 1851, a post which he held till the resignation
+of the ministry in February 1852. During the short administration
+of Lord Derby which followed, Sir Frederic Thesiger was
+attorney-general, and Cockburn was engaged against him in the
+case of <i>R.</i> v. <i>Newman</i>, on the prosecution of Achilli. This was the
+trial of a criminal information for libel filed against John Henry
+Newman, who had denounced a scandalous and profligate friar
+named Achilli, then lecturing on Roman Catholicism in England.
+Newman pleaded justification; but the jury who heard the case
+in the Queen&rsquo;s Bench, with Lord Campbell presiding, found that
+the justification was not proved except in one particular: a
+verdict which, together with the methods of the judge and the
+conduct of the audience, attracted considerable comment. The
+verdict was set aside, and a new trial ordered, but none ever took
+place. In December 1852, under Lord Aberdeen&rsquo;s ministry,
+Cockburn became again attorney-general, and so remained until
+1856, taking part in many celebrated trials, such as the Hopwood
+Will Case in 1855, and the Swynfen Will Case, but notably
+leading for the crown in the trial of William Palmer of Rugeley
+in Staffordshire&mdash;an ex-medical man who had taken to the turf,
+and who had poisoned a friend of similar pursuits named Cook
+with strychnine, in order to obtain money from his estate by
+forgery and otherwise. Cockburn made an exhaustive study
+of the medical aspects of the case, and the prisoner&rsquo;s comment
+when convicted after a twelve days&rsquo; trial was, alluding to the
+attorney-general&rsquo;s advocacy, &ldquo;It was the riding that did it.&rdquo;
+In 1854 Cockburn was made recorder of Bristol. In 1856 he
+became chief justice of the common pleas. He inherited the
+baronetcy in 1858. In 1859 Lord Campbell became chancellor,
+and Cockburn became chief justice of the Queen&rsquo;s Bench, continuing
+as a judge for twenty-four years and dying in harness.
+On Friday, the 19th of November 1880, he tried causes with
+special juries at Westminster; on Saturday, the 20th, he presided
+over a court for the consideration of crown cases reserved;
+he walked home, and on that night he died of <i>angina pectoris</i> at
+his house in Hertford Street.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Alexander Cockburn earned and deserved a high reputation
+as a judge. He was a man of brilliant cleverness and rapid
+intuition rather than of profound and laboriously cultivated
+intellect. He had been a great advocate at the bar, with a
+charm of voice and manner, fluent and persuasive rather than
+learned; but before he died he was considered a good lawyer,
+some assigning his unquestioned improvement in this respect
+to his frequent association on the bench with Blackburn. He
+had notoriously little sympathy with the Judicature Acts.
+Many were of opinion that he was inclined to take an advocate&rsquo;s
+view of the cases before him, making up his mind as to their
+merits prematurely and, in consequence, wrongly, as well as
+giving undue prominence to the views which he so formed; but
+he was beyond doubt always in intention, and generally in fact,
+scrupulously fair. It is not necessary to enumerate the many
+<i>causes célèbres</i> at which Sir Alexander Cockburn presided as a
+judge. It was thought that he went out of his way to arrange
+that they should come before him, and his successor, Lord
+Coleridge, writing in 1881 to Lord Bramwell, to make the offer
+that he should try the murderer Lefroy as a last judicial act
+before retiring, added, &ldquo;Poor dear Cockburn would hardly have
+given you such a chance.&rdquo; Be this as it may, Cockburn tried
+all cases which came before him, whether great or small, with
+the same thoroughness, courtesy and dignity, so that no counsel
+or suitor could complain that he had not been fully heard in a
+matter in which the issues were seemingly trivial; while he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624"></a>624</span>
+certainly gave great attention to the elaboration of his judgments
+and charges to juries. He presided at the Tichborne trial at
+Bar, lasting 188 days, of which his summing-up occupied
+eighteen.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest public occasion on which Sir Alexander Cockburn
+acted, outside his usual judicial functions, was that of the
+&ldquo;Alabama&rdquo; arbitration, held at Geneva in 1872, in which he
+represented the British government, and dissented from the view
+taken by the majority of the arbitrators, without being able to
+convince them. He prepared, with Mr C. F. Adams, the representative
+of the United States, the English translation of the
+award of the arbitrators, and published his reasons for dissenting
+in a vigorously worded document which did not meet with
+universal commendation. He admitted in substance the liability
+of England for the acts of the &ldquo;Alabama,&rdquo; but not on the
+grounds on which the decision of the majority was based, and
+he held England not liable in respect of the &ldquo;Florida&rdquo; and the
+&ldquo;Shenandoah.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In personal appearance Sir Alexander Cockburn was of small
+stature, but great dignity of deportment. He was fond of
+yachting and of sport, and was engaged in writing a series of
+articles on the &ldquo;History of the Chase in the Nineteenth Century&rdquo;
+at the time of his death. He was fond, too, of society, and was
+also throughout his life addicted to frivolities not altogether
+consistent with advancement in a learned profession, or with
+the positions of dignity which he successively occupied. At the
+same time he had a high sense of what was due to and expected
+from his profession; and his utterance upon the limitations of
+advocacy, in his speech at the banquet given in the Middle
+Temple Hall to M. Berryer, the celebrated French advocate,
+may be called the classical authority on the subject. Lord
+Brougham, replying for the guests other than Berryer, had
+spoken of &ldquo;the first great duty of an advocate to reckon everything
+subordinate to the interests of his client.&rdquo; The lord chief
+justice, replying to the toast of &ldquo;the judges of England,&rdquo;
+dissented from this sweeping statement, saying, amid loud cheers
+from a distinguished assembly of lawyers, &ldquo;The arms which an
+advocate wields he ought to use as a warrior, not as an assassin.
+He ought to uphold the interests of his clients <i>per fas</i>, not <i>per
+nefas</i>. He ought to know how to reconcile the interests of his
+clients with the eternal interests of truth and justice&rdquo; (<i>The
+Times</i>, 9th of November 1864). Sir Alexander Cockburn was
+never married, and the baronetcy became extinct at his death.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>The Times</i>, 22nd of November 1880; <i>Law Journal</i>;
+<i>Law Times</i>; <i>Solicitors&rsquo; Journal</i>, 27th of November 1880; <i>Law Magazine</i>,
+new series, vol. xv. p. 193, 1851; Ashley&rsquo;s <i>Life of Lord Palmerston</i>;
+Nash&rsquo;s <i>Life of Lord Westbury</i>; &ldquo;Reminiscences of Lord Chief
+Justice Coleridge,&rdquo; by Lord Russell of Killowen, in the <i>North
+American Review</i>, September 1894; <i>The Greville Memoirs</i>; Croker&rsquo;s
+<i>Correspondence and Diaries</i>; Justin M&rsquo;Carthy&rsquo;s <i>History of Our Own
+Times</i>; Serjeant Ballantine&rsquo;s <i>Experiences; Bench and Bar</i>, by
+Serjeant Robinson; Fairchild&rsquo;s <i>Life of Lord Bramwell</i>; Manson&rsquo;s
+<i>Builders of Our Law</i>; Burke&rsquo;s <i>Peerage</i>, ed. 1879; Foster&rsquo;s <i>Peerage</i>,
+1880.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKBURN, ALICIA,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Alison</span> (1713-1794), Scottish poet,
+authoress of one of the most exquisite of Scottish ballads, the
+&ldquo;Flowers of the Forest,&rdquo; was the daughter of Robert Rutherfurd
+of Fairnalee, Selkirkshire, and was born on the 8th of October
+1713. There are two versions of this song,&mdash;the one by Mrs
+Cockburn, the other by Jean Elliot (1727-1805) of Minto. Both
+were founded on the remains of an ancient Border ballad. Mrs
+Cockburn&rsquo;s&mdash;that beginning &ldquo;I&rsquo;ve seen the smiling of Fortune
+beguiling&rdquo;&mdash;is said to have been written before her marriage
+in 1731, though not published till 1765. Anyhow, it was composed
+many years before Jean Elliot&rsquo;s sister verses, written in
+1756, beginning, &ldquo;I&rsquo;ve heard them liltin&rsquo; at our ewe-milkin&rsquo;.&rdquo;
+Robert Chambers states that the ballad was written on the
+occasion of a great <span class="correction" title="amended from commerical">commercial</span> disaster which ruined the fortunes
+of some Selkirkshire lairds. Later biographers, however, think
+it probable that it was written on the departure to London of a
+certain John Aikman, between whom and Alison there appears
+to have been an early attachment. In 1731 Alison Rutherfurd
+was married to Patrick Cockburn of Ormiston. After her
+marriage she knew all the intellectual and aristocratic celebrities
+of her day. In the memorable year 1745 she vented her Whiggism
+in a squib upon Prince Charlie, and narrowly escaped being taken
+by the Highland guard as she was driving through Edinburgh
+in the family coach of the Keiths of Ravelston, with the parody
+in her pocket. Mrs Cockburn was an indefatigable letter-writer
+and a composer of parodies, squibs, toasts and &ldquo;character-sketches&rdquo;&mdash;then
+a favourite form of composition&mdash;like other
+wits of her day; but the &ldquo;Flowers of the Forest&rdquo; is the only
+thing she wrote that possesses great literary merit. At her house
+on Castle-hill, and afterwards in Crichton Street, she received
+many illustrious friends, among whom were Mackenzie, Robertson,
+Hume, Home, Monboddo, the Keiths of Ravelston, the
+Balcarres family and Lady Anne Barnard, the authoress of
+&ldquo;Auld Robin Gray.&rdquo; As a Rutherfurd she was a connexion of
+Sir Walter Scott&rsquo;s mother, and was her intimate friend. Lockhart
+quotes a letter written by Mrs Cockburn in 1777, describing the
+conduct of little Walter Scott, then scarcely six years old, during
+a visit which she paid to his mother, when the child gave as a
+reason for his liking for Mrs Cockburn that she was a &ldquo;virtuoso
+like himself.&rdquo; Mrs Cockburn died on the 22nd of November
+1794.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See her <i>Letters and Memorials</i>..., with notes by T. Craig Brown
+(1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span>, Bart. (1772-1853), British
+admiral, second son of Sir James Cockburn, Bart., and uncle of
+Lord Chief Justice Cockburn, was born in London. He entered
+the navy in his ninth year. After serving on the home station,
+and in the East Indies and the Mediterranean, he assisted, as
+captain of the &ldquo;Minerve&rdquo; (38) at the blockade of Leghorn in
+1796, and fought a gallant action with the Spanish frigate
+&ldquo;Sabina&rdquo; (40) which he took. He was present at the battle of
+Cape St Vincent. In 1809, in command of the naval force on
+shore, he contributed greatly to the reduction of Martinique,
+and signed the capitulation by which that island was handed
+over to the English; for his services on this occasion he received
+the thanks of the House of Commons. After service in the
+Scheldt and at the defence of Cadiz he was sent in 1811 on an
+unsuccessful mission for the reconciliation of Spain and her
+American colonies. He was made rear-admiral in 1812, and in
+1813-14, as second in command to Warren, he took a prominent
+part in the American War, especially in the capture of Washington.
+Early in 1815 he received the order of the Bath, and in the
+autumn of the same year he carried out, in the &ldquo;Northumberland&rdquo;
+(74), the sentence of deportation to St Helena which had
+been passed upon Bonaparte. In 1818 he received the Grand
+Cross of his order, and was made a lord of the admiralty; and
+the same year he was returned to parliament for Portsmouth.
+He was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral in 1819, and to
+that of admiral in 1837; he became senior naval lord in 1841,
+and held office in that capacity till 1846. From 1827 he was a
+privy councillor. In 1851 he was made admiral of the fleet, and
+in 1852, a year before his death, inherited the family baronetcy
+from his elder brother, being himself succeeded by his brother
+William, dean of York, who died in 1858.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See O&rsquo;Byrne, <i>Naval Biography</i>; W. James, <i>Naval History</i>;
+<i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i> for 1853.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1779-1854), Scottish judge,
+with the style of Lord Cockburn, was born in Edinburgh on the
+26th of October 1779. His father, a keen Tory, was a baron of
+the Scottish court of exchequer, and his mother was connected
+by marriage with Lord Melville. He was educated at the high
+school and the university of Edinburgh; and he was a member
+of the famous Speculative Society, to which Sir Walter Scott,
+Brougham and Jeffrey belonged. He entered the faculty of
+advocates in 1800, and attached himself, not to the party of
+his relatives, who could have afforded him most valuable patronage,
+but to the Whig or Liberal party, and that at a time when it
+held out few inducements to men ambitious of success in life.
+On the accession of Earl Grey&rsquo;s ministry in 1830 he became
+solicitor-general for Scotland. In 1834 he was raised to the
+bench, and on taking his seat as a judge in the court of session he
+adopted the title of Lord Cockburn. Cockburn&rsquo;s forensic style
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625"></a>625</span>
+was remarkable for its clearness, pathos and simplicity; and
+his conversational powers were unrivalled among his contemporaries.
+The extent of his literary ability only became known
+after he had passed his seventieth year, on the publication of his
+biography of Lord Jeffrey in 1852, and from the <i>Memorials of his
+Time</i>, which appeared posthumously in 1856. He died on the
+26th of April 1854, at his mansion of Bonaly, near Edinburgh.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKER, EDWARD<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1631-1675), the reputed author of the
+famous <i>Arithmetick</i>, the popularity of which has added a phrase
+(&ldquo;according to Cocker&rdquo;) to the list of English proverbialisms,
+was an English engraver, who also taught writing and arithmetic.
+He is credited with the authorship and execution of some fourteen
+sets of copy slips, one of which, <i>Daniel&rsquo;s Copy-Book, ingraven
+by Edward Cocker, Philomath</i> (1664), is preserved in the British
+Museum. Pepys, in his <i>Diary</i>, makes very favourable mention
+of Cocker, who appears to have displayed great skill in his art.
+<i>Cocker&rsquo;s Arithmetick</i>, the fifty-second edition of which appeared
+in 1748, and which has passed through about 112 editions in all,
+was not published during the lifetime of its reputed author, the
+first impression bearing date of 1678. Augustus de Morgan in
+his <i>Arithmetical Books</i> (1847) adduces proofs, which may be
+held to be conclusive, that the work was a forgery of the editor
+and publisher, John Hawkins; and there appears to be no
+doubt that the <i>Decimal Arithmetic</i> (1684), and the <i>English
+Dictionary</i> (second edition, 1715), issued by Hawkins under
+Cocker&rsquo;s name, are forgeries also. De Morgan condemns the
+<i>Arithmetick</i> as a diffuse compilation from older and better works,
+and dates &ldquo;a very great deterioration in elementary works on
+arithmetic&rdquo; from the appearance of the book, which owed its
+celebrity far more to persistent puffing than to its merits. He
+pertinently adds,&mdash;&ldquo;This same Edward Cocker must have had
+great reputation, since a bad book under his name pushed out
+the good ones.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1788-1863), British
+architect, was born in London on the 28th of April 1788. After
+a preliminary training in his profession, he went abroad in 1810
+and studied the great architectural remains of Greece, Italy and
+Asia Minor. At Aegina, Phigalia and other places of interest,
+he conducted excavations on a large scale, enriching the British
+Museum with many fine fragments, and adding several valuable
+monographs to the literature of archaeology. Elected in 1829
+an associate of the Royal Academy, he became a full member
+in 1836, and in 1839 he was appointed professor of architecture.
+On Sir John Soane&rsquo;s death in 1837 Cockerell was appointed
+architect of the Bank of England, and carried out the alterations
+that were judged to be necessary in that building. In addition
+to branch banks at Liverpool and Manchester he erected in 1840
+the new library at Cambridge, and in 1845 the university galleries
+at Oxford, as well as the Sun and the Westminster Fire Offices
+in Bartholomew Lane and in the Strand; and he was joint
+architect of the London &amp; Westminster Bank, Lothbury, with
+Sir W. Tite. On the death of Henry Lonsdale Elmes in 1847,
+Cockerell was selected to finish the St George&rsquo;s Hall, Liverpool.
+Cockerell&rsquo;s best conceptions were those inspired by classic
+models; his essays in the Gothic&mdash;the college at Lampeter, for
+instance, and the chapel at Harrow&mdash;are by no means so
+successful. His thorough knowledge of Gothic art, however,
+can be seen from his writings, <i>On the Iconography of Wells
+Cathedral</i>, and <i>On the Sculptures of Lincoln and Exeter Cathedrals</i>.
+In his <i>Tribute to the Memory of Sir Christopher Wren</i> (1838) he
+published an interesting collection of the whole of Wren&rsquo;s works
+drawn to one scale.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKERILL, WILLIAM<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1759-1832), Anglo-French inventor
+and machinist, was born in England in 1759. He went to Belgium
+as a simple mechanic, and in 1799 constructed at Verviers the
+first wool-carding and wool-spinning machines on the continent.
+In 1807 he established a large machine workshop at Liége.
+Orders soon poured in on him from all over Europe, and he
+amassed a large fortune. In 1810 he was granted the rights of
+naturalization by Napoleon I., and in 1812 handed over the
+management of his business to his youngest son, <span class="sc">John Cockerill</span>
+(1790-1840).</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to his own energy and ability, aided by the influence
+of King William I. of the Netherlands, John Cockerill largely
+extended his father&rsquo;s business. King William secured him a site
+at Seraing, where he built large works, including an iron-foundry
+and blast furnace. The construction of the Belgian railways
+in 1834 gave a great impetus to these works, branches of which
+had already been opened in France, Germany and Poland. In
+1838 Cockerill met with a carriage accident which nearly proved
+fatal, and the prospect of his loss resulted in the credit of the firm
+being so badly shaken that in 1839 it was compelled to go into
+liquidation, the liabilities being estimated at 26 millions of
+francs, the assets at 18 millions. This reverse, however, was only
+temporary. John Cockerill had practically concluded negotiations
+to construct the Russian government railways, when his
+constitution, undermined by overwork, broke down. He died
+at Warsaw on the 19th of June 1840. The iron works, among
+the largest in Europe, are still carried on under the name of La
+Société Cockerill at Seraing (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKERMOUTH<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span>, a market town in the Cockermouth parliamentary
+division of Cumberland, England, 27 m. S.W. of Carlisle,
+on the Cockermouth, Keswick &amp; Penrith, the London &amp; North
+Western, and the Maryport &amp; Carlisle railways. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 5355. It is pleasantly situated on the river
+Derwent, at the junction of the Cocker, outlying hills of the Lake
+District sheltering it on the north, east and south. The castle
+has remains of Norman work in the keep, and other ancient
+portions (including the gateway) of later date, but is in part
+modernized as a residence. The grammar school was founded
+in 1676. The county industrial school is established in the
+town. The industries include the manufacture of woollens and
+confectionery, tanning and engineering, and there is a considerable
+agricultural trade. There are coal mines in the neighbourhood.
+A statue was erected in 1875 to the sixth earl of Mayo,
+who represented the borough (abolished in 1885) from 1857 to
+1868. There is a Roman fort a mile west of the town, at
+Papcastle.</p>
+
+<p>Cockermouth (<i>Cokermuth</i>, <i>Cokermue</i>) was made the head of the
+honour or barony of Allerdale when that barony was created
+and granted to Waltheof in the early part of the 12th century.
+At a later date the honour of Allerdale was frequently called the
+honour of Cockermouth. Waltheof probably built the castle,
+under the shelter of which the town grew up. Although it never
+received any royal charter, the earliest records relating to
+Cockermouth mention it as a borough. In 1295 it returned two
+members to parliament and then not again until 1640. By the
+Representation of the People Act of 1867 the representation was
+reduced to one member, and by the Redistribution Act of 1885
+it was disfranchised. In 1221 William de Fortibus, earl of
+Albemarle, was granted a Saturday market, which later in the
+year was transferred to Monday, the day on which it has continued
+to be held ever since. The Michaelmas Fair existed in
+1343, and an inquisition dated 1374 mentions two horse-fairs on
+Whit-Monday and at Michaelmas. In 1638 Algernon Percy, earl
+of Northumberland, obtained a grant of a fair every Wednesday
+from the first week in May till Michaelmas. The chief sources
+of revenue in Norman times were the valuable fisheries and
+numerous mills.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCK-FIGHTING<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cocking</span>, the sport of pitting game-cocks
+to fight, and breeding and training them for the purpose. The
+game-fowl is now probably the nearest to the Indian jungle-fowl
+(<i>Gallus ferrugineus</i>), from which all domestic fowls are believed
+to be descended. The sport was popular in ancient times in
+India, China, Persia and other eastern countries, and was introduced
+into Greece in the time of Themistocles. The latter, while
+moving with his army against the Persians, observed two cocks
+fighting desperately, and, stopping his troops, inspired them by
+calling their attention to the valour and obstinacy of the feathered
+warriors. In honour of the ensuing victory of the Greeks cock-fights
+were thenceforth held annually at Athens, at first in a
+patriotic and religious spirit, but afterwards purely for the love
+of the sport. Lucian makes Solon speak of quail-fighting and
+cocking, but he is evidently referring to a time later than that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626"></a>626</span>
+of Themistocles. From Athens the sport spread throughout
+Greece, Asia Minor and Sicily, the best cocks being bred in
+Alexandria, Delos, Rhodes and Tanagra. For a long time the
+Romans affected to despise this &ldquo;Greek diversion,&rdquo; but ended
+by adopting it so enthusiastically that Columella (1st century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span>) complained that its devotees often spent their whole
+patrimony in betting at the pit-side. The cocks were provided
+with iron spurs (<i>tela</i>), as in the East, and were often dosed with
+stimulants to make them fight more savagely.</p>
+
+<p>From Rome cocking spread northwards, and, although
+opposed by the Christian church, nevertheless became popular in
+Great Britain, the Low Countries, Italy, Germany, Spain and
+her colonies. On account of adverse legislation cocking has
+practically died out everywhere excepting in Spain, countries of
+Spanish origin and the Orient, where it is still legal and extremely
+popular. It was probably introduced into England by the
+Romans before Caesar&rsquo;s time. William Fitz-Stephen first speaks
+of it in the time of Henry II. as a sport for school-boys on
+holidays, and particularly on Shrove Tuesday, the masters themselves
+directing the fights, or mains, from which they derived a
+material advantage, as the dead birds fell to them. It became
+very popular throughout England and Wales, as well as in
+Scotland, where it was introduced in 1681. Occasionally the
+authorities tried to repress it, especially Cromwell, who put an
+almost complete stop to it for a brief period, but the Restoration
+re-established it among the national-pastimes. Contemporary
+apologists do not, in the 17th century, consider its cruelty at all,
+but concern themselves solely with its justification as a source of
+pleasure. &ldquo;If Leviathan took his sport in the waters, how much
+more may Man take his sport upon the land?&rdquo; From the time
+of Henry VIII., who added the famous Royal Cock-pit to his
+palace of Whitehall, cocking was called the &ldquo;royal diversion,&rdquo;
+and the Stuarts, particularly James I. and Charles II., were
+among its most enthusiastic devotees, their example being
+followed by the gentry down to the 19th century. Gervase
+Markham in his <i>Pleasures of Princes</i> (1614) wrote &ldquo;Of the
+Choyce, Ordring, Breeding and Dyeting of the fighting-Cocke
+for Battell,&rdquo; his quaint directions being of the most explicit
+nature. When a cock is to be trained for the pit he must be fed
+&ldquo;three or foure daies only with old Maunchet (fine white bread)
+and spring water.&rdquo; He is then set to spar with another cock,
+&ldquo;putting a payre of hots upon each of their heeles, which Hots
+are soft, bumbasted roules of Leather, covering their spurs, so
+that they cannot hurt each other.... Let them fight and buffet
+one another a good space.&rdquo; After exercise the bird must be put
+into a basket, covered with hay and set near the fire. &ldquo;Then let
+him sweate, for the nature of this scowring is to bring away his
+grease, and to breed breath, and strength.&rdquo; If not killed in the
+fight, &ldquo;the first thing you doe, you shall search his wounds, and
+as many as you can find you shall with your mouth sucke the
+blood out of them, then wash them with warm salt water,... give
+him a roule or two, and so stove him up as hot as you can.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Cocking-mains usually consisted of fights between an agreed
+number of pairs of birds, the majority of victories deciding the
+main; but there were two other varieties that aroused the
+particular ire of moralists. These were the &ldquo;battle royal,&rdquo; in
+which a number of birds were &ldquo;set,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> placed in the pit, at the
+same time, and allowed to remain until all but one, the victor,
+were killed or disabled; and the &ldquo;Welsh main,&rdquo; in which eight
+pairs were matched, the eight victors being again paired, then
+four, and finally the last surviving pair. Among London cock-pits
+were those at Westminster, in Drury Lane, Jewin Street
+and Birdcage Walk (depicted by Hogarth). Over the royal pit
+at Whitehall presided the king&rsquo;s cockmaster. The pits were
+circular in shape with a matted stage about 20 ft. in diameter
+and surrounded by a barrier to keep the birds from falling off.
+Upon this barrier the first row of the audience leaned. Hardly a
+town in the kingdom was without its cockpit, which offered the
+sporting classes opportunities for betting not as yet sufficiently
+supplied by horse-racing. With the growth of the latter sport
+and the increased facilities for reaching the racing centres,
+cocking gradually declined, especially after parliament passed
+laws against it, so that gentlemen risked arrest by attending a
+main.</p>
+
+<p>Among the best-known devotees of the sport was a Colonel
+Mordaunt, who, about 1780, took a number of the best English
+game-cocks to India. There he found the sport in high favour
+with the native rulers and his birds were beaten. Perhaps the
+most famous main in England took place at Lincoln in 1830
+between the birds of Joseph Gilliver, the most celebrated breeder,
+or &ldquo;feeder,&rdquo; of his day, and those of the earl of Derby. The
+conditions called for seven birds a side, and the stakes were
+5000 guineas the main and 1000 guineas each match. The main
+was won by Gilliver by five matches to two. His grandson was
+also a breeder, and the blood of his cocks still runs in the best
+breeds of Great Britain and America. Another famous breeder
+was Dr Bellyse of Audlem, the principal figure in the great
+mains fought at Chester during race-week at the beginning of the
+19th century. His favourite breed was the white pile, and
+&ldquo;Cheshire piles&rdquo; are still much-fancied birds. Others were
+Irish brown-reds, Lancashire black-reds and Staffordshire duns.</p>
+
+<p>In Wales, as well as some parts of England, cocking-mains took
+place regularly in churchyards, and in many instances even
+inside the churches themselves. Sundays, wakes and church
+festivals were favourite occasions for them. The habit of holding
+mains in schools was common from the 12th to about the middle
+of the 19th century. When cocking was at its height, the pupils
+of many schools were made a special allowance for purchasing
+fighting-cocks, and parents were expected to contribute to the
+expenses of the annual main on Shrove Tuesday, this money
+being called &ldquo;cockpence.&rdquo; Cock-fighting was prohibited by law
+in Great Britain in 1849.</p>
+
+<p>Cocking was early introduced into America, though it was
+always frowned upon in New England. Some of the older states,
+as Massachusetts, forbade it by passing laws against cruelty as
+early as 1836, and it is now expressly prohibited in Canada and
+in most states of the Union, or is repressed by general laws for
+the prevention of cruelty to animals.</p>
+
+<p>Cocks are fought at an age of from one to two years. &ldquo;Heeling,&rdquo;
+or the proper fastening of the spurs, and &ldquo;cutting out,&rdquo;
+trimming the wings at a slope, and cutting the tail down by one-third
+of its length and shortening the hackle and rump feathers,
+are arts acquired by experience. The comb is cut down close,
+so as to offer the least possible mark for the hostile bird&rsquo;s bill.
+The cock is then provided with either &ldquo;short heels,&rdquo; spurs 1½ in.
+or less in length, or with &ldquo;long heels,&rdquo; from 2 to 2½ in. in length.
+The training of a cock for the pit lasts from ten days to a month
+or more, during which time the bird is subjected to a rigid diet
+and exercise in running and sparring. The birds may not be
+touched after being set down in the pit, unless to extricate
+them from the matting. Whenever a bird refuses to fight longer
+he is set breast to breast with his adversary in the middle of the
+pit, and if he then still refuses to fight he is regarded as defeated.
+Among the favourite breeds may be mentioned the &ldquo;Irish
+gilders,&rdquo; &ldquo;Irish Grays,&rdquo; &ldquo;Shawlnecks,&rdquo; &ldquo;Gordons,&rdquo; &ldquo;Eslin
+Red-Quills,&rdquo; &ldquo;Baltimore Topknots,&rdquo; &ldquo;Dominiques,&rdquo; &ldquo;War-horses&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Claibornes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Cock-fighting possesses an extensive literature of its own. See
+Gervase Markham, <i>Pleasures of Princes</i> (London, 1614); Blain,
+<i>Rural Sports</i> (London, 1853); &ldquo;Game Cocks and Cock-Fighting,&rdquo;
+<i>Outing</i>, vol. 39; &ldquo;A Modest Commendation of Cock-Fighting,&rdquo;
+<i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, vol. 22; &ldquo;Cock-Fighting in Schools,&rdquo;
+<i>Chambers&rsquo; Magazine</i>, vol. 65.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCK LANE GHOST<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span>, a supposed apparition, the vagaries
+of which attracted extraordinary public attention in London
+during 1762. At a house in Cock Lane, Smithfield, tenanted
+by one Parsons, knockings and other noises were said to occur
+at night varied by the appearance of a luminous figure, alleged
+to be the ghost of a Mrs Kent who had died in the house some
+two years before. A thorough investigation revealed that
+Parsons&rsquo; daughter, a child of eleven, was the source of the
+disturbance. The object of the Parsons family seems to have
+been to accuse the husband of the deceased woman of murdering
+her, with a view to blackmail. Parsons was prosecuted and
+condemned to the pillory. Among the crowds who visited the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627"></a>627</span>
+house was Dr Johnson, who was in consequence made the
+object of a scurrilous attack by the poet Charles Churchill in
+&ldquo;The Ghost.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Lang, <i>Cock Lane and Common Sense</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKLE, SIR JAMES<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1819-1895), English lawyer and
+mathematician, was born on the 14th of January 1819. He was
+the second son of James Cockle, a surgeon, of Great Oakley,
+Essex. Educated at Charterhouse and Trinity College, Cambridge,
+he entered the Middle Temple in 1838, practising as a
+special pleader in 1845 and being called in 1846. Joining the
+midland circuit, he acquired a good practice, and on the recommendation
+of Chief Justice Sir William Erle he was appointed
+chief justice of Queensland in 1863. He received the honour
+of knighthood in 1869, retired from the bench, and returned
+to England in 1879.</p>
+
+<p>Cockle is more remembered for his mathematical and scientific
+investigations than as a lawyer. Like many young mathematicians
+he attacked the problem of resolving the higher
+algebraic equations, notwithstanding Abel&rsquo;s proof that a solution
+by radicles was impossible. In this field Cockle achieved some
+notable results, amongst which is his reproduction of Sir William
+R. Hamilton&rsquo;s modification of Abel&rsquo;s theorem. Algebraic forms
+were a favourite object of his studies, and he discovered and
+developed the theory of criticoids, or differential invariants; he
+also made contributions to the theory of differential equations.
+He displayed a keen interest in scientific societies. From 1863
+to 1879 he was president of the Queensland Philosophical Society
+(now incorporated in the Royal Society of Queensland); on his
+return to England he became associated with the London
+Mathematical Society, of which he was president from 1886
+to 1888, and the Royal Astronomical Society, serving as a
+member of the council from 1888 to 1892. He died in London
+on the 27th of January 1895.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A volume containing his scientific and mathematical researches
+made during the years 1864-1877 was presented to the British
+Museum in 1897 by his widow. See the obituary notice by the
+Rev. R. Harley in <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. 59.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKLE<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span>, in zoology, a mollusc (<i>Cardium</i>) of the class Lamellibranchia
+(<i>q.v.</i>). A very large number of species of <i>Cardium</i> have
+been distinguished by conchologists. Besides the common
+species <i>Cardium edule</i>, two others occur in Britain, but are not
+sufficiently common to be of commercial importance. One of
+these is <i>C. echinatum</i>, which is larger than the common species,
+reaching 3 in. in diameter, and distinguished by the presence
+of spines along the ribs of the shell. The other is <i>C. norvegicum</i>,
+which is also somewhat larger than <i>C. edule</i>, is longer dorso-ventrally
+than broad, and is only faintly ribbed.</p>
+
+<p>The two valves of the shell of the common cockle are similar
+to each other, and somewhat circular in outline. The beak or
+umbo of each valve is prominent and rounded, and a number of
+sharp ridges and furrows radiate from the apex to the free edge
+of the shell, which is crenated. The ligament is external, and the
+hinge carries cardinal teeth in each valve. The interior of the
+shell is remarkable for the absence of pearly lustre on its interior
+surface. The colour externally is reddish or yellowish. The
+pallial line, which is the line of attachment of the mantle parallel
+to the edge of the shell, is not indented by a sinus at the posterior
+end. In the entire animal the posterior end projects slightly
+more than the anterior from the region of the umbones.</p>
+
+<p>The animal possesses two nearly equal adductor muscles.
+The edges of the mantle are united posteriorly except at the anal
+and branchial apertures, which are placed at the ends of two
+very short siphons or tubular prolongations of the mantle; the
+siphons bear a number of short tentacles, and many of these are
+furnished with eye-spots. The foot is very large and powerful;
+it can be protruded from the anterior aperture between the mantle
+edges, and its outer part is bent sharply forwards and terminates
+in a point. By means of this muscular foot the cockle burrows
+rapidly in the muddy sand of the sea-shore, and it can also when
+it is not buried perform considerable leaps by suddenly bending
+the foot. The foot has a byssus gland on its posterior surface.</p>
+
+<p>On either side of the body between the mantle and the foot
+are two flat gills each composed of two lamellae. <i>Cardium</i>
+belongs to the order of Lamellibranchia in which the gills present
+the maximum of complexity, the original vertical filaments of
+which they are composed being united by interfilamentar and
+interlamellar junctions. In other respects the anatomy of the
+cockle presents no important differences from that of a typical
+Lamellibranch. The sexes are distinct, and the generative
+opening is on the side of the body above the edge of the inner
+lamella of the inner gill. The eggs are minute, and pass out
+into the sea-water through the dorsal or exhalent siphon. The
+breeding season is April, May and June. The larva for a time
+swims freely in the sea-water, having a circlet of cilia round the
+body in front of the mouth, forming the velum. The shell is
+developed on the dorsal surface behind the velum, the foot on the
+opposite or ventral surface behind the mouth. After a few days,
+when the mantle bearing the shell valves has developed so much
+as to enclose the whole body, the young cockle sinks to the bottom
+and commences to follow the habits of the adult. The usual
+size of the cockle in its shell is from 1 to 2 in. in breadth.</p>
+
+<p>The common cockle is regularly used as food by the poorer
+classes. It occurs in abundance on sandy shores in all estuaries.
+At the mouth of the Thames the gathering of cockles forms a
+considerable industry, especially at Leigh. On the coast of
+Lancashire also the fishery, if it may be so called, is of considerable
+importance. The cockles are gathered by the simple process
+of raking them from the sand, and they are usually boiled and
+extracted from their shells before being sent to market. The
+cockle is liable to the same suspicion as the oyster of conveying
+the contamination of typhoid fever where the shores are polluted,
+but as it is boiled before being eaten it is probably less
+dangerous.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. T. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKNEY<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span>, a colloquial name applied to Londoners generally,
+but more properly confined to those born in London, or more
+strictly still to those born within the sound of the bells of St
+Mary-le-Bow church. The origin of the word has been the
+subject of many guesses, from that in John Minsheu&rsquo;s lexicon,
+<i>Ductor in linguas</i> (1617), which gives the tale of the town-bred
+child who, on hearing a horse neigh, asked whether a &ldquo;cock
+neighed&rdquo; too, to the confusion of the word with the name of the
+Utopia, the land of Cockaigne (<i>q.v.</i>). The historical examination
+of the various uses of &ldquo;Cockney,&rdquo; by Sir James Murray (see
+<i>Academy</i>, 10th of May 1890, and the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, s.v.)
+clearly shows the true derivation. The earliest form of the word
+is <i>cokenay</i> or <i>cokeney</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the <i>ey</i> or egg, and <i>coken</i>, genitive plural
+of &ldquo;cock,&rdquo; &ldquo;cocks&rsquo; eggs&rdquo; being the name given to the small
+and malformed eggs sometimes laid by young hens, known in
+German as <i>Hahneneier</i>. An early quotation, in Langland&rsquo;s <i>Piers
+Plowman</i>, A. vii. 272, gives the combination of &ldquo;cokeneyes&rdquo;
+and bacon to make a &ldquo;collop,&rdquo; or dish of eggs and bacon. The
+word then applied to a child overlong nursed by its mother,
+hence to a simpleton or milksop. Thus in Chaucer, <i>Reeve&rsquo;s Tale</i>,
+the word is used with <i>daf</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a fool. The particular application
+of the name as a term of contempt given by country folk to
+town-bred people, with their dandified airs and ignorance of
+country ways and country objects, is easy. Thus Robert
+Whittington or Whitinton (<i>fl.</i> 1520), speaks of the &ldquo;cokneys&rdquo; in
+such &ldquo;great cytees as London, York, Perusy&rdquo; (Perugia), showing
+the general use of the word. It was not till the beginning
+of the 17th century that &ldquo;cockney&rdquo; appears to be confined to
+the inhabitants of London.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called &ldquo;Cockney&rdquo; accent or pronunciation has varied
+in type. In the first part of the 19th century, it was chiefly
+characterized by the substitution of a <i>v</i> for a <i>w</i>, or vice versa.
+This has almost entirely disappeared, and the chief consonantal
+variation which exists is perhaps the change of <i>th</i> to <i>f</i> or <i>v</i>, as in
+&ldquo;fing&rdquo; for thing, or &ldquo;favver&rdquo; for father. This and the vowel-sound
+change from <i>ou</i> to <i>ah</i>, as in &ldquo;abaht&rdquo; for &ldquo;about,&rdquo; are
+only heard among the uneducated classes, and, together with
+other characteristic pronunciations, phrases and words, have
+been well illustrated in the so-called &ldquo;coster&rdquo; songs of Albert
+Chevalier. The most marked and widely-prevalent change of
+vowel sound is that of <i>ei</i> for <i>ai</i>, so that &ldquo;daily&rdquo; becomes &ldquo;dyly&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;may&rdquo; becomes &ldquo;my.&rdquo; This is sometimes so marked
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628"></a>628</span>
+that it almost amounts to incapacity to distinguish the vowels
+<i>a</i> and <i>i</i>, and is almost universal in large classes of the population
+of London. The name of the &ldquo;Cockney School of Poetry&rdquo; was
+applied in 1817 to the literary circle of which Leigh Hunt was
+the principal representative, though Keats also was aimed at.
+The articles in <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, in which the name appeared,
+have generally, but probably wrongly, been attributed to
+John Gibson Lockhart.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCK-OF-THE-ROCK<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span>, the familiar name of the birds of the
+genus Rupicola (subfamily Rupicolinae) of the Cotingas (allied
+to the Manakins, <i>q.v.</i>), found in the Amazon valley. They
+are about the size of a pigeon, with orange-coloured plumage,
+a pronounced crest, and orange-red flesh, and build their
+nests on rock. The skins and feathers are highly valued for
+decoration.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCK-OF-THE-ROCK<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span>, the term originally for an enclosed place in which
+the sport of cock-fighting (<i>q.v.</i>) was carried on. On the site of
+an old cockpit opposite Whitehall in London was a block of
+buildings used from the 17th century as offices by the treasury
+and the privy council, for which the old name survived till the
+early 19th century. The name was given also to a theatre in
+London, built in the early part of the 17th century on the site
+of Drury Lane theatre. As the place where the wounded in
+battle were tended, or where the junior officers consorted, the
+term was also formerly applied to a cabin used for these purposes
+on the lower deck of a man-of-war.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKROACH<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span><a name="FnAnchor_1a" id="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<i>Blattidae</i>), a family of orthopterous insects,
+distinguished by their flattened bodies, long thread-like antennae,
+and shining leathery integuments. Cockroaches are nocturnal
+creatures, secreting themselves in chinks and crevices about
+houses, issuing from their retreats when the lights are extinguished,
+and moving about with extraordinary rapidity in
+search of food. They are voracious and omnivorous, devouring,
+or at least damaging, whatever comes in their way, for all the
+species emit a disagreeable odour, which they communicate to
+whatever article of food or clothing they may touch.</p>
+
+<p>The common cockroach (<i>Stilopyga orientalis</i>) is not indigenous
+to Europe, but is believed to have been introduced from the
+Levant in the cargoes of trading vessels. The wings in the male
+are shorter than the body; in the female they are rudimentary.
+The eggs, which are 16 in number, are deposited in a leathery
+capsule fixed by a gum-like substance to the abdomen of the
+female, and thus carried about till the young are ready to escape,
+when the capsule becomes softened by the emission of a fluid
+substance. The larvae are perfectly white at first and wingless,
+although in other respects not unlike their parents, but they are
+not mature insects until after the sixth casting of the skin.</p>
+
+<p>The American cockroach (<i>Periplaneta americana</i>) is larger
+than the former, and is not uncommon in European seaports
+trading with America, being conveyed in cargoes of grain and
+other food produce. It is very abundant in the Zoological
+Gardens in London, where it occurs in conjunction with a much
+smaller imported species <i>Phyllodromia germanica</i>, which may
+also be seen in some of the cheaper restaurants.</p>
+
+<p>In both of these species the females, as well as the males,
+are winged.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these noxious and obtrusive forms, England
+has a few indigenous species belonging to the genus <i>Ectobia</i>,
+which live under stones or fallen trees in fields and woods. The
+largest known species is the drummer of the West Indies (<i>Blabera
+gigantea</i>), so called from the tapping noise it makes on wood,
+sufficient, when joined in by several individuals, as usually
+happens, to break the slumbers of a household. It is about
+2 in. long, with wings 3 in. in expanse, and forms one of the
+most noisome and injurious of insect pests. Wingless females
+of many tropical species present a close superficial resemblance
+to woodlice; and one interesting apterous form known
+as <i>Pseudoglomeris</i>, from the East Indies, is able to roll up like
+a millipede.</p>
+
+<p>The best mode of destroying cockroaches is, when the fire and
+lights are extinguished at night, to lay some treacle on a piece
+of wood afloat on a broad basin of water. This proves a temptation
+to the vermin too great to be resisted. The chinks and holes
+from which they issue should also be filled up with unslaked
+lime, or painted with a mixture of borax and heated turpentine.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See generally Miall and Denny, <i>The Structure and Life History of
+the Cockroach</i> (1887); G. H. Carpenter, <i>Insects: their Structure and
+Life</i> (1899); Charles Lester Marlatt, <i>Household Insects</i> (U.S. Department
+of Agriculture, revised edition, 1902); Leland Ossian Howard,
+<i>The Insect Book</i> (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1a" id="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word is a corruption of Sp. <i>cucaracha</i>. In America it is
+commonly abbreviated to &ldquo;roach.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCK&rsquo;S-COMB<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span>, in botany, a cultivated form of <i>Celosia cristata</i>
+(natural order Amarantaceae), in which the inflorescence is
+monstrous, forming a flat &ldquo;fasciated&rdquo; axis bearing numerous
+small flowers. The plant is a low-growing herbaceous annual,
+bearing a large, comb-like, dark red, scarlet or purplish mass of
+flowers. Seeds are sown in March or April in pans of rich, well-drained
+sandy soil, which are placed in a hot-bed at 65° to 70°
+in a moist atmosphere. The seedlings require plenty of light,
+and when large enough to handle are potted off and placed close
+to the glass in a frame under similar conditions. When the heads
+show they are shifted into 5-in. pots, which are plunged to
+their rims in ashes or coco-nut fibre refuse, in a hot-bed, as before,
+close to the glass; they are sparingly watered and more air
+admitted. The soil recommended is a half-rich sandy loam and
+half-rotten cow and stable manure mixed with a dash of silver
+sand. The other species of <i>Celosia</i> cultivated are <i>C. pyramidalis</i>,
+with a pyramidal inflorescence, varying in colour in the great
+number of varieties, and <i>C. argentea</i>, with a dense white inflorescence.
+They require a similar cultural treatment to that
+given for <i>C. cristata</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKTON, HENRY<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1807-1853), English humorous novelist,
+was born in London on the 7th of December 1807. He published
+a number of volumes, but is best known as the author of <i>Valentine
+Vox, the Ventriloquist</i> (1840) and <i>Sylvester Sound, the Somnambulist</i>
+(1844). He died at Bury St Edmunds on the 26th of June
+1853.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCKX<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Cock</span>), <span class="bold">HIERONYMUS</span> [<span class="sc">Jerome</span>] (1510-1570),
+Flemish painter and engraver, was born at Antwerp, and in
+1545 was admitted to the Gild of St Luke as a painter. It is as
+an engraver, however, that he is famous, a number of portraits
+and subject-pictures by him, and reproductions of Flemish
+masters, being well known. His brother Matthys (1505-1552)
+was also a painter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCOA<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span>,<a name="FnAnchor_1b" id="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> more properly <span class="sc">Cacao</span>, a valuable dietary substance
+yielded by the seeds of several small trees belonging to the genus
+<i>Theobroma</i>, of the natural order Sterculiaceae. The whole genus,
+which comprises twelve species, belongs to the tropical parts of
+the American continent; and although the cocoa of commerce
+is probably the produce of more than one species, by far the
+greatest and most valuable portion is obtained from <i>Theobroma
+Cacao</i>. The generic name is derived from <span class="grk" title="theos">&#952;&#949;&#972;&#962;</span> (god) and <span class="grk" title="broma">&#946;&#961;&#8182;&#956;&#945;</span>
+(food), and was bestowed by Linnaeus as an indication of the
+high appreciation in which he held the beverage prepared from
+the seeds, which he considered to be a food fit for the gods.</p>
+
+<p>The common cacao tree is of low stature, seldom exceeding
+25 ft. in height, but it is taller in its native forests than it is in
+cultivated plantations. The leaves are large, smooth, and glossy,
+elliptic-oblong and tapering in form, growing principally at the
+ends of branches, but sometimes springing directly from the
+main trunk. The flowers are small, and occur in numerous
+clusters on the main branches and the trunk, a very marked
+peculiarity which gives the matured fruit the appearance of being
+artificially attached to the tree. Generally only a single fruit is
+matured from each cluster of flowers. When ripe the fruit or
+&ldquo;pod&rdquo; is elliptical-ovoid in form, from 7 to 10 in. in length
+and from 3 to 4½ in. in diameter. It has a hard, thick, leathery
+rind of a rich purplish-yellow colour, externally rough and marked
+with ten very distinct longitudinal ribs or elevations. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629"></a>629</span>
+interior of the fruit has five cells, in each of which is a row of
+from 5 to 12 seeds embedded in a soft delicately pink acid pulp.
+Each fruit thus contains from 20 to 50 or more seeds, which
+constitute the raw cacao or &ldquo;cacao beans&rdquo; of commerce.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:311px; height:456px" src="images/img629.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Branch of Cocoa Tree, with Fruit in
+section, much reduced.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The tree appears to have been originally a native of the coast
+lands of the Gulf of Mexico and tropical South America as far
+south as the basin of
+the Amazon; but it
+can be cultivated in
+suitable situations
+within the 25th parallels
+of latitude. It
+flourishes best within
+the 15th parallels, at
+elevations ranging
+from near the sea-level
+up to about 2000
+ft. in height. It is now
+cultivated in Mexico,
+Honduras, Guatemala,
+Nicaragua,
+Brazil, Peru, Ecuador,
+New Granada, Venezuela,
+Surinam, Guiana,
+and in many of the
+West Indian islands,
+particularly in Trinidad,
+San Domingo,
+Grenada, Cuba, Porto
+Rico and Jamaica.
+Away from America
+it has been introduced,
+and is cultivated on a large scale in West Africa, Ceylon and
+the Dutch East Indies.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The value of cacao was appreciated in its native
+country before the discovery of America by Europeans. The
+Spaniards found in use in Mexico a beverage known by the Aztec
+name of <i>chocolath</i>, from <i>choco</i> (cacao) and <i>lath</i> (water). W. H.
+Prescott records that the emperor Montezuma of Mexico was
+&ldquo;exceedingly fond of it ... no less than 50 jars or pitchers
+being prepared for his own daily consumption; 2000 more were
+allowed for that of his household.&rdquo; Bags of cacao containing a
+specified number of beans were also a recognized form of currency
+in the country. The product was early introduced into Spain,
+and thence to other parts of Europe. The <i>Public Advertiser</i>
+(London) of June 16, 1657, contains an announcement that
+&ldquo;In Bishopgate St., in Queen&rsquo;s Head Alley, at a Frenchman&rsquo;s
+house, is an excellent West India drink, called chocolate, to be
+sold, where you may have it ready at any time, and also unmade
+at reasonable rates.&rdquo; Chocolate was a very fashionable beverage
+in the early part of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cultivated Varieties.</i>&mdash;Numerous varieties of the cacao, <i>i.e.</i> of
+<i>Theobroma Cacao</i>, are recognized in cultivation. According to
+Dr P. Preuss, who has travelled extensively in the cacao producing
+countries of the world studying this crop, it is impossible
+to embody in a single table the characteristics of the world&rsquo;s
+varieties. A separate classification is needed for almost each
+country. In 1882 the Trinidad forms were classified by Sir D.
+Morris. This table was later revised by Mr J. H. Hart, and more
+recently Mr R. H. Lock studied the Ceylon varieties. As the
+Ceylon cacaos were obtained mainly from Trinidad, and as Mr
+Lock&rsquo;s results agree substantially with those of Sir D. Morris, they
+serve to illustrate the distinguishing characteristics of the West
+Indian and Ceylon forms. The main divisions are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>Criollo.</i>&mdash;Pods relatively thin-walled and soft, rough, pointed
+at apex. The seeds or beans are plump and of pale colour. The
+ripe pods may be either red (colorado) or yellow (amarillo).</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Forastero.</i>&mdash;Pods relatively thick-walled and hard. The seeds
+vary in colour from pale to deep purple. Various varieties are
+recognized, such as cundeamor, amelonado, liso, calabacillo, differing
+in shape, colour and character of beans, &amp;c., and of each of these again
+there may be a colorado and amarillo sub-variety. Of special
+interest is calabacillo, a variety with a smooth, small pod, and deep
+purple beans. It is considered by some to be sufficiently distinct
+to form a third type equivalent to criollo or forastero. Others again
+would raise amelonado to the rank of a distinct type. Of the above
+calabacillo is the hardiest and yields the least valuable beans;
+criollo is the most delicate and yields beans of the highest value,
+whilst forastero is intermediate in both respects. In general pale
+coloured beans are less bitter and more valuable than purple beans.
+Both, however, may occur in the same pod.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Alligator</i>, or <i>lagarto cacao</i>, is the common name of a variety
+cultivated in Nicaragua, Guatemala, &amp;c. Its pods are distinctly
+five-angled and beset with irregular, warty protuberances. Some
+regard it as a distinct species, <i>T. pentagona</i>, but others only
+as a variety of <i>T. Cacao</i>. Its produce is of high value.</p>
+
+<p><i>T. bicolor</i>, indigenous to Central America, is another species
+of some interest. It bears small, hard woody pods about 6 in.
+long and 3 in. in diameter, with curious surface markings. The
+beans possess a fetid odour and a bitter flavour and are known
+as &ldquo;tiger cacao.&rdquo; It is not likely to become of great commercial
+importance, although consumed locally where found. &ldquo;<i>Cacao
+bianco</i>&rdquo; and &ldquo;<i>pataste</i>&rdquo; are other names for this species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cultivation and Preparation.</i>&mdash;Cacao requires for its successful
+cultivation a deep, well-watered and yet well-drained soil,
+shelter from strong winds, and a thoroughly tropical climate,
+with a mean annual temperature of about 80° F., a rainfall
+of from 50 to 100 or more in., and freedom from long droughts.
+Young plants are grown from seed, which may either be sown
+directly in the positions the future trees are to occupy, varying
+according to local circumstances from 6 to 25 ft. apart in all
+directions, or raised in nurseries and transplanted later. The
+latter course is desirable when it is necessary to water and otherwise
+tend the seedlings. However raised, the young plants
+require to be shaded, and this is usually done by planting bananas,
+cassava or other useful crops between the rows of cacao. In some
+countries, but not in all, permanent shade trees are planted
+amongst the cacao. Various leguminous trees are commonly
+used, <i>e.g.</i> the coral tree (<i>Erythrina</i> spp.) sometimes known as
+<i>bois immortel</i> and <i>madre del cacao</i> or mother of cocoa, <i>Albizzia
+Lebbek</i>, <i>Pithecolobium Saman</i>, &amp;c. The various rubber trees
+have been employed with success. Wind belts are also necessary
+in exposed situations.</p>
+
+<p>Cacao comes into bearing when about five years old, the small
+pink flowers and the succeeding large pods being borne directly
+on the trunk and main branches. The pods are carefully picked
+when ripe, broken open, and the slimy mass of contained seeds
+and their enveloping mucilaginous pulp extracted. The &ldquo;beans&rdquo;
+are next fermented or &ldquo;sweated,&rdquo; often in special houses constructed
+for the purpose, or by placing them in heaps and
+covering with leaves or earth, or in baskets, barrels, &amp;c., lined
+with banana leaves. During fermentation the beans should be
+stirred once daily or oftener. The time of fermentation varies
+from one to twelve or even more days. Pale-coloured beans
+usually require less time than the deep purple and bitter kinds.
+The method adopted also considerably modifies the time required.
+The process of fermenting destroys the mucilage; the seeds
+lose to some degree their bitter flavour and their colour also
+changes: the pale criollo seeds, for example, developing a
+cinnamon-brown colour. The &ldquo;fracture&rdquo; of the beans also
+characteristically alters. Fermentation is not universally
+practised; the purple colour and bitter taste of unfermented
+cacao being wanted in some markets.</p>
+
+<p>After the fermentation is completed the beans may or may
+not be washed, opinion as to the desirability of this process
+varying in different countries. In any case, however, they have
+to be dried and cured. When climatic conditions are favourable
+this is commonly done by spreading the beans in thin layers on
+barbecues, or stone drying floors, or otherwise exposing them
+to the sun. Sliding roofs or other means of rapidly affording
+shelter are desirable in case of showers, excessive heat, and also
+for protection at night. Artificial drying is now often resorted
+to and various patterns of drying houses are in use.</p>
+
+<p>The appearance of the beans may often be improved by
+&ldquo;claying,&rdquo; a very slight coating of red earth or clay being added.
+Polishing the beans also gives them a brighter appearance,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630"></a>630</span>
+removes mildew, and remnants of dried mucilage, &amp;c. This may
+be done by &ldquo;dancing the cacao,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> treading a heap with the
+bare feet, or by the use of special polishing machines. The cacao
+is now ready for shipment, and is usually packed in bags. Hamburg
+is the chief port in the world for cacao. Until quite recently,
+however, this position was held by Havre, which is now second
+in Europe. New York imports about the same amount as Havre.
+London follows next in importance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cacao-producing Countries.</i>&mdash;In the following table the production
+in tons (of 1000 kilos = 2205 &#8468;) of the principal
+producing countries, arranged under continents, is given for 1905
+and 1901. During this period the total world&rsquo;s production
+has increased by about 40%, as indicated in the summary below.
+Study of the table will show where the increase has taken place,
+but attention is directed especially to the rapid development
+in West Africa.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>America.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">1905 (tons).</td> <td class="tcc">1901 (tons).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ecuador</td> <td class="tcr">21,128</td> <td class="tcr">22,896</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Brazil</td> <td class="tcr">21,091</td> <td class="tcr">18,324</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Trinidad</td> <td class="tcr">20,018</td> <td class="tcr">11,943</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">San Domingo</td> <td class="tcr">12,785</td> <td class="tcr">6,850</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Venezuela</td> <td class="tcr">11,700</td> <td class="tcr">7,860</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Grenada</td> <td class="tcr">5,456</td> <td class="tcr">4,865</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cuba and Porto Rico</td> <td class="tcr">3,000</td> <td class="tcr">1,750</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Haiti</td> <td class="tcr">2,343</td> <td class="tcr">1,950</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Surinam</td> <td class="tcr">1,612</td> <td class="tcr">3,163</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Jamaica</td> <td class="tcr">1,484</td> <td class="tcr">1,350</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">French West Indies</td> <td class="tcr">1,200</td> <td class="tcr">825</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">St. Lucia</td> <td class="tcr">700</td> <td class="tcr">765</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dominica</td> <td class="tcr">597</td> <td class="tcr">..&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total, America</td> <td class="tcr">103,114</td> <td class="tcr">82,541</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Africa.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">1905 (tons).</td> <td class="tcc">1901 (tons).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">San Thomé</td> <td class="tcr">25,379</td> <td class="tcr">16,983</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Gold Coast and Lagos</td> <td class="tcr">5,666</td> <td class="tcr">997</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cameroons</td> <td class="tcr">1,185</td> <td class="tcr">528</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Congo Free State</td> <td class="tcr">195</td> <td class="tcr">..&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total, Africa</td> <td class="tcr">32,425</td> <td class="tcr">18,508</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>Asia.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">1905 (tons).</td> <td class="tcc">1901 (tons).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ceylon</td> <td class="tcr">3543</td> <td class="tcr">2697</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dutch East Indies</td> <td class="tcr">1492</td> <td class="tcr">1277</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total, Asia</td> <td class="tcr">5035</td> <td class="tcr">3974</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr">800</td> <td class="tcr">700</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="3"><i>World&rsquo;s Production.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">1905 (tons).</td> <td class="tcc">1901 (tons).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tropical America and West Indies</td> <td class="tcr">103,114</td> <td class="tcr">82,541</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">West Africa</td> <td class="tcr">32,425</td> <td class="tcr">18,508</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Asia</td> <td class="tcr">5,035</td> <td class="tcr">3,974</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr">800</td> <td class="tcr">700</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">141,374</td> <td class="tcr">105,723</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Composition.</i>&mdash;The relative weights of the various parts of
+a whole cacao pod are given thus by Prof. J. B. Harrison for
+British Guiana specimens:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Calabacillo.</td> <td class="tcc">Forastero.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Husk</td> <td class="tcr">80.59</td> <td class="tcr">89.87</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Pulp</td> <td class="tcr">7.61</td> <td class="tcr">4.23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cuticles of the beans</td> <td class="tcr">1.77</td> <td class="tcr">0.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Kernels of the beans</td> <td class="tcr">10.03</td> <td class="tcr">5.40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The husk is composed mainly of water and cellulose woody tissue,
+with their usual mineral constituents, and has a low manurial
+value. The pulp contains sugars which become converted into
+alcohol during fermentation. Fibrous elements and water
+compose about six-tenths of the cuticles, which also contain
+approximately: albuminoids (6%), alkaloids (2%), fat (2%),
+sugars (6%), starch (7%), colouring matter (4%), tartaric
+acid (3%) and small quantities of various mineral constituents.
+The average composition of the kernels, according
+to Payen, is:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fat (cacao butter)</td> <td class="tcr">50&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Starch</td> <td class="tcr">10&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Albuminoids</td> <td class="tcr">20&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Water</td> <td class="tcr">12&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cellulose</td> <td class="tcr">2&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mineral matter</td> <td class="tcr">4&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Theobromine</td> <td class="tcr">2&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Colouring matter (cacao-red)  trace&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate.</i>&mdash;The beans are cleaned
+and sorted to remove foreign bodies of all kinds and also graded
+into sizes to secure uniformity in roasting. The latter process
+is carried out in rotating iron drums in which the beans are heated
+to a temperature of about 260° to 280° F., and results in developing
+the aroma, partially converting the starch into dextrin, and
+eliminating bitter constituents. The beans also dry and their
+shells become crisp. In the next process the beans are gently
+crushed and winnowed, whereby the light shells are removed,
+and after removal by sifting of the &ldquo;germs&rdquo; the beans are left
+in the form of the irregular cocoa-nibs occasionally seen in shops.
+Cocoa-nibs may be infused with water and drunk, but for most
+people the beverage is too rich, containing the whole of the cacao-fat
+or cacao-butter. This fat is extracted from the carefully
+ground nibs by employing great hydraulic pressure in heated
+presses. The fat exudes and solidifies. When fresh it is yellowish-white,
+but becomes quite white on keeping. It is very valuable
+for pharmaceutical purposes and is a constituent of many
+pomades. With care it can be kept for a long time without
+going rancid.</p>
+
+<p>After the extraction of the fat the resulting mass is ground
+to a fine powder when it is ready for use in the ordinary way.
+Many preparations on the market are of course not pure cocoa
+but contain admixtures of various starchy and other bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The shells of the beans separated by the winnowing process
+contain theobromine, and their infusion with water is sometimes
+used as a substitute for coffee, under the name &ldquo;miserabile.&rdquo;
+More recently they have been put to good account as a cattle food.</p>
+
+<p>In the preparation of chocolate the preliminary processes
+of cleaning, sorting, roasting and removing the shells, and
+grinding the nibs, are followed as for cocoa. The fat, however,
+is not extracted, but sugar, and sometimes other materials also,
+are added to the ground pasty mass, together with suitable
+flavouring materials, as for example vanilla. The greatest care is
+taken in the process and elaborate grinding and mixing machinery
+employed. The final result is a semi-liquid mass which is
+moulded into the familiar tablets or other forms in which chocolate
+comes on the market.</p>
+
+<p>Cocoa as a beverage has a similar action to tea and coffee,
+inasmuch as the physiological properties of all three are due to
+the alkaloids and volatile oils they contain. Tea and coffee
+both contain the alkaloid caffeine, whilst cocoa contains theobromine.
+In tea and coffee, however, we only drink an infusion
+of the leaves or seeds, whilst in cocoa the whole material is taken
+in a state of very fine suspension, and as the preceding analysis
+indicates, the cocoa bean, even with the fat extracted, is of high
+nutritive value.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cacao-consuming Countries.</i>&mdash;The principal cacao-consuming
+countries are indicated below, which gives the imports into the
+countries named for 1905. These figures, as also those on
+production, are taken from <i>Der Gordian</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Tons (1000 kilos).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">United States of America</td> <td class="tcr">34,958</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Germany</td> <td class="tcr">29,663</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">France</td> <td class="tcr">21,748</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr">21,106</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Holland</td> <td class="tcr">19,295</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Spain</td> <td class="tcr">6,102</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr">5,218</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr">3,019</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Austria Hungary</td> <td class="tcr">2,668</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Russia</td> <td class="tcr">2,230</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr">1,125<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631"></a>631</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Italy</td> <td class="tcr">971</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr">900</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Canada</td> <td class="tcr">700</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Australia</td> <td class="tcr">600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Norway, Portugal and Finland</td> <td class="tcr">692</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Total&emsp;&emsp;150,995</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>During recent years the use of cocoa has increased rapidly
+in some countries. The following table gives the increase per
+cent in consumption in 1905 over that in 1901 for the five chief
+consumers:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">United States</td> <td class="tcr">70&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Germany</td> <td class="tcr">61&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">France</td> <td class="tcr">21&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">United Kingdom</td> <td class="tcr">11&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Holland</td> <td class="tcr">34&emsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="author">(A. B. R.; W. G. F.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1b" id="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> As a matter of nomenclature it is unfortunate that the corrupt
+form &ldquo;cocoa,&rdquo; from a confusion with the coco-nut (<i>q.v.</i>), has become
+stereotyped. When introduced early in the 18th century it was as a
+trisyllable <i>co-co-a</i>, a mispronunciation of <i>cacao</i> or <i>cocoa</i>, the Spanish
+adaptation from the Mexican <i>cacauatl</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCO DE MER<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Double Coco-nut</span>, a palm, <i>Lodoicea
+Sechellarum</i>, which is a native of the Seychelles Islands. The
+flowers are borne in enormous fleshy spadices, the male and
+female on distinct plants. The fruits, which are among the
+largest known, take ten years to ripen; they have a fleshy and
+fibrous envelope surrounding a hard nut-like portion which is
+generally two-lobed, suggesting a large double coco-nut. The
+contents of the nut are edible as in the coco-nut. The empty
+fruits (after germination of the seed) are found floating in the
+Indian Ocean, and were known long before the palm was
+discovered, giving rise to various stories as to their origin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCOMA<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cucamas</span>, a tribe of South American Indians
+living on the Marañon and lower Huallaga rivers, Peru. In 1681,
+at the time of the Jesuit missionaries&rsquo; first visit, they had the
+custom of eating their dead and grinding the bones to a powder,
+which was mixed with a fermented liquor and drunk. When expostulated
+with by the Jesuits they said &ldquo;it was better to be
+inside a friend than to be swallowed up by the cold earth.&rdquo;
+They are a provident, hard-working people, partly Christianized,
+and bolder than most of the civilized Indians. Their languages
+show affinity to the Tupi-Guarani stock.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCO-NUT</span><a name="FnAnchor_1c" id="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">PALM<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (<i>Cocos nucifera</i>), a very beautiful and lofty
+palm-tree, growing to a height of from 60 to 100 ft., with a
+cylindrical stem which attains a thickness of 2 ft. The tree
+terminates in a crown of graceful waving pinnate leaves. The
+leaf, which may attain to 20 ft. in length, consists of a strong
+mid-rib, whence numerous long acute leaflets spring, giving the
+whole the appearance of a gigantic feather. The flowers are
+arranged in branching spikes 5 or 6 ft. long, enclosed in a tough
+spathe, and the fruits mature in bunches of from 10 to 20. The
+fruits when mature are oblong, and triangular in cross section,
+measuring from 12 to 18 in. in length and 6 to 8 in. in diameter.
+The fruit consists of a thick external husk or rind of a fibrous
+structure, within which is the ordinary coco-nut of commerce.
+The nut has a very hard, woody shell, enclosing the nucleus or
+kernel, the true seed, within which again is a milky liquid called
+coco-nut milk. The palm is so widely disseminated throughout
+tropical countries that it is impossible to distinguish its original
+habitat. It flourishes with equal vigour on the coast of the
+East Indies, throughout the tropical islands of the Pacific, and in
+the West Indies and tropical America. It, however, attains its
+greatest luxuriance and vigour on the sea shore, and it is most
+at home in the innumerable small islands of the Pacific seas,
+of the vegetation of which it is eminently characteristic. Its
+wide distribution, and its existence in even the smallest coral
+islets of the Pacific, are due to the character of the fruit, which is
+eminently adapted for distribution by sea. The fibrous husk
+renders the fruit light and the leathery skin prevents water-logging.
+The seed will germinate readily on the sea-shore, the
+seedling growing out through the soft germ-pore on the upper
+end of the hard nut. The fruits dropping into the sea from trees
+growing on any shores would be carried by tides and currents
+to be cast up and to vegetate on distant coasts.</p>
+
+<p>The coco-nut palm, being the most useful of its entire tribe
+to the natives of the regions in which it grows, and furnishing
+many valuable and important commercial products, is the subject
+of careful cultivation in many countries. On the Malabar and
+Coromandel coasts of India the trees grow in vast numbers;
+and in Ceylon, which is peculiarly well suited for their cultivation,
+it is estimated that twenty millions of the trees flourish. The
+wealth of a native in Ceylon is estimated by his property in
+coco-nut trees, and Sir J. Emerson Tennent noted a law case in a
+district court in which the subject in dispute was a claim to the
+2520th part of ten of the precious palms. The cultivation of
+coco-nut plantations in Ceylon was thus described by Sir J. E.
+Tennent. &ldquo;The first operation in coco-nut planting is the formation
+of a nursery, for which purpose the ripe nuts are placed in
+squares containing about 400 each; these are covered an inch
+deep with sand and seaweed or soft mud from the beach, and
+watered daily till they germinate. The nuts put down in April
+are sufficiently grown to be planted out before the rains of
+September, and they are then set out in holes 3 ft. deep and
+20 to 30 ft. apart.... Before putting in the young plant it is
+customary to bed the roots with soft mud and seaweed, and for
+the first two years they must be watered and protected from
+the glare of the sun under shades made of the plaited fronds of
+the coco-nut palm, or the fan-like leaves of the palmyra.&rdquo; The
+palm begins to bear fruit from the fifth to the seventh year of its
+age, each stock carrying from 5 to 30 nuts, the tree maturing
+on an average 60 nuts yearly.</p>
+
+<p>The uses to which the various parts of the coco-nut palm are
+applied in the regions of their growth are almost endless. The
+nuts supply no inconsiderable proportion of the food of the
+natives, and the milky juice enclosed within them forms a pleasant
+and refreshing drink. The juice drawn from the unexpanded
+flower spathes forms &ldquo;toddy,&rdquo; which may be boiled down to
+sugar, or it is allowed to ferment and is distilled, when it yields
+a spirit which, in common with a like product from other sources,
+is known as &ldquo;arrack.&rdquo; As in other palms, the young bud cut
+out of the top of the tree forms an esculent vegetable, &ldquo;palm
+cabbage.&rdquo; The trunk yields a timber (known in European
+commerce as porcupine wood) which is used for building, furniture,
+firewood, &amp;c.; the leaves are plaited into cajan fans and
+baskets, and used for thatching the roofs of houses; the shell of
+the nut is employed as a water-vessel; and the external husk or
+rind yields the coir fibre, with which are fabricated ropes, cordage,
+brushes, &amp;c. The coco-nut palm also furnishes very important
+articles of external commerce, of which the principal is coco-nut
+oil. It is obtained by pressure or boiling from the kernels, which
+are first broken up into small pieces and dried in the sun, when
+they are known as copperah or <i>copra</i>. It is estimated that 1000
+full-sized nuts will yield upwards of 500 &#8468;. of copra, from which
+25 gallons of oil should be obtained. The oil is a white solid
+substance at ordinary temperatures, with a peculiar, rather disagreeable
+odour, from the volatile fatty acids it contains, and a
+mild taste. Under pressure it separates into a liquid and a
+solid portion, the latter, coco-stearin, being extensively used in
+the manufacture of candles. Coco-nut oil is also used in the manufacture
+of marine soap, which forms a lather with sea-water.
+Coir is also an important article of commerce, being in large
+demand for the manufacture of coarse brushes, door mats and
+woven coir-matting for lobbies and passages. A considerable
+quantity of fresh nuts is imported, chiefly from the West Indies,
+into Britain and other countries; they are familiar as the
+reward of the popular English amusement of &ldquo;throwing at the
+coco-nuts&rdquo;; and the contents are either eaten raw or used as
+material for cakes, &amp;c., or sweetmeats (&ldquo;coker-nut&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1c" id="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The spelling &ldquo;cocoa-nut,&rdquo; which introduces a confusion with
+cocoa (<i>q.v.</i>) or cacao, is a corruption of the original Portuguese form,
+dating from (and largely due to) Johnson&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary</i>. The spelling
+&ldquo;coker-nut,&rdquo; introduced to avoid the same ambiguity, is common
+in England.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COCYTUS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (mod. <i>Vuvo</i>), a tributary of the Acheron, a river of
+Thesprotia (mod. <i>pashalik</i> of Iannina), which flows into the
+Ionian Sea about 20 m. N. of the Gulf of Arta. The name is also
+applied in Greek mythology to a tributary of the Acheron or of
+the Styx, a river in Hades. The etymology suggested is from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632"></a>632</span>
+<span class="grk" title="kôkuein">&#954;&#969;&#954;&#973;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to wail, in allusion to the cries of the dead. Virgil
+describes it as the river which surrounds the underworld (<i>Aen.</i>
+vi. 132).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COD<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>, the name given to the typical fish of the family <i>Gadidae</i>,
+of the Teleostean suborder Anacanthini, the position of which has
+much varied in our classifications. Having no spines to their fins,
+the Gadids used, in Cuvierian days, to be associated with the
+herrings, Salmonids, pike, &amp;c., in the artificially-conceived order
+of Malacopterygians, or soft-finned bony fishes. But, on the
+ground of their air-bladder being closed, or deprived of a pneumatic
+duct communicating with the digestive canal, such as is
+characteristic of the Malacopterygians, they were removed from
+them and placed with the flat-fishes, or <i>Pleuronectidae</i>, in a
+suborder Anacanthini, regarded as intermediate in position
+between the Acanthopterygians, or spiny-finned fishes, and the
+Malacopterygians. It has, however, been shown that the flat-fishes
+bear no relationship to the Gadids, but are most nearly
+akin to the John Dories (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dory</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The suborder Anacanthini is, nevertheless, maintained for the
+<i>Muraenolepididae</i> Gadids and two related families, <i>Macruridae</i>
+and <i>Muraenolepididae</i>, and may be thus defined:&mdash;Air-bladder
+without open duct. Parietal bones separated by the supra-occipital;
+prootic and exoccipital separated by the enlarged
+opisthotic. Pectoral arch suspended from the skull: no mesocoracoid
+arch. Ventral fins below or in front of the pectorals,
+the pelvic bones posterior to the clavicular symphysis and only
+loosely attached to it by ligament. Fins without spines; caudal
+fin, if present, without expanded hypural, perfectly symmetrical,
+and supported by the neural and haemal spines of the posterior
+vertebrae, and by basal bones similar to those supporting the
+dorsal and anal rays. This type of caudal fin must be regarded as
+secondary, the <i>Gadidae</i> being, no doubt, derived from fishes in
+which the homocercal fin of the typical Teleostean had been lost.</p>
+
+<p>About 120 species of Gadids are distinguished, mostly marine,
+many being adapted to life at great depths; all are carnivorous.
+They inhabit chiefly the northern seas, but many abyssal forms
+occur between the tropics and in the southern parts of the Atlantic
+and Pacific. They are represented in British waters by eight
+genera, and about twenty species, only one of which, the burbot
+(<i>Lota vulgaris</i>), is an inhabitant of fresh waters. Several of the
+marine species are of first-rate economic importance. The genus
+<i>Gadus</i> is characterized by having three dorsal and two anal fins,
+and a truncated or notched caudal fin. In the cod and haddock
+the base of the first anal fin is not, or but slightly, longer than
+that of the second dorsal fin; in the whiting, pout, coal-fish,
+pollack, hake, ling and burbot, the former is considerably longer
+than the latter.</p>
+
+<p>The cod, <i>Gadus morrhua</i>, possesses, in common with the other
+members of the genus, three dorsal and two anal fins, and a single
+barbel, at least half as long as the eye, at the chin. It is a widely-distributed
+species, being found throughout the northern and
+temperate seas of Europe, Asia and America, extending as far
+south as Gibraltar, but not entering the Mediterranean, and
+inhabits water from 25 to 50 fathoms deep, where it always feeds
+close to the bottom. It is exceedingly voracious, feeding on the
+smaller denizens of the ocean&mdash;fish, crustaceans, worms and
+molluscs, and greedily taking almost any bait the fisherman
+chooses to employ. The cod spawns in February, and is exceedingly
+prolific, the roe of a single female having been known to
+contain upwards of eight millions of ova, and to form more than
+half the weight of the entire fish. Only a small proportion of
+these get fertilized, and still fewer ever emerge from the egg.
+The number of cod is still further reduced by the trade carried
+on in roe, large quantities of which are used in France as ground-bait
+in the sardine fishery, while it also forms an article of human
+food. The young are about an inch in length by the end of spring,
+but are not fit for the market till the second year, and it has
+been stated that they do not reach maturity, as shown by the
+power of reproduction, till the end of their third year. They
+usually measure about 3 ft. in length, and weigh from 12 to 20 &#8468;,
+but specimens have been taken from 50 to 70 &#8468; in weight.</p>
+
+<p>As an article of food the cod-fish is in greatest perfection during
+the three months preceding Christmas. It is caught on all parts
+of the British and Irish coasts, but the Dogger Bank, and Rockall,
+off the Outer Hebrides, have been specially noted for their cod-fisheries.
+The fishery is also carried on along the coast of Norfolk
+and Suffolk, where great quantities of the fish are caught with
+hook and line, and conveyed to market alive in &ldquo;well-boats&rdquo;
+specially built for this traffic. Such boats have been in use since
+the beginning of the 18th century. The most important cod-fishery
+in the world is that which has been prosecuted for centuries
+on the Newfoundland banks, where it is not uncommon for a
+single fisherman to take over 500 of these fish in ten or eleven
+hours. These, salted and dried, are exported to all parts of the
+world, and form, when taken in connexion with the enormous
+quantity of fresh cod consumed, a valuable addition to the food
+resources of the human race.</p>
+
+<p>The air-bladder of this fish furnishes isinglass, little, if at all,
+inferior to that obtained from the sturgeon, while from the liver is
+obtained cod-liver oil, largely used in medicine as a remedy in
+scrofulous complaints and pulmonary consumption (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar36">Cod-liver
+Oil</a></span>). &ldquo;The Norwegians,&rdquo; says Cuvier, &ldquo;give cod-heads
+with marine plants to their cows for the purpose of producing a
+greater proportion of milk. The vertebrae, the ribs, and the bones
+in general, are given to their cattle by the Icelanders, and by the
+Kamtchatdales to their dogs. These same parts, properly dried,
+are also employed as fuel in the desolate steppes of the Icy Sea.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>At Port Logan in Wigtonshire cod-fish are kept in a large
+reservoir, scooped out of the solid rock by the action of the sea,
+egress from which is prevented by a barrier of stones, which does
+not prevent the free access of the water. These cod are fed
+chiefly on mussels, and when the keeper approaches to feed them
+they may be seen rising to the surface in hundreds and eagerly
+seeking the edge. They have become comparatively tame and
+familiar. Frank Buckland, who visited the place, states that
+after a little while they allowed him to take hold of them, scratch
+them on the back, and play with them in various ways. Their
+flavour is considered superior to that of the cod taken in the open
+sea.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. A. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CODA<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (Ital. for &ldquo;tail&rdquo;; from the Lat. <i>cauda</i>), in music, a
+term for a passage which brings a movement or a separate piece
+to a conclusion. This developed from the simple chords of a
+cadence into an elaborate and independent form. In a series
+of variations on a theme or in a composition with a fixed order
+of subjects, the &ldquo;coda&rdquo; is a passage sufficiently contrasted with
+the conclusions of the separate variations or subjects, added to
+form a complete conclusion to the whole. Beethoven raised the
+&ldquo;coda&rdquo; to a feature of the highest importance.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CODE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (Lat. <i>codex</i>), the term for a complete and systematic
+body of law, or a complete and exclusive statement of some
+portion of the law; and so by analogy for any system of rules
+or doctrine; also for an arrangement in telegraphy, signalling,
+&amp;c., by which communications may be made according to rules
+adopted for brevity or secrecy.</p>
+
+<p>In jurisprudence the question of the reduction of laws to
+written codes, representing a complete and readily accessible
+system, is a matter of great historical and practical interest.
+Many collections of laws, however, which are commonly known
+as codes,<a name="FnAnchor_1d" id="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> would not correspond to the definition given above.
+The Code of Justinian (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Justinian I.</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>), the
+most celebrated of all, is not in itself a complete and exclusive
+system of law. It is a collection of imperial constitutions, just
+as the Pandects are a collection of the opinions of jurisconsults.
+The Code and the Pandects together being, as Austin says,
+&ldquo;digests of Roman law in force at the time of their conception,&rdquo;
+would, if properly arranged, constitute a code. Codification in
+this sense is merely a question of the <i>form</i> of the laws, and has
+nothing to do with their goodness or badness from an ethical or
+political point of view. Sometimes codification only means the
+changing of unwritten into written law; in the stricter sense
+it means the changing of unwritten or badly-written law into
+law well written.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633"></a>633</span></p>
+
+<p>The same causes which made collections of laws necessary
+in the time of Justinian have led to similar undertakings among
+modern peoples. The actual condition of laws until the period
+when they are consciously remodelled is one of confusion,
+contradiction, repetition and disorder; and to these evils the
+progress of society adds the burden of perpetually increasing
+legislation. Some attempt must be made to simplify the task
+of learning the laws by improving their expression and arrangement.
+This is by no means an easy task in any country, but in
+England it is surrounded with peculiar difficulties. The independent
+character of English law has prevented an attempt to
+do what has already been done for other systems which have the
+basis of the Roman law to fall back upon.</p>
+
+<p>The most celebrated modern code is the French. The necessity
+of a code in France was mainly caused by the immense number
+of separate systems of jurisprudence existing in that country
+before 1789, justifying Voltaire&rsquo;s sarcasm that a traveller in
+France had to change laws about as often as he changed horses.
+At first published under the title of <i>Code Civil des Français</i>, it
+was afterwards entitled the <i>Code Napoléon</i> (<i>q.v.</i>)&mdash;the emperor
+Napoleon wishing to attach his name to a work which he regarded
+as the greatest glory of his reign. The code, it has been said,
+is the product of Roman and customary law, together with the
+ordinances of the kings and the laws of the Revolution. In form
+it has passed through several changes caused by the political
+vicissitudes of the country, and it has of course suffered from
+time to time important alterations in substance, but it still
+remains virtually the same in principle as it left the hands of
+its framers. The code has produced a vast number of commentaries,
+among which may be named those of A. Duranton,
+R. T. Troplong and J. C. F. Demolombe. The remaining French
+codes are the <i>Code de procédure civile</i>, the <i>Code de commerce</i>, the
+<i>Code d&rsquo;instruction criminelle</i> and the <i>Code pénal</i>. The merits of
+the French code have entered into the discussion on the general
+question of codification. Austin agrees with Savigny in condemning
+the ignorance and haste with which it was compiled.
+&ldquo;It contains,&rdquo; says Austin, &ldquo;no definitions of technical terms
+(even the most leading), no exposition of the <i>rationale</i> of distinctions
+(even the most leading), no exposition of the broad
+principles and rules to which the narrower provisions expressed
+in the code are subordinate; hence its fallacious brevity.&rdquo;
+Codes modelled on the French code have, however, taken firm
+root in most of the countries of continental Europe and in other
+parts of the world as well, such as Latin America and several
+of the British colonies.</p>
+
+<p>The Prussian code (<i>Code Frédéric</i>) was published by Frederick
+the Great in 1751. It was intended to take the place of &ldquo;Roman,
+common Saxon and other foreign subsidiary laws and statutes,&rdquo;
+the provincial laws remaining in force as before. One of the
+objects of the king was to destroy the power of the advocates,
+whom he hoped to render useless. This, with other systems of
+law existing in Germany, has been replaced by the Civil Code
+of 1900 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The object of all these codes has been to frame a common
+system to take the place of several systems of law, rather than
+to restate in an exact and exhaustive form the whole laws of
+a nation, which is the problem of English codification. The
+French and Prussian codes, although they have been of great
+service in simplifying the law, have failed to prevent outside
+themselves that accumulation of judiciary and statute law
+which in England has been the chief motive for codification.
+A more exact parallel to the English problem may be found in
+the <i>Code of the State of New York</i>. The revised constitution of
+the state, as adopted in 1846, &ldquo;ordered the appointment of two
+commissions, one to reduce into a written and a systematic
+code the whole body of the law of the state, and the other to
+revise, reform, simplify and abridge the rules and practice,
+pleadings, &amp;c., of the courts of record.&rdquo; By an act of 1847,
+the state legislature declared that the body of substantive law
+should be contained in three codes&mdash;the Political, the Civil
+and the Penal. The works of both commissions, completed in
+1865, filled six volumes, containing the Code of Civil Procedure
+(including the law of evidence), the Book of Forms, the Code of
+Criminal Procedure, the Political Code, the Penal Code and the
+Civil Code. In the introduction to the Civil Code it was claimed
+that in many departments of the law the codes &ldquo;provided for
+every possible case, so that when a new case arises it is better
+that it should be provided for by new legislation.&rdquo; The New
+York code was defective in the important points of definition
+and arrangement. It formed the basis, however, of the present
+codes of civil and criminal procedure in the state of New York.
+Much interest has attached to the Penal Code drawn up by
+Edward Livingston (<i>q.v.</i>) for the state of Louisiana. The
+system consists of a Code of Crime and Punishments, a Code of
+Procedure, a Code of Evidence, a Code of Reform and Prison
+Discipline, and a Book of Definitions. &ldquo;Though the state for
+which the codes were prepared,&rdquo; said Chief Justice Chase,
+&ldquo;neglected to avail itself of the labours assigned and solicited
+by itself, they have proved, together with their introductions,
+a treasure of suggestions to which many states are indebted for
+useful legislation.&rdquo; Most of the other states in the United
+States have codes stating the law of pleading in civil actions,
+and such states are often described as code states to distinguish
+them from those adhering to the older forms of action, divided
+between those at law and those at equity. A few states have
+general codes of political and civil rights. The general drift
+of legislation and of public sentiment in the United States is
+towards the extension of the principle of codification, but the
+contrary view has been ably maintained (see J. C. Carter,
+<i>Provinces of the Written and the Unwritten Law</i>, New York, 1889).</p>
+
+<p>Since the time of Bentham, the codification of the law of
+England has been the dream of the most enlightened jurists
+and statesmen. In the interval between Bentham and our
+own time there has been an immense advance in the scientific
+study of law, but it may be doubted whether the problem of
+codification is at all nearer solution. Interest has mainly been
+directed to the historical side of legal science, to the phenomena
+of the evolution of laws as part of the development of society,
+and from this point of view the question of remodelling the
+law is one of minor interest. To Bentham the problem presented
+itself in the simplest and most direct form possible. What he
+proposed to do was to set forth a body of laws, clearly expressed,
+arranged in the order of their logical connexion, exhibiting their
+own <i>rationale</i> and excluding all other law. On the other hand
+the problem has in some respects become easier since the time
+of Bentham. With the Benthamite codification the conception
+of reform in the substantive law is more or less mixed up. If
+codification had been possible in his day, it would, unless it had
+been accompanied by the searching reforms which have been
+effected since, and mainly through his influence, perhaps have
+been more of an evil than a good. The mere dread that, under
+the guise of codification or improvement in form, some change
+in substance may secretly be effected has long been a practical
+obstacle in the way of legal reform. But the law has now been
+brought into a state of which it may be said that, if it is not the
+best in all respects that might be desired, it is at least in most
+respects as good as the conditions of legislation will permit it
+to be. Codification, in fact, may now be treated purely as a
+question of form. What is proposed is that the law, being, as
+we assume, in substance what the nation wishes it to be, should
+be made as accessible as possible, and as intelligible as possible.
+These two essential conditions of a sound system of law are,
+we need hardly say, far from being fulfilled in England. The
+law of the land is embodied in thousands of statutes and tens of
+thousands of reports. It is expressed in language which has
+never been fixed by a controlling authority, and which has
+swayed about with every change of time, place and circumstance.
+It has no definitions, no rational distinctions, no connexion of
+parts. Until the passing of the Judicature Act of 1873 it was
+pervaded throughout its entire sphere by the flagrant antinomy
+of law and equity, and that act has only ordered, not executed,
+its consolidation. No lawyer pretends to know more than a
+fragment of it. Few practical questions can be answered by a
+lawyer without a search into numberless acts of parliament and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634"></a>634</span>
+reported cases. To laymen, of course, the whole law is a sealed
+book. As there are no authoritative general principles, it
+happens that the few legal maxims known to the public, being
+apprehended out of relation to their authorities, are as often
+likely to be wrong as to be right. It is hopeless to think of
+making it possible for every man to be his own lawyer, but we
+can at least try to make it possible for a lawyer to know the
+whole law. The earlier advocates of codification founded their
+case mainly on the evils of judiciary law, <i>i.e.</i> the law contained
+in the reported decisions of the judges. Bentham&rsquo;s bitter
+antipathy to judicial legislation is well known. Austin&rsquo;s thirty-ninth
+lecture (<i>Lectures</i>, ed. 1869) contains an exhaustive criticism
+of the tenable objections to judiciary law. All such law is
+embedded in decisions on particular cases, from which it must
+be extracted by a tedious and difficult process of induction.
+Being created for particular cases it is necessarily uncomprehensive,
+imperfect, uncertain and bulky. These are evils which
+are incident to the nature of judiciary laws. The defective
+form of the existing statute law, moreover, has also given rise
+to loud complaints. Year by year the mass of legislation grows
+larger, and as long as the basis of a system is judiciary law, it is
+impossible that the new statutes can be completely integrated
+therewith. The mode of framing acts of parliament, and
+especially the practice of legislating by reference to previous
+acts, likewise produce much uncertainty and disorder. Some
+progress has, however, been made by the passing from time to
+time of various acts codifying branches of law, such as the Bills
+of Exchange Act 1882, the Partnership Act 1890, the Trusts
+Act 1893, and the Interpretation Act 1889.</p>
+
+<p>The Statute Law Revision Committee also perform a useful
+work in excising dead law from the statute-book, partly by repeal
+of obsolete and spent acts and parts of acts, and partly by
+pruning redundant preambles and words. The construction of
+a section of an act may depend on the preamble and the context,
+and the repeal of the preamble and certain parts of the act may
+therefore affect the construction of what is left. This is provided
+for by a clause which is said to have been settled by Lord Westbury.
+It provides (in effect) that the repeal of any words or
+expressions of enactment shall not affect the construction of any
+statute or part of a statute. The lawyer, therefore, cannot rely
+on the revised edition of the statutes alone, and it is still necessary
+for him to consult the complete act as it was originally enacted.</p>
+
+<p>The process of gradual codification adopted in India has been
+recommended for imitation in England by those who have had
+some experience of its working. The first of the Indian codes
+was the Penal Code (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminal Law</a></span>), and there are also codes
+of civil and criminal procedure.</p>
+
+<p>Whether any attempt will ever be made to supersede this vast
+and unarranged mass by a complete code seems very doubtful.
+Writers on codification have for the most part insisted that the
+work should be undertaken as a whole, and that the parts should
+have relation to some general scheme of the law which should
+be settled first. The practical difficulties in the way of an
+undertaking so stupendous as the codification <i>uno coëtu</i> of the
+whole mass of the law hardly require to be stated.</p>
+
+<p>In discussions on codification two difficulties are insisted on
+by its opponents, which have some practical interest&mdash;(1) What
+is to be done in those cases for which the code has not provided?
+and (2) How is new law to be incorporated with the code? The
+objection that a code will hamper the opinions of the court,
+destroy the flexibility and elasticity of the common law, &amp;c.,
+disappears when it is stated in the form of a proposition, that law
+codified will cover a smaller number of cases, or will be less easily
+adapted to new cases, than law uncodified. The French system
+ordered the judges, under a penalty, to give a decision on all cases,
+whether contemplated or not by the code, and referred them
+generally to the following sources:&mdash;(1) Équité naturelle, loi
+naturelle; (2) loi romain; (3) loi coutumier; (4) usages,
+exemples, jugements, jurisprudence; (5) droit commun; (6)
+principes généraux, maximes, doctrine, science. The Prussian
+code, on the other hand, required the judges to report new cases
+to the head of the judicial department, and they were decided by
+the legislative commission. No provision was made in either case
+for incorporating the new law with the code, an omission which
+Austin justly considers fatal to the usefulness of codification.
+It is absurd to suppose that any code can remain long without
+requiring substantial alteration. Cases will arise when its meaning
+must be extended and modified by judges, and every year
+will produce its quota of new legislation by the state. The courts
+should be left to interpret a code as they now interpret statutes,
+and provision should be made for the continual revision of
+the code, so that the new law created by judges or directly by the
+state may from time to time be worked into the code.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1d" id="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The most ancient code known, that of Khammurabi, is dealt
+with in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylonian Law</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CODE NAPOLÉON,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> the first code of the French civil law,
+known at first as the <i>Code civil des Français</i>, was promulgated
+in its entirety by a law of the 30th Ventose in the year XII.
+(31st of March 1804). On the 3rd of September 1807 it received
+the official name of Code Napoléon, although the part that
+Napoleon took in framing it was not very important. A law of
+1818 restored to it its former name, but a decree of the 27th of
+March 1852 re-established the title of Code Napoléon. Since
+the 4th of September 1870 the laws have quoted it only under
+the name of the Code Civil.</p>
+
+<p>Never has a work of legislation been more national in the
+exact sense of the word. Desired for centuries by the France of
+the <i>ancien régime</i>, and demanded by the <i>cahiers</i> of 1789, this
+&ldquo;code of civil laws common to the whole realm&rdquo; was promised
+by the constitution of 1791. However, the two first assemblies
+of the Revolution were able to prepare only a few fragments
+of it. The preparation of a coherent plan began with the Convention.
+The <i>ancien régime</i> had collected and adjusted some of
+the material. There was, on the one hand, a vast juridical
+literature which by eliminating differences of detail, had disengaged
+from the various French &ldquo;customs&rdquo; the essential part
+which they had in common, under the name of &ldquo;common
+customary law&rdquo;; on the other hand, the Roman law current in
+France had in like manner undergone a process of simplification
+in numerous works, the chief of which was that of Domat;
+while certain parts had already been codified in the <i>Grandes
+Ordonnances</i>, which were the work of d&rsquo;Aguesseau. This legacy
+from the past, which it was desired to preserve within reason,
+had to be combined and blended with the laws of the Revolution,
+which had wrought radical reforms in the conditions affecting
+the individual, the tenure of real property, the order of inheritance
+and the system of mortgages. Cambacérès, as the representative
+of a commission of the Convention, brought forward
+two successive schemes for the Code Civil. As a member of one
+of the councils, he drew up a third under the Directory, and
+these projected forms came in turn nearer and nearer to what
+was to be the ultimate form of the code. So great was the
+interest centred in this work, that the law of the 19th Brumaire,
+year VIII., which, in ratification of the previous day&rsquo;s <i>coup
+d&rsquo;état</i> nominated provisional consuls and two legislative commissions,
+gave injunctions to the latter to draw up a scheme for
+the Code Civil. This was done in part by one of the members,
+Jacqueminot, and finally under the constitution of the year
+VIII., the completion of the work was taken in hand. The
+legislative machinery established by this constitution, defective
+as it was in other respects, was eminently suited for this task.
+Indeed, all projected laws emanated from the government and
+were prepared by the newly established council of state, which
+was so well recruited that it easily furnished qualified men,
+mostly veterans of the revolution, to prepare the final scheme.
+The council of state naturally possessed in its legislative section
+and its general assembly bodies both competent and sufficiently
+limited to discuss the texts efficiently. The <i>corps législatif</i> had
+not the right of amendment, so could not disturb the harmony
+of the scheme. It was in the discussions of the general assembly
+of the council of state that Napoleon took part, in 97 cases out of
+102 in the capacity of chairman, but, interesting as his observations
+occasionally are, he cannot be considered as a serious
+collaborator in this great work.</p>
+
+<p>Those responsible for the scheme have in the main been very
+successful in their work; they have generally succeeded in fusing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635"></a>635</span>
+the two elements which they had to deal with, namely ancient
+French law, and that of the Revolution. The point in which
+their work is comparatively weak is the system of hypothec (<i>q.v.</i>),
+because they did not succeed in steering a middle course between
+two opposite systems, and the law of the 23rd of March 1855
+(<i>sur la transcription en matière hypothécaire</i>) was necessary to
+make good the deficiency. A fault frequently found with the
+Code Civil is that its general divisions show a lack of logic and
+method, but the division is practically that of the Institutes
+of Justinian, and is about as good as any other: persons, things,
+inheritance, contracts and obligations, and finally, in place of
+actions, which have no importance for French law except from
+the point of view of procedure, privileges and hypothecs, as in
+the ancient <i>coutumes</i> of France, and prescription. It is, <i>mutatis
+mutandis</i>, practically the same division as that of Blackstone&rsquo;s
+Commentaries.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years other objections have been expressed; serious
+omissions have been pointed out in the Code; it has not given
+to personal property the importance which it has acquired in
+the course of the 19th century; it makes no provision for
+dealing with the legal relations between employers and employed
+which modern complex undertakings involve; it does not treat
+of life insurance, &amp;c. But this only proves that it could not foretell
+the future, for most of these questions are concerned with
+economic phenomena and social relations which did not exist at
+the time when it was framed. The Code needed revising and
+completing, and this was carried out by degrees by means of
+numerous important laws. In 1904, after the celebration of the
+centenary of the Code Civil, an extra-parliamentary commission
+was nominated to prepare a revision of it, and at once began the
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the Code Civil has been very great, not only
+in France but also abroad. Belgium has preserved it, and the
+Rhine provinces only ceased to be subject to it on the promulgation
+of the civil code of the German empire. Its ascendancy has
+been due chiefly to the clearness of its provisions, and to the
+spirit of equity and equality which inspires them. Numerous
+more recent codes have also taken it as a model: the Dutch code,
+the Italian, and the code of Portugal; and, more remotely, the
+Spanish code, and those of the Central and South American
+republics. In the present day it is rivalled by the German civil
+code, which, having been drawn up at the end of the 19th
+century, naturally does not show the same lacunae or omissions.
+It is inspired, however, by a very different spirit, and the French
+code does not suffer altogether by comparison with it either in
+substance or in form.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Le Code Civil, livre du centenaire</i> (Paris, 1904), a collection of
+essays by French and foreign lawyers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. P. E.)</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CODIAEUM,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> a small genus of plants belonging to the natural
+order Euphorbiaceae. One species, <i>C. variegatum</i>, a native of
+Polynesia, is cultivated in greenhouses, under the name of
+croton, for the sake of its leaves, which are generally variegated
+with yellow, and are often twisted or have the blades separated
+into distinct portions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CODICIL<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (Lat. <i>codicillus</i>, a little book or tablet, diminutive
+of <i>codex</i>), a supplement to a will (<i>q.v.</i>), containing anything which
+a testator desires to add, or which he wishes to retract, to explain
+or to alter. In English law a codicil requires to be executed with
+the same formalities as a will under the Wills Act 1837.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CODILLA,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> the name given to the broken fibres which are
+separated from the flax during the scutching process. On this
+account it is sometimes termed scutching tow. Quantities of this
+material are used along with heckled tow in the production of
+tow yarns.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CODINUS, GEORGE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Georgios Kodinos</span>], the reputed author
+of three extant works in Byzantine literature. Their attribution
+to him is merely a matter of convenience, two of them being
+anonymous in the MSS. Of Codinus himself nothing is known;
+it is supposed that he lived towards the end of the 15th century.
+The works referred to are the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Patria</i> (<span class="grk" title="Ta Patria tês Kônstantinoupoleôs">&#932;&#8048; &#928;&#940;&#964;&#961;&#953;&#945; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#922;&#969;&#957;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#960;&#972;&#955;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>), treating
+of the history, topography, and monuments of Constantinople.
+It is divided into five sections: (<i>a</i>) the foundation of the city;
+(<i>b</i>) its situation, limits and topography; (<i>c</i>) its statues, works
+of art, and other notable sights; (<i>d</i>) its buildings; (<i>e</i>) the construction
+of the church of St Sophia. It was written in the reign
+of Basil II. (976-1025), revised and rearranged under Alexius I.
+Comnenus (1081-1118), and perhaps copied by Codinus, whose
+name it bears in some (later) MSS. The chief sources are: the
+<i>Patria</i> of Hesychius Illustrius of Miletus, an anonymous (<i>c.</i> 750)
+brief chronological record (<span class="grk" title="Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai">&#928;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#963;&#973;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#953; &#967;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#943;</span>),
+and an anonymous account (<span class="grk" title="diêgêsis">&#948;&#953;&#942;&#947;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>) of St Sophia (ed. T.
+Preger in <i>Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum</i>, fasc. i.,
+1901, to be followed by the <i>Patria</i> of Codinus). Procopius,
+<i>De Aedificiis</i> and the poem of Paulus Silentiarius on the dedication
+of St Sophia should be read in connexion with this subject.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>De Officiis</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tôn Ophphikiôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#908;&#966;&#966;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span>), a sketch, written in an
+unattractive style, of court and higher ecclesiastical dignities
+and of the ceremonies proper to different occasions. It should
+be compared with the <i>De Cerimoniis</i> of Constantine Porphyrogenitus.</p>
+
+<p>3. A chronological outline of events from the beginning of
+the world to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (called
+Agarenes in the MS. title). It is of little value.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Complete editions are (by I. Bekker) in the Bonn <i>Corpus scriptorum
+Hist. Byz.</i> (1839-1843, where, however, some sections of the
+<i>Patria</i> are omitted), and in J. P. Migne, <i>Patrologia graeca</i>, clvii.; see
+also C. Krumbacher, <i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COD-LIVER OIL<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (<i>Oleum Morrhuae</i>, or <i>Oleum Jecoris Aselli</i>),
+the oil obtained from the liver of the common cod (<i>Gadus
+morrhua</i>). In the early process for extracting the oil the livers
+were allowed to putrefy in wooden tubs, when oils of two qualities,
+one called &ldquo;pale oil,&rdquo; and the other &ldquo;light brown oil,&rdquo; successively
+rose to the surface and were drawn off. A third oil was
+obtained by heating the liver-residues to above the boiling-point
+of water, whereupon a black product, technically called &ldquo;brown
+oil,&rdquo; separated. The modern practice consists in heating the
+perfectly fresh, cleaned livers by steam to a temperature above
+that of boiling water, or, in more recent practice, to a lower
+temperature, the livers being kept as far as possible from contact
+with air. The oils so obtained are termed &ldquo;steamed-liver oils.&rdquo;
+The &ldquo;pale&rdquo; and &ldquo;light brown&rdquo; oils are used in pharmacy;
+the &ldquo;brown&rdquo; oil, the cod oil of commerce, being obtained from
+putrid and decomposing livers, has an objectionable taste and
+odour and is largely employed by tanners. By boiling the livers
+at a somewhat high temperature, &ldquo;unracked&rdquo; cod oil is obtained,
+containing a considerable quantity of &ldquo;stearine&rdquo;; this fat,
+which separates on cooling, is sold as &ldquo;fish stearine&rdquo; for soap-making,
+or as &ldquo;fish-tallow&rdquo; for currying. The oil when freed
+from the stearine is known as &ldquo;racked oil.&rdquo; &ldquo;Coast cod oil&rdquo;
+is the commercial name for the oil obtained from the livers of
+various kinds of fish, <i>e.g.</i> hake, ling, haddock, &amp;c. The most
+important centres of the cod-liver oil industry are Lofoten and
+Romsdal in Norway; the oil is also prepared in the United
+States, Canada, Newfoundland, Iceland and Russia; and at
+one time a considerable quantity was prepared in the Shetland
+Islands and along the east coast of Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>Cod-liver oil contains palmitin, stearin and other more complex
+glycerides; the &ldquo;stearine&rdquo; mentioned above, however, contains
+very little palmitin and stearin. Several other acids have been
+identified: P. M. Meyerdahl obtained 4% of palmitic acid,
+20% of jecoleic acid, C<span class="su">19</span>H<span class="su">36</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, and 20% of therapic acid,
+C<span class="su">17</span>H<span class="su">26</span>O<span class="su">2</span>; other investigators have recognized jecoric acid,
+C<span class="su">18</span>H<span class="su">30</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, asellic acid, C<span class="su">17</span>H<span class="su">32</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, and physetoleic acid, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">30</span>O<span class="su">2</span>,
+but some uncertainty attends these last three acids. Therapic
+and jecoleic acids apparently do not occur elsewhere in the
+animal kingdom, and it is probable that the therapeutic
+properties of the oil are associated with the presence of these
+acids, and not with the small amount of iodine present as was at
+one time supposed. Other constituents are cholesterol (0.46-1.32%),
+traces of calcium, magnesium, sodium, chlorine and
+bromine, and various aliphatic amines which are really secondary
+products, being formed by the decomposition of the cellular tissue.</p>
+
+<p>Cod-liver oil is used externally in medicine when its internal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636"></a>636</span>
+administration is rendered impossible by idiosyncrasy or the
+state of the patient&rsquo;s digestion. The oil is very readily absorbed
+from the skin and exerts all its therapeutic actions when thus
+exhibited. This method is often resorted to in the case of infants
+or young children suffering from abdominal or other forms of
+tuberculosis. Its only objection is the odour which the patient
+exhales. When taken by the mouth, cod-liver oil shares with
+other liver-oils the property of ready absorption. It often causes
+unpleasant symptoms, which must always be dealt with and not
+disregarded, more harm than good being done if this course is
+not followed. Fortunately a tolerance is soon established in
+the majority of cases. It has been experimentally proved that
+this is more readily absorbed than any other oil&mdash;including other
+liver-oils. Much attention has been paid to the explanation of
+this fact, since knowledge on this point might enable an artificial
+product, without the disadvantages of this oil, to be substituted
+for it. Very good results have been obtained from a preparation
+named &ldquo;lipanin,&rdquo; which consists of six parts of oleic acid and
+ninety-four of pure olein. Cod-liver oil has the further peculiarity
+of being more readily oxidizable than any other oil; an obviously
+valuable property when it is remembered that the entire food-value
+of oils depends on their oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>Cod-liver oil may be given in all wasting diseases, and is
+occasionally valuable in cases of chronic rheumatoid arthritis;
+but its great therapeutic value is in cases of tuberculosis of
+whatever kind, and notably in pulmonary tuberculosis or
+consumption. Its reputation in this is quite inexpugnable. It
+is essential to remember that &ldquo;in phthisis the key of the situation
+is the state of the alimentary tract,&rdquo; and the utmost care must
+be taken to obviate the nausea, loss of appetite and diarrhoea,
+only too easily induced by this oil. It is best to begin with only
+one dose in the twenty-four hours, to be taken just before going
+to sleep, so that the patient is saved its unpleasant &ldquo;repetition&rdquo;
+from an unaccustomed stomach. In general, it is therefore wise
+to order a double dose at bedtime. The oil may be given in
+capsules, or in the form of an emulsion, with or without malt-extract,
+or success may be obtained by adding, to every two
+drachms of the oil, ten minims of pure ether and a drop of
+peppermint oil. The usual dose, at starting, is one or two
+drachms, but the oil should be given eventually in the largest
+quantities that the patient can tolerate.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1668-1710), British soldier
+and colonial governor, whose father was captain-general of the
+Leeward Isles, was born in the island of Barbados, West Indies,
+in 1668. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he was elected a
+fellow of All Souls, and subsequently served with the British
+forces in Flanders, being rewarded in 1695 with a captaincy
+in the Guards. In the same year he attended King William III.
+on his visit to Oxford, and, in the absence of the public orator,
+was chosen to deliver the University oration. In 1697, on the
+death of his father, he was appointed captain-general and commander-in-chief
+of the Leeward Isles. In 1703 he commanded the
+unsuccessful British expedition against Guadeloupe. After this
+he resigned his governorship, and spent the rest of his life in
+retirement and study on his Barbados estates. He died on the
+7th of April 1710, bequeathing these estates to the Society for the
+Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts for the foundation
+of a college in Barbados. This college, known as the Codrington
+college, was built in 1714-1742. To All Souls College, Oxford,
+he bequeathed books worth £6000 and £10,000 in money, out
+of which was built and endowed the Codrington library there.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1770-1851), British admiral,
+belonged to a family long settled at Dodington in Gloucestershire.
+He was the youngest of three brothers, who were left
+orphans at an early age, and were educated by an uncle, Mr
+Bethell. Edward Codrington was sent for a short time to Harrow,
+and entered the navy in July 1783. He served on the American
+station, in the Mediterranean and at home, till he was promoted
+lieutenant on the 28th of May 1783. Lord Howe selected him
+to be signal lieutenant on the flagship of the Channel fleet at
+the beginning of the revolutionary war with France. In that
+capacity he served in the &ldquo;Queen Charlotte&rdquo; (100) during the
+operations which culminated in the battle of the 1st of June 1794.
+The notes he wrote on Barrow&rsquo;s account of the battle in his <i>Life
+of Howe</i>, and the reminiscences he dictated to his daughter,
+which are to be found in her memoir of him, are of great value for
+the history of the action. On the 7th of October 1794 he was
+promoted commander, and on the 6th of April 1795 attained the
+rank of post-captain and the command of the &ldquo;Babet&rdquo; (22).
+He continued to serve in the Channel, and was present at the
+action off L&rsquo;Orient on the 23rd of June 1795. Codrington wrote
+notes on this encounter also, which are to be found in the memoir.
+They are able and valuable, but, like all his correspondence
+throughout his life, show that he was of a somewhat censorious
+disposition, was apt to take the worst view of the conduct of
+others, and was liable to be querulous. He next commanded the
+&ldquo;Druid&rdquo; (32) in the Channel and on the coast of Portugal, till
+she was paid off in 1797. Codrington now remained on shore and
+on half-pay for some years. In December 1802 he married Jane,
+daughter of Jasper Hall of Kingston, Jamaica.</p>
+
+<p>On the renewal of the war after the breach of the peace of
+Amiens he was appointed (May 1805) to the command of the
+&ldquo;Orion&rdquo; (74) and was attached to the fleet on the coast of
+Spain, then blockading Villeneuve in Cadiz. The &ldquo;Orion&rdquo;
+took a conspicuous part in the battle of Trafalgar. Codrington&rsquo;s
+correspondence contains much illuminative evidence as to the
+preliminaries and the events of the victory. From 1805 till 1813
+he continued to serve first in the &ldquo;Orion&rdquo; and then (1808) in
+the &ldquo;Blake&rdquo; (74) in European waters. He was present on
+the Walcheren expedition, and was very actively employed on
+the Mediterranean coast of Spain in co-operating with the
+Spaniards against the French. In 1814 he was promoted rear-admiral,
+at which time he was serving on the coast of North
+America as captain of the fleet to Sir Alexander Cochrane during
+the operations against Washington, Baltimore and New Orleans.
+In 1815 he was made K.C.B., and was promoted vice-admiral on
+the 10th of July 1821. In December 1826 he was appointed to
+the Mediterranean command, and sailed on the 1st of February
+1827. From that date until his recall on the 21st of June 1828 he
+was engaged in the arduous duties imposed on him by the Greek
+War of Independence, which had led to anarchy and much
+piracy in the Levant. On the 20th of October 1827 he destroyed
+the Turkish and Egyptian naval forces at Navarino (<i>q.v.</i>), while
+in command of a combined British, French and Russian fleet. As
+the battle had been unforeseen in England, and its result was unwelcome
+to the ministry of the day, Codrington was entangled in a
+correspondence to prove that he had not gone beyond his instructions,
+and he was recalled by a despatch, dated the 4th of June.</p>
+
+<p>After the battle Codrington went to Malta to refit his ships.
+He remained there till May 1828, when he sailed to join his French
+and Russian colleagues on the coast of the Morea. They endeavoured
+to enforce the evacuation of the peninsula by Ibrahim
+peacefully. The Pasha made diplomatic difficulties, and on the
+25th of July the three admirals agreed that Codrington should
+go to Alexandria to obtain Ibrahim&rsquo;s recall by his father Mehemet
+Ali. Codrington had heard on the 22nd of June of his own
+supersession, but, as his successor had not arrived, he carried out
+the arrangement made on the 25th of July, and his presence at
+Alexandria led to the treaty of the 6th of August 1828, by which
+the evacuation of the Morea was settled. His services were
+recognized by the grant of the grand cross of the Bath, but there
+is no doubt that he was treated as a scape-goat at least to some
+extent. After his return home he was occupied for a time in
+defending himself, and then in leisure abroad. He commanded a
+training squadron in the Channel in 1831 and became admiral
+on the 10th of January 1837. From November 1839 to December
+1842 he was commander-in-chief at Portsmouth. He died on the
+28th of April 1851.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Edward Codrington left two sons, Sir William (1804-1884),
+a soldier who commanded in the Crimea, and Sir John Henry
+(1808-1877), a naval officer, who died an admiral of the fleet.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoir of the Life of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington</i>, by his
+daughter Jane, Lady Bourchier, wife of Sir T. Bourchier, R.N.
+(London, 1873).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637"></a>637</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CODRUS,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> in Greek legend, the last king of Athens. According
+to the story, it was prophesied at the time of the Dorian invasion
+of Peloponnesus (<i>c.</i> 1068 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) that only the death of their king at
+the enemy&rsquo;s hands could ensure victory to the Athenians. Devoting
+himself to his country, Codrus, in the disguise of a peasant,
+made his way into the enemy&rsquo;s camp, and provoked a quarrel with
+some Dorian soldiers. He fell, and the Dorians, on discovering that
+Codrus had been slain, retreated homeward, despairing of success.
+No one being thought worthy to succeed Codrus, the title of king
+was abolished, and that of archon (<i>q.v.</i>) substituted for it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lycurgus, <i>Leocr.</i> xx. [=84-87]; Justin ii. 6; Vell. Pat. i. 2;
+Grote, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, pt. i. ch. 18; Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1846-&emsp;&emsp;), American scout
+and showman, known under the name of &ldquo;Buffalo Bill,&rdquo; was born
+in 1846 in Scott county, Iowa. He first became known as one of
+the riders of the &ldquo;Pony Express,&rdquo; a mail service established in
+the spring of 1860 by the Central Overland California and Pike&rsquo;s
+Peak Express Company to carry the mails overland from Saint
+Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, a distance of 1950 m.,
+by means of relays of ponies, each rider being expected to cover
+about 75 m. daily. Owing to the wildness of the country and the
+hostility of the Indians, both the riders and the station-keepers
+led lives of great hardship and danger. The &ldquo;Pony Express&rdquo;
+was discontinued in 1861 upon the completion of the Pacific
+Telegraph company&rsquo;s line, and young Cody became a scout and
+guide for the United States army. In 1863 he formally enlisted
+in the 7th regiment of Kansas cavalry, in which he served until
+the close of the Civil War. In 1867 he made a contract with the
+Kansas Pacific railway to furnish its employees with buffalo
+meat while the line was being extended through the wilderness,
+and his name of &ldquo;Buffalo Bill&rdquo; was given him from this circumstance.
+In 1868-1872 he was again an army scout and guide,
+serving against the Sioux and Cheyennes; and in 1872 was a
+member of the Nebraska house of representatives. During the
+Sioux-Cheyenne War of 1876 he served in the 5th United States
+Cavalry, and at the battle of Indian Creek killed the Cheyenne
+chief Yellow Hand in single combat. In 1883 he organized his
+&ldquo;Wild West Show,&rdquo; a spectacular performance on a large scale,
+his first European tour taking place in 1887. In the Nebraska
+national guard he again served against the Sioux in 1890-1891.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CO-EDUCATION,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> the term applied to the instruction and
+training of boys and girls, or of young people of both sexes, in
+the same school or institution, in the same classes and through
+the same courses of study. Examples of the thoroughgoing
+application of this principle can be found in every grade of
+education from the elementary school to the university. But
+the term &ldquo;Co-education&rdquo; is sometimes used in a wider sense,
+in order to include cases in which boys and girls, or young men
+and young women of university age, are admitted to membership
+of the same school or college but receive instruction wholly or in
+part in separate classes and in different subjects. Other variable
+factors in co-educational systems are the extent to which men
+and women are mixed on the teaching staff, and the freedom of
+intercourse permitted between pupils of the two sexes in class,
+in games and in other activities of school life. In another form
+of combined education (preferred by Comte, <i>Système de politique
+positive</i>, iv. 266), pupils of the two sexes are taught successively
+by the same teacher. By the English Board of Education, a
+distinction is drawn between mixed schools and dual schools.
+&ldquo;Mixed schools&rdquo; are those in which, for most subjects of the
+curriculum, boys and girls are taught together by the same
+teachers: in &ldquo;dual schools&rdquo; there are separate boys&rsquo; and girls&rsquo;
+departments under a single principal, but with separate entrances,
+classrooms and playgrounds for the two sexes.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Co-education in early times was occasional and
+sporadic. For example, women were admitted by Plato to the
+inner circle of the Academy on terms of equality with men.
+The educational endowments of Teos provided that the professors
+of literature should teach both boys and girls. It is uncertain
+whether the Roman schools in classical times were attended by
+both sexes. A tombstone found at Capua represents a schoolmaster
+with a boy on one side and a girl on the other. Probably
+co-education was practised in country districts for economical
+reasons; and also in the home schools organized by wealthier
+families (Wilkins, <i>Roman Education</i>, pp. 42-43). At Charles the
+Great&rsquo;s Palace School at Aachen (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 782 onwards), Alcuin
+taught together the young princes and their sisters, as well as
+grown men and women. The Humanists of the Renaissance
+made the full development of personality a chief aim of education,
+and held up literary accomplishment as a desirable mark of
+personal distinction both for men and women. This led to the
+scholarly education of girls along with boys in the home schools
+of some great families. Thus, at Mantua (1423 onwards),
+Vittorino da Feltre taught Cecilia Gonzaga with her brothers
+and the other boy pupils at his boarding-school; but there is no
+evidence that the latter was otherwise co-educational. Luther
+and other Reformers urged that girls as well as boys should be
+taught to read the Bible. Hence came the tendency to co-education
+of boys and girls in some elementary schools in Protestant
+lands. This tendency can be traced both in Scotland and in the
+northern parts of England. It is believed that, in the early days
+of New England, district schools in smaller American towns were
+open to boys and girls alike, but that few girls advanced beyond
+reading and writing (Martin, <i>Massachusetts Public School System</i>,
+p. 130). At Dorchester, Mass., it was left to the discretion
+of the elders and schoolmen whether maids should be taught with
+the boys or not; but in practice the girls seem to have been
+educated apart. In 1602 the council of Ayr, Scotland, ordained
+that the girls who were learning to read and write at the Grammar
+School should be sent to the master of the Song School, &ldquo;because
+it is not seemly that sic lasses should be among the lads&rdquo; (Grant,
+<i>History of the Burgh and Parish Schools of Scotland</i>, p. 526 ff.).
+Meriden, Connecticut, seems to have made common provision
+for the elementary education of boys and girls in 1678. Northampton,
+Mass., did the same in 1680. Deerfield, Mass., in 1698
+voted that &ldquo;all families having children either male or female
+between the ages of six and ten years shall pay by the poll for
+their schooling&rdquo;&mdash;presumably in the common school.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the beginnings of co-education in its modern organized
+form may be traced back partly to Scotland and partly to the
+United States. The co-education of boys and girls, carried
+through in varying degrees of completeness, was not uncommon
+in the old Endowed Schools of Scotland, and became more
+frequent as increasing attention was given to the education of
+girls. At the Dollar Institution, founded by John McNabb for
+the benefit of the poor of the parish of Dollar and shire of Clackmannan
+(date of will, 1800), boys and girls have been educated
+together in certain classes since the beginning of the school in
+1818. In the eastern parts of the United States, where the Puritan
+tradition also prevailed, co-education struck firm root, and spread
+chiefly for reasons of convenience and economy (Dexter, <i>History
+of Education in United States</i>, p. 430). But throughout the west,
+co-education was strongly preferred in elementary and secondary
+schools and in universities on the further ground that it was
+believed to be more in accordance with the democratic principle
+of equal educational opportunity for the two sexes.</p>
+
+<p>It should be added, however, that the leaven of Pestalozzi&rsquo;s
+thought has worked powerfully both in Europe and America in
+favour of the idea of co-education. His view was that all
+educational institutions should, as far as possible, be modelled
+upon the analogy of the family and of the home. At Stanz
+(1798-1799) he educated together in one household boys and
+girls ranging in age from five to fifteen. At Burgdorf (1799-1804)
+his work was in part co-educational. At Yverdun (1804-1825)
+Pestalozzi established a school for girls close to his school
+for boys. The girls received instruction from some of the
+masters of the boys&rsquo; school, and girls and boys met at evening
+worship, in short excursions and at other times.</p>
+
+<p>In England, the Society of Friends have been the pioneers of
+co-education in boarding schools, both for younger children
+and for pupils up to fifteen or sixteen years of age. The practice
+of the society, though not exclusively co-educational, has long
+been favourable to co-education, either in its complete or
+restricted form, as being more in harmony with the conditions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638"></a>638</span>
+of family life. Ackworth school was established by the London
+Yearly Meeting in 1779 for the education of boys and girls;
+but the school has never been fully co-educational, the boys and
+girls being taught separately except in a few classes. At Sidcot
+school, which was founded in 1808 by the Associated Quarterly
+Meetings in the west of England for the education of children of
+Friends, boys and girls are taught together, except in certain
+handicraft subjects. Several other co-educational schools were
+founded by the Society of Friends during the first half of the 19th
+century.</p>
+
+<p>Since that time the movement towards co-education in
+secondary schools and universities has steadily gained strength
+in England. It has been furthered by the diffusion of Pestalozzian
+ideas and also by the influence of American example.
+In England, private schools have made some of the most valuable
+co-educational experiments. A private boarding and day
+secondary school on co-educational lines was instituted by Mr
+W. A. Case in Hampstead in 1865. A co-educational boarding-school
+was founded in 1869 by Miss Lushington at Kingsley near
+Alton, Hants. In 1873 Mr W. H. Herford began the Ladybarn
+school for boys and girls at Withington in the suburbs of Manchester.
+The passing of the Welsh Intermediate Education Act
+1889 led to the establishment of a considerable number of new
+mixed or dual secondary day-schools in Wales. Many English
+teachers gained experience in these schools and subsequently
+influenced English education. The work and writings of Mr
+J. H. Badley at Bedales, Petersfield, a co-educational boarding-school
+of the first grade, gave greatly increased weight to the
+principle of co-education. Important additions have also been
+made to the fund of co-educational experience by the King
+Alfred&rsquo;s school (Hampstead), Keswick school, and West Heath
+school (Hampstead). In 1907 a Public Co-educational Boarding
+School was opened at Harpenden.</p>
+
+<p>Since the Education Act 1902 became law, there has been a
+rapid increase of co-educational secondary day-schools of the
+lower grade, under county or borough education authorities,
+in all parts of England. This increase is due to two chief causes,
+viz. (1) The co-educational tradition of some of the higher
+grade board schools, many of which have become secondary
+schools; and (2) the economy effected by establishing one co-educational
+secondary school, in place of two smaller schools for
+boys and girls separately.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of co-education in secondary schools has spread in
+several other European countries, especially in Holland, Norway,
+Sweden and Denmark. In Scandinavia, the new practice
+appears to have begun with the establishment of a private higher
+secondary school, the Palmgremska Samskolan, in Stockholm,
+in 1876. A similar school, Nya Svenska Läroverket, was founded
+upon the same model in Helsingfors, Finland, in 1880. In
+Norway, the law of 1896 introduced co-education in all state
+schools. In Denmark, as in Norway, co-education was begun in
+private schools; on its proving a success there, it was introduced
+into the state schools, with two exceptions; and it is now
+obligatory in most state schools but optional in private schools
+(J. S. Thornton, <i>Schools Public and Private in the North of Europe</i>,
+1907, p. 97). In Holland, there is now a good deal of co-education
+in lower secondary schools of the modern type. For example,
+at Utrecht, the state higher burgher school provides the same
+course of instruction, except in gymnastics, for boys and girls.
+At Almeloo, the municipal higher burgher school, though co-educational,
+differentiates the classes in several subjects. In
+Belgium, France, Germany and Austria, co-education, though
+frequent in elementary schools, is regarded as undesirable in
+secondary; but the movement in its favour in many parts of
+Germany seems to be gathering strength. All over Europe
+the Roman Catholic populations prefer the older ideal of separate
+schools for boys and girls.</p>
+
+<p>Co-education in colleges and universities, which began at
+Oberlin, Ohio, in 1833, was adopted almost without exception
+by the state universities throughout the west of America from
+1862 onwards. Since that time the idea has spread rapidly
+throughout Europe, and the presence of women students at
+universities originally confined to men is one of the most striking
+educational facts of the age.</p>
+
+<p><i>Co-education in the United Kingdom, (a) England and Wales.</i>&mdash;The
+Board of Education does not possess any summary showing
+the number of pupils in mixed public elementary schools or in
+mixed departments of such schools. In 1901, out of 31,502
+departments of public elementary schools in England and Wales,
+nearly half (15,504) were mixed departments, in which boys and
+girls were educated together. But as the departments were of
+unequal size, it must not be inferred from this that half the
+children in public elementary schools in that year (5,883,762)
+were receiving co-education. Of the total number of departments
+in public elementary schools in England and Wales, the percentage
+of mixed schools fell from 51.6 in 1881 to 49.4 in 1891
+and 49.2 in 1901. But these percentages must not be taken to
+prove an absolute decline in the number of children in mixed
+departments.</p>
+
+<p>In England, out of 492 public secondary schools which were
+recognized by the Board of Education for the receipt of government
+grant for the school year ending July 31, 1905, and which
+contained 85,358 pupils, 108 schools, with 21,720 pupils, were
+mixed; and 20 schools, with 8980 pupils, were dual schools.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, of the total number of pupils in the secondary schools
+referred to above, a little over 25% were in mixed schools, and
+about 10% were in dual schools. It is not safe to assume,
+however, that all the mixed schools were completely co-educational
+in their work, or that the dual schools were not co-educational
+in respect of certain subjects or parts of the course.
+It should also be remembered that, besides the secondary
+schools recognized by the Board of Education for the receipt
+of government grant, there is a considerable number of great
+endowed secondary boarding-schools (&ldquo;public schools&rdquo; in the
+English use of that expression) which are for boys only. There
+are also at least 5000 private secondary schools, of which, in
+1897 (since when no comprehensive statistical inquiry has been
+made), 970, with 26,027 pupils, were mixed schools. But the great
+majority of the children in these mixed schools were under
+twelve years of age. The number of boys and girls over
+twelve years of age, in the mixed private secondary schools
+which were included in the 1897 return, was only 5488.</p>
+
+<p>In Wales, for the school year ending July 31, 1905, out of
+84 state-aided public secondary schools, 11 were mixed and 44
+were dual schools. The number of scholars in the Welsh schools
+referred to above was 9340. Of these, 1457, or 15%, were in
+mixed schools, and 5085, or 54%, were in dual schools. The
+managers of dual schools in Wales have the power to arrange
+that boys and girls shall be taught together in any or all the
+classes; and, as a matter of fact, nearly all the dual schools
+are worked as mixed schools, though they appear in these
+figures under dual.</p>
+
+<p><i>(b) Scotland.</i>&mdash;In the public elementary schools, including
+the higher grade schools of Scotland, co-education is the almost
+universal rule. The exceptions, which for the most part are
+Roman Catholic or Episcopal Church schools, tend to diminish
+year by year. In 1905, out of 3843 departments in the Scotch
+public elementary and higher grade schools, 3783 were mixed.
+These include the infant departments. Out of the total number of
+children in the public elementary and higher grade schools, including
+infants&rsquo; departments, 98.43% were receiving co-education.</p>
+
+<p>In the secondary schools of Scotland there has been in recent
+years little perceptible movement either towards co-education
+or away from it. What movement there is, favours the establishment
+of separate secondary schools for girls in the large centres
+of population. Out of 109 public secondary schools in Scotland
+in 1905-1906, 29 schools were for boys only and 40 schools for
+girls only. One school had boys and girls in separate departments.
+In the remaining 39 schools, boys and girls were taken
+together to an extent which varied with the subjects taken;
+but there was nothing of the nature of a strict separation of the
+sexes as regards the ordinary work of the school.</p>
+
+<p><i>(c) Ireland.</i>&mdash;In Ireland, the percentage of pupils on the
+rolls of mixed national schools (<i>i.e.</i> schools attended by boys and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639"></a>639</span>
+girls), to the total number of pupils on the rolls of all national
+schools, has slowly increased. In 1880 the percentage was
+57.5; in 1898, 59.4; in 1905, 60.9.</p>
+
+<p>The Commissioners of Intermediate Education in Ireland had
+on their list in 1906, 38 secondary schools which were classified
+by them as mixed schools. These schools were attended by
+640 boys and 413 girls between 13 and 19 years of age. The
+commissioners do not know to what extent the boys and girls
+in these schools received instruction in the same classes. As,
+however, the schools are small, they believe that in the great
+majority of cases the boys and girls were taught together. In
+one large school not classified as mixed, the boys (117) and girls
+(60) were taught in the same classes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Universities and University Colleges in the United Kingdom.</i>&mdash;Women
+are admitted as members of the universities of London,
+Durham, Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield,
+Wales, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, St Andrews, Glasgow, Dublin
+and the Royal University of Ireland. At Oxford and Cambridge
+women are not admitted as members of the university, but by
+courtesy enjoy entrance to practically all university lectures and
+examinations. The social life of the men and women students
+is more separate in the old than in the new universities. In no
+grade of education in the United Kingdom has the principle of
+co-education made more rapid advance than in the universities.
+The university education of women began in London (Queen&rsquo;s
+College 1848, Bedford College 1849, both being preceded by
+classes in earlier years). The University of London in 1878
+decided to accept from the crown a supplemental charter
+making every degree, honour and prize awarded by the university
+accessible to students of both sexes on perfectly equal terms.
+By charter in 1880, the Victoria University (now broken up into
+the universities of Manchester, Liverpool and Leeds) received
+power to grant degrees to women as well as to men. The charter
+of the university of Wales (1893) provides that &ldquo;Women shall
+be eligible equally with men for admittance to any degree which
+our university is authorized to confer; every office created in
+the university, and the membership of every authority constituted
+by the charter shall be open to women equally with men.&rdquo;
+In 1889 the Universities (Scotland) Act empowered the commissioners
+to make ordinances, enabling each university to admit
+women in graduation in one or more faculties and to provide
+for their instruction. At all the university colleges in the United
+Kingdom women are educated as well as men.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;Co-education is a characteristic feature of the
+educational system of the different states of the American Union.
+Of elementary school pupils at least 96%, and of secondary
+school pupils 95%, are in mixed schools. In 1903, out of a total
+enrolment of 15,990,803 pupils in public elementary and secondary
+schools and training colleges, 15,387,734 were in schools
+attended by pupils of both sexes. Out of 550,600 pupils on the
+rolls of public secondary schools (high schools) in 1902, 523,300
+were in co-educational schools. The same was true of 43%
+of the pupils (numbering over 100,000) in private secondary
+schools. In colleges and universities 62% of all undergraduates
+were in co-educational institutions, to which category thirty-four
+American universities belong (U.S. Commissioner of Education,
+<i>Report for 1903</i>, p. 2454). In America opinion is thus predominantly
+in favour of co-education, but there is a current of
+adverse criticism, especially among some who have had experience
+of school conditions in large cities.</p>
+
+<p><i>General Review of the Question.</i>&mdash;In schools for infants and
+younger children co-education is approved by all authorities.
+It is increasingly favoured on educational grounds in smaller
+schools for children up to 12 or 13 years of age or thereabouts.
+But where elementary schools have to be large, separate departments
+for boys and girls are generally preferable, though mixed
+schools are often established for reasons of economy. At
+the other end of the educational scale, viz. in the universities,
+the co-education of men and women in the same institution is
+fast becoming the rule. This is due partly to the prohibitive cost
+of duplicating teaching staff, laboratories, libraries and other
+equipment, partly to the desire of women to qualify themselves
+for professional life by passing through the same courses of
+training as are prescribed for men. The degree, however, to
+which social intercourse is carried on between men and women
+students differs widely in the different co-educational universities.
+There are occasional signs, <i>e.g.</i> at Chicago, of a reaction
+against the fullest form of academic co-education. And it is
+probable that the universities will provide, among many courses
+common to men and women, some (like engineering) suitable
+for men only, and others (like advanced instruction in home-science,
+or certain courses of professional preparation for teachers
+of young children) which will rarely be attended by any but
+women. Common use of the same university institutions is
+compatible with much differentiation in courses of study and
+with separately organized forms of collegiate life. It is with
+regard to the part of education which lies between the elementary
+schools and the universities that the sharpest division of opinion
+upon the principle of co-education now exists. In Europe,
+with the exception of Scandinavia, those who advocate co-education
+of the sexes in secondary schools up to 18 or 19 years
+of age are at present in a distinct minority, even as regards day
+schools, and still more when they propose to apply the same
+principle to boarding schools. But the application of the co-educational
+principle to all schools alike is favoured by an
+apparently increasing number of men and women. This movement
+in opinion is connected with the increase in the number
+of girls desiring access to secondary schools, a demand which
+can most easily and economically be met by granting to girls
+access to some of the existing schools for boys. The co-educational
+movement is also connected with a strong view of sex
+equality. It is furthered by the rapidly increasing number of
+women teachers who are available for higher educational work.
+Mixed secondary schools with mixed staffs are spreading for
+reasons of economy in smaller towns and rural districts. In
+large towns separate schools are usually recommended in preference,
+but much depends upon the social tradition of the
+neighbourhood. Those who advocate co-education for boys
+and girls in secondary schools urge it mainly on the ground of
+its naturalness and closer conformity to the conditions of healthy,
+unselfconscious home life. They believe it to be a protective
+against uncleanness of talk and school immorality. They point
+to its convenience and economy. They welcome co-education
+as likely to bring with it a healthy radicalism in regard to the
+older tradition of studies in boys&rsquo; secondary schools. They
+approve it as leading to mixed staffs of men and women teachers,
+and as the most effectual way of putting girls in a position of
+reasonable equality with boys in respect of intellectual and civic
+opportunity. On the other hand, those who oppose co-education
+in secondary schools rest their case upon the danger of the
+intellectual or physical overstrain of girls during adolescence;
+and upon the unequal rate of development of boys and girls
+during the secondary school period, the girls being more forward
+than the boys at first, but as a rule less able to work as hard
+at a somewhat later stage. The critics further complain that
+co-education is generally so organized that the girls&rsquo; course of
+study is more or less assimilated to that of the boys, with the
+result that it cannot have the artistic and domestic character
+which is suitable for the majority of girls. Complaint is also
+made that the head of a co-educational school for pupils over
+the age of 10 is usually a man, though the health and character
+of girls need the care and control of a woman vested with complete
+authority and responsibility. While demurring to the view that
+co-education of the sexes would be a moral panacea, the critics
+of the system admit that the presence of the girls would exert
+a refining influence, but they believe that on the whole the boys
+are likely to gain less from co-education than the girls are likely
+to lose by it. In all these matters carefully recorded observation
+and experiment are needed, and it may well be found that co-education
+is best for some boys and for some girls, though not
+for all. Temperaments and dispositions differ. Some boys seem
+by nature more fitted for the kind of training generally given
+to girls; some girls are by nature fitted for the kind of training
+generally given to boys. The sex division does not mark off
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640"></a>640</span>
+temperaments into two sharply contrasted groups. The introduction
+of girls into boys&rsquo; secondary schools may remove or
+mitigate coarse traditions of speech and conduct where such
+persist. But it would be unfortunate if stiff and pedantic
+traditions of secondary education were now fixed upon girls
+instead of being reconsidered and modified in the interests of
+boys also. In any case, if co-education in secondary schools is
+to yield the benefits which some anticipate from it, great vigilance,
+careful selection of pupils and very liberal staffing will be
+necessary. Without these securities the results of co-education
+in secondary schools might be disappointing, disquieting or
+even disastrous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Plato in the <i>Republic</i> (v. 452-456) and <i>Laws</i> (vii.
+804-805) argues that women should share as far as possible in education
+with men. Mary Wollstonecraft, <i>A Vindication of the Rights of
+Women</i> (1792), contends that &ldquo;both sexes ought, not only in private
+families but in public schools, to be educated together.&rdquo; J. G.
+Spurzheim, <i>Principles of Education</i>, pp. 272-288 (Edinburgh, 1821),
+replies to this argument. In the Board of Education <i>Special Reports
+on Educational Subjects</i>, vol. vi. (Wyman &amp; Sons, 1900), J. H. Badley,
+writing on <i>The Possibility of Co-education in English Preparatory
+and other Secondary Schools</i>, is strongly in favour. &ldquo;In co-education
+... half-heartedness means failure. The more completely both
+sexes can be brought together upon an equal and natural footing the
+less the difficulties grow.&rdquo; In the Board of Education <i>Special
+Reports</i>, vol. xi. (Wyman &amp; Sons, 1902), Rev. Cecil Grant, writing on
+<i>Can American Education be grafted upon the English Public School
+System?</i> answers strongly in the affirmative; co-education is
+recommended on eight grounds:&mdash;(1) Vast economy of expenditure;
+(2) return to the natural system; (3) discipline made easier; (4)
+intellectual stimulus; (5) a better balance in instruction; (6) improved
+manners; (7) prevention of extremes of masculinity or
+femininity; (8) a safeguard against the moral danger.</p>
+
+<p><i>Co-education: a series of Essays</i> (London, 1903), edited by Alice
+Woods, is in favour of co-education, nine practical workers recording
+their experience; this is one of the best books on the subject.
+J. H. Badley&rsquo;s <i>Co-education after Fifteen: its Value and Difficulties</i>.
+<i>Child Life</i> (London, January, 1906), is candid, judicious and practical.
+M. E. Sadler in <i>Reports on Secondary Education in Hampshire, Derbyshire
+and Essex</i> (1904, 1905 and 1906 respectively) gives details
+of the curriculum of many co-educational secondary schools. In
+the U.S. Commissioner of Education <i>Report for 1903</i>, vol. i. pp. 1047-1078,
+Anna Tolman Smith, writing on <i>Co-education in the Schools
+and Colleges of the United States</i>, gives an historical review of the
+subject with bibliography (compare bibliography in <i>Report of U.S.
+Commissioner of Education for 1900-1901</i>, pp. 1310-1325). G. Stanley
+Hall on <i>Adolescence, its Psychology and its Relations to Physiology,
+Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and Education</i>, vol. ii.
+chap. xvii., on Adolescent Girls and their education (New York, D.
+Appleton &amp; Co., 1904), is strongly against co-education during adolescence.
+In W. Rein&rsquo;s <i>Encyklopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik</i> (Langensalza,
+Beyer), art. &ldquo;Gemeinsame Erziehung für Knaben und
+Mädchen,&rdquo; K. E. Palmgren is in favour of co-education (vol. iii. of
+2nd ed. 1905). See also W. Rein, <i>Über gemeinsame Erziehung von
+Knaben und Mädchen</i> (Freiburg, 1903), and <i>Bericht über den I.
+Internationalen Kongress für Schulhygiene</i> (Nürnberg, 1904), vol. ii.
+pp. 140 ff., &ldquo;Co-education in der höheren Schulen.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. E. S.)</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COEFFETEAU, NICOLAS<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1574-1623), French theologian,
+poet and historian, was born at Saint-Calais. He entered the
+Dominican order and lectured on philosophy at Paris, being also
+&ldquo;ordinary preacher&rdquo; to Henry IV., and afterwards ambassador
+at Rome. In 1606 he was vicar-general of the congregation of
+France, and received from Marie de&rsquo; Medici the revenues of the
+sees of Lombez and Saintes. He also administered the diocese of
+Metz, and was nominated to that of Marseilles in 1621, but ill-health
+obliged him here to take a coadjutor. Coeffeteau won
+considerable distinction in the controversy against the Protestant
+reformers and also wrote a <i>History of Rome from Augustus to
+Constantine</i>. Many of his theological writings were collected in
+one volume (Paris, 1622), and at the time of his death in 1623 he
+was engaged on a translation of the New Testament which is
+still in manuscript.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COEHOORN, MENNO,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron van</span> (1641-1704), Dutch
+soldier and military engineer, of Swedish extraction, was born at
+Leeuwarden in Friesland. He received an excellent military
+and general education, and at the age of sixteen became a captain
+in the Dutch army. He took part in the defence of Maastricht
+in 1673 and in the siege of Grave in the same year, where the small
+mortars (called coehorns) invented by him caused the French
+garrison considerable trouble (Seydel, <i>Nachrichten über Festungskriege</i>,
+Leipzig, 1818). He was made a colonel for his gallant
+conduct at the battle of Seneff (1674), and was present also at
+the battles of Cassel (1677) and Saint Denis (1678).</p>
+
+<p>The circumstances of the time and the country turned
+Coehoorn&rsquo;s attention to the art of fortification, and the events of
+the late war showed him that existing methods could no longer
+be relied upon. His first published work, <i>Versterckinge de
+Vijfhoeks met alle syne Buytenwerken</i> (Leeuwarden, 1682), at once
+aroused attention, and involved the author in a lively controversy
+with a rival engineer, Louys Paan (Leeuwarden, 1682, 1683;
+copies are in the library of the Dutch ministry of war). The
+military authorities were much interested in this, and entrusted
+Coehoorn with the reconstruction of several fortresses in the
+Netherlands. This task he continued throughout his career;
+and his experience in the work made him the worthy rival of his
+great contemporary Vauban. He formulated his ideas a little
+later in his chief work, <i>Nieuwe Vestingbouw op en natte of lage
+horizont</i>, &amp;c. (Leeuwarden, 1685), in which he laid down three
+&ldquo;systems,&rdquo; the characteristic feature of which was the multiplicity
+and great saliency of the works, which were calculated and
+in principle are still eminently suited for flat and almost marshy
+sites such as those of the Low Countries. He borrowed many
+of the details from the works of his Dutch predecessor Freytag, of
+Albrecht Dürer, and of the German engineer Speckle, and in
+general he aimed rather at the adaptation of his principles to the
+requirements of individual sites than at producing a geometrically
+and theoretically perfect fortress; and throughout his career he
+never hesitated to depart from his own rules in dealing with
+exceptional cases, such as that of Groningen. Subsequent
+editions of <i>Nieuwe Vestingbouw</i> appeared in Dutch (1702, and
+frequently afterwards), English (London, 1705), French (Wesel,
+1705), and German (Düsseldorf, 1709).</p>
+
+<p>From 1688 to the treaty of Ryswick Coehoorn served as a
+brigadier. At the battle of Fleurus he greatly distinguished
+himself, and in 1692 he defended Namur, a fortress of his own
+creation. Namur was taken by Vauban; but the Dutch engineer
+had his revenge three years later, when the place, on which in the
+meantime Vauban had lavished his skill, fell to his attack.
+Coehoorn became lieutenant-general and inspector-general of
+the Netherlands fortresses, and the high-German peoples as well
+as his own countrymen honoured him. He commanded a corps
+in the army of the duke of Marlborough from 1701 to 1703, and
+in the constant siege warfare of these campaigns in the Low
+Countries his technical skill was of the highest value. The swift
+reduction of the fortress of Bonn and the siege of Huy in 1703
+were his crowning successes. At the opening of his following
+campaign he was on his way to confer with Marlborough when
+he died of apoplexy at Wijkel on the 17th of March 1704.</p>
+
+<p>His &ldquo;first system&rdquo; was applied to numerous places in Holland,
+notably Nijmwegen, Breda and Bergen-op-Zoom. Mannheim in
+Germany was also fortified in this way, while the &ldquo;secondsystem&rdquo;
+was applied to Belgrade and Temesvár in eastern Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His son, Gosewijn Theodor van Coehoorn, wrote his life (re-edited
+Syperstein, Leeuwarden, 1860). See also v. Zastrow, <i>Geschichte der
+beständigen Befestigung</i> (Leipzig, 1828); von Brese-Winiari, <i>Über
+Entstehen und Wesen der neueren Befestigungsmethode</i> (1844);
+Cosseran de Villenoisy, <i>Essai historique sur la fortification</i> (1869);
+Mandar, <i>Architecture des forteresses</i> (1801); Krayenhoff, <i>Verhandeling
+over de erste versterkingsmanier van Coehoorn</i> (Hague, 1823);
+Bosscha, <i>Nederlandsche heldend te Land</i> (Amsterdam, 1838); Dewez,
+<i>Histoire de Belgique</i> (Brussels, 1823); Ypey, <i>Narratio de rebus gestis
+Mennonis Cohorni</i> (1771); Hennert, <i>Dissertation sur la fortification
+permanente</i> (1795); Böhms, <i>Gründliche Anleitung zur Kriegsbaukunst</i>
+(1776); <i>Axiomatas of allgemeene bekentnisse over de Vestinghbouw
+door Menno Baron van Coehoorn, Uytgewerkt door E. W. Berg</i>
+(MS. in Dutch Ministry of War); Bousmard, <i>Essai général de fortification</i>
+(1797); also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification and Siegecraft</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COELENTERA,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a group or grade of the animal kingdom, the
+zoological importance of which has risen considerably since the
+time (1887) of the publication of the first article under that
+heading in the <i>Ency. Brit.</i> (9th edit.), even though their numbers
+have been reduced by the elevation of the Sponges or Porifera to
+the rank of an independent Phylum under the title Parazoa
+(W. J. Sollas, 1884). For the Coelentera thus restricted, the
+term Enterocoela, in contrast to Coelomocoela (the old Coelomata),
+was suggested by E. R. Lankester (1900).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641"></a>641</span></p>
+
+<p>From the more complex colonial Protozoa the Coelentera are
+readily separated by their possession of two distinct sets of cells,
+with diverse functions, arranged in two definite layers,&mdash;a
+condition found in no Protozoan. The old criterion by which
+they and other Metazoa were once distinguished from Protozoa,
+namely, the differentiation of large and small sexual cells from
+each other and from the remaining cells of the body, has been
+broken down by the discovery of numerous cases of such
+differentiation among Protozoa. The Coelentera, as contrasted
+with other Metazoa (but not Parazoa), consist of two layers
+of cells only, an outer layer or ectoderm, an inner layer or
+endoderm. They have hence been described as Diploblastica.
+In the remaining Metazoa certain cells are budded off at an
+early stage of development from one or both of the two original
+layers, to form later a third layer, the mesoderm, which lies
+between the ectoderm and endoderm; such forms have therefore
+received the name Triploblastica. At the same time it is necessary
+to observe that it is by no means certain that the mesoderm found
+in various groups of Metazoa is a similar or homologous formation
+in all cases. A second essential difference between Coelentera
+and other Metazoa (except Parazoa) is that in the former all
+spaces in the interior of the body are referable to a single cavity
+of endodermal origin, the &ldquo;gastro-vascular cavity,&rdquo; often termed
+the coelenteron: the spaces are always originally continuous
+with one another, and are in almost every case permanently so.
+This single cavity and its lining serve apparently for all those
+functions (digestion, excretion, circulation and often reproduction)
+which in more complex organisms are distributed
+among various cavities of independent and often very diverse
+origin.</p>
+
+<p>In the Coelentera the ectoderm and endoderm are set apart
+from one another at a very early period in the life-history;
+generally either by delamination or invagination, processes
+described in the article <span class="sc">Embryology</span>. Between these two cell-layers
+a mesogloea (G. C. Bourne, 1887) is always intercalated
+as a secretion by one or both of them; this is a gelatinoid, primitively
+structureless lamella, which in the first instance serves
+merely as a basal support for the cells. In many cases, as, for
+example, in the Medusae or jelly-fish, the mesogloea may be so
+thick as to constitute the chief part of the body in bulk and
+weight. The ectoderm rarely consists of more than one layer
+of cells: these are divisible by structure and function into
+nervous, muscular and secretory cells, supported by interstitial
+cells. The endoderm is generally also an epithelium one cell in
+thickness, the cells being digestive, secretory and sometimes
+muscular. Reproductive sexual cells may be found in either of
+these two layers, according to the class and sub-class in question.
+The mesogloea is in itself an inert non-cellular secretion, but the
+immigration of muscular and other cells into its substance,
+from both ectoderm and endoderm, gives it in many cases a
+strong resemblance to the mesoderm of Triploblastica,&mdash;a
+resemblance which, while probably superficial, may yet serve to
+indicate the path of evolution of the mesoderm.</p>
+
+<p>The Coelentera may thus be briefly defined as Metazoa which
+exhibit two embryonic cell-layers only,&mdash;the ectoderm and
+endoderm,&mdash;their body-cavities being referable to a single cavity
+or coelenteron in the endoderm. Their position in the animal
+kingdom and their main subdivisions may be expressed in the
+following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:525px; height:253px"
+     src="images/img641.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>In the above-given classification, the Scyphomedusae, formerly
+included with the Hydromedusae as Hydrozoa, are placed
+nearer the Anthozoa. The reasons for this may be stated
+briefly.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Hydromedusae</span> are distinguished from the Scyphozoa
+chiefly by negative characters; they have no stomodaeum,
+that is, no ingrowth of ectoderm at the mouth to form an oesophagus;
+they have no mesenteries (radiating partitions) which
+incompletely subdivide the coelenteron; and they have no
+concentration of digestive cells into special organs. Their
+ectodermal muscles are mainly longitudinal, their endodermal
+muscles are circularly arranged on the body-wall. Their sexual
+cells are (probably in all cases) produced from the ectoderm,
+and lie in those radii which are first accentuated in development.
+They typically present two structural forms, the non-sexual
+hydroid and the sexual medusoid; in such a case there is an
+alternation of generations (metagenesis), the hydroid giving rise
+to the medusoid by a sexual gemmation, the medusoid bearing
+sexual cells which develop into a hydroid. In some other cases
+medusoid develops directly from medusoid (hypogenesis),
+whether by sexual cells or by gemmation. The medusoids have
+a muscular velum of ectoderm and mesogloea only.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Scyphozoa</span> have the following features in common:&mdash;They
+typically exhibit an ectodermal stomodaeum; partitions
+or mesenteries project into their coelenteron from the body-wall,
+and on these are generally concentrated digestive cells (to form
+mesenterial filaments, phacellae or gastric filaments, &amp;c.); the
+external musculature of the body-wall is circular (except in
+<i>Cerianthus</i>); the internal, longitudinal; and the sexual cells
+probably always arise in the endoderm.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Scyphomedusae</span>, like the Hydromedusae, typically
+present a metagenesis, the non-sexual scyphistomoid (corresponding
+to the hydroid) alternating with the sexual medusoid.
+In other cases the medusoid is hypogenetic, medusoid producing
+medusoid. The sexual cells of the medusoid lie in the endoderm
+on interradii, that is, on the second set of radii accentuated in
+the course of development. The medusoids have no true velum;
+in some cases a structure more or less resembling this organ,
+termed a velarium, is present, permeated by endodermal canals.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Anthozoa</span> differ from the Scyphomedusae in having
+no medusoid form; they all more or less resemble a sea-anemone,
+and may be termed actinioid. They are (with rare exceptions,
+probably secondarily acquired) hypogenetic, the offspring
+resembling the parent, and both being sexual. The sexual cells
+are borne on the mesenteries in positions irrespective of obvious
+developmental radii.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Ctenophora</span> are so aberrant in structure that it has been
+proposed to separate them from the Coelentera altogether:
+they are, however, theoretically deducible from an ancestor
+common to other Coelentera, but their extreme specialization
+precludes the idea of any close relationship with the rest.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the other three groups, however, it is easy to
+conceive of them as derived from an ancestor, represented to-day
+to some extent by the planula-larva, which was Coelenterate in
+so far as it was composed of an ectoderm and endoderm, and
+had an internal digestive cavity (I. of the table).</p>
+
+<p>At the point of divergence between Scyphozoa and Hydromedusae
+(II. of the table of hypothetical descent), we may
+conceive of its descendant as tentaculate, capable of either
+floating (swimming) or fixation at will like Lucernaria to-day;
+and exhibiting incipient differentiation of myoepithelial cells
+(formerly termed neuro-muscular cells). At the parting of the
+ways which led, on the one hand, to modern Scyphomedusae, on
+the other to Anthozoa (III.), it is probable that the common
+ancestor was marked by incipient mesenteries and by the limitation
+of the sexual cells to endoderm. The lines of descent&mdash;II.
+to Hydromedusae, and III. to Scyphomedusae&mdash;represent periods
+during which the hypothetical ancestors II. and III., capable of
+either locomotion or fixation at will, were either differentiated
+into alternating generations of fixed sterile nutritive hydroids
+(scyphistomoids) and locomotor sexual medusoids, or abandoned
+the power of fixation in hypogenetic cases. During the period
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642"></a>642</span>
+represented by the line of descent&mdash;III. to Anthozoa&mdash;this group
+abandoned its power of adult locomotion by swimming. During
+these periods were also attained those less important structural
+characters which these three groups present to-day. </p>
+<div class="author">(G. H. Fo.)</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:480px; height:376px"
+     src="images/img642a.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COELLO, ALONSO SANCHEZ<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1515-1590), Spanish painter,
+according to some authorities a native of Portugal, was born,
+according to others, at Benifacio, near the city of Valencia.
+He studied many years in Italy; and returning to Spain in 1541
+he settled at Madrid, and worked on religious themes for most
+of the palaces and larger churches. He was a follower of Titian,
+and, like him, excelled in portraits and single figures, elaborating
+the textures of his armours, draperies, and such accessories in a
+manner so masterly as strongly to influence Velazquez in his
+treatment of like objects. Many of his pictures were destroyed
+in the fires that consumed the Madrid and Prado palaces, but
+many good examples are yet extant, among which may be noted
+the portraits of the infantes Carlos and Isabella, now in the
+Madrid gallery, and the St Sebastian painted in the church of
+San Gerónimo, also in Madrid. Coello left a daughter, Isabella
+Sanchez, who studied under him, and painted excellent portraits.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COELLO, ANTONIO<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1610?-1652), Spanish dramatist and
+poet, was born at Madrid about the beginning of the 17th century.
+He entered the household of the duke de Albuquerque, and after
+some years of service in the army received the order of Santiago
+in 1648. He was a favourite of Philip IV., who is reported to
+have collaborated with him; this rumour is not confirmed, but
+there is ample proof of Coello&rsquo;s collaboration with Calderón,
+Rojas Zorrilla, Solís and Velez de Guevara, the most distinguished
+dramatists of the age. The best of his original
+plays, <i>Los Empeños de seis horas</i>, has been wrongly ascribed
+to Calderón; it was adapted by Samuel Tuke, under the title of
+<i>The Adventures of five Hours</i>, and was described by Pepys as
+superior to <i>Othello</i>. It is an excellent example of stagecraft
+and animated dialogue. Coello died on the 20th of October
+1652, shortly after his nomination to a post in the household
+of Philip IV.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES.<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> In human anatomy
+the body-cavity or coelom (Gr. <span class="grk" title="koilos">&#954;&#959;&#8150;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, hollow) is divided into the
+<i>pericardium</i>, the two <i>pleurae</i>, the <i>peritoneum</i> and the two <i>tunicae
+vaginales</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>pericardium</i> is a closed sac which occupies the central
+part of the thorax and contains the heart. Like all the serous
+membranes it has a visceral and a parietal layer, the former of
+which is closely applied to the heart and consists of endothelial
+cells with a slight fibrous backing: to it is due the glossy appearance
+of a freshly removed heart. The parietal layer is double;
+externally there is a strong fibrous protective coat which is continuous
+with the other fibrous structures in the neighbourhood,
+especially with the sheaths of the great vessels at the root of the
+heart, with prolongations of the fascia of the neck, and with the
+central tendon of the diaphragm, while internally is the serous
+layer which is reflected from the surface of the heart, where the
+great vessels enter, so that everywhere the two layers of the
+serous membrane are in contact, and the only thing within the
+cavity is a drop or two of the fluid secreted by the serous walls.
+When the parietal layer is laid open and the heart removed by
+cutting through the great vessels, it will be seen that there are
+two lines of reflection of the serous layer, one common to the aorta
+and pulmonary artery, the other to all the pulmonary veins and
+the two venae cavae.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>pleurae</i> very closely resemble the pericardium except that
+the fibrous outer coat of the parietal layer is not nearly as strong;
+it is closely attached to the inner surface of the chest walls and
+mesially to the outer layer of the pericardium; above it is
+thickened by a fibrous contribution from the scalene muscles,
+and this forms the <i>dome of the pleura</i> which fits into the concavity
+of the first rib and contains the apex of the lung. The reflection
+of the serous layer of the pleura, from the parietal to the visceral
+part, takes place at the root of the lung, where the great vessels
+enter, and continues for some distance below this as the <i>ligamentum
+latum pulmonis</i>. The upper limit of the pleural cavity
+reaches about half an inch above the inner third of the clavicle,
+while, below, it may be marked out by a line drawn from the
+twelfth thoracic spine to the tenth rib in the mid axillary line,
+the eighth rib in the nipple line, and the sixth rib at its junction
+with the sternum. There is probably very little difference in
+the lower level of the pleurae on the two sides.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:250px; height:465px" src="images/img642b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Diagram of vertical
+median section of Abdomen.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">&emsp;A, Aorta.</td> <td class="tcl f90">D, Duodenum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">&emsp;P, Pancreas.</td> <td class="tcl f90">B, Bladder.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">&emsp;I, Intestine.</td> <td class="tcl f90">St, Stomach.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">&emsp;R, Rectum.</td> <td class="tcl f90">C, Colon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">&emsp;L, Liver.</td> <td class="tcl f90">V, Vagina.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2">(The fine dots represent the
+great sac of the peritoneum, the
+coarse dots the lesser sac.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>peritoneum</i> is a more extensive and complicated membrane
+than either the pericardium or pleura; it surrounds the abdominal
+and pelvic viscera, and, like the other sacs, has a parietal and
+visceral layer. The line of reflection of these, though a continuous
+one, is very tortuous. The peritoneum consists of a
+<i>greater</i> and <i>lesser sac</i> which communicate through an opening
+known as the <i>foramen of Winslow</i>, and the most satisfactory way
+of understanding these is to follow the reflections first in a vertical
+median (sagittal) section and then
+in a horizontal one, the body
+being supposed to be in the upright
+position. If a median
+sagittal section be studied first,
+and a start be made at the
+umbilicus (see fig. 1), the parietal
+peritoneum is seen to run upward,
+lining the anterior abdominal
+wall, and then to pass along the
+under surface of the diaphragm
+till its posterior third is reached;
+here there is a reflection on to
+the liver (L), forming the anterior
+layer of the <i>coronary ligament</i>
+of that viscus, while the membrane
+now becomes visceral and
+envelops the front of the liver
+as far back as the transverse
+fissure on its lower surface; here
+it is reflected on to the stomach
+(St) forming the anterior layer
+of the <i>gastro-hepatic</i> or <i>lesser
+omentum</i>. It now covers the
+front of the stomach, and at the
+lower border runs down as the
+anterior layer of an apron-like
+fold, the <i>great omentum</i>, which
+in some cases reaches as low as
+the pubes; then it turns up again
+as the posterior or fourth layer of
+the great omentum until the transverse
+colon (C) is reached, the posterior surface of which it covers
+and is reflected, as the posterior layer of the <i>transverse meso-colon</i>,
+to the lower part of the pancreas (P); after this it turns down and
+covers the anterior surface of the third part of the duodenum
+(D) till the posterior wall of the abdomen is reached, from
+which it is reflected on to the small intestine (I) as the anterior
+layer of the <i>mesentery</i>, a fold varying from 5 to 8 in. between its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643"></a>643</span>
+attachments. After surrounding the small intestine it becomes
+the posterior layer of the mesentery and so again reaches the
+posterior abdominal wall, down which it runs until the rectum
+(R) is reached. The anterior surface of this tube is covered by
+peritoneum to a point about 3 in. from the anus, where it is
+reflected on to the uterus and vagina (V) in the female and then
+on to the bladder (B); in the male, on the other hand, the
+reflection is directly from the rectum to the bladder. At the apex
+of the bladder, after covering the upper surface of that organ,
+it is lifted off by the urachus and runs up the anterior abdominal
+wall to the umbilicus, from which the start was made. All this
+is the greater sac. The tracing of the lesser sac may be conveniently
+started at the transverse fissure of the liver, whence
+the membrane runs down to the stomach (St) as the posterior
+layer of the lesser omentum, lines the posterior surface of the
+stomach, passes down as the second layer of the great omentum
+and up again as the third layer, covers the anterior surface of the
+transverse colon (C) and then reaches the pancreas (P) as the
+anterior layer of the transverse mesocolon. After this it covers
+the front of the pancreas and in the middle line of the body
+runs up below the diaphragm to within an inch of the anterior
+layer of the coronary ligament of the liver; here it is reflected
+on to the top of the Spigelian lobe of the liver to form the posterior
+layer of the coronary ligament,
+covers the whole
+Spigelian lobe, and so
+reaches the transverse
+fissure, the starting-point.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1" colspan="2"><img style="width:281px; height:261px" src="images/img643a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Horizontal
+Section through upper part of 1st
+Lumbar Vertebra.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">A,&emsp;Aorta.</td> <td class="tcl f90">H.A, Hepatic Artery.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">Sp,&ensp;Spleen.</td> <td class="tcl f90">K,&emsp;Kidney.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">B.D, Bile duct.</td> <td class="tcl f90">L,&emsp;Liver.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">V.C, Vena Cava.</td> <td class="tcl f90">St,&ensp;Stomach.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">P,&emsp;Pancreas.</td> <td class="tcl f90">P.V, Portal Vein.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1" colspan="2">The dotting of the peritoneum is as in fig. 1.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>This section, therefore,
+shows two completely
+closed sacs without any
+visible communication. In
+the female, however, the
+great sac is not absolutely
+closed, for the Fallopian
+tubes open into it by their
+minute <i>ostia abdominalia</i>,
+while at the other ends
+they communicate with
+the cavity of the uterus
+and so with the vagina
+and exterior.</p>
+
+<p>A horizontal section
+through the upper part of
+the first lumbar vertebra
+will, if a fortunate one (see fig. 2), pass through the foramen
+of Winslow and show the communication of the two sacs.
+A starting-point may be made from the mid-ventral line and the
+parietal peritoneum traced round the left side of the body wall
+until the outer edge of the left kidney (K) is reached; here it
+passes in front of the kidney and is soon reflected off on to the
+spleen, which it nearly surrounds; just before it reaches the
+hilum of that organ, where the vessels enter, it is reflected on to
+the front of the stomach (St), forming the anterior layer of the
+<i>gastro-splenic omentum</i>; it soon reaches the lesser curvature of
+the stomach and then becomes the anterior layer of the lesser
+omentum, which continues until the bile duct (B.D) and portal
+vein (P.V) are reached at its right free extremity; here it turns
+completely round these structures and runs to the left again, as
+the posterior layer of the lesser omentum, behind the stomach
+(St) and then to the spleen (Sp) as the posterior layer of the
+gastro-splenic omentum. From the spleen it runs to the right
+once more, in front of the pancreas (P), until the inferior vena
+cava (V.C) is reached, and this point is just behind the portal vein
+and is the place where the lesser and greater sacs communicate,
+known as the foramen of Winslow. From this opening the lesser
+sac runs to the left, while all the rest of the peritoneal cavity in the
+section is greater sac. From the front of the vena cava the
+parietal peritoneum passes in front of the right kidney (K) and
+round the right abdominal wall to the mid-ventral line. The right
+part of this section is filled by the liver (L), which is completely
+surrounded by a visceral layer of peritoneum, and no reflection
+is usually seen at this level between it and the parietal layer.
+Some of the viscera, such as the kidneys and pancreas, are
+retro-peritoneal; others, such as the small intestines and transverse
+colon, are surrounded, except at one point where they are
+attached to the dorsal wall by a <i>mesentery</i> or <i>mesocolon</i> as the
+reflections are called; others again are completely surrounded,
+and of these the caecum is an example; while some, like the liver
+and bladder, have large uncovered areas, and the reflections of the
+membrane form ligaments which allow considerable freedom of
+movement.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>tunica vaginalis</i> is the remains of a process of the peritoneum
+(<i>processus vaginalis</i>) which descends into the scrotum during
+foetal life some little time before the testis itself descends.
+After the descent of the testis the upper part usually becomes
+obliterated, while the lower part forms a serous sac which nearly
+surrounds the testis, but does not quite do so. Posteriorly the
+epididymis is in close contact with the testis, and here the visceral
+layer is not in contact; there is, however, a pocket called the
+<i>digital fossa</i> which squeezes in from the outer side between the
+testis and epididymis. The parietal layer lines the inner wall
+of its own side of the scrotum.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a full description of the topography of the serous membranes
+see any of the standard text-books of anatomy, by Gray, Quain,
+Cunningham or Macalister. Special details will be found in Sir F.
+Treves&rsquo; <i>Anatomy of the Intestinal Canal and Peritoneum</i> (London,
+1885); C. B. Lockwood, <i>Hunterian Lectures on Hernia</i> (London,
+1889); C. Addison, &ldquo;Topographical Anatomy of the Abdominal
+Viscera in Man,&rdquo; <i>Jour. Anat.</i>, vols. 34, 35; F. Dixon and A. Birmingham,
+&ldquo;Peritoneum of the Pelvic Cavity,&rdquo; <i>Jour. Anat.</i> vol. 34, p. 127;
+W. Waldeyer, &ldquo;Das Becken&rdquo; (1899), and &ldquo;Topographical Sketch
+of the Lateral Wall of the Pelvic Cavity,&rdquo; <i>Jour. Anat.</i> vol. 32;
+B. Moynihan, <i>Retroperitoneal Hernia</i> (London, 1899). A complete
+bibliography of the subject up to 1895 will be found in <i>Quain&rsquo;s
+Anatomy</i>, vol. 3, part 4, p. 69.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:401px; height:120px" src="images/img643b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="3">After Young and Robinson, Cunningham&rsquo;s <i>Text-Book of Anatomy</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1 pt2" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Longitudinal Section, showing the different
+areas of the Blastodermic Vesicle.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>a</i>, Pericardium.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>c</i>, Ectoderm.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>d</i>, Entoderm.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>b</i>, Bucco-pharyngeal area.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>e</i>, Placental area.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:416px; height:207px" src="images/img643c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="2">After Young and Robinson, Cunningham&rsquo;s <i>Text-Book of Anatomy</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1 pt2" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a Developing Ovum, seen in Longitudinal Section.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>f</i>, Spinal cord.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>i</i>, Brain.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>g</i>, Notochord.</td> <td class="tcl"><i>k</i>, Extra embryonic coelom.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>h</i>, Dorsal wall of alimentary canal.</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;Other numbers as in fig. 3.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Embryology.</i>&mdash;As the mesoderm is gradually spreading over
+the embryo it splits into two layers, the outer of which is known
+as the <i>somatopleure</i> and lines the parietal or ectodermal wall,
+while the inner lines the entoderm and is called the <i>splanchnopleure</i>;
+between the two is the coelom. The pericardial area
+is early differentiated from the rest of the coelom and at first
+lies in front of the neural and bucco-pharyngeal area; here the
+mesoderm stretches right across the mid-line, which it does not
+in front and behind. As the head fold of the embryo is formed
+the pericardium is gradually turned right over, so that the dorsal
+side becomes the ventral and the anterior limit the posterior;
+this will be evident on referring to the two accompanying
+diagrams.</p>
+
+<p>The two primitive aortae lie at first in the ventral wall of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644"></a>644</span>
+pericardium, but with the folding over they come to lie in
+the dorsal wall and gradually bulge into the cavity as they
+coalesce to form the heart, so that the heart drops into the dorsal
+side of the pericardium and draws down a fold of the membrane
+called the <i>dorsal mesocardium</i>. In mammals A. Robinson
+(<i>Jour. Anat. and Phys.</i>, xxxvii. 1) has shown that no ventral
+mesocardium exists, though in more lowly vertebrates it is
+present. Laterally the pericardial cavity communicates with
+the general cavity of the coelom, but with the growth of the
+Cuvierian ducts (see development of veins) these communications
+disappear. Originally the mesocardium runs the whole
+length of the pericardium from before backward, but later on
+the middle part becomes obliterated, and so the two separate
+reflections from the parietal to the visceral layer, already noticed,
+are accounted for.</p>
+
+<p>Just behind the pericardium and in front of the umbilicus,
+which at first are close together, the mesoderm forms a mass
+which is called the <i>septum transversum</i>, and into this the developing
+lungs push bag-like protrusions of the coelom, consisting of
+visceral and parietal layers, and these eventually lose their
+connexion with the rest of the coelom, as the diaphragm develops,
+and become the pleural cavities. After the pericardium and
+pleurae have been separated off the remainder of the coelom
+becomes the peritoneum. At first the stomach and intestine
+form a straight tube, which is connected to the dorsum of the
+embryo by a <i>dorsal mesentery</i> and to the mid-ventral wall in
+front of the umbilicus by a <i>ventral mesentery</i>. Into the ventral
+mesentery the liver grows as diverticula from the duodenum,
+so that some of the mesentery remains as the <i>falciform ligament</i>
+of the liver and some as the lesser omentum. Into the dorsal
+mesentery the pancreas grows, also as diverticula, from the
+duodenum, while the spleen is developed from the mesoderm
+contained in the same fold. As the stomach turns over so that
+its left side becomes ventral, the dorsal mesentery attached to
+it becomes pulled out, in such a way that part of it forms the
+great omentum and part the gastro-splenic omentum. After
+the caecum is formed as a diverticulum from the intestine it is
+situated close to the liver and gradually travels down into the
+right iliac fossa. This passage to the right is accompanied by a
+throwing over of the duodenal loop to the right, so that the right
+side of its mesentery becomes pressed against the dorsal wall of
+the abdomen and obliterated. This accounts for the fact that
+the pancreas and duodenum are only covered by peritoneum
+on their anterior surfaces in man. The formation of the lesser
+sac is due to the turning over of the stomach to the right, with
+the result that a cave, known sometimes as the <i>bursa omentalis</i>,
+is formed behind it. Originally, of course, the whole colon had a
+<i>dorsal mesocolon</i> continuous with the mesentery, but in the
+region of the ascending and descending colon this usually disappears
+and these parts of the gut are uncovered by peritoneum
+posteriorly. The transverse mesocolon persists and at first
+is quite free from the great omentum, but later, in man, the two
+structures fuse<a name="FnAnchor_1e" id="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and the fourth layer of the great omentum
+becomes continuous with the posterior layer of the transverse
+mesocolon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further details see Quain&rsquo;s <i>Anatomy</i> (London, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Comparative Anatomy.</i>&mdash;In the Amphioxus the coelom is
+developed in the embryo as a series of bilateral pouches, called
+<i>enterocoeles</i>, from the sides of the alimentary canal; these are
+therefore entodermal in their origin, as in Sagitta and the Echinodermata
+among the invertebrates. In the adult the development
+of the atrium causes a considerable reduction of the coelom,
+represented by two dorsal coelomic canals communicating with
+a ventral canal by means of branchial canals which run down
+the outer side of the primary gill bars. Into the dorsal canals
+the nephridia open. In the intestinal region the coelom is only
+present on the left side.</p>
+
+<p>In the higher vertebrates (<i>Craniata</i>) the coelom is developed
+by a splitting of the mesoderm into two layers, and a pericardium
+is constricted off from the general cavity. In all cases
+the ova burst into the coelom before making their way to the
+exterior, and in some cases, <i>e.g.</i> amphioxus, lamprey (Cyclostomata),
+eels and mud-fish (Dipnoi), the sperm cells do so too.
+The Cyclostomata have a pair of <i>genital pores</i> which lead
+from the coelom into the urino-genital sinus, and so to the
+exterior.</p>
+
+<p>In the Elasmobranch fish there is a <i>pericardio-peritoneal canal</i>
+forming a communication between these two parts of the coelom;
+also a large common opening for the two oviducts in the region
+of the liver, and two openings, called <i>abdominal pores</i>, on to the
+surface close to the cloacal aperture. In the Teleostomi (Teleostean
+and Ganoid fish) abdominal pores are rare, but in most
+Teleostei (bony fish) the ova pass directly down oviducts, as
+they do in Arthropods, without entering the peritoneal cavity;
+there is little doubt, however, that these oviducts are originally
+coelomic in origin. In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) abdominal pores
+are found, and probably serve as a passage for the sperm cells,
+since there are no vasa deferentia. In fishes a complete dorsal
+mesentery is seldom found in the adult; in many cases it only
+remains as a tube surrounding the vessels passing to the alimentary
+canal.</p>
+
+<p>In the Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves, one cavity acts as pleura
+and peritoneum, though in the latter the lungs are not completely
+surrounded by a serous membrane. In many lizards
+the comparatively straight intestine, with its continuous dorsal
+mesentery and ventral mesentery in the anterior part of the
+abdomen, is very like a stage in the development of the human
+and other mammalian embryos. In the mammalia the diaphragm
+is complete (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diaphragm</a></span>) and divides the pleuro-peritoneal
+cavity into its two constituent parts. In the
+lower mammals the derivatives of the original dorsal mesentery
+do not undergo as much fusion and obliteration as they do in
+adult man; the ascending and descending mesocolon is retained,
+and the transverse mesocolon contracts no adhesion to the great
+omentum. It is a common thing, however, to find a fenestrated
+arrangement of the great omentum which shows that its layers
+have been completely obliterated in many places.</p>
+
+<p>In those animals, such as the rabbit, in which the tests are
+sometimes in the scrotum and sometimes in the abdomen, the
+communication between the peritoneum and the tunica vaginalis
+remains throughout life.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further details and literature up to 1902, see R. Wiedersheim&rsquo;s
+<i>Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbeltiere</i> (Jena, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. G. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1e" id="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Some authorities hold that this alteration is not brought about
+by fusion, but by a dragging away of the posterior layer of the great
+omentum from the dorsal wall of the abdomen.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COEN, JAN PIETERSZOON<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1587-1630), fourth governor-general
+of the Dutch East Indies, was born at Hoorn, and spent
+his youth at Rome in the house of the famous merchants the
+Piscatori. In 1607 he sailed from Amsterdam to the Indies as
+second commercial agent, and remained away four years. He had
+proved so capable that in 1612 he was sent out a second time at
+the head of a trading expedition. In the following year he was
+made a councillor and director-general of the East Indian trade.
+Afterwards he became president at Bantam, and on the 31st of
+October 1617 he was promoted in succession to Laurens Reaal
+to the post of governor-general. To his vigour and intrepidity
+the Dutch in no small measure owed the preservation and establishment
+of their empire in the East. He took and destroyed
+Jacatra, and founded on its ruins the capital of the Dutch East
+Indies, to which he gave the name of Batavia. In 1622 Coen
+obtained leave to resign his post and return to Holland, but in his
+absence great difficulties had arisen with the English at Amboina
+(the so-called massacre of Amboina), and in 1627 under pressure
+from the directors of the East India Company he again returned
+as governor-general to Batavia. In 1629 he was able to beat off
+a formidable attack of the sultan of Mataram, sometimes styled
+emperor of Java, upon Batavia. He died the following year.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COENACULUM,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> the term applied to the eating-room of a
+Roman house in which the supper (<i>coena</i>) or latest meal was
+taken. It was sometimes placed in an upper storey and reached
+by an external staircase. The Last Supper in the New Testament
+was taken in the Coenaculum, the &ldquo;large upper room&rdquo; cited in
+St Mark (xiv. 15) and St Luke (xxii. 12).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645"></a>645</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">C&OElig;NWULF<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (d. 821), king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne
+in 796, on the death of Ecgfrith, son of Offa. His succession is
+somewhat remarkable, as his direct ancestors do not seem to have
+held the throne for six generations. In 798 he invaded Kent,
+deposed and imprisoned Eadberht Præn, and made his own
+brother Cuthred king. Cuthred reigned in Kent from 798 to 807,
+when he died, and C&oelig;nwulf seems to have taken Kent into his
+own hands. It was during this reign that the archbishopric of
+Lichfield was abolished, probably before 803, as the Hygeberht
+who signed as an abbot at the council of Cloveshoe in that year
+was presumably the former archbishop. C&oelig;nwulf appears from
+the charters to have quarrelled with Wulfred of Canterbury, who
+was consecrated in 806, and the dispute continued for several
+years. It was probably only settled at Cloveshoe in 825, when the
+lawsuit of Cw&oelig;nthryth, daughter and heiress of C&oelig;nwulf, with
+Wulfred was terminated. C&oelig;nwulf may have instigated the
+raid of Æthelmund, earl of the Hwicce, upon the accession of
+Ecgberht. He died in 821, and was succeeded by his brother
+Ceolwulf I.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Earle and Plummer&rsquo;s edition of the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>,
+796, 819 (Oxford, 1892); W. de G. Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>,
+378 (London, 1885-1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COERCION<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>coercere</i>, to restrain), an application of
+moral or physical compulsion by which a person is forced to do or
+refrain from doing some act or set of acts apart from his own
+voluntary motion. Where the coercion is direct or positive, <i>i.e.</i>
+where the person is compelled by physical force to do an act
+contrary to his will,&mdash;for example, when a man is compelled to
+join a rebel army, and to serve as a soldier under threats of
+death,&mdash;his act is not legally a crime. Where the coercion is
+implied, as when a person is legally under subjection to another,
+the person coerced, having no will on the subject, is not responsible.
+But this principle is applied only within narrow limits, and
+does not extend to the command of a superior to an inferior;
+of a parent to a child; of a master to his servant or a principal
+to his agent. Where, however, a married woman commits a
+crime in the presence of her husband, she is generally presumed
+to have acted by his coercion, and to be entitled to acquittal,
+but this presumption does not extend to grave crimes, nor to
+those in which the principal part may be supposed to be taken by
+the woman, such as keeping a brothel. In civil matters, such as
+the making of a contract, where the law requires the free assent
+of the person who undertakes the obligation, coercion is a ground
+for invalidating the instrument.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;coercion&rdquo; is inevitably somewhat ambiguous, and
+depends on the circumstances of the case. In a political sense,
+the application of the Crimes Act of 1887 to Ireland was called
+&ldquo;coercion&rdquo; by those opposed to the English Unionist party and
+government, as being special legislation differing from the
+ordinary law applicable in the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">C&OElig;UR, JACQUES<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1395-1456), founder of the trade between
+France and the Levant, was born at Bourges, in which city his
+father, Pierre C&oelig;ur, was a rich merchant. Jacques is first heard
+of about 1418, when he married Macée de Léodepart, daughter
+of Lambert de Léodepart, an influential citizen, provost of
+Bourges, and a former valet of John, duke of Berry. About 1429
+he formed a commercial partnership with two brothers named
+Godard; and in 1432 he was at Damascus, buying and bartering,
+and transporting the wares of the Levant&mdash;gall-nuts, wools and
+silks, goats&rsquo; hair, brocades and carpets&mdash;to the interior of France
+by way of Narbonne. In the same year he established himself
+at Montpellier, and there began those gigantic operations which
+have made him illustrious among financiers. Details are wanting;
+but it is certain that in a few years he placed his country in a
+position to contend not unsuccessfully with the great trading
+republics of Italy, and acquired such reputation as to be able,
+mere trader as he was, to render material assistance to the
+knights of Rhodes and to Venice herself.</p>
+
+<p>In 1436 C&oelig;ur was summoned to Paris by Charles VII., and
+made master of the mint that had been established in that city.
+The post was of vast importance, and the duties onerous. The
+country was deluged with the base moneys of three reigns, charged
+with superscriptions both French and English, and Charles had
+determined on a sweeping reform. In this design he was ably
+seconded by the merchant, who, in fact, inspired or prepared
+all the ordinances concerning the coinage of France issued
+between 1435 and 1451. In 1438 he was made steward of the
+royal expenditure; in 1441 he and his family were ennobled by
+letters patent. In 1444 he was sent as one of the royal commissioners
+to preside over the new parlement of Languedoc,
+a dignity he bore till the day of his disgrace. In 1445 his agents
+in the East negotiated a treaty between the sultan of Egypt and
+the knights of Rhodes; and in 1447, at his instance, Jean de
+Village, his nephew by marriage, was charged with a mission
+to Egypt. The results were most important; concessions were
+obtained which greatly improved the position of the French
+consuls in the Levant, and that influence in the East was thereby
+founded which, though often interrupted, was for several
+centuries a chief commercial glory of France. In the same year
+C&oelig;ur assisted in an embassy to Amadeus VIII., former duke of
+Savoy, who had been chosen pope as Felix V. by the council of
+Basel; and in 1448 he represented the French king at the court
+of Pope Nicholas V., and was able to arrange an agreement
+between Nicholas and Amadeus, and so to end the papal schism.
+Nicholas treated him with the utmost distinction, lodged him in
+the papal palace, and gave him a special licence to traffic with the
+infidels. From about this time he made large advances to Charles
+for carrying on his wars; and in 1449, after fighting at the
+king&rsquo;s side through the campaign, he entered Rouen in his train.</p>
+
+<p>At this moment the great trader&rsquo;s glory was at its height.
+He had represented France in three embassies, and had supplied
+the sinews of that war which had ousted the English from
+Normandy. He was invested with various offices of dignity,
+and possessed the most colossal fortune that had ever been
+amassed by a private Frenchman. The sea was covered with his
+ships; he had 300 factors in his employ, and houses of business
+in all the chief cities of France. He had built houses and chapels,
+and had founded colleges in Paris, at Montpellier and at Bourges.
+The house at Bourges (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">House</a></span>, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8) was of
+exceptional magnificence, and remains to-day one of the finest
+monuments of the middle ages in France. He also built there
+the sacristy of the cathedral and a sepulchral chapel for his
+family. His brother Nicholas was made bishop of Luçon, his
+sister married Jean Bochetel, the king&rsquo;s secretary, his daughter
+married the son of the viscount of Bourges, and his son Jean
+became archbishop of Bourges. But C&oelig;ur&rsquo;s gigantic monopoly
+caused his ruin. Dealing in everything, money and arms,
+peltry and jewels, brocades and woollens&mdash;a broker, a banker,
+a farmer&mdash;he had absorbed the trade of the country, and
+merchants complained they could make no gains on account of
+&ldquo;that Jacquet.&rdquo; He had lent money to needy courtiers, to
+members of the royal family, and to the king himself, and his
+debtors, jealous of his wealth, were eager for a chance to cause
+his overthrow.</p>
+
+<p>In February 1450 Agnes Sorel, the king&rsquo;s mistress, suddenly
+died. Eighteen months later it was rumoured that she had been
+poisoned, and a lady of the court who owed money to Jacques
+C&oelig;ur, Jeanne de Vendôme, wife of François de Montberon, and
+an Italian, Jacques Colonna, formally accused him of having
+poisoned her. There was not even a pretext for such a charge,
+but for this and other alleged crimes the king, on the 31st of July
+1451, gave orders for his arrest and for the seizure of his goods,
+reserving to himself a large sum of money for the war in Guienne.
+Commissioners extraordinary, the merchant&rsquo;s declared enemies,
+were chosen to conduct the trial, and an inquiry began, the judges
+in which were either the prisoner&rsquo;s debtors or the holders of his
+forfeited estates. He was accused of having paid French gold
+and ingots to the infidels, of coining light money, of kidnapping
+oarsmen for his galleys, of sending back a Christian slave who
+had taken sanctuary on board one of his ships, and of committing
+frauds and exactions in Languedoc to the king&rsquo;s prejudice. He
+defended himself with all the energy of his nature. His innocence
+was manifest; but a conviction was necessary, and in spite of
+strenuous efforts on the part of his friends, after twenty-two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646"></a>646</span>
+months of confinement in five prisons, he was condemned to
+do public penance for his fault, to pay the king a sum equal to
+about £1,000,000 of modern money, and to remain a prisoner till
+full satisfaction had been obtained; his sentence also embraced
+confiscation of all his property, and exile during royal pleasure.
+On the 5th of June 1453 the sentence took effect; at Poitiers
+the shameful form of making honourable amends was gone
+through; and for nearly three years nothing is known of him.
+It is probable that he remained in prison; it is certain that his
+vast possessions were distributed among the intimates of Charles.</p>
+
+<p>In 1455 Jacques C&oelig;ur, wherever confined, contrived to escape
+into Provence. He was pursued; but a party, headed by Jean
+de Village and two of his old factors, carried him off to Tarascon,
+whence, by way of Marseilles, Nice and Pisa, he managed to reach
+Rome. He was honourably and joyfully received by Nicholas V.,
+who was fitting out an expedition against the Turks. On the
+death of Nicholas, Calixtus III. continued his work, and named
+his guest captain of a fleet of sixteen galleys sent to the relief
+of Rhodes. C&oelig;ur set out on this expedition, but was taken
+ill at Chios, and died there on the 25th of November 1456.
+After his death Charles VII. showed himself well disposed to the
+family, and allowed Jacques C&oelig;ur&rsquo;s sons to come into possession
+of whatever was left of their father&rsquo;s wealth.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the admirable monograph of Pierre Clément, <i>Jacques C&oelig;ur
+et Charles VII</i> (1858, 2nd ed. 1874); A. Valet de Viriville, <i>Charles
+Sept et son époque</i> (3 vols., 1862-1865); and Louisa Costello, <i>Jacques
+C&oelig;ur, the French Argonaut</i> (London, 1847).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">C&OElig;UR D&rsquo;ALÊNE<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (&ldquo;awl-heart,&rdquo; the French translation of
+the native name <i>skitswish</i>), a tribe of North American Indians
+of Salishan stock. The name is said to have been originally that
+of a chief noted for his cruelty. The tribe has given its name
+to a lake, river and range of mountains in Idaho, where on a
+reservation the survivors, some 400, are settled.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COFFEE<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (Fr: <i>café</i>, Ger. <i>Kaffee</i>). This important and valuable
+article of food is the produce chiefly of <i>Coffea arabica</i>,
+a Rubiaceous plant indigenous
+to Abyssinia, which, however,
+as cultivated originally, spread
+outwards from the southern
+parts of Arabia. The name is
+probably derived from the Arabic
+K&rsquo;h&#257;wah, although by some it
+has been traced to Kaffa, a
+province in Abyssinia, in which
+the tree grows wild.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:238px; height:508px" src="images/img646.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Branch of <i>Coffea
+arabica</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Coffea</i>, to which
+the common coffee tree belongs,
+contains about 25 species in the
+tropics of the Old World, mainly
+African. Besides being found
+wild in Abyssinia, the common
+coffee plant appears to be widely
+disseminated in Africa, occurring
+wild in the Mozambique district,
+on the shores of the Victoria
+Nyanza, and in Angola on the
+west coast. The coffee leaf
+disease in Ceylon brought into
+prominence Liberian coffee (<i>C.
+liberica</i>), a native of the west
+coast of Africa, now extensively
+grown in several parts of the
+world. Other species of economic
+importance are Sierra Leone
+coffee (<i>C. stenophylla</i>) and Congo coffee (<i>C. robusta</i>), both of
+which have been introduced into and are cultivated on a small
+scale in various parts of the tropics. <i>C. excelsa</i> is another species
+of considerable promise.</p>
+
+<p>The common Arabian coffee shrub is an evergreen plant,
+which under natural conditions grows to a height of from 18 to
+20 ft., with oblong-ovate, acuminate, smooth and shining leaves,
+measuring about 6 in. in length by 2½ wide. Its flowers, which
+are produced in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves, have a
+five-toothed calyx, a tubular five-parted corolla, five stamens
+and a single bifid style. The flowers are pure white in colour,
+with a rich fragrant odour, and the plants in blossom have a
+lovely and attractive appearance, but the bloom is very evanescent.
+The fruit is a fleshy berry, having the appearance and
+size of a small cherry, and as it ripens it assumes a dark red
+colour. Each fruit contains two seeds embedded in a yellowish
+pulp, and the seeds are enclosed in a thin membranous endocarp
+(the &ldquo;parchment&rdquo;). Between each seed and the parchment
+is a delicate covering called the &ldquo;silver skin.&rdquo; The seeds which
+constitute the raw coffee &ldquo;beans&rdquo; of commerce are plano-convex
+in form, the flat surfaces which are laid against each other
+within the berry having a longitudinal furrow or groove. When
+only one seed is developed in a fruit it is not flattened on one side,
+but circular in cross section. Such seeds form &ldquo;pea-berry&rdquo;
+coffee.</p>
+
+<p>The seeds are of a soft, semi-translucent, bluish or greenish
+colour, hard and tough in texture. The regions best adapted
+for the cultivation of coffee are well-watered mountain slopes
+at an elevation ranging from 1000 to 4000 ft. above sea-level,
+within the tropics, and possessing a mean annual temperature
+of about 65° to 70° F.</p>
+
+<p>The Liberian coffee plant (<i>C. liberica</i>) has larger leaves, flowers
+and fruits, and is of a more robust and hardy constitution, than
+Arabian coffee. The seeds yield a highly aromatic and well-flavoured
+coffee (but by no means equal to Arabian), and the
+plant is very prolific and yields heavy crops. Liberian coffee
+grows, moreover, at low altitudes, and flourishes in many situations
+unsuitable to the Arabian coffee. It grows wild in great
+abundance along the whole of the Guinea coast.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The early history of coffee as an economic product
+is involved in considerable obscurity, the absence of fact being
+compensated for by a profusion of conjectural statements and
+mythical stories. The use of coffee (<i>C. arabica</i>) in Abyssinia was
+recorded in the 15th century, and was then stated to have been
+practised from time immemorial. Neighbouring countries, however,
+appear to have been quite ignorant of its value. Various
+legendary accounts are given of the discovery of the beneficial
+properties of the plant, one ascribing it to a flock of sheep
+accidentally browsing on the wild shrubs, with the result that
+they became elated and sleepless at night! Its physiological
+action in dissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken
+advantage of in connexion with the prolonged religious service
+of the Mahommedans, and its use as a devotional antisoporific
+stirred up fierce opposition on the part of the strictly orthodox
+and conservative section of the priests. Coffee by them was
+held to be an intoxicating beverage, and therefore prohibited
+by the Koran, and severe penalties were threatened to those
+addicted to its use. Notwithstanding threats of divine retribution
+and other devices, the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly
+among the Arabian Mahommedans, and the growth of coffee and
+its use as a national beverage became as inseparably connected
+with Arabia as tea is with China.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the 16th century the use of coffee was
+recorded by a European resident in Egypt, and about this epoch
+it came into general use in the near East. The appreciation of
+coffee as a beverage in Europe dates from the 17th century.
+&ldquo;Coffee-houses&rdquo; were soon instituted, the first being opened
+in Constantinople and Venice. In London coffee-houses date
+from 1652, when one was opened in St Michael&rsquo;s Alley, Cornhill.
+They soon became popular, and the role played by them in the
+social life of the 17th and 18th centuries is well known. Germany,
+France, Sweden and other countries adopted them at about the
+same time as Great Britain. In Europe, as in Arabia, coffee at
+first made its way into favour in the face of various adverse and
+even prohibitive restrictions. Thus at one time in Germany
+it was necessary to obtain a licence to roast coffee. In England
+Charles II. endeavoured to suppress coffee-houses on the ground
+that they were centres of political agitation, his royal proclamation
+stating that they were the resort of disaffected persons
+&ldquo;who devised and spread abroad divers false, malicious and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647"></a>647</span>
+scandalous reports, to the defamation of His Majesty&rsquo;s government,
+and to the disturbance of the peace and quiet of the
+nation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Up to the close of the 17th century the world&rsquo;s entire, although
+limited, supply of coffee was obtained from the province of Yemen
+in south Arabia, where the true celebrated Mocha or Mokka
+coffee is still produced. At this time, however, plants were
+successfully introduced from Arabia to Java, where the cultivation
+was immediately taken up. The government of Java
+distributed plants to various places, including the botanic garden
+of Amsterdam. The Portuguese introduced coffee into Ceylon.
+From Amsterdam the Dutch sent the plant to Surinam in 1718,
+and in the same year Jamaica received it through the governor
+Sir Nicholas Lawes. Within a few years coffee reached the other
+West Indian islands, and spread generally through the tropics
+of the New World, which now produce by far the greater portion
+of the world&rsquo;s supply.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cultivation and Preparation for Market.</i>&mdash;Coffee plants are
+grown from seeds, which, as in the case of other crops, should be
+obtained from selected trees of desirable characteristics. The
+seeds may be sown &ldquo;at stake,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> in the actual positions the
+mature plants are to occupy, or raised in a nursery and afterwards
+transplanted. The choice of methods is usually determined
+by various local considerations. Nurseries are desirable where
+there is risk of drought killing seedlings in the open. Whilst
+young the plants usually require to be shaded, and this may be
+done by growing castor oil plants, cassava (<i>Manihot</i>), maize or
+Indian corn, bananas, or various other useful crops between
+the coffee, until the latter develop and occupy the ground.
+Sometimes, but by no means always, permanent shading is
+afforded by special shade trees, such as species of the coral tree
+(<i>Erythrina</i>) and other leguminous trees. Opinions as to the
+necessity of shade trees varies in different countries; <i>e.g.</i> in
+Brazil and at high elevations in Jamaica they are not employed,
+whereas in Porto Rico many look on them as absolutely essential.
+It is probable that in many cases where shade trees are of advantage
+their beneficial action may be indirect, in affording
+protection from wind, drought or soil erosion, and, when
+leguminous plants are employed, in enriching the soil in nitrogen.
+The plants begin to come into bearing in their second or third
+year, but on the average the fifth is the first year of considerable
+yield. There may be two, three, or even more &ldquo;flushes&rdquo; of
+blossom in one year, and flowers and fruits in all stages may
+thus be seen on one plant. The fruits are fully ripe about seven
+months after the flowers open; the ripe fruits are fleshy, and of
+a deep red colour, whence the name of &ldquo;cherry.&rdquo; When mature
+the fruits are picked by hand, or allowed to fall of their own
+accord or by shaking the plant. The subsequent preparation
+may be according to (1) the dry or (2) the wet method.</p>
+
+<p>In the dry method the cherries are spread in a thin layer, often
+on a stone drying floor, or barbecue, and exposed to the sun.
+Protection is necessary against heavy dew or rain. The dried
+cherries can be stored for any length of time, and later the dried
+pulp and the parchment are removed, setting free the two beans
+contained in each cherry. This primitive and simple method is
+employed in Arabia, in Brazil and other countries. In Brazil
+it is giving place to the more modern method described below.</p>
+
+<p>In the wet, or as it is sometimes called, West Indian method,
+the cherries are put in a tank of water. On large estates galvanized
+spouting is often employed to convey the beans by the help
+of running water from the fields to the tank. The mature cherries
+sink, and are drawn off from the tank through pipes to the pulping
+machines. Here they are subjected to the action of a roughened
+cylinder revolving closely against a curved iron plate. The
+fleshy portion is reduced to a pulp, and the mixture of pulp and
+liberated seeds (each still enclosed in its parchment) is carried
+away to a second tank of water and stirred. The light pulp is
+removed by a stream of water and the seeds allowed to settle.
+Slight fermentation and subsequent washings, accompanied
+by trampling with bare feet and stirring by rakes or special
+machinery, result in the parchment coverings being left quite
+clean. The beans are now dried on barbecues, in trays, &amp;c.,
+or by artificial heat if climatic conditions render this necessary.
+Recent experiments in Porto Rico tend to show that if the
+weather is unfavourable during the crop period the pulped coffee
+can be allowed to remain moist and even to malt or sprout
+without injury to the final value of the product when dried
+later. The product is now in the state known as parchment
+coffee, and may be exported. Before use, however, the parchment
+must be removed. This may be done on the estate, at the
+port of shipment, or in the country where imported. The coffee
+is thoroughly dried, the parchment broken by a roller, and removed
+by winnowing. Further rubbing and winnowing removes
+the silver skin, and the beans are left in the condition of ordinary
+unroasted coffee. Grading into large, medium and small beans,
+to secure the uniformity desirable in roasting, is effected by
+the use of a cylindrical or other pattern sieve, along which the
+beans are made to travel, encountering first small, then medium,
+and finally large apertures or meshes. Damaged beans and
+foreign matter are removed by hand picking. An average yield
+of cleaned coffee is from 1½ to 2 &#8468; per tree, but much greater
+crops are obtained on new rich lands, and under special conditions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Production.</i>&mdash;The centre of production has shifted greatly since
+coffee first came into use in Europe. Arabia formerly supplied the
+world; later the West Indies and then Java took the lead, to be
+supplanted in turn by Brazil, which now produces about three-quarters
+of the world&rsquo;s supply and controls the market.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brazil.</i>&mdash;Coffee planting is the chief industry of Brazil, and coffee
+the principal export. The states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas
+Geraes and Santos, contain the chief coffee-producing lands. The annual
+output ranges from about 10,000,000 to 16,000,000 bags (of 120 &#8468;
+each), whilst the world&rsquo;s annual consumption is more or less stationary
+at about 16,000,000 bags. The overwhelming importance of the
+Brazilian output is thus evident. Recently efforts have been made
+to restrict production to maintain prices, and the Coffee Convention
+scheme came into force in São Paulo on December 1, 1906, and in Rio
+de Janeiro and Minas Geraes on January 1, 1907. The cultivation
+in general is very primitive in character, periodical weeding being
+almost all the attention the plants receive. Manuring is commonly
+confined to mulches of the cut weeds and addition of the coffee husks.
+New lands in São Paulo yield from 80 cwt. to 100 cwt. of cleaned
+coffee per 1000 trees (700 go to the acre); the average yield, however,
+is not more than 15 cwt. The plants are at their best when from
+10 to 15 years old, but continue yielding for 30 years or even more.</p>
+
+<p><i>Other South American Countries.</i>&mdash;Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador,
+Peru, and to a much less degree Bolivia and Paraguay, produce
+coffee, the annual crops of the two former countries being each of
+about £1,500,000 in value.</p>
+
+<p><i>Central America.</i>&mdash;Guatemala produces the most in this region;
+the coffee estates are mainly controlled by Germans, who have
+brought them to a high pitch of perfection. The crop ranges in
+value from about £1,000,000 to £1,500,000 per annum. Costa Rica
+and San Salvador produce about half this amount. In Nicaragua,
+Honduras and Panama, coffee is extensively cultivated, and all
+export the product.</p>
+
+<p><i>West Indies.</i>&mdash;Coffee is grown in most of the islands, often only
+for local use. Haiti produces the largest amount, the annual value
+of the crop being about £500,000. Porto Rico formerly had a
+flourishing industry, but it has declined owing to various causes.
+The interior is still expected to be devoted largely to coffee, and
+the U.S. Department of Agriculture has carried out experiments
+to improve methods and ensure the cultivation of better varieties.
+Jamaica produces the famous Blue Mountain Coffee, which compares
+favourably with the best coffees of the world, and also ordinary
+or &ldquo;plain grown&rdquo;; the Blue Mountain is cultivated at elevations
+of from 3000 to 4500 ft. Coffee usually ranks third or fourth in value
+amongst the exports of the island.</p>
+
+<p><i>Africa</i>, the native country of the coffees, does not now contribute
+any important amount to the world&rsquo;s output. In Liberia, the Gold
+Coast and elsewhere on the West Coast are many plantations, but
+the low prices ruling of recent years have caused coffee to be neglected
+for more remunerative crops. Coffee is, however, still the principal
+export of Nyasaland (British Central Africa), where it was introduced
+as recently as 1894. The area under coffee has been greatly
+reduced, owing partly to more attention being paid to cotton,
+partly to droughts and other causes. In Somaliland and Abyssinia
+coffee cultivation is of very ancient date. Two kinds are exported,
+Harrari and Habashi. The former compares favourably with Mocha
+coffee. The industry could be very considerably extended. In
+Natal, Rhodesia, &amp;c., coffee is grown, but not in sufficient quantity
+to supply the local demand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arabia.</i>&mdash;The name &ldquo;Mocha&rdquo; is applied generally to coffee
+produced in Arabia. Turkey and Egypt obtain the best grades.
+Traders from these countries go to Arabia, buy the crops on the
+trees, and supervise its picking and preparation themselves. The
+coffee is prepared by the &ldquo;dry method.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648"></a>648</span></p>
+
+<p><i>India</i> is the principal coffee-growing region in the British empire,
+and produces about one-fifth of the total supply of the United
+Kingdom. There are some 213,000 acres under coffee, mostly in
+southern India. The official report states that the production of
+coffee is restricted for the most part to a limited area in the elevated
+region above the south-western coast, the coffee lands of Mysore,
+Coorg, and the Madras districts of Malabar and the Nilgiris, comprising
+86% of the whole area under the plant in India. About one-half of
+the whole coffee-producing area is in Mysore. In Burma, Assam
+and Bombay, coffee is of minor importance. During 1904-1906
+there was a reduction of the area under coffee in India by 21,554
+acres.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ceylon.</i>&mdash;The history of coffee in Ceylon is practically that of the
+coffee-leaf disease (see below). The Dutch introduced Arabian
+coffee in 1720, but abandoned its cultivation later. It was revived
+by the British, and developed very rapidly between 1836 and 1845,
+when there was a temporary collapse owing to financial crisis in the
+United Kingdom. In 1880 the exports of coffee were of the value
+of about £2,784,163. Ten years later they had fallen to £430,633,
+owing to the ravages of the coffee-leaf disease. The output continued
+to decrease, and the value of the crop in 1906 was only £17,258.
+Liberian coffee, which is hardier and more resistant to disease, was
+introduced, but met with only partial success.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dutch East Indies.</i>&mdash;Coffee from this source passes under the
+general name of &ldquo;Java,&rdquo; that island producing the greatest amount;
+Sumatra, Borneo and the Celebes, &amp;c., however, also contribute.
+The Java plantations are largely owned by the government. Much
+of the coffee from these islands is of a high quality.</p>
+
+<p><i>Australasia.</i>&mdash;Coffee can be cultivated in the northern territories
+of Australia, but comparatively little is done with this crop; Queensland
+produces the largest amount.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hawaii</i>, &amp;c.&mdash;In all the islands of the Hawaiian group coffee is
+grown, but nine-tenths or more is raised in Hawaii itself, the Kona
+district being the chief seat of production. The exports go mostly
+to the United States, and there is also a large local consumption.</p>
+
+<p>Coffee thrives well also in the Philippines and Guam.</p>
+
+<p><i>The World&rsquo;s Trade.</i>&mdash;The following figures, from the <i>Year-book</i> of
+the U.S. Department of Agriculture, indicate the relative importance
+of the coffee-exporting countries.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm">Country.</td>
+    <td class="tccm">1904.<br />Exports coffee<br />in &#8468;.</td>
+    <td class="tccm">1905.<br />Exports coffee<br />in &#8468;.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl pt2" colspan="3"><i>America</i>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Brazil</td> <td class="tcr">1,326,027,795</td> <td class="tcr">1,431,328,038</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Colombia</td> <td class="tcr">130,000,000</td> <td class="tcr">(est.)&emsp;&emsp;70,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Venezuela</td> <td class="tcr">128,000,000</td> <td class="tcr">(est.)&emsp;&emsp;94,370,090</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Haiti</td> <td class="tcr">81,407,346</td> <td class="tcr">45,244,232</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Salvador</td> <td class="tcr">75,314,003</td> <td class="tcr">61,822,223</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Guatemala</td> <td class="tcr">71,653,700</td> <td class="tcr">81,081,600</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Mexico</td> <td class="tcr">41,855,368</td> <td class="tcr">42,456,491</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Costa Rica</td> <td class="tcr">27,730,672</td> <td class="tcr">39,788,002</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Nicaragua</td> <td class="tcr">21,661,621</td> <td class="tcr">18,171,515</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Porto Rico</td> <td class="tcr">15,330,590</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Jamaica</td> <td class="tcr">5,781,440</td> <td class="tcr">9,046,464</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl pt2" colspan="3"><i>Asia</i>&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Dutch East Indies</td> <td class="tcr">77,168,254</td> <td class="tcr">72,864,649</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;British India</td> <td class="tcr">36,920,464</td> <td class="tcr">40,340,384</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Singapore (port of export)</td> <td class="tcr">12,367,156</td> <td class="tcr">11,935,034</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl pt2"><i>Other countries</i></td> <td class="tcr">216,891,567</td> <td class="tcr">220,132,690</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Total</td> <td class="tcr">2,268,109,976</td> <td class="tcr">2,238,581,412</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In 1906 there was an increased total of 2,680,855,878 &#8468;, due to
+the Brazil export rising to 1,847,367,771 &#8468;. The aggregate value of
+the coffee annually entering the world&rsquo;s markets is about £40,000,000.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Coffee Consumption.</i>&mdash;The United States of America consume
+nearly one half of all the coffee exported from the producing
+countries of the world. This might of course be due merely to
+the States containing more coffee-drinkers than other countries,
+but the average consumption per head in the country is about
+11 to 12 &#8468; per annum, an amount equalled or excelled only in
+Norway, Sweden and Holland. Whilst one great branch of the
+Anglo-Saxon stock is near the head of the list, it is interesting
+to note that the United Kingdom and also Canada and Australia
+are almost at the foot, using only about 1 &#8468; of coffee per head
+each year. Germany, with a consumption of about 6 to 7 &#8468; per
+person per annum uses considerably less than a quarter of the
+world&rsquo;s commercial crop. France, about 5 &#8468; per head, takes
+about one eighth; and Austria-Hungary, about 2 &#8468;, uses some
+one-sixteenth. Holland consumes approximately as much, but
+with a much smaller population, the Dutch using more per head
+than any other people&mdash;14 &#8468; to 15 &#8468; per annum. Their taste
+is seen also in the relatively high consumption in South Africa.
+Sweden, Belgium and the United Kingdom, follow next in order
+of total amount used.</p>
+
+<p>In many tropical countries much coffee is drunk, but as it is
+often produced locally exact figures are not available. The
+average consumption in the United Kingdom is about 50,000,000
+lb per annum; about one-fifth only is produced in the British
+empire, and of this about nineteen-twentieths come from India
+and one-twentieth from the British West Indies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coffee-leaf Disease.</i>&mdash;The coffee industry in Ceylon was ruined
+by the attack of a fungoid disease (<i>Hemileia vastatrix</i>) known as
+the Ceylon coffee-leaf disease. This has since extended its ravages
+into every coffee-producing country in the Old World, and added
+greatly to the difficulties of successful cultivation. The fungus
+is a microscopic one, the minute spores of which, carried by the
+wind, settle and germinate upon the leaves of the plant. The
+fungal growth spreads through the substance to the leaf, robbing
+the leaf of its nourishment and causing it to wither and fall.
+An infected plantation may be cleansed, and the fungus in its
+nascent state destroyed, by powdering the trees with a mixture
+of lime and sulphur, but, unless the access of fresh spores brought
+by the wind can be arrested, the plantations may be readily
+reinfected when the lime and sulphur are washed off by rain.
+The separation of plantations by belts of trees to windward is
+suggested as a check to the spread of the disease.</p>
+
+<div class="f90">
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:505px; height:626px" src="images/img648.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Coffee-leaf Disease, <i>Hemileia vastatrix</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" style="width: 40%;"><p>1, Part of leaf showing diseased patches.</p>
+
+<p>2, Cluster of uredospores.</p>
+
+<p>3, Transverse  section  of  a diseased patch in the leaf showing the hyphae of the fungus pushing between the
+leaf-cells and tapping them for nourishment. The hyphae have broken through in the upper face and
+are forming a cluster of spores.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl"><p>6, A uredospore germinating, the germ-tube is penetrating the leaf.</p>
+<p>5, A teleutospore.</p>
+<p>4, Ripe uredospores.</p>
+<p>7, Uredospore germinating.</p>
+<p>u, Uredospore.</p>
+<p>t, Teleutospore.</p>
+<p>2-7, Highly magnified.</p> </td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><i>Microscopic Structure.</i>&mdash;Raw coffee seeds are tough and horny
+in structure, and are devoid of the peculiar aroma and taste which
+are so characteristic of the roasted seeds. The minute structure
+of coffee allows it to be readily recognized by means of the
+microscope, and as roasting does not destroy its distinguishing
+peculiarities, microscopic examination forms the readiest means
+of determining the genuineness of any sample. The substance
+of the seed, according to Dr Hassall, consists &ldquo;of an assemblage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649"></a>649</span>
+of vesicles or cells of an angular form, which adhere so firmly together
+that they break up into pieces rather than separate into
+distinct and perfect cells. The cavities of the cells include, in the
+form of little drops, a considerable quantity of aromatic volatile
+oil, on the presence of
+which the fragrance and
+many of the active principles
+of the berry depend&rdquo;
+(see fig. 3).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:291px; height:313px" src="images/img649.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Microscopic structure of
+Coffee.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Physiological Action.</i>&mdash;Coffee
+belongs to the medicinal
+or auxiliary class of
+food substances, being
+solely valuable for its
+stimulant effect upon the
+nervous and vascular system.
+It produces a feeling
+of buoyancy and exhilaration
+comparable to a
+certain stage of alcoholic
+intoxication, but which
+does not end in depression
+or collapse. It increases the frequency of the pulse, lightens the
+sensation of fatigue, and it sustains the strength under prolonged
+and severe muscular exertion. The value of its hot infusion under
+the rigours of Arctic cold has been demonstrated in the experience
+of all Arctic explorers, and it is scarcely less useful in tropical
+regions, where it beneficially stimulates the action of the skin.</p>
+
+<p>The physiological action of coffee mainly depends on the presence
+of the alkaloid caffeine, which occurs also in tea, Paraguay
+tea, and cola nuts, and is very similar to theobromine, the active
+principle in cocoa. The percentage of caffeine present varies
+in the different species of <i>Coffea</i>. In Arabian coffee it ranges
+from about 0.7 to 1.6%; in Liberian coffee from 1.0 to 1.5%.
+Sierra Leone coffee (<i>C. stenophylla</i>) contains from 1.52 to 1.70%;
+in <i>C. excelsa</i> 1.89% is recorded, and as much as 1.97% in <i>C.
+canephora</i>. Four species have been shown by M. G. Bertrand
+to contain no caffeine at all, but instead a considerable quantity
+of a bitter principle. All these four species are found only in
+Madagascar or the neighbouring islands. Other coffees grown
+there contain caffeine as usual. Coffee, with the caffeine extracted,
+has also been recently prepared for the market. The
+commercial value of coffee is determined by the amount of the
+aromatic oil, caffeone, which develops in it by the process of
+roasting. By prolonged keeping it is found that the richness of
+any seeds in this peculiar oil is increased, and with increased
+aroma the coffee also yields a blander and more mellow beverage.
+Stored coffee loses weight at first with great rapidity, as much as
+8% having been found to dissipate in the first year of keeping,
+5% in the second, and 2% in the third; but such loss of weight
+is more than compensated by improvement in quality and consequent
+enhancement of value.</p>
+
+<p><i>Roasting.</i>&mdash;In the process of roasting, coffee seeds swell up by
+the liberation of gases within their substance,&mdash;their weight
+decreasing in proportion to the extent to which the operation
+is carried. Roasting also develops with the aromatic caffeone
+above alluded to a bitter soluble principle, and it liberates a
+portion of the caffeine from its combination with the caffetannic
+acid. Roasting is an operation of the greatest nicety, and one,
+moreover, of a crucial nature, for equally by insufficient and by
+excessive roasting much of the aroma of the coffee is lost; and
+its infusion is neither agreeable to the palate nor exhilarating
+in its influence. The roaster must judge of the amount of heat
+required for the adequate roasting of different qualities, and while
+that is variable, the range of roasting temperature proper for
+individual kinds is only narrow. In continental countries it is
+the practice to roast in small quantities, and thus the whole
+charge is well under the control of the roaster; but in Britain
+large roasts are the rule, in dealing with which much difficulty
+is experienced in producing uniform torrefaction, and in stopping
+the process at the proper moment. The coffee-roasting apparatus
+is usually a malleable iron cylinder mounted to revolve over the
+fire on a hollow axle which allows the escape of gases generated
+during torrefaction. The roasting of coffee should be done as short
+a time as practicable before the grinding for use, and as ground
+coffee especially parts rapidly with its aroma, the grinding should
+only be done when coffee is about to be prepared.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adulteration.</i>&mdash;Although by microscopic, physical and chemical
+tests the purity of coffee can be determined with perfect certainty,
+yet ground coffee is subjected to many and extensive adulterations
+(see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>). Chief among the adulterant
+substances, if it can be so called, is chicory; but it occupies a
+peculiar position, since very many people on the European
+continent as well as in Great Britain deliberately prefer a mixture
+of chicory with coffee to pure coffee. Chicory is indeed destitute
+of the stimulant alkaloid and essential oil for which coffee is
+valued; but the facts that it has stood the test of prolonged and
+extended use, and that its infusion is, in some localities, used
+alone, indicate that it performs some useful function in connexion
+with coffee, as used at least by Western communities. For one
+thing, it yields a copious amount of soluble matter in infusion
+with hot water, and thus gives a specious appearance of strength
+and substance to what may be really only a very weak preparation
+of coffee. The mixture of chicory with coffee is easily detected
+by the microscope, the structure of both, which they retain
+after torrefaction, being very characteristic and distinct. The
+granules of coffee, moreover, remain hard and angular when mixed
+with water, to which they communicate but little colour; chicory,
+on the other hand, swelling up and softening, yields a deep brown
+colour to water in which it is thrown. The specific gravity of
+an infusion of chicory is also much higher than that of coffee.
+Among the numerous other substances used to adulterate coffee
+are roasted and ground roots of the dandelion, carrot, parsnip
+and beet; beans, lupins and other leguminous seeds; wheat,
+rice and various cereal grains; the seeds of the broom, fenugreek
+and iris; acorns; &ldquo;negro coffee,&rdquo; the seeds of <i>Cassia occidentalis</i>,
+the seeds of the ochro (<i>Hibiscus esculentus</i>), and also the soja
+or soy bean (<i>Glycine Soya</i>). Not only have these with many
+more similar substances been used as adulterants, but under
+various high-sounding names several of them have been introduced
+as substitutes for coffee; but they have neither merited nor
+obtained any success, and their sole effect has been to bring
+coffee into undeserved disrepute with the public.</p>
+
+<p>Not only is ground coffee adulterated, but such mixtures as
+flour, chicory and coffee, or even bran and molasses, have been
+made up to simulate coffee beans and sold as such.</p>
+
+<p>The leaves of the coffee tree contain caffeine in larger proportion
+than the seeds themselves, and their use as a substitute for
+tea has frequently been suggested. The leaves are actually so
+used in Sumatra, but being destitute of any attractive aroma
+such as is possessed by both tea and coffee, the infusion is not
+palatable. It is, moreover, not practicable to obtain both seeds
+and leaves from the same plant, and as the commercial demand
+is for the seed alone, no consideration either of profit or of any
+dietetic or economic advantage is likely to lead to the growth of
+coffee trees on account of their leaves.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. B. R.; W. G. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COFFER<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (Fr. <i>coffre</i>, O. Fr. <i>cofre</i> or <i>cofne</i>, Lat. <i>cophinus</i>, cf.
+&ldquo;coffin&rdquo;), in architecture, a sunk panel in a ceiling or vault;
+also a casket or chest in which jewels or precious goods were kept,
+and, if of large dimensions, clothes. The marriage coffers in Italy
+were of exceptional richness in their carving and gilding and
+were sometimes painted by great artists.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COFFERDAM<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span>, in engineering. To enable foundations (<i>q.v.</i>)
+to be laid in a site which is under water, the engineer sometimes
+surrounds it with an embankment or dam, known as a cofferdam,
+to form an enclosure from which the water is excluded. Where
+the depth of water is small and the current slight, simple clay
+dams may be used, but in general cofferdams consist of two rows
+of piles, the space between which is packed with clay puddle.
+The dam must be sufficiently strong to withstand the exterior
+pressure to which it is exposed when the enclosed space is
+pumped dry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COFFEYVILLE<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span>, a city of Montgomery county, Kansas, U.S.A.,
+on the Verdigris river, about 150 m. S. of Topeka and near the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650"></a>650</span>
+southern boundary of the state. Pop. (1890) 2282; (1900)
+4953, of whom 803 were negroes; (1905) 13,196; (1910) 12,687.
+Coffeyville is served by the Missouri Pacific, the Atchison,
+Topeka &amp; Santa Fé, the Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas, and the
+Saint Louis, Iron Mountain &amp; Southern railways, and by inter-urban
+electric railway to Independence. It is in the Kansas
+natural-gas field, ships large quantities of grain, and has a large
+zinc oxide smelter and a large oil refinery, and various manufactures,
+including vitrified brick and tile, flour, lumber,
+chemicals, window glass, bottles, pottery and straw boards.
+The municipality owns and operates its water-works and electric
+lighting plant. Coffeyville, named in honour of A. M. Coffey,
+who was a member of the first legislature of the territory of
+Kansas, was founded in 1869, but in 1871 it was removed about
+1 m. from its original site, now known as &ldquo;old town.&rdquo; It was
+incorporated as a city of the third class in 1872 and received
+a new charter in 1887. Coffeyville became a station on the
+Leavenworth, Lawrence &amp; Galveston railway (now part of the
+Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé), and for several years large
+numbers of cattle were driven here from Indian Territory and
+Texas for shipment; in fact, the city&rsquo;s chief importance was
+as a trade centre for the north part of Indian Territory until
+natural gas was found here in large quantities in 1892.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COFFIN<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>cophinus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kophinos">&#954;&#972;&#966;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, a coffer, chest or
+basket, but never meaning &ldquo;coffin&rdquo; in its present sense), the
+receptacle in which a corpse is confined. The Greeks and Romans
+disposed of their dead both by burial and by cremation. Greek
+coffins varied in shape, being in the form of an urn, or like the
+modern coffins, or triangular, the body being in a sitting posture.
+The material used was generally burnt clay, and in some cases
+this had obviously been first moulded round the body, and so
+baked. Cremation was the commonest method of disposing of
+the dead among the Romans, until the Christian era, when stone
+coffins came into use. Examples of these have been frequently
+dug up in England. In 1853, during excavations for the foundations
+of some warehouses in Hayden Square, Minories, London,
+a Roman stone coffin was found within which was a leaden
+shell. Others have been found at Whitechapel, Stratford-le-Bow,
+Old Kent Road and Battersea Fields, and in great numbers at
+Colchester, York, Southfleet and Kingsholme near Gloucester.
+In early England stone coffins were only used by the nobles and
+the wealthy. Those of the Romans who were rich enough had
+their coffins made of a limestone brought from Assos in Troas,
+which it was commonly believed &ldquo;ate the body&rdquo;; hence arose
+the name sarcophagus (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The coffins of the Chaldaeans were generally clay urns with the
+top left open, resembling immense jars. These, too, must have
+been moulded round the body, as the size of the mouth would not
+admit of its introduction after the clay was baked. The Egyptian
+coffins, or sarcophagi, as they have been improperly called, are
+the largest stone coffins known and are generally highly polished
+and covered with hieroglyphics, usually a history of the deceased.
+Mummy chests shaped to the form of the body were also used.
+These were made of hard wood or <i>papier mâché</i> painted, and like
+the stone coffins bore hieroglyphics. The Persians, Parthians,
+Medes and peoples of the Caspian are not known to have had any
+coffins, their usual custom being to expose the body to be devoured
+by beasts and birds of prey. Unhewn flat stones were sometimes
+used by the ancient European peoples to line the grave. One
+was placed at the bottom, others stood on their edges to form
+the sides, and a large slab was put on top, thus forming a rude
+cist. In England after the Roman invasion these rude cists
+gave place to the stone coffin, and this, though varying much in
+shape, continued in use until the 16th century.</p>
+
+<p>The most primitive wooden coffin was formed of a tree-trunk
+split down the centre, and hollowed out. The earliest specimen
+of this type is in the Copenhagen museum, the implements found
+in it proving that it belonged to the Bronze Age. This type of
+coffin, more or less modified by planing, was used in medieval
+Britain by those of the better classes who could not afford stone,
+but the poor were buried without coffins, wrapped simply in
+cloth or even covered only with hay and flowers. Towards the
+end of the 17th century, coffins became usual for all classes. It
+is worth noting that in the Burial Service in the Book of Common
+Prayer the word &ldquo;coffin&rdquo; is not used.</p>
+
+<p>Among the American Indians some tribes, <i>e.g.</i> the Sacs, Foxes
+and Sioux, used rough hewn wooden coffins; others, such as the
+Seris, sometimes enclosed the corpse between the carapace and
+plastron of a turtle. The Seminoles of Florida used no coffins,
+while at Santa Barbara, California, canoes containing corpses
+have been found buried though they may have been intended
+for the dead warrior&rsquo;s use in the next world. Rough stone cists,
+too, have been found, especially in Illinois and Kentucky. In
+their tree and scaffold burial the Indians sometimes used wooden
+coffins, but oftener the bodies were simply wrapped in blankets.
+Canoes mounted on a scaffold near a river were used as coffins
+by some tribes, while others placed the corpse in a canoe or
+wicker basket and floated them out into the stream or lake
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Funeral Rites</a></span>). The aborigines of Australia generally
+used coffins of bark, but some tribes employed baskets of wicker-work.</p>
+
+<p>Lead coffins were used in Europe in the middle ages, shaped
+like the mummy chests of ancient Egypt. Iron coffins were
+more rare, but they were certainly used in England and Scotland
+as late as the 17th century, when an order was made that upon
+bodies so buried a heavier burial fee should be levied. The
+coffins used in England to-day are generally of elm or oak lined
+with lead, or with a leaden shell so as to delay as far as possible
+the process of disintegration and decomposition. In America
+glass is sometimes used for the lids, and the inside is lined with
+copper or zinc. The coffins of France and Germany and the
+continent generally, usually differ from those of England in not
+being of the ordinary hexagonal shape but having sides and ends
+parallel. Coffins used in cremation throughout the civilized
+world are of some light material easily consumed and yielding
+little ash. Ordinary thin deal and <i>papier mâché</i> are the favourite
+materials. Coffins for what is known as Earth to Earth Burial
+are made of wicker-work covered with a thin layer of <i>papier
+mâché</i> over cloth.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Funeral Rites</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cremation</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burial and Burial
+Acts</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embalming</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mummy</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Dr H. C. Yarrow, &ldquo;Study of the Mortuary
+Customs of the North American Indians,&rdquo; <i>Report of Bureau of
+Amer. Ethnol.</i> vol. i. (Washington, U.S.A., 1881); Rev. Thomas Hugo,
+&ldquo;On the Hayden Square Sarcophagus,&rdquo; <i>Journ. of Archaeol. Soc.</i>
+vol. ix. (London, 1854); C. V. Creagh, &ldquo;On Unusual Forms of Burial
+by People of the East Coast of Borneo,&rdquo; <i>J.A.I.</i>, vol. xxvi. (London,
+1896-1897); Rev. J. Edward Vaux, <i>Church Folk-lore</i> (1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COG<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span>. (1) (From an older <i>cogge</i>, a word which appears in
+various forms in Teutonic languages, as in O. Ger. <i>kogge</i> or
+<i>kocke</i>, and also in Romanic, as in O. Fr. <i>cogue</i>, or <i>coque</i>, from
+which the Eng. &ldquo;cock-boat&rdquo; is derived; the connexion between
+the Teutonic and the Romanic forms is obscure), a broadly built,
+round-shaped ship, used as a trader and also as a ship of war
+till the 15th century. (2) (A word of obscure origin, possibly
+connected with Fr. <i>coche</i>, and Ital. <i>cocca</i>, a notch; the Celtic
+forms <i>cog</i> and <i>cocas</i> come from the English), a tooth in a series
+of teeth, morticed on to, or cut out of the circumference of a
+wheel, which works with the tooth in a corresponding series
+on another wheel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>). (3) (Also of quite obscure
+origin), a slang term for a form of cheating at dice. The early
+uses of the word show that this was done not by &ldquo;loading&rdquo;
+the dice, as the modern use of the expression of &ldquo;cogged dice&rdquo;
+seems to imply, but by sleight of hand in directing the fall or in
+changing the dice.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COGERS HALL<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>, a London tavern debating society. It was
+instituted in 1755 at the White Bear Inn (now St Bride&rsquo;s Tavern),
+Fleet Street, moved about 1850 to Discussion Hall, Shoe Lane,
+and in 1871 finally migrated to the Barley Mow Inn, Salisbury
+Square, E.C., its present quarters. The name is often wrongly
+spelt Codgers and Coggers; the &ldquo;o&rdquo; is really long, the accepted
+derivation being from Descartes&rsquo; <i>Cogito, ergo sum</i>, and thus
+meaning &ldquo;The society of thinkers.&rdquo; The aims of the Cogers
+were &ldquo;the promotion of the liberty of the subject and the
+freedom of the Press, the maintenance of loyalty to the laws,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651"></a>651</span>
+the rights and claims of humanity and the practice of public
+and private virtue.&rdquo; Among its early members Cogers Hall
+reckoned John Wilkes, one of its first presidents, and Curran, who
+in 1773 writes to a friend that he spent a couple of hours every
+night at the Hall. Later Dickens was a prominent member.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Peter Rayleigh, <i>History of Ye Antient Society of Cogers</i>
+(London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COGHLAN, CHARLES FRANCIS<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1841-1899), Irish actor,
+was born in Paris, and was educated for the law. He made his
+first London appearance in 1860, and became the leading actor
+at the Prince of Wales&rsquo;s. He went to America in 1876, where
+he remained for the rest of his life, playing first in Augustin
+Daly&rsquo;s company and then in the Union Square stock company,
+during the long run of <i>The Celebrated Case</i>. He also played with
+his sister, and in support of Mrs Langtry and Mrs Fiske, and in
+1898 produced a version of Dumas&rsquo; <i>Kean</i>, called <i>The Royal Box</i>,
+in which he successfully starred during the last years of his life.
+He died in Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of November 1899.</p>
+
+<p>His sister, the actress <span class="sc">Rose Coghlan</span> (1853-&emsp;&emsp;), went to
+America in 1871, was again in England from 1873 to 1877,
+playing with Barry Sullivan, and then returned to America,
+where she became prominent as Countess Zicka in <i>Diplomacy</i>,
+and Stephanie in <i>Forget-me-not</i>. She was at Wallack&rsquo;s almost
+continuously until 1888, and subsequently appeared in melodrama
+in parts like the title-rôle of <i>The Sporting Duchess</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COGNAC<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span>, a town of south-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Charente, on the left
+bank of the river Charente, 32 m. W. of Angoulême on the
+Ouest-État railway, between Angoulême and Saintes. Pop. (1906)
+18,389. The streets of the old town&mdash;which borders the river&mdash;are
+narrow and tortuous, but the newer parts are well provided
+with open spaces. The chief of these is the beautiful Parc
+François 1er overlooking the Charente. In one of the squares
+there is a statue of Francis I., who was born here. The chief
+building is a church of the 12th century dedicated to St Leger,
+which preserves a fine Romanesque façade and a tower of the
+15th century. A castle of the 15th and 16th centuries, once the
+residence of the counts of Angoulême, now a storehouse for
+brandy, and a medieval gate stand in the older part of the
+town. Cognac is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of
+first instance and of commerce, a council of trade arbitrators,
+a chamber of commerce, and consulates of the United States,
+Spain and Portugal. Its most important industry is the distillation
+of the brandy (<i>q.v.</i>) to which the town gives its name.
+Large quantities are carried, by way of the river, to the neighbouring
+port of Tonnay-Charente. The industries subsidiary
+to the brandy trade, such as the making of cases and bottles,
+occupy many hands. Ironware is also manufactured, and a
+considerable trade is maintained in grain and cattle. In 1526
+Cognac gave its name to a treaty concluded against Charles V.
+by Francis I., the pope, Venice and Milan. Its possession was
+contested during the wars of religion, and in 1570 it became one
+of the Huguenot strongholds. In 1651 it successfully sustained
+a siege against Louis II., prince of Condé, leader of the Fronde.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Le Pays du Cognac</i>, by L. Ravaz, for a description of the
+district and its viticulture.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COGNITION<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (Latin <i>cognitio</i>, from <i>cognoscere</i>, to become
+acquainted with), in psychology, a term used in its most general
+sense for all modes of being conscious or aware of an object,
+whether material or intellectual. It is an ultimate mode of
+consciousness, strictly the presentation (through sensation or
+otherwise) of an object to consciousness; in its complete form,
+however, it seems to involve a judgment, <i>i.e.</i> the separation
+from other objects of the object presented. The psychological
+theory of cognition takes for granted the dualism of the mind
+that knows and the object known; it takes no account of the
+metaphysical problem as to the possibility of a relation between
+the ego and the non-ego, but assumes that such a relation does
+exist. Cognition is therefore distinct from emotion and conation;
+it has no psychological connexion with feelings of pleasure and
+pain, nor does it tend as such to issue in action.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the analysis of cognition-reactions see O. Külpe, <i>Outlines of
+Psychology</i> (Eng. trans., 1895), pp. 411 foll.; E. B. Titchener,
+<i>Experimental Psychology</i> (1905), ii. 187 foll. On cognition generally,
+G. F. Stout&rsquo;s <i>Analytic Psychology and Manual of Psychology</i>;
+W. James&rsquo;s <i>Principles of Psychology</i> (1890), i. 216 foll.; also article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COGNIZANCE<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cognoscere</i>, to know), knowledge, notice,
+especially judicial notice, the right of trying or considering a
+case judicially, the exercise of jurisdiction by a court of law.
+In heraldry a &ldquo;cognizance&rdquo; is an emblem, badge or device,
+used as a distinguishing mark by the body of retainers of a
+royal or noble house.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COHEN<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (Hebrew for &ldquo;priest&rdquo;), a Jewish family name,
+implying descent from the ancient Hebrew priests. Many
+families claiming such descent are, however, not named Cohen.
+Other forms of the name are Cohn, Cowen, Kahn.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Jacobs, <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, iv. 144.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1828-1898), German botanist,
+was born on the 24th of January 1828 at Breslau. He was
+educated at Breslau and Berlin, and in 1859 became extraordinary,
+and in 1871 ordinary, professor of botany at Breslau
+University. He had a remarkable career, owing to his Jewish
+origin. He was contemporary with N. Pringsheim, and worked
+with H. R. Goeppert, C. G. Nees von Esenbeck, C. G. Ehrenberg
+and Johannes Müller. At an early date he exhibited astonishing
+ability with the microscope, which he did much to improve, and
+his researches on cell-walls and the growth and contents of
+plant-cells soon attracted attention, especially as he made
+remarkable advances in the establishment of an improved cell-theory,
+discovered the cilia in, and analysed the movements of,
+zoospores, and pointed out that the protoplasm of the plant-cell
+and the sarcode of the zoologists were one and the same physical
+vehicle of life. Although these early researches were especially
+on the Algae, in which group he instituted marked reforms of the
+rigid system due to F. T. Kützing, Cohn had already displayed
+that activity in various departments which made him so famous
+as an all-round naturalist, his attention at various times being
+turned to such varied subjects as <i>Aldorovanda</i>, torsion in trees,
+the nature of waterspouts, the effects of lightning, physiology
+of seeds, the proteid crystals in the potato, which he discovered,
+the formation of travertin, the rotatoria, luminous worms, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, in the introduction of the strict biological and
+philosophical analysis of the life-histories of the lower and most
+minute forms of life that Cohn&rsquo;s greatest achievements consist,
+for he applied to these organisms the principle that we can only
+know the phases of growth of microscopic plants by watching
+every stage of development under the microscope, just as we
+learn how different are the youthful and adult appearances of
+an oak or a fern by direct observation. The success with which
+he attempted and carried out the application of cultural and
+developmental methods on the Algae, Fungi and Bacteria can
+only be fully appreciated by those familiar with the minute size
+and elusive evolutions of these organisms, and with the limited
+appliances at Cohn&rsquo;s command. Nevertheless his account of
+the life-histories of <i>Protococcus</i> (1850), <i>Stephanosphaera</i> (1852),
+<i>Volvox</i> (1856 and 1875), <i>Hydrodictyon</i> (1861), and <i>Sphaeroplea</i>
+(1855-1857) among the Algae have never been put aside. The
+first is a model of what a study in development should be; the
+last shares with G. Thuret&rsquo;s studies on <i>Fucus</i> and Pringsheim&rsquo;s
+on <i>Vaucheria</i> the merit of establishing the existence of a sexual
+process in Algae. Among the Fungi Cohn contributed important
+researches on <i>Pilobolus</i> (1851), <i>Empusa</i> (1855), <i>Tarichium</i> (1869),
+as well as valuable work on the nature of parasitism of Algae
+and Fungi.</p>
+
+<p>It is as the founder of bacteriology that Cohn&rsquo;s most striking
+claims to recognition will be established. He seems to have
+been always attracted particularly by curious problems of
+fermentation and coloration due to the most minute forms of
+life, as evinced by his papers on <i>Monas prodigiosa</i> (1850) and
+&ldquo;Über blutähnliche Färbungen&rdquo; (1850), on infusoria (1851
+and 1852), on organisms in drinking-water (1853), &ldquo;Die Wunder
+des Blutes&rdquo; (1854), and had already published several works on
+insect epidemics (1869-1870) and on plant diseases, when his
+first specially bacteriological memoir (<i>Crenothrix</i>) appeared in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652"></a>652</span>
+the journal, <i>Beiträge zur Biologie</i>, which he then started (1870-1871),
+and which has since become so renowned. Investigations
+on other branches of bacteriology soon followed, among which
+&ldquo;Organismen der Pockenlymphe&rdquo; (1872) and &ldquo;Untersuchungen
+über Bacterien&rdquo; (1872-1875) are most important, and laid the
+foundations of the new department of science which has now
+its own laboratories, literature and workers specially devoted
+to its extension in all directions. When it is remembered that
+Cohn brought out and helped R. Koch in publishing his celebrated
+paper on <i>Anthrax</i> (1876), the first clearly worked out case of a
+bacterial disease, the significance of his influence on bacteriology
+becomes apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Among his most striking discoveries during his studies of the
+forms and movements of the Bacteria may be mentioned the
+nature of Zoogloea, the formation and germination of true spores&mdash;which
+he observed for the first time, and which he himself
+discovered in <i>Bacillus subtilis</i>&mdash;and their resistance to high
+temperatures, and the bearing of this on the fallacious experiments
+supposed to support abiogenesis; as well as works on
+the bacteria of air and water, the significance of the bright
+sulphur granules in sulphur bacteria, and of the iron oxide
+deposited in the walls of <i>Crenothrix</i>. His discoveries in these and
+in other departments all stand forth as mementoes of his acute
+observation and reasoning powers, and the thoughtful (in every
+sense of the word) consideration of the work of others, and
+suggestive ideas attached to his principal papers, bear the same
+characteristics. If we overcome the always difficult task of
+bridging in imagination the interval between our present platform
+of knowledge and that on which bacteriologists stood in,
+say, 1870, we shall not undervalue the important contributions
+of Cohn to the overthrow of the then formidable bugbear known
+as the doctrine of &ldquo;spontaneous generation,&rdquo; a dogma of despair
+calculated to impede progress as much in its day as that of
+&ldquo;vitalism&rdquo; did in other periods. Cohn had also clear perceptions
+of the important bearings of Mycology and Bacteriology
+in infective diseases, as shown by his studies in insect-killing
+fungi, microscopic analysis of water, &amp;c. He was a foreign
+member of the Royal Society and of the Linnean Society, and
+received the gold medal of the latter in 1895. He died at Breslau
+on the 25th of June 1898.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Lists of his papers will be found in the <i>Catalogue of Scientific
+Papers of the Royal Society</i>, and in <i>Ber. d. d. bot. Gesellsch.</i>, 1899,
+vol. xvii. p. (196). The latter also contains (p. (172)) a full memoir by
+F. Rosen.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. M. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COHN, GUSTAV<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> (1840-&emsp;&emsp;), German economist, was born
+on the 12th of December 1840 at Marienwerder, in West Prussia.
+He was educated at Berlin and Jena universities. In 1869 he
+obtained a post at the polytechnic in Riga, and in 1875 was
+elected a professor at the polytechnic at Zürich. In 1873 he
+went to England for a period of study, and as a result published
+his <i>Untersuchungen über die englische Eisenbahnpolitik</i> (Leipzig,
+1874-1875). In 1884 he was appointed professor of political
+science at Göttingen. Cohn&rsquo;s best-known works are <i>System der
+Nationalökonomie</i> (Stuttgart, 1885); <i>Finanzwissenschaft</i> (1889);
+<i>Nationalökonomische Studien</i> (1886), and <i>Zur Geschichte und
+Politik des Verkehrswesens</i> (1900).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COHOES<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span>, a city of Albany county, New York, U.S.A., about
+9 m. N. of Albany, at the confluence of the Mohawk and Hudson
+rivers. Pop. (1890) 22,509; (1900) 23,910, of whom 7303
+were foreign-born; (1910) 24,709. It is served by the New
+York Central &amp; Hudson River and the Delaware &amp; Hudson
+railways, by electric lines to Troy and Albany, and by the Erie
+and Champlain canals. It is primarily a manufacturing city.
+Hosiery and knit goods, cotton cloth, cotton batting, shoddy,
+underwear and shirts and collars are the principal products,
+but there are also extensive valve works and manufactories of
+pulp, paper and paper boxes, beer, pins and needles, tools and
+machinery, and sash, doors and blinds. The value of the factory
+products in 1905 was $10,289,822, of which $4,126,873, or 40.1%,
+was the value of hosiery and knit goods, Cohoes ranking fifth
+among the cities of the United States (of 20,000 inhabitants or
+more) in this industry, and showing a higher degree of specialization
+in it than any other city in the United States except Little
+Falls, N.Y. The Falls of the Mohawk, which furnish power for
+the majority of the manufacturing establishments, are 75 ft.
+high and 900 ft. broad, a large dam above the falls storing the
+water, which is conveyed through canals to the mills. Below the
+falls the river is crossed by two fine iron bridges. The city has
+a public library, a normal training school and the St Bernard&rsquo;s
+(Roman Catholic) Academy. Cohoes was a part of the extensive
+manorial grant made to Killian Van Rensselaer in 1629 and it
+was probably settled very soon afterwards. It was incorporated
+as a village in 1848 and was chartered as a city in 1870.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COHORT<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (Lat. <i>cohors</i>), originally a place enclosed: in the
+Roman army, the name of a unit of infantry. The troops of
+the first grade, the legions, were divided into cohorts, of which
+there were ten in each legion: the cohort thus contained 600
+men. Among the troops of the second grade (the <i>auxilia</i>) the
+cohorts were independent foot regiments 500 or 1000 strong,
+corresponding to the <i>alae</i>, which were similar regiments of
+cavalry; they were generally posted on the frontiers of the
+Empire in small forts of four to eight acres, each holding one
+cohort or <i>ala</i>. The special troops of Rome itself, the Praetorian
+Guard, the Urbanae Cohortes, and the Vigiles (fire brigade),
+were divided into cohorts (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Army</a></span>). The
+phrase <i>cohors praetoria</i> or <i>cohors amicorum</i> was sometimes used,
+especially during the Roman republic, to denote the suite of the
+governor of a province; hence developed the Praetorian cohorts
+which formed the emperor&rsquo;s bodyguard.</p>
+
+<p>In biology, &ldquo;cohort&rdquo; is a term for a group of allied orders or
+families of plants or animals.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COIF<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>coiffe</i>, Ital. <i>cuffia</i>, a cap), a close-fitting covering
+for the head. Originally it was the name given to a head-covering
+worn in the middle ages, tied like a night-cap under the chin,
+and worn out of doors by both sexes; this was later worn by
+men as a kind of night-cap or skull-cap. The coif was also a
+close-fitting cap of white lawn or silk, worn by English serjeants-at-law
+as a distinguishing mark of their profession. It became
+the fashion to wear on the top of the white coif a small skull-cap
+of black silk or velvet; and on the introduction of wigs at the
+end of the 17th century a round space was left on the top of the
+wig for the display of the coif, which was afterwards covered
+by a small patch of black silk edged with white (see A. Pulling,
+<i>Order of the Coif</i>, 1897). The random conjecture of Sir H.
+Spelman (<i>Glossarium archaiologicum</i>) that the coif was originally
+designed to conceal the ecclesiastical tonsure has unfortunately
+been quoted by annotators of Blackstone&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i> as
+well as by Lord Campbell in his <i>Lives of the Chief Justices</i>. It
+may be classed with the curious conceit, recorded in Brand&rsquo;s
+<i>Popular Antiquities</i>, that the coif was derived from the child&rsquo;s
+caul, and was worn on the advocate&rsquo;s head for luck.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COIMBATORE<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span>, a city and district of British India, in the
+Madras presidency. The city is situated on the left bank of the
+Noyil river, 305 m. from Madras by the Madras railway. In
+1901 it had a population of 53,080, showing an increase of 14%
+in the decade. The city stands 1437 ft. above sea-level, is well
+laid out and healthy, and is rendered additionally attractive
+to European residents by its picturesque position on the slopes
+of the Nilgiri hills. It is an important industrial centre, carrying
+on cotton weaving and spinning, tanning, distilling, and the
+manufacture of coffee, sugar, manure and saltpetre. It has
+two second-grade colleges, a college of agriculture, and a school
+of forestry.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">District of Coimbatore</span> has an area of 7860 sq. m. It
+may be described as a flat, open country, hemmed in by mountains
+on the north, west and south, but opening eastwards on
+to the great plain of the Carnatic; the average height of the plain
+above sea-level is about 900 ft. The principal mountains are the
+Anamalai Hills, in the south of the district, rising at places to a
+height of between 8000 and 9000 ft. In the west the Palghat
+and Vallagiri Hills form a connecting link between the Anamalai
+range and the Nilgiris, with the exception of a remarkable gap
+known as the Palghat Pass. This gap, which completely intersects
+the Ghats, is about 20 m. wide. In the north is a range
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653"></a>653</span>
+of primitive trap-hills known as the Cauvery chain, extending
+eastwards from the Nilgiris, and rising in places to a height of
+4000 ft. The principal rivers are the Cauvery, Bhavani, Noyil,
+and Amravati. Numerous canals are cut from the rivers for
+the purpose of affording artificial irrigation, which has proved
+of immense benefit to the country. Well and tank water is also
+largely used for irrigation purposes. Coimbatore district was
+acquired by the British in 1799 at the close of the war which
+ended with the death of Tippoo. In 1901 the population was
+2,201,782, showing an increase of 10% in the preceding decade.
+The principal crops are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse,
+oilseeds, cotton and tobacco, with a little coffee. Forests cover
+nearly 1½ million acres, yielding valuable timber (teak, sandalwood,
+&amp;c.), and affording grazing-ground for cattle. There are
+several factories for pressing cotton, and for cleaning coffee, oil-cake
+presses, tanneries and saltpetre refineries. Cereals, cotton,
+forest products, cattle and hides, and brass and copper vessels
+are the chief exports from the district. The south-west line of
+the Madras railway runs through the district, and the South
+Indian railway (of metre gauge) joins this at Erode.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COIMBRA<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span>, the capital of an administrative district formerly
+included in the province of Beira, Portugal; on the north bank
+of the river Mondego, 115 m. N.N.E. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-Oporto
+railway. Pop. (1900) 18,144. Coimbra is built for the
+most part on rising ground, and presents from the other side
+of the river a picturesque and imposing appearance; though in
+reality its houses have individually but little pretension, and its
+streets are, almost without exception, narrow and mean. It
+derives its present importance from being the seat of the
+only university in the kingdom&mdash;an institution which was
+originally established at Lisbon in 1291, was transferred to
+Coimbra in 1306, was again removed to Lisbon, and was finally
+fixed at Coimbra in 1527. There are five faculties&mdash;theology,
+law, medicine, mathematics and philosophy&mdash;with more than
+1300 students. The library contains about 150,000 volumes,
+and the museums and laboratories are on an extensive scale.
+In connexion with the medical faculty there are regular hospitals;
+the mathematical faculty maintains an observatory from which
+an excellent view can be obtained of the whole valley of the
+Mondego; and outside the town there is a botanic garden
+(especially rich in the flora of Brazil), which also serves as a
+public promenade. Among the other educational establishments
+are a military college, a royal college of arts, a scientific and
+literary institute, and an episcopal seminary.</p>
+
+<p>The city is the seat of a bishop, suffragan to the archbishop
+of Braga; its new cathedral, founded in 1580, is of little interest;
+but the old is a fine specimen of 12th-century Romanesque, and
+retains portions of the mosque which it replaced. The principal
+churches are Santa Cruz, of the 16th century, and San Salvador,
+founded in 1169. On the north bank of the Mondego stand the
+ruins of the once splendid monastery of Santa Clara, established
+in 1286; and on the south bank is the celebrated <i>Quinta das
+lagrimas</i>, or Villa of Tears, where Inez de Castro (<i>q.v.</i>) is believed
+to have been murdered in 1355. The town is supplied with
+water by means of an aqueduct of 20 arches. The Mondego
+is only navigable in flood, and the port of Figueira da Foz is
+20 m. W. by S., so that the trade of Coimbra is mainly local;
+but there are important lamprey fisheries and manufactures of
+pottery, leather and hats.</p>
+
+<p>A Latin inscription of the 4th century identifies Coimbra
+with the ancient Aeminium; while Condeixa (3623), 8 m. S.S.W.,
+represents the ancient Conimbriga or Conembrica,. In the 9th
+century, however, when the bishopric of Conimbriga was removed
+hither, its old title was transferred to the new see, and
+hence arose the modern name Coimbra. The city was for a
+long time a Moorish stronghold, but in 1064 it was captured by
+Ferdinand I. of Castile and the Cid. Until 1260 it was the capital
+of the country, and no fewer than six kings&mdash;Sancho I. and II.,
+Alphonso II. and III., Pedro and Ferdinand&mdash;were born within
+its walls. It was also the birthplace of the poet Francisco Sá
+de Miranda (1495-1558), and, according to one tradition, of the
+more famous Luiz de Camoens (1524-1580), who was a student
+at the university between 1537 and 1542. In 1755 Coimbra
+suffered considerably from the earthquake. In 1810 it was
+sacked by the French under Marshal Masséna. In 1834 Dom
+Miguel made the city his headquarters; and in 1846 it was the
+scene of a Miguelist insurrection.</p>
+
+<p>The administrative district of Coimbra coincides with the
+south-western part of Beira; pop. (1900) 332,168; area 1508
+sq. m.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COÍN<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span>, a town of southern Spain in the province of Málaga;
+18 m. W.S.W. of the city of Málaga. Pop. (1900) 12,326. Coín
+is finely situated on the northern slope of the Sierra de Mijas,
+overlooking the small river Séco and surrounded by vineyards
+and plantations of oranges and lemons. There are marble
+quarries in the neighbourhood, and, despite the lack of a railway,
+Coín has a thriving agricultural trade. The population increased
+by more than half between 1880 and 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COIN<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (older forms of the word are <i>coyne</i>, <i>quoin</i> and <i>coign</i>,
+all derived through the O. Fr. <i>coing</i>, and <i>cuigne</i> from Lat. <i>cuneus</i>,
+a wedge), properly the term for a wedge-shaped die used for
+stamping money, and so transferred to the money so stamped;
+hence a piece of money. The form &ldquo;quoin&rdquo; is used for the
+external angle of a building (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quoins</a></span>), and &ldquo;coign,&rdquo; also a
+projecting angle, survives in the Shakespearean phrase &ldquo;a coign
+of vantage.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COINAGE OFFENCES<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>. The coinage of money is in all states
+a prerogative of the sovereign power; consequently any infringement
+of that prerogative is always severely punished, as
+being an offence likely to interfere with the well-being of the
+state.</p>
+
+<p>In the United Kingdom the statute law against offences relating
+to the coin was codified by an act of 1861. The statute
+provides that whoever falsely makes or counterfeits any coin
+resembling or apparently intended to resemble or pass for any
+current gold or silver coin of the realm (s. 2), or gilds, silvers,
+washes, cases over or colours with materials capable of producing
+the appearance of gold or silver a coin or a piece of any metal or
+mixture of metals, or files or alters it, with intent to make it
+resemble or pass for any current gold or silver coin (s. 3), or who
+buys, sells, receives or pays a false gold or silver coin at a lower
+rate than its denomination imports, or who receives into the
+United Kingdom any false coin knowing it to be counterfeit
+(ss. 6, 7), or who, without lawful authority or excuse, knowingly
+makes or mends, buys or sells, or has in his custody or possession,
+or conveys out of the Royal Mint any coining moulds, machines
+or tools, is guilty of felony (ss. 24, 25). The punishment for
+such offences is either penal servitude for life or for not less than
+three years, or imprisonment for not more than two years, with
+or without hard labour. Whoever impairs, diminishes or
+lightens current gold or silver coin, with intent to pass same, is
+liable to penal servitude for from three to fourteen years (s. 4),
+and whoever has in his possession filings or clippings obtained
+by impairing or lightening current coin is liable to the same
+punishment, or to penal servitude for from three to seven years.
+The statute also makes provision against tendering or uttering
+false gold or silver coin, which is a misdemeanour, punishable by
+imprisonment with or without hard labour. Provision is also
+made with respect to falsely making, counterfeiting, tendering
+or uttering copper coin, exporting false coin, or defacing current
+coin by stamping names or words on it, and counterfeiting,
+tendering or uttering coin resembling or meant to pass as that
+of some foreign state. The act of 1861 applies to offences
+with respect to colonial coins as well as to those of the United
+Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>By the constitution of the United States, Congress has the
+power of coining money, regulating the value thereof and of
+foreign coin (Art. i. s. viii.), and the states are prohibited from
+coining money, or making anything but gold and silver money
+a tender in payment of debts (Art. i. s. x.). The counterfeiting
+coin or money, uttering the same, or mutilating or defacing it,
+is an offence against the United States, and is punishable by fine
+and imprisonment with hard labour for from two to ten years.
+It has also been made punishable by state legislation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654"></a>654</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">COIR<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (from Malay <i>K&#257;yar</i>, cord, <i>K&#257;yaru</i>, to be twisted), a
+rough, strong, fibrous substance obtained from the outer husk
+of the coco-nut. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#ar26">Coco-nut Palm</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COIRE<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Chur</i> or <i>Cur</i>, Ital. <i>Coira</i>, Lat. <i>Curia Raetorum</i>,
+Romonsch <i>Cuera</i>), the capital of the Swiss canton of the Grisons.
+It is built, at a height of 1949 ft. above the sea-level, on the right
+bank of the Plessur torrent, just as it issues from the Schanfigg
+valley, and about a mile above its junction with the Rhine. It
+is overshadowed by the Mittenberg (east) and Pizokel (south),
+hills that guard the entrance to the deep-cut Schanfigg valley.
+In 1900 it contained 11,532 inhabitants, of whom 9288 were
+German-speaking, 1466 Romonsch-speaking, and 677 Italian-speaking;
+while 7561 were Protestants, 3962 Romanists and
+one a Jew. The modern part of the city is to the west, but the
+old portion, with all the historical buildings, is to the east. Here
+is the cathedral church of St Lucius (who is the patron of Coire,
+and is supposed to be a 2nd-century British king, though really
+the name has probably arisen from a confusion between Lucius
+of Cyrene&mdash;miswritten &ldquo;<i>curiensis</i>&rdquo;&mdash;with the Roman general
+Lucius Munatius Plancus, who conquered Raetia). Built between
+1178 and 1282, on the site of an older church, it contains many
+curious medieval antiquities (especially in the sacristy), as well
+as a picture by Angelica Kaufmann, and the tomb of the great
+Grisons political leader (d. 1637) Jenatsch (<i>q.v.</i>). Opposite is
+the Bishop&rsquo;s Palace, and not far off is the Episcopal Seminary
+(built on the ruins of a 6th-century monastic foundation). Not
+far from these ancient monuments is the new Raetian Museum,
+which contains a great collection of objects relating to Raetia
+(including the geological collections of the Benedictine monk of
+Disentis, Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833), who explored the high
+snowy regions around the sources of the Rhine). One of the
+hospitals was founded by the famous Capuchin philanthropist,
+Father Theodosius Florentini (1808-1865), who was long the
+Romanist curé of Coire, and whose remains were in 1906 transferred
+from the cathedral here to Ingenbohl (near Schwyz), his
+chief foundation. Coire is 74 m. by rail from Zürich, and is the
+meeting-point of the routes from Italy over many Alpine passes
+(the Lukmanier, the Splügen, the San Bernardino) as well as
+from the Engadine (Albula, Julier), so that it is the centre of an
+active trade (particularly in wine from the Valtelline), though
+it possesses also a few local factories.</p>
+
+<p>The episcopal see is first mentioned in 452, but probably
+existed a century earlier. The bishop soon acquired great
+temporal powers, especially after his dominions were made, in
+831, dependent on the Empire alone, of which he became a prince
+in 1170. In 1392 he became head of the league of God&rsquo;s House
+(originally formed against him in 1367), one of the three Raetian
+leagues, but, in 1526, after the Reformation, lost his temporal
+powers, having fulfilled his historical mission (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Grisons</a></span>).
+The bishopric still exists, with jurisdiction over the Cantons of
+the Grisons, Glarus, Zürich, and the three Forest Cantons, as well
+as the Austrian principality of Liechtenstein. The gild constitution
+of the city of Chur lasted from 1465 to 1839, while in
+1874 the <i>Burgergemeinde</i> was replaced by an <i>Einwohnergemeinde</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;A. Eichhorn, <i>Episcopatus Curiensis</i> (St Blasien,
+1797); W. von Juvalt, <i>Forschungen über die Feudalzeit im Curischen
+Raetien</i>, 2 parts (Zürich, 1871); C. Kind, <i>Die Reformation in den
+Bisthümern Chur und Como</i> (Coire, 1858); Conradin von Moor,
+Geschichte von Curraetien (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874); P. C. von
+Planta, <i>Das alte Raetien</i> (Berlin, 1872); <i>Idem, Die Curraetischen
+Herrschaften in der Feudalzeit</i> (Bern, 1881); <i>Idem, Verfassungsgeschichte
+der Stadt Cur im Mittelalter</i> (Coire, 1879); <i>Idem, Geschichte
+von Graubünden</i> (Bern, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COKE, SIR EDWARD<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (1552-1634), English lawyer, was born
+at Mileham, in Norfolk, on the 1st of February 1552. From the
+grammar school of Norwich he passed to Trinity College, Cambridge;
+and in 1572 he entered Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn. In 1578 he was
+called to the bar, and in the next year he was chosen reader at
+Lyon&rsquo;s Inn. His extensive and exact legal erudition, and the
+skill with which he argued the intricate libel case of Lord Cromwell
+(4 Rep. 13), and the celebrated real property case of Shelley
+(1 Rep. 94, 104), soon brought him a practice never before
+equalled, and caused him to be universally recognized as the
+greatest lawyer of his day. In 1586 he was made recorder of
+Norwich, and in 1592 recorder of London, solicitor-general, and
+reader in the Inner Temple. In 1593 he was returned as member
+of parliament for his native county, and also chosen speaker
+of the House of Commons. In 1594 he was promoted to the
+office of attorney-general, despite the claims of Bacon, who was
+warmly supported by the earl of Essex. As crown lawyer his
+treatment of the accused was marked by more than the harshness
+and violence common in his time; and the fame of the victim
+has caused his behaviour in the trial of Raleigh to be lastingly
+remembered against him. While the prisoner defended himself
+with the calmest dignity and self-possession, Coke burst into the
+bitterest invective, brutally addressing the great courtier as
+if he had been a servant, in the phrase, long remembered for its
+insolence and its utter injustice&mdash;&ldquo;Thou hast an English face,
+but a Spanish heart!&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1582 Coke married the daughter of John Paston, a gentleman
+of Suffolk, receiving with her a fortune of £30,000; but in
+six months he was left a widower. Shortly after he sought the
+hand of Lady Elizabeth Hatton, daughter of Thomas, second
+Lord Burghley, and granddaughter of the great Cecil. Bacon
+was again his rival, and again unsuccessfully; the wealthy young
+widow became&mdash;not, it is said, to his future comfort&mdash;Coke&rsquo;s
+second wife.</p>
+
+<p>In 1606 Coke was made chief justice of the common pleas,
+but in 1613 he was removed to the office of chief justice of the
+king&rsquo;s bench, which gave him less opportunity of interfering
+with the court. The change, though it brought promotion in
+dignity, caused a diminution of income as well as of power;
+but Coke received some compensation in being appointed a
+member of the privy council. The independence of his conduct
+as a judge, though not unmixed with the baser elements of
+prejudice and vulgar love of authority, has partly earned forgiveness
+for the harshness which was so prominent in his sturdy
+character. Full of an extreme reverence for the common law
+which he knew so well, he defended it alike against the court
+of chancery, the ecclesiastical courts, and the royal prerogative.
+In a narrow spirit, and strongly influenced, no doubt, by his
+enmity to the chancellor, Thomas Egerton (Lord Brackley), he
+sought to prevent the interference of the court of chancery with
+even the unjust decisions of the other courts. In the case of an
+appeal from a sentence given in the king&rsquo;s bench, he advised the
+victorious, but guilty, party to bring an action of praemunire
+against all those who had been concerned in the appeal, and his
+authority was stretched to the utmost to obtain the verdict he
+desired. On the other hand, Coke has the credit of having
+repeatedly braved the anger of the king. He freely gave his
+opinion that the royal proclamation cannot make that an offence
+which was not an offence before. An equally famous but less
+satisfactory instance occurred during the trial of Edmund
+Peacham, a divine in whose study a sermon had been found
+containing libellous accusations against the king and the government.
+There was nothing to give colour to the charge of high
+treason with which he was charged, and the sermon had never
+been preached or published; yet Peacham was put to the
+torture, and Bacon was ordered to confer with the judges
+individually concerning the matter. Coke declared such conference
+to be illegal, and refused to give an opinion, except in
+writing, and even then he seems to have said nothing decided.
+But the most remarkable case of all occurred in the next year
+(1616). A trial was held before Coke in which one of the counsel
+denied the validity of a grant made by the king to the bishop of
+Lichfield of a benefice to be held <i>in commendam</i>. James, through
+Bacon, who was then attorney-general, commanded the chief
+justice to delay judgment till he himself should discuss the
+question with the judges. At Coke&rsquo;s request Bacon sent a letter
+containing the same command to each of the judges, and Coke
+then obtained their signatures to a paper declaring that the
+attorney-general&rsquo;s instructions were illegal, and that they were
+bound to proceed with the case. His Majesty expressed his
+displeasure, and summoned them before him in the council-chamber,
+where he insisted on his supreme prerogative, which,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655"></a>655</span>
+he said, ought not to be discussed in ordinary argument. Upon
+this all the judges fell on their knees, seeking pardon for the form
+of their letter; but Coke ventured to declare his continued belief
+in the loyalty of its substance, and when asked if he would in the
+future delay a case at the king&rsquo;s order, the only reply he would
+vouchsafe was that he would do what became him as a judge.
+Soon after he was dismissed from all his offices on the following
+charges,&mdash;the concealment, as attorney-general, of a bond
+belonging to the king, a charge which could not be proved,
+illegal interference with the court of chancery and disrespect
+to the king in the case of commendams. He was also ordered
+by the council to revise his book of reports, which was said to
+contain many extravagant opinions (June 1616).</p>
+
+<p>Coke did not suffer these losses with patience. He offered
+his daughter Frances, then little more than a child, in marriage
+to Sir John Villiers, brother of the favourite Buckingham. Her
+mother, supported at first by her husband&rsquo;s great rival and her
+own former suitor, Bacon, objected to the match, and placed her
+in concealment. But Coke discovered her hiding-place; and
+she was forced to wed the man whom she declared that of all
+others she abhorred. The result was the desertion of the husband
+and the fall of the wife. It is said, however, that after his
+daughter&rsquo;s public penance in the Savoy church, Coke had heart
+enough to receive her back to the home which he had forced her
+to leave. Almost all that he gained by his heartless diplomacy
+was a seat in the council and in the star-chamber.</p>
+
+<p>In 1620 a new and more honourable career opened for him.
+He was elected member of parliament for Liskeard; and henceforth
+he was one of the most prominent of the constitutional
+party. It was he who proposed a remonstrance against the
+growth of popery and the marriage of Prince Charles to the
+infanta of Spain, and who led the Commons in the decisive step
+of entering on the journal of the House the famous petition of
+the 18th of December 1621, insisting on the freedom of parliamentary
+discussion, and the liberty of speech of every individual
+member. In consequence, together with Pym and Sir Robert
+Philips, he was thrown into confinement; and, when in the
+August of the next year he was released, he was commanded to
+remain in his house at Stoke Poges during his Majesty&rsquo;s pleasure.
+Of the first and second parliaments of Charles I. Coke was again
+a member. From the second he was excluded by being appointed
+sheriff of Buckinghamshire. In 1628 he was at once returned
+for both Buckinghamshire and Suffolk, and he took his seat for
+the former county. After rendering other valuable support to
+the popular cause, he took a most important part in drawing
+up the great Petition of Right. The last act of his public career
+was to bewail with tears the ruin which he declared the duke
+of Buckingham was bringing upon the country. At the close of
+the session he retired into private life; and the six years that
+remained to him were spent in revising and improving the works
+upon which, at least as much as upon his public career, his fame
+now rests. He died at Stoke Poges on the 3rd of September 1634.</p>
+
+<p>Coke published <i>Institutes</i> (1628), of which the first is also
+known as <i>Coke upon Littleton</i>; <i>Reports</i> (1600-1615), in thirteen
+parts; <i>A Treatise of Bail and Mainprize</i> (1635); <i>The Complete
+Copyholder</i> (1630); <i>A Reading on Fines and Recoveries</i> (1684).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Johnson, <i>Life of Sir Edward Coke</i> (1837); H. W. Woolrych,
+<i>The Life of Sir Edward Coke</i> (1826); Foss, <i>Lives of the Judges</i>;
+Campbell, <i>Lives of the Chief Justices</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English Law</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COKE, SIR JOHN<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1563-1644), English politician, was born
+on the 5th of March 1563, and was educated at Trinity College,
+Cambridge. After leaving the university he entered public life
+as a servant of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, afterwards
+becoming deputy-treasurer of the navy and then a commissioner
+of the navy, and being specially commended for his labours on
+behalf of naval administration. He became member of parliament
+for Warwick in 1621 and was knighted in 1624, afterwards
+representing the university of Cambridge. In the parliament
+of 1625 Coke acted as a secretary of state; in this and later
+parliaments he introduced the royal requests for money, and
+defended the foreign policy of Charles I. and Buckingham, and
+afterwards the actions of the king. His actual appointment as
+secretary dates from September 1625. Disliked by the leaders
+of the popular party, his speeches in the House of Commons did
+not improve the king&rsquo;s position, but when Charles ruled without
+a parliament he found Coke&rsquo;s industry very useful to him. The
+secretary retained his post until 1639, when a scapegoat was
+required to expiate the humiliating treaty of Berwick with the
+Scots, and the scapegoat was Coke. Dismissed from office, he
+retired to his estate at Melbourne in Derbyshire, and then resided
+in London, dying at Tottenham on the 8th of September 1644.
+Coke&rsquo;s son, Sir John Coke, sided with the parliament in its
+struggle with the king, and it is possible that in later life Coke&rsquo;s
+own sympathies were with this party, although in his earlier
+years he had been a defender of absolute monarchy. Coke, who
+greatly disliked the papacy, is described by Clarendon as &ldquo;a
+man of very narrow education and a narrower mind&rdquo;; and
+again he says, &ldquo;his cardinal perfection was industry and his
+most eminent infirmity covetousness.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COKE, THOMAS<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1747-1814), English divine, the first
+Methodist bishop, was born at Brecon, where his father was
+a well-to-do apothecary. He was educated at Jesus College,
+Oxford, taking the degree of M.A. in 1770 and that of D.C.L. in
+1775. From 1772 to 1776 he was curate at South Petherton in
+Somerset, whence his rector dismissed him for adopting the
+open-air and cottage services introduced by John Wesley, with
+whom he had become acquainted. After serving on the London
+Wesleyan circuit he was in 1782 appointed president of the conference
+in Ireland, a position which he frequently held, in the
+intervals of his many voyages to America. He first visited that
+country in 1784, going to Baltimore as &ldquo;superintendent&rdquo; of the
+Methodist societies in the new world and, in 1787 the American
+conference changed his title to &ldquo;bishop,&rdquo; a nomenclature which
+he tried in vain to introduce into the English conference, of
+which he was president in 1797 and 1805. Failing this, he asked
+Lord Liverpool to make him a bishop in India, and he was
+voyaging to Ceylon when he died on the 3rd of May 1814. Coke
+had always been a missionary enthusiast, and was the pioneer
+of such enterprise in his connexion. He was an ardent opponent
+of slavery, and endeavoured also to heal the breach between the
+Methodist and Anglican communions. He published a <i>History
+of the West Indies</i> (3 vols., 1808-1811), several volumes of sermons,
+and, with Henry Moore, a <i>Life of Wesley</i> (1792).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COKE<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (a northern English word, possibly connected with
+&ldquo;colk,&rdquo; core), the product obtained by strongly heating coal
+out of contact with the air until the volatile constituents are
+driven off; it consists essentially of carbon, the so-called &ldquo;fixed
+carbon,&rdquo; together with the incombustible matters or ash contained
+in the coal from which it is derived. In addition to these
+it almost invariably contains small quantities of hydrogen,
+oxygen and nitrogen, the whole, however, not exceeding 2 or
+3%. It also contains water, the amount of which may vary
+considerably according to the method of manufacture. When
+produced rapidly and at a low heat, as in gas-making, it is of a
+dull black colour, and a loose spongy or pumice-like texture,
+and ignites with comparative ease, though less readily than
+bituminous coal, so that it may be burnt in open fire-places;
+but when a long-continued heat is used, as in the preparation of
+coke for iron and steel melting, the product is hard and dense,
+is often prismatic in structure, has a brilliant semi-metallic lustre
+and silvery-grey colour, is a conductor of heat and electricity,
+and can only be burnt in furnaces provided with a strong chimney
+draught or an artificial blast. The strength and cohesive
+properties are also intimately related to the nature and composition
+of the coals employed, which are said to be caking or
+non-caking according to the compact or fragmentary character
+of the coke produced.</p>
+
+<p>Formerly coke was made from large coal piled in heaps with
+central chimneys like those of the charcoal burner, or in open
+rectangular clamps or kilns with air flues in the enclosing walls;
+but these methods are now practically obsolete, closed chambers
+or ovens being generally used. These vary considerably in
+construction, but may be classified into three principal types:&mdash;(1)
+direct heated ovens, (2) flue-heated ovens, (3) condensing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656"></a>656</span>
+ovens. In the first class the heating is done by direct contact
+or by burning the gases given off in coking within the oven, while
+in the other two the heating is indirect, the gas being burned
+in cellular passages or flues provided in the walls dividing the
+coking chambers, and the heat transmitted through the sides
+of the latter which are comparatively thin. The arrangement
+is somewhat similar to that of a gas-works retort, whence the
+name of &ldquo;retort ovens&rdquo; is sometimes applied to them. The
+difference between the second and third classes is founded on the
+treatment of the gases. In the former the gas is fired in the side
+flues immediately upon issuing from the oven, while in the latter
+the gases are first subjected to a systematic treatment in condensers,
+similar to those used in gas-works, to remove tar,
+ammonia and condensable hydrocarbons, the incondensable
+gases being returned to the oven and burned in the heating flues.
+These are generally known as &ldquo;by-product ovens.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<p>The simplest form of coke oven, and probably that still most
+largely used, is the so-called &ldquo;beehive oven.&rdquo; This is circular in
+plan, from 7 to 12 ft. in diameter, with a cylindrical wall
+about 2½ ft. high and a nearly hemispherical roof with a
+<span class="sidenote">Beehive oven.</span>
+circular hole at the top. The floor, made of refractory
+bricks or slabs, is laid with a slight slope towards an arched opening
+in the ring wall, which is stopped with brickwork during the coking
+but opened for drawing the finished charge. The ovens are usually
+arranged in rows or banks of 20 to 30 or more, with their doors
+outwards, two rows being often placed with a longitudinal flue
+between them connected by uptakes with the individual ovens on
+either side. A railway along the top of the bank brings the coal from
+the screens or washery. The largest ovens take a charge of about
+5 tons, which is introduced through the hole in the roof, the brickwork
+of the empty oven being still red hot from the preceding charge,
+and when levelled fills the cylindrical part nearly to the springing
+of the roof. The gas fires as it is given off and fills the dome with
+flame, and the burning is regulated by air admitted through holes
+in the upper part of the door stopping. The temperature being
+very high, a proportion of the volatile hydrocarbons is decomposed,
+and a film of graphitic carbon is deposited on the coke, giving it a
+semi-metallic lustre and silvery grey colour. When the gas is burned
+off, the upper part of the door is opened and the glowing charge
+cooled by jets of water thrown directly upon it from a hose, and it
+is subsequently drawn out through the open door. The charge
+breaks up into prisms or columns whose length corresponds to the
+depth of the charge, and as a rule is uniform in character and free
+from dull black patches or &ldquo;black ends.&rdquo; The time of burning is
+either 48 or 72 hours, the turns being so arranged as to avoid the
+necessity of drawing the ovens on Sunday. The longer the heat
+is continued the denser the product becomes, but the yield also
+diminishes, as a portion of the finished coke necessarily burns to waste
+when the gas is exhausted. For this reason the yield on the coal
+charged is usually less than that obtained in retort ovens, although
+the quality may be better. Coals containing at most about 35% of
+volatile matter are best suited for the beehive oven. With less than
+25% the gas is not sufficient to effect the coking completely, and
+when there is a higher percentage the coke is brittle and spongy and
+unsuited for blast furnace or foundry use. The spent flame from the
+ovens passes to a range of steam boilers before escaping by the
+chimney.</p>
+
+<p>The retort oven, which is now generally displacing the beehive
+form in new installations, is made in a great variety of forms, the
+differences being mainly in the arrangement of the
+heating flues, but all have the central feature, the coking
+<span class="sidenote">Retort oven.</span>
+chamber, in common. This is a tubular chamber with
+vertical sides and cylindrical roof, about 30 ft. long, from 17 to 20 in.
+wide, and 6 or 7 ft. high, and closed at both ends by sliding doors
+which are raised by crab winches when the charge is to be drawn.
+The general arrangements of such an oven are shown in fig. 1, which
+represents one of the earliest and most popular forms, that of Evence
+Coppée of Brussels. The coking chambers A B connect by rectangular
+posts at the springing of the roof, where the gas given off
+from the top of the charge is fired by air introduced through <i>c c</i>.
+The flames pass downwards through the parallel flues <i>f f</i> along the
+bottom flue of one oven, and return in the opposite direction under
+the next to the chimney flue, a further part of the heat being intercepted
+by placing a range of steam boilers between the ovens and
+the chimney stack. The charging of the oven is done through the
+passages D D in the roof from small wagons on transverse lines of
+rails, the surface being raked level before the doors are closed and
+luted up. The time of coking is much less than in the beehive
+ovens and may be from 24 to 36 hours, according to the proportion
+of volatile matter present. When the gas is completely given off
+the doors are lifted and the charge is pushed out by the ram&mdash;a
+cast-iron plate of the shape of the cross section of the oven, at the
+end of a long horizontal bar, which is driven by a rack and pinion
+movement and pushes the block of coke out of the oven on to the
+wharf or bank in front where it falls to pieces and is immediately
+quenched by jets of water from a hose pipe. When sufficiently
+cooled it is loaded into railway wagons or other conveyances for
+removal. The ram, together with its motor, and boiler when steam
+is used, is mounted upon a carriage running upon a line of rails of
+about 2 ft. gauge along the back of the range of ovens, so that it can
+be brought up to any one of them in succession.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:469px; height:291px" src="images/img656.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Coppée&rsquo;s Coke Oven.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In some cases, instead of the small coal being charged through the
+roof of the oven and levelled by hand, it is formed into blocks by
+being stamped in a slightly moistened condition in a mould consisting
+of a bottom plate or peel on a racked rod like that of the ram, with
+movable sides and ends. This, when the ends are removed, is pushed
+forward into the oven, and the bottom plate is withdrawn by reversing
+the rack motion. The moulding box is mounted on a carriage
+like that of the ram, the two being sometimes carried on the same
+framing. The moulding is done at a fixed station in the centre of the
+range of ovens by a series of cast-iron stampers driven by an electric
+motor. This system is useful for coals low in volatile matter, which
+do not give a coherent coke under ordinary conditions.</p>
+
+<p>In the distilling or by-product ovens the gases, instead of being
+burned at the point of origin, pass by an uptake pipe in the roof
+about the centre of the oven into a water-sealed collecting
+trough or hydraulic main, whence they are drawn by
+<span class="sidenote">Condensing ovens.</span>
+exhausters through a series of air and water cooled condensers
+and scrubbers. In the first or atmospheric condensers the
+tar is removed, and in the second ammoniacal water, which is
+further enriched by a graduated system of scrubbing with weak
+ammoniacal liquor until it is sufficiently concentrated to be sent
+to the ammonia stills. The first treatment by scrubbing with creosote
+or heavy tar oil removes benzene, after which the permanent gaseous
+residue consisting chiefly of hydrogen and marsh gas is returned
+to the ovens as fuel.</p>
+
+<p>In the Otto-Hoffmann oven, one of the most generally used forms,
+vertical side flues like those of Coppée are adopted. The returned
+gas enters by a horizontal flue along the bottom of the coking
+chamber, divided into two parts by a mid-feather wall, and is fired
+by heated air from a Siemens regenerator on the substructure at one
+end, and the flame rising through one half of the side flues to a
+parallel collector at the top returns downwards through the flues
+of the other half and passes out to the chimney through a similar
+regenerator at the other end. The course of the gases is reversed
+at intervals of about an hour, as in the ordinary Siemens furnace,
+each end of the oven having its own gas supply. In the later modification
+known as the Otto-Hilgenstock, the regenerators are abandoned,
+but provision is made for more perfect distribution of the
+heat by a line of sixteen Bunsen burners in each wall; each of these
+serves two flues, the course of the flame being continuously upwards
+without reversal. In the newest Otto ovens the same system of
+burners is combined with regenerators. In the Bauer system,
+another vertical flue oven, each flue has its own burner, which is of
+a simplified construction.</p>
+
+<p>In the Carvés oven, the earliest of the by-product ovens, the
+heating flues are arranged horizontally in parallel series along the
+entire length of the side walls, the gas being introduced from both
+ends but at different levels. This system was further developed by
+H. Simon of Manchester, who added a continuous air &ldquo;recuperator&rdquo;
+heated by the spent flame; this Simon-Carvés system has been
+extensively adopted in Great Britain. Another horizontal flue oven,
+the Semet-Solvay, is distinguished by the structure of the flues,
+which are independent of the dividing walls of the ovens, so that
+the latter can be made with thinner sides than those of the earlier
+systems, and are more readily repaired. In the horizontal ovens
+it is sometimes difficult to maintain the heat when the flues are
+continuous along the whole length of the wall, especially when the
+heating value of the gas is reduced by the removal of the heavy
+hydrocarbons. This difficulty is met by dividing the flues in the
+middle so as to shorten the length of travel of the flame, and working
+each end independently. The Hüssener and Koppers systems are
+two of the best-known examples of this modification.</p>
+
+<p>Coke from retort ovens is not so dense or brilliant as that made
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657"></a>657</span>
+in beehive ovens, but the waste being less there is a decided saving,
+apart from the value of the condensed products. In one instance
+the coke was found to be about 5% less efficient in the blast furnace,
+while the yield on the coal charged was increased 10%. In the
+further treatment of the condensed products by distillation the tar
+gives burning oil and pitch, the benzene is separated from the creosote
+oil by steam-heated stills, and the ammoniacal liquor, after some
+lime has been added to decompose fixed ammonium compounds,
+is heated to vaporize the ammonia, which is condensed in lead or
+copper-lined tanks containing strong sulphuric acid to produce a
+crystalline powder of ammonium sulphate, which accumulates
+in the receiver and is fished out from time to time. The yield of
+by-products averages about 1% of ammonium sulphate, about
+3½% of tar, and 0.6 to 0.9% of benzene, of the weight of the coal
+carbonized. After the ovens have been heated and steam supplied
+for the machinery of the condensing plant and the coke ovens, there
+is usually a surplus of gas, which may be used for lighting or driving
+gas-engines. For the latter purpose, however, it is necessary to
+remove the last traces of tar, which acts very prejudicially in fouling
+the valves when the gas is not completely purified. The gas given
+off during the earlier part of the coking process is richer in heavy
+hydrocarbons and of a higher illuminating value than that of the
+later period when the temperature is higher. This property is
+utilized in several large coking plants in America, where the gas
+from the first ten hours&rsquo; working is drawn off by a second hydraulic
+main and sent directly to town gas-works, where it passes through
+the ordinary purifying treatment, the gas from the second period
+being alone used for heating the ovens.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Coke is essentially a partially graphitized carbon, its density
+being about midway between that of coal and graphite, and it
+should therefore occupy less space than the original coal; but
+owing to the softening of the charge a spongy structure is set
+up by the escaping gases, which acts in the other direction, so
+that for equal bulk coke is somewhat lighter than coal. It is
+this combination of properties that gives it its chief value in
+iron smelting, the substance being sufficiently dense to resist
+oxidation by carbon dioxide in the higher regions of the furnace,
+while the vesicular structure gives an extended surface for the
+action of heated air and facilitates rapid consumption at the
+tuyeres. Compact coke, such as that formed on the inner sides
+of gas retorts (retort carbon), can only be burned with great
+difficulty in small furnaces of special construction, but it gives
+out a great amount of heat.</p>
+
+<p>The most deleterious constituents of coke are ash, sulphur
+and volatile constituents including water. As the coke yield
+is only from two-thirds to three-quarters of that of the coal,
+the original proportion of ash is augmented by one-third or one-half
+in the product. For this reason it is now customary to
+crush and wash the coal carefully to remove intermingled
+patches of shale and dirt before coking, so that the ash may not
+if possible exceed 10% in the coke. About one-half of the
+sulphur in the coal is eliminated in coking, so that the percentage
+in the coke is about the same. It should not be much above 1%.
+According to the researches of F. Wuest (<i>Journ. Iron and Steel
+Inst.</i>, 1906) the sulphur is retained in a complex carbon compound
+which is not destroyed until the coke is actually consumed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The older methods of coking and the earlier forms of retort ovens
+are described in J. Percy, <i>Metallurgy</i>, Jordan, <i>Album du cours de
+metallurgie</i>; Phillips and Bauerman, <i>Handbook of Metallurgy</i>, and
+other text-books. A systematic series of articles on the newer forms
+will be found in <i>The Engineer</i>, vol. 82, pp. 205-303 and vol. 83, pp. 207-231;
+see also Dürre, <i>Die neuern Koksöfen</i> (Leipzig, 1892); D. A.
+Louis, &ldquo;Von Bauer and Brünck Ovens,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Iron and Steel Inst.</i>,
+1904, ii. p. 293; C. L. Bell, &ldquo;Hüssener Oven,&rdquo; <i>id.</i>, 1904, i. p. 188;
+Hurez, &ldquo;A Comparison of Different Systems of Vertical and Horizontal
+Flue Ovens,&rdquo; <i>Bull. soc. industrie minérale</i>, 1903, p. 777. A
+well-illustrated description of the Otto system in its American
+modification was issued by the United Gas &amp; Coke Company of
+New York, in 1906.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COL<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (Fr. for &ldquo;neck,&rdquo; Lat. <i>collum</i>), in physical geography,
+generally any marked depression upon a high and rugged water-parting
+over which passage is easy from one valley to another.
+Such is the Col de Balme between the Trient and Chamounix
+valleys, where the great inaccessible wall crowned with aiguilles
+running to the massif of Mt. Blanc is broken by a gentle downward
+curve with smooth upland slopes, over which a footpath
+gives easy passage. The col is usually formed by the head-waters
+of a stream eating backward and lowering the water-parting
+at the head of its valley. In early military operations, the march
+of an army was always over a col, which has at all times considerable
+commercial importance in relation to roads in high
+mountain regions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1619-1683), French statesman,
+was born at Reims, where his father and grandfather were
+merchants. He claimed to be the descendant of a noble Scottish
+family, but the evidence for this is lacking. His youth is said
+to have been spent in a Jesuit college, in the office of a Parisian
+banker, and in that of a Parisian notary, Chapelain, the father
+of the poet. But the first fact on which we can rely with confidence
+is that, when not yet twenty, he obtained a post in the war-office,
+by means of the influence that he possessed through the marriage
+of one of his uncles to the sister of Michel Le Tellier, the secretary
+of state for war. During some years he was employed in the
+inspection of troops and other work of the kind, but at length
+his ability, his extraordinary energy and his untiring laboriousness
+induced Le Tellier to make him his private secretary. These
+qualities, combined, it must be confessed, with a readiness to
+seize every opportunity of advancement, soon brought Colbert
+both wealth and influence. In 1647 we find him receiving the
+confiscated goods of his uncle Pussort, in 1648 obtaining 40,000
+crowns with his wife Marie Charron, in 1649 appointed councillor
+of state.</p>
+
+<p>It was the period of the wars of the Fronde; and in 1651 the
+triumph of the Condé family drove Cardinal Mazarin from Paris.
+Colbert, now aged thirty-two, was engaged to keep him acquainted
+with what should happen in the capital during his absence. At
+first Colbert&rsquo;s position was far from satisfactory; for the close
+wary Italian treated him merely as an ordinary agent. On one
+occasion, for example, he offered him 1000 crowns. The gift was
+refused somewhat indignantly; and by giving proof of the
+immense value of his services, Colbert gained all that he desired.
+His demands were not small; for, with an ambition mingled, as
+his letters show, with strong family affection, he aimed at placing
+all his relatives in positions of affluence and dignity; and many
+a rich benefice and important public office was appropriated by
+him to that purpose. For these favours, conferred upon him
+by his patron with no stinted hand, his thanks were expressed in
+a most remarkable manner; he published a letter defending the
+cardinal from the charge of ingratitude which was often brought
+against him, by enumerating the benefits that he and his family
+had received from him (April 1655). Colbert obtained, besides,
+the higher object of his ambition; the confidence of Mazarin, so
+far as it was granted to any one, became his, and he was entrusted
+with matters of the gravest importance. In 1659 he was giving
+directions as to the suppression of the revolt of the gentry
+which threatened in Normandy, Anjou and Poitou, with
+characteristic decision arresting those whom he suspected, and
+arranging every detail of their trial, the immediate and arbitrary
+destruction of their castles and woods, and the execution of
+their chief, Bonnesson. In the same year we have evidence that
+he was already planning his great attempt at financial reform.
+His earliest tentative was the drawing up of a <i>mémoire</i> to Mazarin,
+showing that of the taxes paid by the people not one-half reached
+the king. The paper also contained an attack upon the superintendent
+Nicholas Fouquet (<i>q.v.</i>), and being opened by the
+postmaster of Paris, who happened to be a spy of Fouquet&rsquo;s, it
+gave rise to a bitter quarrel, which, however, Mazarin repressed
+during his lifetime.</p>
+
+<p>In 1661 the death of Mazarin allowed Colbert to take the first
+place in the administration, and he made sure of the king&rsquo;s
+favour by revealing to him some of Mazarin&rsquo;s hidden wealth. It
+was some time before he assumed official dignities; but in
+January 1664 he obtained the post of superintendent of buildings;
+in 1665 he was made controller-general; in 1669 he became
+minister of the marine; and he was also appointed minister of
+commerce, the colonies and the king&rsquo;s palace. In short, he soon
+acquired power in every department except that of war.</p>
+
+<p>A great financial and fiscal reform at once claimed all his
+energies. Not only the nobility, but many others who had no
+legal claim to exemption, paid no taxes; the weight of the burden
+fell on the wretched country-folk. Colbert sternly and fearlessly
+set about his task. Supported by the young king, Louis XIV.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658"></a>658</span>
+he aimed the first blow at the greatest of the extortioners&mdash;the
+bold and powerful superintendent, Fouquet; whose fall, in
+addition, secured his own advancement.</p>
+
+<p>The office of superintendent and many others dependent upon
+it being abolished the supreme control of the finances was vested
+in a royal council. The sovereign was its president; but Colbert,
+though for four years he only possessed the title of intendant,
+was its ruling spirit, great personal authority being conferred
+upon him by the king. The career on which Colbert now entered
+must not be judged without constant remembrance of the utter
+rottenness of the previous financial administration. His ruthlessness
+in this case, dangerous precedent as it was, was perhaps
+necessary; individual interests could not be respected. Guilty
+officials having been severely punished, the fraudulent creditors
+of the government remained to be dealt with. Colbert&rsquo;s method
+was simple. Some of the public loans were totally repudiated,
+and from others a percentage was cut off, which varied, at first
+according to his own decision, and afterwards according to that
+of the council which he established to examine all claims against
+the state.</p>
+
+<p>Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce
+equality in the pressure of the taxes on the various classes. To
+diminish the number of the privileged was impossible, but false
+claims to exemption were firmly resisted, and the unjust direct
+taxation was lightened by an increase of the indirect taxes, from
+which the privileged could not escape. The mode of collection
+was at the same time immensely improved.</p>
+
+<p>Order and economy being thus introduced into the working
+of the government, the country, according to Colbert&rsquo;s vast yet
+detailed plan, was to be enriched by commerce. Manufactures
+were fostered in every way he could devise. New industries
+were established, inventors protected, workmen invited from
+foreign countries, French workmen absolutely prohibited to
+emigrate. To maintain the character of French goods in
+foreign markets, as well as to afford a guarantee to the home
+consumer, the quality and measure of each article were fixed
+by law, breach of the regulations being punished by public
+exposure of the delinquent and destruction of the goods, and, on
+the third offence, by the pillory. But whatever advantage resulted
+from this rule was more than compensated by the disadvantages
+it entailed. The production of qualities which would
+have suited many purposes of consumption was prohibited, and
+the odious supervision which became necessary involved great
+waste of time and a stereotyped regularity which resisted all
+improvements. And other parts of Colbert&rsquo;s schemes deserve
+still less equivocal condemnation. By his firm maintenance of
+the corporation system, each industry remained in the hands of
+certain privileged bourgeois; in this way, too, improvement was
+greatly discouraged; while to the lower classes opportunities of
+advancement were closed. With regard to international commerce
+Colbert was equally unfortunate in not being in advance of his
+age; the tariffs he published were protective to an extreme.
+The interests of internal commerce were, however, wisely
+consulted. Unable to abolish the duties on the passage of goods
+from province to province, he did what he could to induce the
+provinces to equalize them. The roads and canals were improved.
+The great canal of Languedoc was planned and constructed by
+Pierre Paul Riquet (1604-1680) under his patronage. To
+encourage trade with the Levant, Senegal, Guinea and other
+places, privileges were granted to companies; but, like the more
+important East India Company, all were unsuccessful. The
+chief cause of this failure, as well as of the failure of the colonies,
+on which he bestowed so much watchful care, was the narrowness
+and rigidity of the government regulations.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest and most lasting of Colbert&rsquo;s achievements was
+the establishment of the French marine. The royal navy owed
+all to him, for the king thought only of military exploits. For
+its use, Colbert reconstructed the works and arsenal of Toulon,
+founded the port and arsenal of Rochefort, and the naval schools
+of Rochefort, Dieppe and Saint-Malo, and fortified, with some
+assistance from Vauban (who, however, belonged to the party
+of his rival Louvois), among other ports those of Calais, Dunkirk,
+Brest and Havre. To supply it with recruits he invented his
+famous system of classes, by which each seaman, according to
+the class in which he was placed, gave six months&rsquo; service every
+three or four or five years. For three months after his term of
+service he was to receive half-pay; pensions were promised;
+and, in short, everything was done to make the navy popular.
+There was one department, however, that was supplied with
+men on a very different principle. Letters exist written by
+Colbert to the judges requiring them to sentence to the oar as
+many criminals as possible, including all those who had been
+condemned to death; and the convict once chained to the bench,
+the expiration of his sentence was seldom allowed to bring him
+release. Mendicants also, against whom no crime had been
+proved, contraband dealers, those who had been engaged in
+insurrections, and others immeasurably superior to the criminal
+class, nay, innocent men&mdash;Turkish, Russian and negro slaves,
+and poor Iroquois Indians, whom the Canadians were ordered
+to entrap&mdash;were pressed into that terrible service. By these
+means the benches of the galleys were filled, and Colbert took
+no thought of the long unrelieved agony borne by those who
+filled them.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was the mercantile marine forgotten. Encouragement
+was given to the building of ships in France by allowing a
+premium on those built at home, and imposing a duty on those
+brought from abroad; and as French workmen were forbidden
+to emigrate, so French seamen were forbidden to serve foreigners
+on pain of death.</p>
+
+<p>Even ecclesiastical affairs, though with these he had no official
+concern, did not altogether escape Colbert&rsquo;s attention. He took
+a subordinate part in the struggle between the king and Rome
+as to the royal rights over vacant bishoprics; and he seems
+to have sympathized with the proposal that was made to seize
+part of the wealth of the clergy. In his hatred of idleness, he
+ventured to suppress no less than seventeen fêtes, and he had
+a project for lessening the number of those devoted to clerical
+and monastic life, by fixing the age for taking the vows some
+years later than was then customary. With heresy he was at
+first unwilling to interfere, for he was aware of the commercial
+value of the Huguenots; but when the king resolved to make
+all France Roman Catholic, he followed him and urged his
+subordinates to do all that they could to promote conversions.</p>
+
+<p>In art and literature Colbert took much interest. He possessed
+a remarkably fine private library, which he delighted to fill with
+valuable manuscripts from every part of Europe where France
+had placed a consul. He has the honour of having founded the
+Academy of Sciences (now called the Institut de France), the
+Observatory, which he employed Claude Perrault to build and
+brought G. D. Cassini (1625-1712) from Italy to superintend,
+the Academies of Inscriptions and Medals, of Architecture and
+of Music, the French Academy at Rome, and Academies at
+Arles, Soissons, Nîmes and many other towns, and he reorganized
+the Academy of Painting and Sculpture which Richelieu had
+established. He was a member of the French Academy; and
+one very characteristic rule, recorded to have been proposed
+by him with the intention of expediting the great Dictionary, in
+which he was much interested, was that no one should be
+accounted present at any meeting unless he arrived before the
+hour of commencement and remained till the hour for leaving.
+In 1673 he presided over the first exhibition of the works of
+living painters; and he enriched the Louvre with hundreds of
+pictures and statues. He gave many pensions to men of letters,
+among whom we find Molière, Corneille, Racine, Boileau, P. D.
+Huet (1630-1721) and Antoine Varillas (1626-1696), and even
+foreigners, as Huyghens, Vossius the geographer, Carlo Dati the
+Dellacruscan, and Heinsius the great Dutch scholar. There is
+evidence to show that by this munificence he hoped to draw out
+praises of his sovereign and himself; but this motive certainly
+is far from accounting for all the splendid, if in some cases
+specious, services that he rendered to literature, science and
+art.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed to everything that concerned the interests of France
+Colbert devoted unsparing thought and toil. Besides all that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659"></a>659</span>
+has been mentioned, he found time to do something for the
+better administration of justice (the codification of ordinances,
+the diminishing of the number of judges, the reduction of the
+expense and length of trials for the establishment of a superior
+system of police) and even for the improvement of the breed of
+horses and the increase of cattle. As superintendent of public
+buildings he enriched Paris with boulevards, quays and
+triumphal arches; he relaid the foundation-stone of the Louvre,
+and brought Bernin from Rome to be its architect; and he
+erected its splendid colonnade upon the plan of Claude Perrault,
+by whom Bernin had been replaced. He was not permitted,
+however, to complete the work, being compelled to yield to the
+king&rsquo;s preference for residences outside Paris, and to devote
+himself to Marly and Versailles.</p>
+
+<p>Amid all these public labours his private fortune was never
+neglected. While he was reforming the finances of the nation,
+and organizing its navy, he always found time to direct the
+management of his smallest farm. He died extremely rich, and
+left fine estates all over France. He had been created marquis
+de Seignelay, and for his eldest son he obtained the reversion of
+the office of minister of marine; his second son became archbishop
+of Rouen; and a third son, the marquis d&rsquo;Ormoy, became
+superintendent of buildings.</p>
+
+<p>To carry out his reforms, Colbert needed peace; but the war
+department was in the hands of his great rival Louvois, whose
+influence gradually supplanted that of Colbert with the king.
+Louis decided on a policy of conquest. He was deaf also to all
+the appeals against the other forms of his boundless extravagance
+which Colbert, with all his deference towards his sovereign,
+bravely ventured to make.<a name="FnAnchor_1f" id="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Thus it came about that, only a
+few years after he had commenced to free the country from the
+weight of the loans and taxes which crushed her to the dust,
+Colbert was forced to heap upon her a new load of loans and taxes
+more heavy than the last. Henceforth his life was a hopeless
+struggle, and the financial and fiscal reform which, with the
+great exception of the establishment of the navy, was the most
+valuable service to France contemplated by him, came to nought.</p>
+
+<p>Depressed by his failure, deeply wounded by the king&rsquo;s favour
+for Louvois, and worn out by overwork, Colbert&rsquo;s strength gave
+way at a comparatively early age. In 1680 he was the constant
+victim of severe fevers, from which he recovered for a time
+through the use of quinine prescribed by an English physician.
+But in 1683, at the age of sixty-four, he was seized with a fatal
+illness, and on the 6th of September he expired. It was said
+that he died of a broken heart, and a conversation with the king
+is reported in which Louis disparagingly compared the buildings
+of Versailles, which Colbert was superintending, with the works
+constructed by Louvois in Flanders. He took to bed, it is true,
+immediately afterwards, refusing to receive all messages from
+the king; but his constitution was utterly broken before, and a
+post-mortem examination proved that he had been suffering
+from stone. His body was interred in the secrecy of night, for
+fear of outrage from the Parisians, by whom his name was
+cordially detested.</p>
+
+<p>Colbert was a great statesman, who did much for France.
+Yet his insight into political science was not deeper than that of
+his age; nor did he possess any superiority in moral qualities.
+His rule was a very bad example of over-government. He did
+not believe in popular liberty;, the parlements and the states-general
+received no support from him. The technicalities of
+justice he never allowed to interfere with his plans; but he did
+not hesitate to shield his friends. He trafficked in public offices
+for the profit of Mazarin and in his own behalf. He caused the
+suffering of thousands in the galleys; he had no ear, it is said,
+for the cry of the suppliant. There was indeed a more human
+side to his character, as is shown in his letters, full of wise advice
+and affectionate care, to his children, his brothers, his cousins
+even. Yet to all outside he was &ldquo;the man of marble.&rdquo; Madame
+de Sévigné called him &ldquo;the North.&rdquo; To diplomacy he never
+pretended; persuasion and deceit were not the weapons he
+employed; all his work was carried out by the iron hand of
+authority. He was a great statesman in that he conceived a
+magnificent yet practicable scheme for making France first
+among nations, and in that he possessed a matchless faculty for
+work, neither shrinking from the vastest undertakings nor
+scorning the most trivial details.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Numerous <i>vies</i> and <i>éloges</i> of Colbert have been published; but
+the most thorough student of his life and administration was Pierre
+Clément, member of the Institute, who in 1846 published his <i>Vie
+de Colbert</i>, and in 1861 the first of the 9 vols. of the <i>Lettres, instructions,
+et mémoires de Colbert</i>. The historical introductions prefixed
+to each of these volumes have been published by Mme. Clément
+under the title of the <i>Histoire de Colbert et de son administration</i>
+(3rd ed., 1892). The best short account of Colbert as a statesman
+is that in Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i> (1905), which gives a thorough
+study of the administration. Among Colbert&rsquo;s papers are <i>Mémoires
+sur les affaires de finance de France</i> (written about 1663), a fragment
+entitled <i>Particularités secrètes de la vie du Roy</i>, and other accounts
+of the earlier part of the reign of Louis XIV.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1f" id="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See especially a <i>Mémoire</i> presented to the king in 1666, published
+in the <i>Lettres, &amp;c., de Colbert</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLBERT DE CROISSY, CHARLES<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Marquis</span> (1625-1696),
+French diplomatist, like his elder brother Jean Baptiste Colbert,
+began his career in the office of the minister of war Le Tellier.
+In 1656 he bought a counsellorship at the parlement of Metz,
+and in 1658 was appointed intendant of Alsace and president of
+the newly-created sovereign council of Alsace. In this position
+he had to re-organize the territory recently annexed to France.
+The steady support of his brother at court gained for him several
+diplomatic missions&mdash;to Germany and Italy (1659-1661). In
+1662 he became marquis de Croissy and <i>président à mortier</i> of
+the parlement of Metz. After various intendancies, at Soissons
+(1665), at Amiens (1666), and at Paris (1667), he turned definitely
+to diplomacy. In 1668 he represented France at the conference
+of Aix-la-Chapelle; and in August of the same year was sent as
+ambassador to London, where he was to negotiate the definite
+treaty of alliance with Charles II. He arranged the interview
+at Dover between Charles and his sister Henrietta of Orleans,
+gained the king&rsquo;s personal favour by finding a mistress for him,
+Louise de Kéroualle, maid of honour to Madame, and persuaded
+him to declare war against Holland. The negotiation of the
+treaty of Nijmwegen (1676-1678) still further increased his
+reputation as a diplomatist and Louis XIV. made him secretary
+of state for foreign affairs after the disgrace of Arnauld de
+Pomponne, brought about by his brother, 1679. He at once
+assumed the entire direction of French diplomacy. Foreign
+ambassadors were no longer received and diplomatic instructions
+were no longer given by other secretaries of state. It was he,
+not Louvois, who formed the idea of annexation during a time of
+peace, by means of the chambers of reunion. He had outlined
+this plan as early as 1658 with regard to Alsace. His policy at
+first was to retain the territory annexed by the chambers of
+reunion without declaring war, and for this purpose he signed
+treaties of alliance with the elector of Brandenburg (1681), and
+with Denmark (1683); but the troubles following upon the
+revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685) forced him to give up
+his scheme and to prepare for war with Germany (1688). The
+negotiations for peace had been begun again when he died, on
+the 28th of July 1696. His clerk, Bergeret, was his invaluable
+assistant.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;His papers, preserved in the <i>Archives des affaires
+étrangères</i> at Paris, have been partially published in the <i>Recueil des
+instructions données aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France</i> (since
+1884). See especially the volumes:&mdash;<i>Autriche</i> (t. i.), <i>Suède</i> (t. ii.),
+<i>Rome</i> (t. vi.), <i>Bavière</i> (t. viii.), <i>Savoie</i> (t. xiv.), <i>Prusse</i> (t. xvi.). Other
+documents have been published in Mignet&rsquo;s <i>Négociations relatives à
+la succession d&rsquo;Espagne</i>, vol. iv., and in the collection of <i>Lettres et
+négociations ... pour la paix de Nimègue</i>, 1676-1677 (La Haye,
+1710). In addition to the <i>Mémoires</i> of the time, see Spanheim,
+<i>Relation de la cour de France en 1690</i>, ed. E. Bourgeois  (Paris and
+Lyons, 1900); Baschet, <i>Histoire du depôt des affaires étrangères</i>;
+C. Rousset, <i>Histoire de Louvois</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1863); E. Bourgeois,
+&ldquo;Louvois, et Colbert de Croissy,&rdquo; in the <i>Revue historique</i>, vol. xxxiv.
+(1887); A. Waddington, <i>Le Grand Électeur et Louis XIV</i> (Paris,
+1905); G. Pagis, <i>Le Grand Électeur et Louis XIV</i> (Paris, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLBURN, HENRY<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (d. 1855), British publisher, obtained his
+earliest experience of bookselling in London at the establishment
+of W. Earle, Albemarle Street, and afterwards as an assistant at
+Morgan&rsquo;s Library, Conduit Street, of which in 1816 he became
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660"></a>660</span>
+proprietor. He afterwards removed to New Burlington Street,
+where he established himself as a publisher, resigning the Conduit
+Street Library to Messrs Saunders &amp; Otley. In 1814 he originated
+the <i>New Monthly Magazine</i>, of which at various times Thomas
+Campbell, Bulwer Lytton, Theodore Hook and Harrison
+Ainsworth were editors. Colburn published in 1818 <i>Evelyn&rsquo;s
+Diary</i>, and in 1825 the <i>Diary of Pepys</i>, edited by Lord Braybrooke,
+paying £2200 for the copyright. He also issued Disraeli&rsquo;s
+first novel, <i>Vivian Grey</i>, and a large number of other works by
+Theodore Hook, G. P. R. James, Marryat and Bulwer Lytton.
+In 1829 Richard Bentley (<i>q.v.</i>) was taken into partnership; and
+in 1832 Colburn retired, but set up again soon afterwards independently
+in Great Marlborough Street; his business was
+taken over in 1841 by Messrs Hurst &amp; Blackett. Henry Colburn
+died on the 16th of August 1855, leaving property to the value
+of £35,000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLBURN, ZERAH<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1804-1840), American mathematical
+prodigy, was born at Cabot, Vermont, on the 1st of September
+1804. At a very early age he developed remarkable powers of
+calculating with extreme rapidity, and in 1810 his father began
+to exhibit him. As a performing prodigy he visited Great Britain
+and France. From 1816 to 1819 he studied in Westminster
+school, London. After the death of his father in 1824 he returned
+to America, and from 1825 to 1834 he was a Methodist preacher.
+As he grew older his extraordinary calculating powers diminished.
+From 1835 until his death, on the 2nd of March 1840, he was
+professor of languages at the Norwich University in Vermont.
+He published a <i>Memoir</i> of his life in 1833.</p>
+
+<p>His nephew, also named <span class="sc">Zerah Colburn</span> (1832-1870), was a
+well-known mechanical engineer; the editor successively of the
+<i>Railroad Advocate</i>, in New York, <i>The Engineer</i>, in London, and
+<i>Engineering</i>, in London; and the author of a work entitled <i>The
+Locomotive Engine</i> (1851).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLBY, THOMAS FREDERICK<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1784-1852), British major-general
+and director of ordnance survey, was born at St Margaret&rsquo;s,
+Rochester, on the 1st of September 1784, a member of a South
+Wales family. Entering the Royal Engineers he began in 1802
+a life-long connexion with the Ordnance Survey department.
+His most important work was the survey of Ireland. This he
+planned in 1824, and was engaged upon it until 1846. The last
+sheets of this survey were almost ready for issue in that year
+when he reached the rank of major-general, and according to the
+rules of the service had to vacate his survey appointment. He
+was the inventor of the compensation bar, an apparatus used in
+base-measurements. He died at New Brighton on the 9th of
+October 1852.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLCHAGUA<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span>, a province of central Chile, bounded N. by
+Santiago and O&rsquo;Higgins, E. by Argentina, S. by Curicó, and W.
+by the Pacific. Its area is officially estimated at 3856 sq. m.;
+pop. (1895) 157,566. Extending across the great central valley
+of Chile, the province has a considerable area devoted to agriculture,
+but much attention is given to cattle and mining. Its
+principal river is the Rapel, sometimes considered as the southern
+limit of the Inca empire. Its greatest tributary is the Cachapoal,
+in the valley of which, among the Andean foothills, are the
+popular thermal mineral baths of Cauquenes, 2306 ft. above
+sea-level. The state central railway from Santiago to Puerto
+Montt crosses the province and has two branches within its
+borders, one from Rengo to Peumo, and one from San Fernando
+via Palmilla to Pichilemu on the coast. The principal towns are
+the capital, San Fernando, Rengo and Palmilla. San Fernando
+is one of the several towns founded in 1742 by the governor-general
+José de Manso, and had a population of 7447 in 1895.
+Rengo is an active commercial town and had a population of
+6463 in 1895.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span>, <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1757-1829),
+born at Abingdon, was the son of Dr John Abbot, rector of All
+Saints, Colchester, and, by his mother&rsquo;s second marriage, half-brother
+of the famous Jeremy Bentham. From Westminster
+school Charles Abbot passed to Christ Church, Oxford, at which
+he gained the chancellor&rsquo;s medal for Latin verse as well as the
+Vinerian <span class="correction" title="superfluous round bracket instead of period">scholarship.</span> In 1795, after having practised twelve
+years as a barrister, and published a treatise proposing the
+incorporation of the judicial system of Wales with that of
+England, he was appointed to the office previously held by his
+brother of clerk of the rules in the king&rsquo;s bench; and in June
+of the same year he was elected member of parliament for Helston,
+through the influence of the duke of Leeds. In 1796 Abbot
+commenced his career as a reformer in parliament by obtaining
+the appointment of two committees&mdash;the one to report on the
+arrangements which then existed as to temporary laws or laws
+about to expire, the other to devise methods for the better
+publication of new statutes. To the latter committee, and a
+second committee which he proposed some years later, it is owing
+that copies of new statutes were thenceforth sent to all magistrates
+and municipal bodies. To Abbot&rsquo;s efforts were also due the
+establishment of the Royal Record Commission, the reform of
+the system which had allowed the public money to lie for some
+time at long interest in the hands of the public accountants,
+by charging them with payment of interest, and, most important
+of all, the act for taking the first census, that of 1801. On the
+formation of the Addington ministry in March 1801 Abbot
+became chief secretary and privy seal for Ireland; and in the
+February of the following year he was chosen speaker of the
+House of Commons&mdash;a position which he held with universal
+satisfaction till 1817, when an attack of erysipelas compelled him
+to retire. In response to an address of the Commons, he was raised
+to the peerage as Baron Colchester, with a pension of £4000, of
+which £3000 was to be continued to his heir. He died on the 8th
+of May 1829. His speeches against the Roman Catholic claims
+were published in 1828.</p>
+
+<p>He was succeeded by his eldest son <span class="sc">Charles</span> (d. 1867), postmaster-general
+in 1858; and the latter by his son <span class="sc">Reginald
+Charles Edward</span> (b. 1842), as 3rd baron.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLCHESTER<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a market town, river port and municipal and
+parliamentary borough of Essex, England; 52 m. N. E. by E.
+from London by the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 38,373.
+It lies on the river Colne, 12 m. from the open sea. Among
+numerous buildings of antiquarian interest the first is the ruined
+keep of the castle, a majestic specimen of Norman architecture,
+the largest of its kind in England, covering nearly twice the area
+of the White Tower in London. It was erected in the reign of
+William I. or William II., and is quadrangular, turreted at the
+angles. As in other ancient buildings in Colchester there are
+evidences of the use of material from the Roman town which
+occupied the site, but it is clearly of Norman construction. Here
+is the museum of the Essex Archaeological Society, with a remarkable
+collection of Roman antiquities, and a library belonging to
+the Round family, who own the castle. Among ecclesiastical
+buildings are remains of two monastic foundations&mdash;the priory
+of St Botolph, founded early in the 12th century for Augustinian
+canons, of which part of the fine Norman west front (in which
+Roman bricks occur), and of the nave arcades remain; and the
+restored gateway of the Benedictine monastery of St John,
+founded by Eudo, steward to William II. This is a beautiful
+specimen of Perpendicular work, embattled, flanked by spired
+turrets, and covered with panel work. The churches of Holy
+Trinity, St Martin and St Leonard at Hythe are of antiquarian
+interest; the first has an apparently pre-Norman tower and the
+last preserves some curious frescoes.</p>
+
+<p>The principal modern buildings are the town hall, corn exchange,
+free library, the Eastern Counties&rsquo; asylum, Essex county
+hospital and barracks. The town has long been an important
+military centre with a large permanent camp. There are a free
+grammar school (founded 1539), a technical and university
+extension college, a literary institute and medical and other
+societies. Castle Park is a public ground surrounding the castle.
+Colchester is the centre of an agricultural district, and has
+extensive corn and cattle markets. Industries include founding,
+engineering, malting, flour-milling, rose-growing and the making
+of clothing and boots and shoes. The oyster fisheries at the
+mouth of the Colne, for which the town has been famous for
+centuries, belong to the corporation, and are held on a ninety-nine
+years&rsquo; lease by the Colne Fishery Company, incorporated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661"></a>661</span>
+under an act of 1870. The harbour, with quayage at the suburb
+of Hythe, is controlled by the corporation. The parliamentary
+borough, which is co-extensive with the municipal, returns one
+member. The municipal corporation consists of a mayor, 8
+aldermen and 24 councillors. Area 11,333 acres.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman town, <i>Colonia Victricensis Camalodunum</i> (or
+<i>Camulodunum</i>), was of great importance. It was founded by
+Claudius, early in the period of the Roman conquest, as a
+municipality with discharged Roman soldiers as citizens, to
+assist the Roman dominion and spread its civilization. Under
+Queen Boadicea the natives burned the town and massacred the
+colonists; but Camalodunum soon rose to fresh prosperity and
+flourished throughout the Roman period. Its walls and some
+other remains, including the guardroom at the principal gate,
+can still be clearly traced, and many such relics as sculptures,
+inscriptions, pavements and pottery have been discovered.
+When the borough originated is not known, but Domesday Book
+mentions two hundred and seventy-six burgesses and land <i>in
+commune burgensium</i>, a phrase that may point to a nascent
+municipal corporation. The first charter given by Richard I.
+in 1189 granted the burghers leave to choose their bailiffs and a
+justice to hold the pleas of the crown within the borough, freedom
+from the obligation of duel, freedom of passage and pontage
+through England, free warren, fishery and custom as in the time
+of Henry I., and other privileges. An <i>inspeximus</i> of this charter
+by Henry III. in 1252 granted the burgesses the return of certain
+writs. The charters were confirmed by various kings, and new
+grants obtained in 1447 and 1535. In 1635 Charles I. granted a
+fresh charter, which replaced the bailiffs by a mayor, and in
+1653 Cromwell altered it to secure a permanent majority for his
+party on the corporation. But his action was undone in 1659,
+and in 1663 Charles II. granted a new charter. In 1684 the
+charters were surrendered, and a new one obtained reserving to
+the crown power to remove the mayor and alderman, and this
+one was further modified by James II. But the charter of 1663
+was confirmed in 1693 and remained in force till 1741, when the
+liberties were allowed to lapse. In 1763 George III. made the
+borough a renewed grant of its liberties. Colchester returned
+two members to parliament from 1295 until 1885. Fairs were
+granted by Richard I. in 1189 to the hospital of St Mary
+Magdalene, and by Edward II. in 1319 to the town for the eve of
+and feast of St Denis and the six following days&mdash;a fair which is
+still held. In the 13th century Colchester was sufficiently important
+as a port to pay a fee-farm of £46, its ships plying to
+Winchelsea and France. Elizabeth and James I. encouraged
+Flemish settlers in the manufacture of baize (&ldquo;bays and says&rdquo;),
+which attained great importance, so that a charter of Charles I.
+speaks of burgesses industriously exercising the manufacture of
+cloth. Both Camden and Fuller mention the trade in barrelled
+oysters and candied eringo-root. The most notable event in the
+history of the town was its siege by Fairfax in 1648, when the
+raw levies of the Royalists in the second civil war held his army
+at bay for nearly eleven weeks, only surrendering when starved
+out, and when Cromwell&rsquo;s victory in the north made further
+resistance useless. Colchester was made the see of a suffragan
+bishop by King Henry VIII., and two bishops were in succession
+appointed by him; no further appointments, however, were
+made until the see was re-established under Queen Victoria.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Essex</i>; <i>Charters and Letters Patent
+granted to the Borough of Colchester</i> (Colchester, 1903); Morant,
+<i>History of Colchester</i> (1748); Harrod&rsquo;s <i>Report on the Records of
+Colchester</i> (1865); Cutts, <i>Colchester</i> (Historic Towns) 1888; J. H.
+Round, &ldquo;Colchester and the Commonwealth&rdquo; in <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i>
+vol. xv.; Benham, <i>Red Paper Book of Colchester</i> (1902), and <i>Oath
+Book of Colchester</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLCHESTER<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span>, a township of Chittenden county, Vermont,
+U.S.A., on Lake Champlain, immediately N.E. of Burlington,
+from which it is separated by the Winooski river. Pop. (1900)
+5352; (1910) 6450. It is served by the Central Vermont railway.
+The surface is generally gently rolling, and in places along the
+banks of the Winooski or Onion river, the shore of the lake,
+and in the valleys, it is very picturesque. At Mallett&rsquo;s Bay,
+an arm of Lake Champlain, 2 m. long and 1½ m. wide, several
+large private schools hold summer sessions. The soil is varied,
+much of it being good meadow land or well adapted to the
+growing of grain and fruit. The township has two villages:
+Colchester Centre, a small, quiet settlement, and Winooski
+(pop. in 1900, 3783) on the Winooski river. This stream
+furnishes good water power, and the village has manufactories
+of cotton and woollen goods, lumber, woodenware, gold and silver
+plated ware, carriages, wagons and screens. Within the township
+there is a United States military reservation, Fort Ethan
+Allen. The village was founded in 1772 by Ira Allen and for
+many years it was known as &ldquo;Allen&rsquo;s Settlement&rdquo;; but later
+it was called Winooski Falls, and in 1866 it was incorporated
+as the Village of Winooski.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLCHICUM<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span>, the Meadow Saffron, or Autumn Crocus (<i>Colchicum
+autumnale</i>), a perennial plant of the natural order,
+Liliaceae, found wild in rich moist meadow-land in England and
+Ireland, in middle and southern Europe, and in the Swiss Alps.
+It has pale-purple flowers, rarely more than three in number;
+the perianth is funnel-shaped, and produced below into a long
+slender tube, in the upper part of which the six stamens are
+inserted. The ovary is three-celled, and lies at the bottom of
+this tube. The leaves are three or four in number, flat, lanceolate,
+erect and sheathing; and there is no stem. Propagation is by
+the formation of new corms from the parent corm, and by seeds.
+The latter are numerous, round, reddish-brown, and of the size
+of black mustard-seeds. The corm of the meadow-saffron attains
+its full size in June or early in July. A smaller corm is then
+formed from the old one, close to its root; and this in September
+and October produces the crocus-like flowers. In the succeeding
+January or February it sends up its leaves, together with the
+ovary, which perfects its seeds during the summer. The young
+corm, at first about the diameter of the flower-stalk, grows
+continuously, till in the following July it attains the size of a
+small apricot. The parent corm remains attached to the new
+one, and keeps its form and size till April in the third year of its
+existence, after which it decays. In some cases a single corm
+produces several new plants during its second spring by giving
+rise to immature corms.</p>
+
+<p><i>C. autumnale</i> and its numerous varieties as well as other
+species of the genus, are well known in cultivation, forming
+some of the most beautiful of autumn-flowering plants. They
+are very easy to cultivate and do not require lifting. The most
+suitable soil is a light, sandy loam enriched with well decomposed
+manure, in a rather moist situation. The corms should be planted
+not less than 3 in. deep. Propagation is effected by seed or
+increase of corms; the seed should be sown as soon as it is ripe
+in June or July.</p>
+
+<p>Colchicum was known to the Greeks under the name of
+<span class="grk" title="Kolchikon">&#922;&#959;&#955;&#967;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="Kolchis">&#922;&#959;&#955;&#967;&#943;&#962;</span>, or Colchis, a country in which the
+plant grew; and it is described by Dioscorides as a poison. In
+the 17th century the corms were worn by some of the German
+peasantry as a charm against the plague. The drug was little
+used till 1763, when Baron Störck of Vienna introduced it for
+the treatment of dropsy. Its use in febrile diseases, at one time
+extensive, is now obsolete. As a specific for gout colchicum
+was early employed by the Arabs; and the preparation known
+as <i>eau médicinale</i>, much resorted to in the 18th century for the
+cure of gout, owes its therapeutic virtues to colchicum; but
+general attention was first directed by Sir Everard Home to the
+use of the drug in gout.</p>
+
+<p>For medical purposes the corm should be collected in the
+early summer and, after the outer coat has been removed,
+should be sliced and dried at a temperature of 130° to 150° F.</p>
+
+<p>The chief constituents of colchicum are two alkaloids, <i>colchicine</i>
+and <i>veratrine</i>. Colchicine is the active principle and may be
+given in full form in doses of <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">32</span> to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> grain. It is a yellow, micro-crystalline
+powder, soluble in water, alcohol and chloroform,
+and forming readily decomposed salts with acids. It is the
+methyl ester of a neutral body <i>colchicein</i>, which may be obtained
+in white acicular crystals.</p>
+
+<p>The official dose of powdered colchicum is 2 to 5 grains, which
+may be given in a cachet. The British Pharmacopoeia contains
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662"></a>662</span>
+(1) an extract of the fresh corm, having doses of ¼ to 1 grain, and
+(2) the <i>Vinum Colchici</i>, made by treating the dried corm with
+sherry and given in doses of 10 to 30 minims. This latter is the
+preparation still most generally used, though the presence of
+veratrine both in the corm and the seeds renders the use of
+colchicine itself theoretically preferable. The dried ripe seeds of
+this plant are also used in medicine. They are exceedingly hard
+and difficult to pulverize, odourless, bitter and readily confused
+with black mustard seeds. They contain a volatile oil which
+does not occur in the corm, and their proportion of colchicine
+is higher, for which reason the <i>Tinctura Colchici Seminum</i>&mdash;dose
+5 to 15 minims&mdash;is preferable to the wine prepared from the
+corm.  At present this otherwise excellent preparation is not
+standardized, but the suggestion has been made that it should
+be standardized to contain 0.1% of colchicine. The salicylate
+of colchicine is stable in water and may be given in doses of about
+one-thirtieth of a grain. It is often known as Colchi-Sal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pharmacology.</i>&mdash;Colchicum or colchicine, when applied to
+the skin, acts as a powerful irritant, causing local pain and
+congestion. When inhaled, the powder causes violent sneezing,
+similar to that produced by veratrine itself, which is, as already
+stated, a constituent of the corm. Taken internally, colchicum
+or colchicine markedly increases the amount of bile poured into
+the alimentary canal, being amongst the most powerful of known
+cholagogues. Though this action doubtless contributes to its
+remarkable therapeutic power, it is very far from being an
+adequate explanation of the virtues of the drug in gout. In
+larger doses colchicum or colchicine acts as a most violent gastrointestinal
+irritant, causing terrible pain, colic, vomiting, diarrhoea,
+haemorrhage from the bowel, thirst and ultimately death from
+collapse. This is accelerated by a marked depressant action
+upon the heart, similar to that produced by veratrine and
+aconite. Large doses also depress the nervous system, weakening
+the anterior horns of grey matter in the spinal cord so as ultimately
+to cause complete paralysis, and also causing a partial
+insensibility of the cutaneous nerves of touch and pain. The
+action of colchicum or colchicine upon the kidneys has been
+minutely studied, and it is asserted on the one hand that the
+urinary solids are much diminished and, on the other hand,
+that they are markedly increased, the specific gravity of the
+secretion being much raised. These assertions, and the total
+inadequacy of the pharmacology of colchicum, as above detailed,
+to explain its specific therapeutic property, show that the secret
+of colchicum is as yet undiscovered.</p>
+
+<p>The sole but extremely important use of this drug is as a
+specific for gout. It has an extraordinary power over the pain
+of acute gout; it lessens the severity and frequency of the attacks
+when given continuously between them, and it markedly controls
+such symptoms of gout as eczema, bronchitis and neuritis,
+whilst it is entirely inoperative against these conditions when
+they are not of gouty origin. Despite the general recognition
+of these facts, the pharmacology of colchicum has hitherto
+thrown no light on the pathology of gout, and the pathology of
+gout has thrown no light upon the manner in which colchicum
+exerts its unique influence upon this disease. Veratrine is
+useless in the treatment of gout. A further curious fact, doubtless
+of very great significance, but hitherto lacking interpretation,
+is that the administration of colchicum during an acute attack
+of gout may often hasten the oncoming of the next attack; and
+this property, familiar to many gouty patients, may not be affected
+by the administration of small doses after the attack. Altogether
+colchicum is a puzzle, and will remain so until the efficient poison
+of gout is isolated and defined. When that is done, colchicine
+may be found to exhibit a definite chemical interaction with
+this hitherto undiscovered substance.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>colchicum poisoning</i>, empty the stomach, give white of
+egg, olive or salad oil, and water. Use hot bottles and stimulants,
+especially trying to counteract the cardiac depression by atropine,
+caffeine, strophanthin, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLCHIS<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span>, in ancient geography, a nearly triangular district
+of Asia Minor, at the eastern extremity of the Black Sea, bounded
+on the N. by the Caucasus, which separated it from Asiatic
+Sarmatia, E. by Iberia, S. by the Montes Moschici, Armenia and
+part of Pontus, and W. by the Euxine. The ancient district is
+represented roughly by the modern province of Kutais (formerly
+Mingrelia). The name of Colchis first appears in Aeschylus and
+Pindar. It was inhabited by a number of tribes whose settlements
+lay chiefly along the shore of the Black Sea. The chief of
+those were the Lazi, Moschi, Apsilae, Abasci, Sagadae, Suani
+and Coraxi. These tribes differed so completely in language and
+appearance from the surrounding nations, that the ancients
+originated various theories to account for the phenomenon.
+Herodotus, who states that they, with the Egyptians and the
+Ethiopians, were the first to practise circumcision, believed them
+to have sprung from the relics of the army of Sesostris (<i>q.v.</i>),
+and thus regarded them as Egyptians. Apollonius Rhodius
+(<i>Argon</i>, iv. 279) states that the Egyptians of Colchis preserved
+as heirlooms a number of wooden <span class="grk" title="kurbeis">&#954;&#973;&#961;&#946;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span> (tablets) showing seas
+and highways with considerable accuracy. Though this theory
+was not generally adopted by the ancients, it has been defended,
+but not with complete success, by some modern writers. It is
+quite possible that there was an ancient trade connexion between
+the Colchians and the Mediterranean peoples. We learn that
+women were buried, while the corpses of men were suspended on
+trees. The principal coast town was the Milesian colony of
+Dioscurias (Roman Sebastopolis; mod. Sukhum Kaleh), the
+ancient name being preserved in the modern C. Iskuria. The
+chief river was the Phasis (mod. Rion). From Colchis is derived
+the name of the plant Colchicum (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Colchis was celebrated in Greek mythology as the destination of
+the Argonauts, the home of Medea and the special domain of
+sorcery. Several Greek colonies were founded there by Miletus.
+At a remote period it seems to have been incorporated with the
+Persian empire, though the inhabitants evidently enjoyed a
+considerable degree of independence; in this condition it was
+found by Alexander the Great, when he invaded Persia. From
+this time till the era of the Mithradatic wars nothing is known
+of its history. At the time of the Roman invasion it seems to
+have paid a nominal homage to Mithradates the Great and to have
+been ruled over by Machares, his second son. On the defeat of
+Mithradates by Pompey, it became a Roman province. After
+the death of Pompey, Pharnaces, the son of Mithradates, rose in
+rebellion against the Roman yoke, subdued Colchis and Armenia,
+and made head, though but for a short time, against the Roman
+arms. After this Colchis was incorporated with Pontus, and the
+Colchians are not again alluded to in ancient history till the
+6th century, when, along with the Abasci or Abasgi, under their
+king Gobazes, whose mother was a Roman, they called in the aid
+of Chosroes I. of Persia (541). The importance of the district,
+then generally called Lazica from the Lazi (cf. mod. Lazistan)
+who led the revolt, was due to the fact that it was the only remaining
+bar which held the Persians, already masters of Iberia, from
+the Black Sea. It had therefore been specially garrisoned by
+Justinian under first Peter, a Persian slave, and subsequently
+Johannes Tzibos, who built Petra on the coast as the Roman
+Headquarters. Tzibos took advantage of the extreme poverty of
+the Lazi to create a Roman monopoly by which he became a
+middleman for all the trade both export and import. Chosroes
+at once accepted the invitation of Gobazes and succeeded in
+capturing Petra (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 541). The missionary zeal of the Zoroastrian
+priests soon caused discontent among the Christian inhabitants
+of Colchis, and Gobazes, perceiving that Chosroes intended to
+Persianize the district, appealed to Rome, with the result that in
+549 one Dagisthaeus was sent out with 7000 Romans and 1000
+auxiliaries of the Tzani (Zani, Sanni). The &ldquo;Lazic War&rdquo; lasted
+till 556 with varying success. Petra was recaptured in 551 and
+Archaeopolis was held by the Romans against the Persian general
+Mermeroes. Gobazes was assassinated in 552, but the Persian
+general Nachoragan was heavily defeated at Phasis in 553.</p>
+
+<p>By the peace of 562 the district was left in Roman possession,
+but during the next 150 years it is improbable that the Romans
+exercised much authority over it. In 697 we hear of a revolt
+against Rome led by Sergius the Patrician, who allied himself
+with the Arabs. Justinian II. in his second period of rule sent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663"></a>663</span>
+Leo the Isaurian, afterwards emperor, to induce the Alans to
+attack the Abasgi. The Alans, having gained knowledge of
+the district by a trick, invaded Lazica, and, probably in 712, a
+Roman and Armenian army laid siege to Archaeopolis. On the
+approach of a Saracen force they retired, but a small plundering
+detachment was cut off. Ultimately Leo joined this band and
+aided by the Apsilian chief Marinus escaped with them to the
+coast.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning of the 14th to the end of the 17th century
+the district under the name Mingrelia (<i>q.v.</i>) was governed by an
+independent dynasty, the Dadians, which was succeeded by a
+semi-independent dynasty, the Chikovans, who by 1838 had
+submitted to Russia, though they retained a nominal sovereignty.
+In 1866 the district was finally annexed by Russia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the kings see Stokvis, <i>Manuel d&rsquo;histoire</i>, i. 83.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLCOTHAR<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (adapted in Romanic languages from Arabic
+<i>golgotar</i>, which was probably a corruption of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="chalkanthos">&#967;&#940;&#955;&#954;&#945;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+from <span class="grk" title="chalkos">&#967;&#945;&#955;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, copper, <span class="grk" title="anthos">&#7940;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>, flower, <i>i.e.</i> copper sulphate), a name
+given to the brownish-red ferric oxide formed in the preparation
+of fuming sulphuric (Nordhausen) acid by distilling ferrous
+sulphate. It is used as a polishing powder, forming the rouge of
+jewellers, and as the pigment Indian red. It is also known as
+<i>Crocus Martis</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLD<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (in O. Eng. <i>cald</i> and <i>ceald</i>, a word coming ultimately
+from a root cognate with the Lat. <i>gelu</i>, <i>gelidus</i>, and common in
+the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms
+for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. <i>Kälte</i>, <i>kalt</i>, Dutch
+<i>koude</i>, <i>koud</i>), subjectively the sensation which is excited by contact
+with a substance whose temperature is lower than the normal;
+objectively a quality or condition of material bodies which gives
+rise to that sensation. Whether cold, in the objective sense, was
+to be regarded as a positive quality or merely as absence of heat
+was long a debated question. Thus Robert Boyle, who does not
+commit himself definitely to either view, says, in his <i>New Experiments
+and Observations touching Cold</i>, that &ldquo;the dispute which is
+the <i>primum frigidum</i> is very well known among naturalists,
+some contending for the earth, others for water, others for the air,
+and some of the moderns for nitre, but all seeming to agree that
+there is some body or other that is of its own nature supremely
+cold and by participation of which all other bodies obtain that
+quality.&rdquo; But with the general acceptance of the dynamical
+theory of heat, cold naturally came to be regarded as a negative
+condition, depending on decrease in the amount of the molecular
+vibration that constitutes heat.</p>
+
+<p>The question whether there is a limit to the degree of cold
+possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first
+attacked by the French physicist, G. Amontons, in 1702-1703,
+in connexion with his improvements in the air-thermometer.
+In his instrument temperatures were indicated by the height
+at which a column of mercury was sustained by a certain mass
+of air, the volume or &ldquo;spring&rdquo; of which of course varied with
+the heat to which it was exposed. Amontons therefore argued
+that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at
+which the spring of the air in it was reduced to nothing. On the
+scale he used the boiling-point of water was marked at 73 and the
+melting-point of ice at 51½, so that the zero of his scale was
+equivalent to about -240° on the centigrade scale. This remarkably
+close approximation to the modern value of -273° for the
+zero of the air-thermometer was further improved on by J. H.
+Lambert (<i>Pyrometrie</i>, 1779), who gave the value -270° and
+observed that this temperature might be regarded as absolute
+cold. Values of this order for the absolute zero were not,
+however, universally accepted about this period. Laplace and
+Lavoisier, for instance, in their treatise on heat (1780), arrived
+at values ranging from 1500° to 3000° below the freezing-point
+of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600°
+below, while John Dalton in his <i>Chemical Philosophy</i> gave ten
+calculations of this value, and finally adopted -3000° C. as the
+natural zero of temperature. After J. P. Joule had determined
+the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached
+the question from an entirely different point of view, and in
+1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature which was independent
+of the properties of any particular substance and was
+based solely on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heat</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermodynamics</a></span>). It followed from the principles
+on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at
+-273°, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the
+air-thermometer.</p>
+
+<p>In nature the realms of space, on the probable assumption
+that the interstellar medium is perfectly transparent and diathermanous,
+must, as was pointed out by W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
+be incapable of acquiring any temperature, and must therefore
+be at the absolute zero. That, however, is not to say that if a
+suitable thermometer could be projected into space it would
+give a reading of -273°. On the contrary, not being a transparent
+and diathermanous body, it would absorb radiation
+from the sun and other stars, and would thus become warmed.
+Professor J. H. Poynting (&ldquo;Radiation in the Solar System,&rdquo;
+<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, A, 1903, 202, p. 525) showed that as regards bodies
+in the solar system the effects of radiation from the stars are
+negligible, and calculated that by solar radiation alone a small
+absorbing sphere at the distance of Mercury from the sun would
+have its temperature raised to 483° Abs. (210° C), at the distance
+of Venus to 358° Abs. (85° C), of the earth to 300° Abs. (27° C),
+of Mars to 243° Abs. (-30° C), and of Neptune to only 54° Abs.
+(-219° C.). The French physicists of the early part of the 19th
+century held a different view, and rejected the hypothesis of the
+absolute cold of space. Fourier, for instance, postulated a
+fundamental temperature of space as necessary for the explanation
+of the heat-effects observed on the surface of the earth, and
+estimated that in the interplanetary regions it was little less
+than that of the terrestrial poles and below the freezing-point of
+mercury, though it was different in other parts of space (<i>Ann.
+chim. phys.</i>, 1824, 27, pp. 141, 150). C. S. M. Pouillet, again,
+calculated the temperature of interplanetary space as -142° C.
+(<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1838, 7, p. 61), and Sir John Herschel as
+-150° (<i>Ency. Brit.</i>, 8th ed., art. &ldquo;Meteorology,&rdquo; p. 643).</p>
+
+<p>To attain the absolute zero in the laboratory, that is, to
+deprive a substance entirely of its heat, is a thermodynamical
+impossibility, and the most that the physicist can hope for is an
+indefinitely close approach to that point. The lowest steady
+temperature obtainable by the exhaustion of liquid hydrogen
+is about -262° C. (11° Abs.), and the liquefaction of helium by
+Professor Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908 yielded a liquid having a
+boiling-point of about 4.3° Abs., which on exhaustion must
+bring us to within about 2½ degrees of the absolute zero. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a &ldquo;cold,&rdquo; in the medical sense, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catarrh</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Respiratory
+System</a></span>: <i>Pathology</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLDEN, CADWALLADER<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1688-1776), American physician
+and colonial official, was born at Duns, Scotland, on the 17th of
+February 1688. He graduated at the university of Edinburgh
+in 1705, spent three years in London in the study of medicine,
+and emigrated to America in 1708. After practising medicine
+for ten years in Philadelphia, he was invited to settle in New
+York by Governor Hunter, and in 1718 was appointed the first
+surveyor-general of the colony. Becoming a member of the
+provincial council in 1720, he served for many years as its president,
+and from 1761 until his death was lieutenant-governor;
+for a considerable part of the time, during the interim between
+the appointment of governors, he was acting-governor. About
+1755 he retired from medical practice. As early as 1729 he had
+built a country house called Coldengham on the line between
+Ulster and Orange counties, where he spent much of his time
+until 1761. Aristocratic and extremely conservative, he had a
+violent distrust of popular government and a strong aversion
+to the popular party in New York. Naturally he came into
+frequent conflict with the growing sentiment in the colony in
+opposition to royal taxation. He was acting-governor when in
+1765 the stamped paper to be used under the Stamp Act arrived
+in the port of New York; a mob burned him in effigy in his
+own coach in Bowling Green, in sight of the enraged acting-governor
+and of General Gage; and Colden was compelled to
+surrender the stamps to the city council, by whom they were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664"></a>664</span>
+locked up in the city hall until all attempts to enforce the new
+law were abandoned. Subsequently Colden secured the suspension
+of the provincial assembly by an act of parliament.
+He understood, however, the real temper of the patriot party,
+and in 1775, when the outbreak of hostilities seamed inevitable,
+he strongly advised the ministry to act with caution and to
+concede some of the colonists&rsquo; demands. When the war began,
+he retired to his Long Island country seat, where he died on the
+28th of September 1776. Colden was widely known among
+scientists and men of letters in England and America. He was
+a life-long student of botany, and was the first to introduce in
+America the classification system of Linnaeus, who gave the
+name &ldquo;Coldenia&rdquo; to a newly recognized genus. He was an
+intimate friend of Benjamin Franklin. He wrote several medical
+works of importance in their day, the most noteworthy being
+<i>A Treatise on Wounds and Fevers</i> (1765); he also wrote <i>The
+History of the Five Indian Nations depending on the Province
+of New York</i> (1727, reprinted 1866 and 1905), and an elaborate
+work on <i>The Principles of Action in Matter</i> (1751) which, with
+his <i>Introduction to the Study of Physics</i> (c. 1756), his <i>Enquiry into
+the Principles of Vital Motion</i> (1766), and his <i>Reflections</i> (c. 1770),
+mark him as the first of American materialists and one of the
+ablest material philosophers of his day. I. Woodbridge Riley,
+in <i>American Philosophy</i> (New York, 1907), made the first
+critical study of Colden&rsquo;s philosophy, and said of it that it
+combined &ldquo;Newtonian mechanics with the ancient hylozoistic
+doctrine ...&rdquo; and &ldquo;ultimately reached a kind of dynamic
+panpsychism, substance being conceived as a self-acting and
+universally diffused principle, whose essence is power and force.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Alice M. Keys, <i>Cadwallader Colden, A Representative 18th
+Century Official</i> (New York, 1906), a Columbia University doctoral
+dissertation; J. G. Mumford, <i>Narrative of Medicine in America</i>
+(New York, 1903); and Asa Gray, &ldquo;Selections from the Scientific
+Correspondence of Cadwallader Colden&rdquo; in <i>American Journal of
+Science</i>, vol. 44, 1843.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His grandson, <span class="sc">Cadwallader David Colden</span> (1769-1834),
+lawyer and politician, was educated in London, but returned
+in 1785 to New York, where he attained great distinction at the
+bar. He was a colonel of volunteers during the war of 1812, and
+from 1818 to 1821 was the successor of Jacob Radcliff as mayor
+of New York City. He was a member of the state assembly
+(1818) and the state senate (1825-1827), and did much to secure
+the construction of the Erie Canal and the organization of the
+state public school system; and in 1821-1823 he was a representative
+in Congress. He wrote a <i>Life of Robert Fulton</i> (1817)
+and a <i>Memoir of the Celebration of the Completion of the New York
+Canals</i> (1825).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLD HARBOR<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Old</span> and <span class="sc">New</span>, two localities in Hanover
+county, Virginia, U.S.A., 10 m. N.E. of Richmond. They were
+the scenes of a succession of battles, on May 31-June 12, 1864,
+between the Union forces under command of General U. S.
+Grant and the Confederates under General R. E. Lee, who
+held a strongly entrenched line at New Cold Harbor. The
+main Union attack on June 3 was delivered by the II.
+(Hancock), VI. (Wright), and XVIII. (W. F. Smith) corps, and
+was brought to a standstill in eight minutes. An order from army
+headquarters to renew the attack was ignored by the officers and
+men at the front, who realized fully the strength of the hostile
+position. These troops lost as many as 5,000 men in an hour&rsquo;s
+fighting, the greater part in the few minutes of the actual assault.
+In the constant fighting of 31st of May to 12th of June on this
+ground Grant lost 14,000 men. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wilderness</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">American
+Civil War</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLDSTREAM<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span>, a police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 1482. It is situated on the north bank of the Tweed,
+here spanned by John Smeaton&rsquo;s fine bridge of five arches,
+erected in 1763-1766, 13½ m. south-west of Berwick by the
+North Eastern railway. The chief public buildings are the town
+hall, library, mechanics&rsquo; institute, and cottage hospital. Some
+brewing is carried on. Owing to its position on the Border and
+also as the first ford of any consequence above Berwick, the
+town played a prominent part in Scottish history during many
+centuries. Here Edward I. crossed the stream in 1296 with his
+invading host, and Montrose with the Covenanters in 1640.
+Of the Cistercian priory, founded about 1165 by Cospatric of
+Dunbar, and destroyed by the 1st earl of Hertford in 1545, which
+stood a little to the east of the present market-place, no trace
+remains; but for nearly four hundred years it was a centre of
+religious fervour. Here it was that the papal legate, in the reign
+of Henry VIII., published a bull against the printing of the
+Scriptures; and by the irony of fate its site was occupied in the
+19th century by an establishment, under Dr Adam Thomson,
+for the production of cheap Bibles. At Coldstream General
+Monk raised in 1659 the celebrated regiment of Foot Guards
+bearing its name. Like Gretna Green, Coldstream long enjoyed
+a notoriety as the resort of runaway couples, the old toll-house
+at the bridge being the usual scene of the marriage ceremony.
+&ldquo;Marriage House,&rdquo; as it is called, still exists in good repair.
+Henry Brougham, afterwards lord chancellor, was married in
+this clandestine way, though in an inn and not at the bridge, in
+1821. Birgham, 3 m. west, was once a place of no small importance,
+for there in 1188 William the Lion conferred with the bishop
+of Durham concerning the attempt of the English Church to
+impose its supremacy upon Scotland; there in 1289 was held the
+convention to consider the question of the marriage of the Maid
+of Norway with Prince Edward of England; and there, too, in
+1290 was signed the treaty of Birgham, which secured the independence
+of Scotland. Seven miles below Coldstream on the
+English side, though 6 m. north-east of it, are the massive ruins
+of Norham Castle, made famous by Scott&rsquo;s <i>Marmion</i>, and from
+the time of its building by Ranulph Flambard in 1121 a focus
+of Border history during four centuries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLDWATER<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span>, a city and county-seat of Branch county,
+Michigan, U.S.A., on Coldwater Stream (which connects two
+of the group of small lakes in the vicinity), about 80 m.
+S.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 5247; (1900) 6216, of
+whom 431 were foreign-born; (1904) 6225; (1910) 5945. It
+is served by the Lake Shore &amp; Michigan Southern railway. It is
+the seat of a state public school and temporary home (opened
+in 1874) for dependent, neglected or ill-treated children, who
+are received at any age under twelve. The city is situated in
+a fine farming region, has an important flouring and grist mill
+industry, and also manufactures Portland cement, liniment,
+lumber, furniture, sashes, doors and blinds, brass castings, sleighs,
+shoes, &amp;c. The municipality owns and operates the water-works
+and electric lighting plant. Coldwater was settled in 1829, was
+laid out as a town under the name of Lyons in 1832, received its
+present name in the following year, was incorporated as a village
+in 1837, was reached by railway and became the county-seat in
+1851, and was chartered as a city in 1861.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLE, SIR HENRY<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1808-1882), English civil servant, was
+born at Bath on the 15th of July 1808, and was the son of an
+officer in the army. At the age of fifteen he became clerk to
+Sir Francis Palgrave, then a subordinate officer in the record
+office, and, helped by Charles Buller, to whom he had been introduced
+by Thomas Love Peacock, and who became chairman
+of a royal commission for inquiry into the condition of the
+public records, worked his way up until he became an assistant
+keeper. He largely assisted in influencing public opinion in
+support of Sir Rowland Hill&rsquo;s reforms at the post office. A
+connexion with the Society of Arts caused him to drift gradually
+out of the record office: he was a leading member of the commission
+that organized the Great Exhibition of 1851, and upon
+the conclusion of its labours was made secretary to the School
+of Design, which by a series of transformations became in 1853
+the Department of Science and Art. Under its auspices the
+South Kensington (now Victoria and Albert) Museum was
+founded in 1855 upon land purchased out of the surplus of the
+exhibition, and Cole practically became its director, retiring in
+1873. His proceedings were frequently criticized, but the
+museum owes much to his energy. Indefatigable, genial and
+masterful, he drove everything before him, and by all sorts of
+schemes and devices built up a great institution, whose variety
+and inequality of composition seemed imaged in the anomalous
+structure in which it was temporarily housed. He also, though
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665"></a>665</span>
+to the financial disappointment of many, conferred a great
+benefit upon the metropolis by originating the scheme for the
+erection of the Royal Albert Hall. He was active in founding
+the national training schools for cookery and music, the latter
+the germ of the Royal College of Music. He edited the works of
+his benefactor Peacock; and was in his younger days largely
+connected with the press, and the author of many useful topographical
+handbooks published under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Felix
+Summerly.&rdquo; He died on the 18th of April 1882.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLE, THOMAS<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1801-1848), American landscape painter,
+was born at Bolton-le-Moors, England, on the 1st of February
+1801. In 1819 the family emigrated to America, settling first in
+Philadelphia and then at Steubenville, Ohio, where Cole learned
+the rudiments of his profession from a wandering portrait painter
+named Stein. He went about the country painting portraits,
+but with little financial success. Removing to New York (1825),
+he displayed some landscapes in the window of an eating-house,
+where they attracted the attention of the painter Colonel
+Trumbull, who sought him out, bought one of his canvases, and
+found him patrons. From this time Cole was prosperous. He is
+best remembered by a series of pictures consisting of four canvases
+representing &ldquo;The Voyage of Life,&rdquo; and another series of five
+canvases representing &ldquo;The Course of Empire,&rdquo; the latter now
+in the gallery of the New York Historical Society. They were
+allegories, in the taste of the day, and became exceedingly popular,
+being reproduced in engravings with great success. The work,
+however, was meretricious, the sentiment false, artificial and
+conventional, and the artist&rsquo;s genuine fame must rest on his
+landscapes, which, though thin in the painting, hard in the
+handling, and not infrequently painful in detail, were at least
+earnest endeavours to portray the world out of doors as it
+appeared to the painter; their failings were the result of Cole&rsquo;s
+environment and training. He had an influence on his time and
+his fellows which was considerable, and with Durand he may be
+said to have founded the early school of American landscape
+painters. Cole spent the years 1829-1832 and 1841-1842 abroad,
+mainly in Italy, and at Florence lived with the sculptor
+Greenough. After 1827 he had a studio in the Catskills which
+furnished the subjects of some of his canvases, and he died at
+Catskill, New York, on the 11th of February 1848. His pictures
+are in many public and private collections. His &ldquo;Expulsion from
+Eden&rdquo; is in the Metropolitan Museum in New York.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLE, TIMOTHY<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1852-&emsp;&emsp;), American wood engraver, was
+born in London, England, in 1852, his family emigrating to the
+United States in 1858. He established himself in Chicago, where
+in the great fire of 1871 he lost everything he possessed. In 1875
+he removed to New York, finding work on the <i>Century</i> (then
+<i>Scribner&rsquo;s</i>) magazine. He immediately attracted attention by
+his unusual facility and his sympathetic interpretation of illustrations
+and pictures, and his publishers sent him abroad in 1883 to
+engrave a set of blocks after the old masters in the European
+galleries. These achieved for him a brilliant success. His reproductions
+of Italian, Dutch, Flemish and English pictures were
+published in book form with appreciative notes by the engraver
+himself. Though the advent of new mechanical processes had
+rendered wood engraving almost a lost art and left practically
+no demand for the work of such craftsmen, Mr Cole was thus
+enabled to continue his work, and became one of the foremost
+contemporary masters of wood engraving. He received a
+medal of the first class at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and the
+only grand prize given for wood engraving at the Louisiana
+Purchase Exposition at St Louis, Missouri, in 1904.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLE, VICAT<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1833-1893), English painter, born at Portsmouth
+on the 17th of April 1833, was the son of the landscape
+painter, George Cole, and in his practice followed his father&rsquo;s
+lead with marked success. He exhibited at the British Institution
+at the age of nineteen, and was first represented at the Royal
+Academy in 1853. His election as an associate of this institution
+took place in 1870, and he became an Academician ten years later.
+He died in London on the 6th of April 1893. The wide popularity
+of his work was due partly to the simple directness of his technical
+method, and partly to his habitual choice of attractive material.
+Most of his subjects were found in the counties of Surrey and
+Sussex, and along the banks of the Thames. One of his largest
+pictures, &ldquo;The Pool of London,&rdquo; was bought by the Chantrey
+Fund Trustees in 1888, and is now in the Tate Gallery.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Robert Chignell, <i>The Life and Paintings of Vicat Cole, R.A.</i>
+(London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1765-1837), English
+Orientalist, the third son of Sir George Colebrooke, 2nd baronet,
+was born in London on the 15th of June 1765. He was educated
+at home; and when only fifteen he had made considerable
+attainments in classics and mathematics. From the age of
+twelve to sixteen he resided in France, and in 1782 was appointed
+to a writership in India. About a year after his arrival there he
+was placed in the board of accounts in Calcutta; and three years
+later he was removed to a situation in the revenue department
+at Tirhut. In 1789 he was removed to Purneah, where he investigated
+the resources of that part of the country, and published his
+<i>Remarks on the Husbandry and Commerce of Bengal</i>, privately
+printed in 1795, in which he advocated free trade between Great
+Britain and India. After eleven years&rsquo; residence in India,
+Colebrooke began the study of Sanskrit; and to him was confided
+the translation of the great <i>Digest of Hindu Laws</i>, which had been
+left unfinished by Sir William Jones. He translated the two
+treatises <i>Mitacshara</i> and <i>Dayabhaga</i> under the title <i>Law of Inheritance</i>.
+He was sent to Nagpur in 1799 on a special mission,
+and on his return was made a judge of the new court of appeal,
+over which he afterwards presided. In 1805 Lord Wellesley
+appointed him professor of Hindu Law and Sanskrit at the college
+of Fort William. During his residence at Calcutta he wrote his
+<i>Sanskrit Grammar</i> (1805), some papers on the religious ceremonies
+of the Hindus, and his <i>Essay on the Vedas</i> (1805), for a long time
+the standard work on the subject. He became member of council
+in 1807 and returned to England seven years later. He died on
+the 18th of March 1837. He was a director of the Asiatic Society,
+and many of the most valuable papers in the society&rsquo;s <i>Transactions</i>
+were communicated by him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life was written by his son, Sir T. E. Colebrooke, in 1873.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLEMANITE<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span>, a hydrous calcium borate, Ca<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">11</span> + 5H<span class="su">2</span>O,
+found in California as brilliant monoclinic crystals. It contains
+50.9% of boron trioxide, and is an important source of commercial
+borates and boracic acid. Beautifully developed
+crystals, up to 2 or 3 in. in length, encrust cavities in compact,
+white colemanite; they are colourless and transparent, and
+the brilliant lustre of their faces is vitreous to adamantine in
+character. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of
+symmetry of the crystals. Hardness 4-4½; specific gravity
+2.42. The mineral was first discovered in 1882 in Death Valley,
+Inyo county, California, and in the following year it was found
+in greater abundance near Daggett in San Bernardino county,
+forming with other borates and borosilicates a bed in sedimentary
+strata of sandstones and clays; in more recent years
+very large masses have been found and worked in these localities,
+and also in Los Angeles county (see Special Report, 1905, of
+U.S. Census Bureau on <i>Mines and Quarries</i>; and <i>Mineral
+Resources of the U.S.</i>, 1907).</p>
+
+<p>Priceite and pandermite are hydrous calcium borates with very
+nearly the same composition as colemanite, and they may really
+be only impure forms of this species. They are massive white
+minerals, the former friable and chalk-like, and the latter firm
+and compact in texture. Priceite occurs near Chetco in Curry
+county, Oregon, where it forms layers between a bed of slate and
+one of tough blue steatite; embedded in the steatite are rounded
+masses of priceite varying in size from that of a pea to masses
+weighing 200 &#8468;. Pandermite comes from Asia Minor, and is shipped
+from the port of Panderma on the Sea of Marmora: it occurs as
+large nodules, up to a ton in weight, beneath a thick bed of gypsum.</p>
+
+<p>Another borate of commercial importance found abundantly in
+the Californian deposits is ulexite, also known as boronatrocalcite
+or &ldquo;cotton-ball,&rdquo; a hydrous calcium and sodium borate,
+CaNaB<span class="su">5</span>O<span class="su">9</span> + 8H<span class="su">2</span>O, which forms rounded masses consisting of a
+loose aggregate of fine fibres. It is the principal species in the
+borate deposits in the Atacama region of South America.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666"></a>666</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1814-1883), English bishop of
+Natal, was born at St Austell, Cornwall, on the 24th of January
+1814. His family were in embarrassed circumstances, and he was
+indebted to relatives for the means of university education. In
+1836 he was second wrangler and Smith&rsquo;s prizeman at Cambridge,
+and in 1837 he became fellow of St John&rsquo;s. Two years later he
+went to Harrow as mathematical tutor, but the step proved an unfortunate
+one. The school was just then at the lowest ebb, and
+Colenso not only had few pupils, but lost most of his property
+by a fire. He went back to Cambridge, and in a short time paid
+off heavy debts by diligent tutoring and the proceeds of his
+series of manuals of algebra (1841) and arithmetic (1843), which
+were adopted all over England. In 1846 he became rector of
+Forncett St Mary, Norfolk, and in 1853 he was appointed
+bishop of Natal. He at once devoted himself to acquiring the
+Zulu language, of which he compiled a grammar and a dictionary,
+and into which he translated the New Testament and other
+portions of Scripture. He had already given evidence, in a
+volume of sermons dedicated to Maurice, that he was not satisfied
+with the traditional views about the Bible. The puzzling
+questions put to him by the Zulus strengthened him in this
+attitude and led him to make a critical examination of the
+Pentateuch. His conclusions, positive and negative, were
+published in a series of treatises on the Pentateuch, extending
+from 1862 to 1879, and, being in advance of his time, were
+naturally disputed in England with a fervour of conviction
+equal to his own. On the continent they attracted the
+notice of Abraham Kuenen, and furthered that scholar&rsquo;s investigations.</p>
+
+<p>While the controversy raged in England, the South African
+bishops, whose suspicions Colenso had already incurred by the
+liberality of his views respecting polygamy among native converts
+and by a commentary upon the Epistle to the Romans (1861),
+in which he combated the doctrine of eternal punishment, met
+in conclave to condemn him, and pronounced his deposition
+(December 1863). Colenso, who had refused to appear before
+their tribunal otherwise than as sending a protest by proxy,
+appealed to the privy council, which pronounced that the
+metropolitan of Cape Town (Robert Gray) had no coercive
+jurisdiction and no authority to interfere with the bishop of
+Natal. No decision, therefore, was given upon the merits of the
+case. His adversaries, though unable to obtain his condemnation,
+succeeded in causing him to be generally inhibited from
+preaching in England, and Bishop Gray not only excommunicated
+him but consecrated a rival bishop for Natal (W. K. Macrorie),
+who, however, took his title from Maritzburg. The contributions
+of the missionary societies were withdrawn, but an
+attempt to deprive him of his episcopal income was frustrated
+by a decision of the courts. Colenso, encouraged by a handsome
+testimonial raised in England, to which many clergymen subscribed,
+returned to his diocese, and devoted the latter years of
+his life to further labours as a biblical commentator and translator.
+He also championed the cause of the natives against Boer oppression
+and official encroachments, a course by which he made
+more enemies among the colonists than he had ever made among
+the clergy. He died at Durban on the 20th of June 1883.
+His daughter Frances Ellen Colenso (1840-1887) published two
+books on the relations of the Zulus to the British (1880 and
+1885), taking a pro-Zulu view; and an elder daughter, Harriette
+E. Colenso (b. 1847), became prominent as an advocate of the
+natives in opposition to their treatment by Natal, especially in
+the case of Dinizulu in 1888-1889 and in 1908-1909.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>Life</i> by Sir G. W. Cox (2 vols., London, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLENSO<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span>, a village of Natal on the right or south bank of
+the Tugela river, 16 m. by rail south by east of Ladysmith. It
+was the scene of an action fought on the 15th of December
+1899 between the British forces under Sir Redvers Buller and the
+Boers, in which the former were repulsed. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ladysmith</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLEOPTERA<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span>, a term used in zoological classification for the
+true beetles which form one of the best-marked and most natural
+of the orders into which the class Hexapoda (or Insecta) has been
+divided. For the relationship of the Coleoptera to other orders
+of insects see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span>. The name (Gr. <span class="grk" title="koleos">&#954;&#959;&#955;&#949;&#972;&#962;</span>, a sheath, and
+<span class="grk" title="ptera">&#960;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#940;</span>, wings) was first used by Aristotle, who noticed the firm
+protective sheaths, serving as coverings for the hind-wings
+which alone are used for flight, without recognizing their correspondence
+with the fore-wings of other insects.</p>
+
+<p>These firm fore-wings, or elytra (fig. 1, A), are usually convex
+above, with straight hind margins (<i>dorsa</i>); when the elytra are
+closed, the two hind margins come together along the mid-dorsal
+line of the body, forming a <i>suture</i>. In many beetles the hind-wings
+are reduced to mere vestiges useless for flight, or are
+altogether absent, and in such cases the two elytra are often
+fused together at the suture; thus organs originally intended
+for flight have been transformed into an armour-like covering
+for the beetle&rsquo;s hind-body. In correlation with their heavy build
+and the frequent loss of the power of flight, many beetles are
+terrestrial rather than aerial in habit, though a large proportion
+of the order can fly well.</p>
+
+<p>Aristotle&rsquo;s term was adopted by Linnaeus (1758), and has been
+universally used by zoologists. The identification of the elytra
+of beetles with the fore-wings of other insects has indeed been
+questioned (1880) by F. Meinert, who endeavoured to compare
+them with the tegulae of Hymenoptera, but the older view was
+securely established by the demonstration in pupal elytra by J.
+G. Needham (1898) and W. L. Tower (1903), of nervures similar
+to those of the hind-wing, and by the proof that the small membranous
+structures present beneath the elytra of certain beetles,
+believed by Meinert to represent the whole of the true fore-wings,
+are in reality only the alulae.</p>
+
+<p><i>Structure.</i>&mdash;Besides the conspicuous character of the elytra,
+beetles are distinguished by the adaptation of the jaws for
+biting, the mandibles (fig. 1, Bb) being powerful, and the first
+pair of maxillae (fig. 1, Bc) usually typical in form. The maxillae
+of the second pair (fig. 1, Bd) are very intimately fused together
+to form what is called the &ldquo;lower lip&rdquo; or labium, a firm transverse
+plate representing the fused basal portions of the maxillae,
+which may carry a small median &ldquo;ligula,&rdquo; representing apparently
+the fused inner maxillary lobes, a pair of paraglossae
+(outer maxillary lobes), and a pair of palps. The feelers of
+beetles differ greatly in the different families (cf. figs. 2b, 9b and
+26b, c); the number of segments is usually eleven, but may vary
+from two to more than twenty.</p>
+
+<p>The head is extended from behind forwards, so that the
+crown (epicranium) is large, while the face (clypeus) is small.
+The chin (gula) is a very characteristic sclerite in beetles, absent
+only in a few families, such as the weevils. There is usually a
+distinct labrum (fig. 1, Ba).</p>
+
+<p>The prothorax is large and &ldquo;free,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> readily movable on the
+mesothorax, an arrangement usual among insects with the
+power of rapid running. The tergite of the prothorax (pronotum)
+is prominent in all beetles, reaching back to the bases of the
+elytra and forming a substantial shield for the front part of the
+body. The tergal regions of the mesothorax and of the metathorax
+are hidden under the pronotum and the elytra when the
+latter are closed, except that the mesothoracic scutellum is
+often visible&mdash;a small triangular or semicircular plate between
+the bases of the elytra (fig. 1, A). The ventral region of the
+thoracic skeleton is complex, each segment usually possessing
+a median sternum with paired episterna (in front) and epimera
+(behind). The articular surfaces of the haunches (coxae) of the
+fore-legs are often conical or globular, so that each limb works
+in a ball-and-socket joint, while the hind haunches are large,
+displacing the ventral sclerites of the first two abdominal segments
+(fig. 1, C). The legs themselves (fig. 1, A) are of the usual
+insectan type, but in many families one, two, or even three of
+the five foot-segments may be reduced or absent. In beetles
+of aquatic habit the intermediate and hind legs are modified
+as swimming-organs (fig. 2, a), while in many beetles that burrow
+into the earth or climb about on trees the fore-legs are broadened
+and strengthened for digging, or lengthened and modified for
+clinging to branches. The hard fore-wings (elytra) are
+strengthened with marginal ridges, usually inflected ventrally
+to form epipleura which fit accurately along the edges of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667"></a>667</span>
+abdomen. The upper surface of the elytron is sharply folded
+inwards at intervals, so as to give rise to a regular series of
+external longitudinal furrows (striae) and to form a set of supports
+between the two chitinous layers forming the elytron. The
+upper surface often shows a number of impressed dots (punctures).
+Along the sutural border of the elytron, the chitinous lamella
+forms a tubular space within which are numerous glands. The
+glands occur in groups, and lead into common ducts which open
+in several series along the suture. Sometimes the glands are
+found beneath the disk of the elytron, opening by pores on the
+surface. The hind-wings, when developed, are characteristic
+in form, possessing a sub-costal nervure with which the reduced
+radial nervure usually becomes associated. There are several
+curved median and cubital nervures and a single anal, but few
+cross nervures or areolets. The wing, when not in use, is folded
+both lengthwise and transversely, and doubled up beneath
+the elytron; to permit the transverse folding, the longitudinal
+nervures are interrupted.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:700px; height:356px" src="images/img667a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Structure of Male Stag-Beetle (<i>Lucanus cervus</i>). A, Dorsal view; B, mouth organs; C, under side.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:526px; height:346px" src="images/img667b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Water Beetles (<i>Dyticidae</i>). a, Beetle; b, head of beetle
+with feelers and palps; c, larva; d, pupa.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Ten segments can be recognized&mdash;according to the studies
+of K. W. Verhoeff (1804-1896)&mdash;in a beetle&rsquo;s abdomen, but the
+tenth sternite is usually absent. On account of the great
+extension of the metathorax and the haunches of the large hind-legs,
+the first abdominal sternite is wanting, and the second is
+usually so much reduced that the foremost apparent ventral
+sclerite of the abdomen represents the third sternite. From
+this point backwards the successive abdominal segments, as
+far as the seventh or eighth, can be readily made out. The
+ninth and tenth segments are at most times retracted within the
+eighth. The female can protrude a long flexible tube in connexion
+with the eighth segment, carrying the sclerites of the ninth at
+its extremity, and these sclerites may carry short hairy processes&mdash;the
+stylets. This flexible tube is the functional ovipositor,
+the typical insectan ovipositor with its three pairs of processes
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span>) being undeveloped among the Coleoptera. In
+male beetles, however, the two pairs of genital processes (paramera)
+belonging to the ninth abdominal segment are always
+present, though sometimes reduced. Between them is situated,
+sometimes asymmetrically, the prominent intromittent organ.</p>
+
+<p>In the structure of the digestive system, beetles resemble
+most other mandibulate insects, the food-canal consisting of
+gullet, crop, gizzard, mid-gut or stomach, intestine and rectum.
+The stomach is beset throughout its length with numerous
+small, finger-like caecal tubes. The excretory (malpighian)
+tubes are few in number, either four or six. Many beetles have,
+in connexion with the anus, glands which secrete a repellent
+acid fluid, serving as a defence for the insect when attacked.
+The &ldquo;bombardier&rdquo; ground beetles (fig. 5) have this habit.
+Oil-beetles (figs. 23 and 24) and ladybirds (fig. 32) defend themselves
+by ejecting drops of fluid from the knee-joints. The
+nervous system is remarkably concentrated in some beetles, the
+abdominal ganglia showing a tendency to become shifted
+forward and crowded together, and in certain chafers all the
+thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused into a single nerve-centre
+situated in the thorax,&mdash;a degree of specialization only
+matched in the insectan class among the Hemiptera and some
+muscid flies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Development.</i>&mdash;The embryonic development (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span>) has
+been carefully studied in several genera of beetles. As regards growth
+after hatching, all beetles undergo a &ldquo;complete&rdquo; metamorphosis,
+the wing-rudiments developing beneath the cuticle throughout the
+larval stages, and a resting pupal stage intervening between the last
+larval instar<a name="FnAnchor_1g" id="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and the imago. The coleopterous pupa (figs. 2d, 3c)
+is always &ldquo;free,&rdquo; the legs, wings and other appendages not being
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668"></a>668</span>
+fixed to the body as in the pupa of a moth, and the likeness of pupa
+to perfect insect is very close.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:376px; height:385px" src="images/img668.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From Chittenden, <i>Yearbook</i>,  1894, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.</span><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Grain Weevils. a, <i>Calandra granaria</i>; b, larva; c, pupa;
+d, <i>C. oryzae</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The most striking feature in the development of beetles is the
+great diversity noticeable in the outward form of the larva in different
+families. The larva of a ground-beetle or a carnivorous water-beetle
+(fig. 2 c) is an active elongate grub with well-armoured
+cuticle. The head&mdash;carrying feelers, mandibles and two pairs of
+maxillae&mdash;is succeeded by the three thoracic segments, each bearing
+a pair of strong five-segmented legs, whose feet, like those of the adult,
+carry two claws. Ten segments can be distinguished in the tapering
+abdomen, the ninth frequently bearing a pair of tail-feelers (cerci),
+and the tenth, attached ventrally to the ninth, having the anal
+opening at its extremity and performing the function of a posterior
+limb, supporting and temporarily fixing the tail end of the insect
+on the surface over which it crawls. Such a typically &ldquo;campodeiform&rdquo;
+grub, moving actively about in pursuit of prey, is the
+one extreme of larval structure to be noticed among the Coleoptera.
+The other is exemplified by the white, wrinkled, soft-skinned, legless
+grub of a weevil, which lives underground feeding on roots, or
+burrows in the tissues of plants (fig. 3 b). Between these two
+extremes we find various transitional forms: an active larva, as
+described above, but with four-segmented, single-clawed legs, as
+among the rove-beetles and their allies; the body well armoured,
+but slender and worm-like, with very short legs as in wireworms
+and mealworms (figs. 18, 21 b); the body shortened, with the abdomen
+swollen, but protected with tubercles and spines, and with
+longish legs adapted for an active life, as in the predaceous larvae
+of ladybirds; the body soft-skinned, swollen and caterpillar-like,
+with legs well developed, but leading a sluggish underground life, as
+in the grub of a chafer; the body soft-skinned and whitish, and the
+legs greatly reduced in size, as in the wood-feeding grub of a longhorn
+beetle. In the case of certain beetles whose larvae do not find
+themselves amid appropriate food from the moment of hatching,
+but have to migrate in search of it, an early larval stage, with legs,
+is followed by later sluggish stages in which legs have disappeared,
+furnishing examples of what is called hypermetamorphosis. For
+example, the grub of a pea or bean beetle (<i>Bruchus</i>) is hatched, from
+the egg laid by its mother on the carpel of a leguminous flower,
+with three pairs of legs and spiny processes on the prothorax. It
+bores through and enters the developing seed, where it undergoes
+a moult and becomes legless. Similarly the newly-hatched larva
+of an oil-beetle (<i>Meloe</i>) is an active little campodeiform insect, which,
+hatched from an egg laid among plants, waits to attach itself to a
+passing bee. Carried to the bee&rsquo;s nest, it undergoes a moult, and
+becomes a fat-bodied grub, ready to lead a quiet life feeding on the
+bee&rsquo;s rich food-stores.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Distribution and Habits.</i>&mdash;The Coleoptera are almost world-wide
+in their distribution, being represented in the Arctic
+regions and on almost all oceanic islands. Most of the dominant
+families&mdash;such as the <i>Carabidae</i> (ground-beetles), <i>Scarabaeidae</i>
+(chafers), or <i>Curculionidae</i> (weevils) have a distribution as wide
+as the order. But while some large families, such as the <i>Staphylinidae</i>
+(rove-beetles) are especially abundant on the great
+northern continents, becoming scarcer in the tropics, others, the
+<i>Cicindelidae</i> (tiger-beetles), for example, are most strongly
+represented in the warmer regions of the earth, and become
+scarce as the collector journeys far to south or north. The
+distribution of many groups of beetles is restricted in correspondence
+with their habits; the <i>Cerambycidae</i> (longhorns),
+whose larvae are wood-borers, are absent from timberless
+regions, and most abundant in the great tropical forests. Some
+families are very restricted in their range. The <i>Amphizoidae</i>,
+for example, a small family of aquatic beetles, are known only
+from western North America and Eastern Tibet, while an allied
+family, the <i>Pelobiidae</i>, inhabit the British Isles, the Mediterranean
+region, Tibet and Australia. The beetles of the British
+islands afford some very interesting examples of restricted
+distribution among species. For example, large and conspicuous
+European beetles, such as the stag-beetle (fig. 1, <i>Lucanus cervus</i>)
+and the great water-beetle (<i>Hydrophilus piceus</i>, fig. 20), are
+confined to eastern and southern Britain, and are unknown
+in Ireland. On the other hand, there are Arctic species like the
+ground-beetle, <i>Pelophila borealis</i>, and south-western species
+like the boring weevil, <i>Mesites Tardyi</i>, common in Ireland, and
+represented in northern or western Britain, but unknown in
+eastern Britain or in Central Europe. Careful study of insular
+faunas, such as that of Madeira by T. V. Wollaston, and of the
+Sandwich Islands by D. Sharp, and the comparison of the species
+found with those of the nearest continental land, furnish the
+student of geographical distribution with many valuable and
+suggestive facts.</p>
+
+<p>Notes on habit are given below in the accounts of the various
+families. In general it may be stated that beetles live and feed
+in almost all the diverse ways possible for insects. There are
+carnivores, herbivores and scavengers among them. Various
+species among those that are predaceous attack smaller insects,
+hunt in packs crustaceans larger than themselves, insert their
+narrow heads into snail-shells to pick out and devour the occupants,
+or pursue slugs and earthworms underground. The
+vegetable-feeders attack leaves, herbaceous or woody stems
+and roots; frequently different parts of a plant are attacked
+in the two active stages of the life-history; the cockchafers,
+for example, eating leaves, and their grubs gnawing roots.
+Some of the scavengers, like the burying beetles, inter the
+bodies of small vertebrates to supply food for themselves and
+their larvae, or, like the &ldquo;sacred&rdquo; beetle of Egypt, collect for
+the same purpose stores of dung. Many beetles of different
+families have become the &ldquo;unbidden guests&rdquo; of civilized man,
+and may be found in dwelling-houses, stores and ships&rsquo; cargoes,
+eating food-stuffs, paper, furniture, tobacco and drugs. Hence
+we find that beetles of some kind can hold their own anywhere
+on the earth&rsquo;s surface. Some climb trees and feed on leaves,
+while others tunnel between bark and wood. Some fly through
+the air, others burrow in the earth, while several families have
+become fully adapted to life in fresh water. A large number
+of beetles inhabit the deep limestone caves of Europe and North
+America, while many genera and some whole families are at
+home nowhere but in ants&rsquo; nests. Most remarkable is the
+presence of a number of beetles along the seashore between
+tide-marks, where, sheltered in some secure nook, they undergo
+immersion twice daily, and have their active life confined to the
+few hours of the low ebb.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stridulating Organs.</i>&mdash;Many beetles make a hissing or chirping
+sound by rubbing a &ldquo;scraper,&rdquo; formed by a sharp edge or
+prominence on some part of their exoskeleton, over a &ldquo;file&rdquo;
+formed by a number of fine ridges situate on an adjacent region.
+These stridulating organs were mentioned by C. Darwin as probable
+examples of the action of sexual selection; they are, however,
+frequently present in both sexes, and in some families also in
+the larvae. An account of the principal types of stridulators
+that have been described has been published by C. J. Gahan
+(1900). The file may be on the head&mdash;either upper or lower
+surface&mdash;and the scraper formed by the front edge of the prothorax,
+as in various wood-boring beetles (<i>Anobium</i> and <i>Scolytus</i>).
+Or ridged areas on the sides of the prothorax may be scraped by
+&ldquo;files&rdquo; on the front thighs, as in some ground-beetles. Among
+the longhorn beetles, the prothorax scrapes over a median file
+on the mid-dorsal aspect of the mesothorax. In a large number
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669"></a>669</span>
+of beetles of different families, stridulating areas occur on various
+segments of the abdomen, and are scraped by the elytra. It is
+remarkable that these organs are found in similar positions in
+genera belonging to widely divergent families, while two genera
+of the same family may have them in different positions. It
+follows, therefore, that they have been independently acquired
+in the course of the evolution of the Coleoptera.</p>
+
+<p>Stridulating organs among beetle-larvae have been noted,
+especially in the wood-feeding grub of the stag-beetles (<i>Lucanidae</i>)
+and their allies the <i>Passalidae</i>, and in the dung-eating
+grubs of the dor-beetles (<i>Geotrupes</i>), which belong to the
+chafer family (<i>Scarabaeidae</i>). These organs are described by
+J. C. Schiödte and D. Sharp; in the stag-beetle larva a series
+of short tubercles on the hind-leg is drawn across the serrate edge
+of a plate on the haunch of the intermediate legs, while in the
+Passalid grub the modified tip of the hind-leg acts as a scraper,
+being so shortened that it is useless for locomotion, but highly
+specialized for producing sound. Whatever may be the true
+explanation of stridulating organs in adult beetles, sexual
+selection can have had nothing to do with the presence of these
+highly-developed larval structures. It has been suggested that
+the power of stridulation would be advantageous to wood-boring
+grubs, the sound warning each of the position of its neighbour,
+so that adjacent burrowers may not get in each other&rsquo;s way.
+The root-feeding larvae of the cockchafer and allied members
+of the <i>Scarabaeidae</i> have a ridged area on the mandible, which
+is scraped by teeth on the maxillae, apparently forming a
+stridulating organ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Luminous Organs.</i>&mdash;The function of the stridulating organs
+just described is presumably to afford means of recognition
+by sound. Some beetles emit a bright light from a portion of
+their bodies, which leads to the recognition of mate or comrade
+by sight. In the wingless female glow-worm (<i>Lampyris</i>, fig. 15 f)
+the luminous region is at the hinder end, the organ emitting
+the light consisting, according to H. von Wielowiejski (1882),
+of cells similar to those of the fat-body, containing a substance
+that undergoes oxidation. The illumination is intermittent,
+and appears to be under the control of the insect&rsquo;s nervous
+system. The well-known &ldquo;fire-flies&rdquo; of the tropics are large
+click-beetles (<i>Elateridae</i>), that emit light from paired spots on
+the prothorax and from the base of the ventral abdominal
+region. The luminous organs of these beetles consist of a
+specialized part of the fat-body, with an inner opaque and an
+outer transparent layer. Its structure has been described by
+C. Heinemann, and its physiology by R. Dubois (1886), who
+considers that the luminosity is due to the influence of an enzyme
+in the cells of the organ upon a special substance in the blood.
+The eggs and larvae of the fire-flies are luminous as well as the
+perfect beetles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fossil History.</i>&mdash;The Coleoptera can be traced back farther
+in time than any other order of insects with complete transformations,
+if the structures that have been described from the
+Carboniferous rocks of Germany are really elytra. In the
+Triassic rocks of Switzerland remains of weevils (<i>Curculionidae</i>)
+occur, a family which is considered by many students the most
+specialized of the order. And when we know that the <i>Chrysomelidae</i>
+and <i>Buprestidae</i> also lived in Triassic, and the <i>Carabidae</i>,
+<i>Elateridae</i>, <i>Cerambycidae</i> and <i>Scarabaeidae</i>, in Liassic times,
+we cannot doubt that the great majority of our existing families
+had already been differentiated at the beginning of the Mesozoic
+epoch. Coming to the Tertiary we find the Oligocene beds of
+Aix, of east Prussia (amber) and of Colorado, and the Miocene
+of Bavaria, especially rich in remains of beetles, most of which
+can be referred to existing genera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification.</i>&mdash;The Coleoptera have been probably more
+assiduously studied by systematic naturalists than any other
+order of insects. The number of described species can now hardly
+be less than 100,000, but there is little agreement as to the main
+principles of a natural classification. About eighty-five families
+are generally recognized; the difficulty that confronts the
+zoologists is the arrangement of these families in &ldquo;superfamilies&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;sub-orders.&rdquo; Such obvious features as the number of
+segments in the foot and the shape of the feeler were used by
+the early entomologists for distinguishing the great groups of
+beetles. The arrangement dependent on the number of tarsal
+segments&mdash;the order being divided into tribes <i>Pentamera</i>,
+<i>Tetramera</i>, <i>Heteromera</i> and <i>Trimera</i>&mdash;was suggested by E. L.
+Geoffroy in 1762, adopted by P. A. Latreille, and used largely
+through the 19th century. W. S. Macleay&rsquo;s classification (1825),
+which rested principally on the characters of the larvae, is
+almost forgotten nowadays, but it is certain that in any systematic
+arrangement which claims to be natural the early stages
+in the life-history must receive due attention. In recent years
+classifications in part agreeing with the older schemes but largely
+original, in accord with researches on the comparative anatomy
+of the insects, have been put forward. Among the more conservative
+of these may be mentioned that of D. Sharp (1899),
+who divides the order into six great series of families: <i>Lamellicornia</i>
+(including the chafers and stag-beetles and their allies
+with five-segmented feet and plate-like terminal segments to
+the feelers); <i>Adephaga</i> (carnivorous, terrestrial and aquatic
+beetles, all with five foot-segments); <i>Polymorpha</i> (including
+a heterogeneous assembly of families that cannot be fitted into
+any of the other groups); <i>Heteromera</i> (beetles with the fore and
+intermediate feet five-segmented, and the hind-feet four-segmented);
+<i>Phytophaga</i> (including the leaf-beetles, and longhorns,
+distinguished by the apparently four-segmented feet), and
+<i>Rhynchophora</i> (the weevils and their allies, with head prolonged
+into a snout, and feet with four segments). L. Ganglbauer (1892)
+divides the whole order into two sub-orders only, the <i>Caraboidea</i>
+(the <i>Adephaga</i> of Sharp and the older writers) and the <i>Cantharidoidea</i>
+(including all other beetles), since the larvae of <i>Caraboidea</i>
+have five-segmented, two-clawed legs, while those of all other
+beetles have legs with four segments and a single claw. A.
+Lameere (1900) has suggested three sub-orders, the <i>Cantharidiformia</i>
+(including the <i>Phytophaga</i>, the <i>Heteromera</i>, the <i>Rhynchophora</i>
+and most of the <i>Polymorpha</i> of Sharp&rsquo;s classification),
+the <i>Staphyliniformia</i> (including the rove-beetles, carrion-beetles
+and a few allied families of Sharp&rsquo;s <i>Polymorpha</i>), and the <i>Carabidiformia</i>
+(<i>Adephaga</i>). Lameere&rsquo;s classification is founded on
+the number of abdominal sterna, the nervuration of the wings,
+the number of malpighian tubules (whether four or six) and other
+structural characters. Preferable to Lameere&rsquo;s system, because
+founded on a wider range of adult characters and taking the
+larval stages into account, is that of H. J. Kolbe (1901), who
+recognizes three sub-orders: (i.) the <i>Adephaga</i>; (ii.) the
+<i>Heterophaga</i>, including the <i>Staphylinoidea</i>, the <i>Actinorhabda</i>
+(<i>Lamellicornia</i>), the <i>Heterorhabda</i> (most of Sharp&rsquo;s <i>Polymorpha</i>),
+and the <i>Anchistopoda</i> (the <i>Phytophaga</i>, with the ladybirds
+and some allied families which Sharp places among the <i>Polymorpha</i>);
+(iii.) the <i>Rhynchophora</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Students of the Coleoptera have failed to agree not only on a
+system of classification, but on the relative specialization of
+some of the groups which they all recognize as natural. Lameere,
+for example, considers some of his <i>Cantharidiformia</i> as the most
+primitive Coleoptera. J. L. Leconte and G. H. Horn placed
+the <i>Rhynchophora</i> (weevils) in a group distinct from all other
+beetles, on account of their supposed primitive nature. Kolbe,
+on the other hand, insists that the weevils are the most modified
+of all beetles, being highly specialized as regards their adult
+structure, and developing from legless maggots exceedingly
+different from the adult; he regards the Adephaga, with their
+active armoured larvae with two foot-claws, as the most primitive
+group of beetles, and there can be little doubt that the likeness
+between larvae and adult may safely be accepted as a primitive
+character among insects. In the Coleoptera we have to do with
+an ancient yet dominant order, in which there is hardly a family
+that does not show specialization in some point of structure
+or life-history. Hence it is impossible to form a satisfactory
+linear series.</p>
+
+<p>In the classification adopted in this article, the attempt has
+been made to combine the best points in old and recent schemes,
+and to avoid the inconvenience of a large heterogeneous group
+including the vast majority of the families.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page670" id="page670"></a>670</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Adephaga</span>.&mdash;This tribe includes beetles of carnivorous habit with
+five segments on every foot, simple thread-like feelers with none of
+the segments enlarged to form club or pectination, and the outer
+lobs (galea) of the first maxilla usually two-segmented and palpiform
+(fig. 4 b). The transverse fold of the hind-wing is towards the tip,
+about two-thirds of the wing-length from the base. At this fold
+the median nervure stops and is joined by a cross nervure to the
+radial, which can be distinguished throughout its length from the
+subcostal. There are four malpighian tubules. In the ovarian
+tubes of Adephaga small yolk-chambers alternate with the egg-chambers,
+while in all other beetles there is only a single large yolk-chamber
+at the narrow end of the tube. The larvae (fig. 2 c) are
+active, with well-chitinized cuticle, often with elongate tail-feelers
+(cerci), and with five-segmented legs, the foot-segment carrying two
+claws.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:481px" src="images/img670a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;<i>Mormolyce phyllodes</i>. Java. a, Labium; b, maxilla;
+c, labrum; d, mandible.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The generalized arrangement of the wing-nervure and the nature
+of the larva, which is less unlike the adult than in other beetles,
+distinguish this tribe as primitive, although the perfect insects are,
+in the more dominant families, distinctly specialized. Two very
+small families of aquatic beetles seem to stand at the base of the series,
+the <i>Amphizoidae</i>, whose larvae are broad and well armoured with
+short cerci, and the <i>Pelobiidae</i>, which have elongate larvae, tapering
+to the tail end, where are long paired cerci and a median process,
+recalling the grub of a Mayfly.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:496px; height:307px" src="images/img670b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;<i>Pheropsophus Jurinei</i>. W. Africa.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;<i>Carabus rutilans</i>. Spain.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Dyticidae</i> (fig. 2) are Adephaga highly specialized for life in
+the water, the hind-legs having the segments short, broad and fringed,
+so as to be well adapted for swimming, and the feet without claws.
+The metasternum is without the transverse linear impression that
+is found in most families of Adephaga. The beetles are ovoid in
+shape, with smooth contours, and the elytra fit over the edges of the
+abdomen so as to enclose a supply of air, available for use when the
+insect remains under water. The fore-legs of many male dyticids
+have the three proximal foot-segments broad and saucer-shaped, and
+covered with suckers, by means of which they secure a firm hold of
+their mates. Larval dyticids (fig. 2 b) possess slender, curved,
+hollow mandibles, which are perforated at the tip and at the base,
+being thus adapted for sucking the juices of victims. Large dyticid
+larvae often attack small fishes and tadpoles. They breathe by
+piercing the surface film with the tail, where a pair of spiracles are
+situated. The pupal stage is passed in an earthen cell, just beneath
+the surface of the ground. Nearly 2000 species of <i>Dyticidae</i> are
+known: they are universally distributed, but are most abundant in
+cool countries. The <i>Haliplidae</i> form a small aquatic family allied
+to the <i>Dyticidae</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:495px; height:348px" src="images/img670c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;<i>Cicindela sylvatica</i> (Wood Tiger-Beetle). Europe.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;<i>Manticora tuberculata</i>. S. Africa.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Carabidae</i>, or ground-beetles, comprising 13,000 species, form
+the largest and most typical family of the Adephaga (figs. 4, 5, 6), the
+legs of all three pairs being alike and adapted for rapid running. In
+many <i>Carabidae</i> the hind-wings are reduced or absent, and the elytra
+fused together along the suture. Many of our native species spend
+the day lurking beneath stones, and sally forth at night in pursuit of
+their prey, which consists of small insects, earthworms and snails. But
+a number of the more brightly coloured ground-beetles run actively
+in the sunshine. The carabid larva is an active well-armoured grub
+with the legs and cerci variable in length. Great differences in the
+general form of the body may be observed in the family. For
+example, the stout, heavy body of <i>Carabus</i> (fig. 6) contrasts markedly
+with the wonderful flattened abdomen and elytra of <i>Mormolyce</i>
+(fig. 4), a Malayan genus found beneath fallen trees, a situation for
+which its compressed shape is admirably adapted. Blind <i>Carabidae</i>
+form a large proportion of cave-dwelling
+beetles, and several
+species of great interest live
+between tide-marks along the
+seashore.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:284px; height:434px" src="images/img670d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Cicindelidae</i>, or tiger-beetles
+(figs. 7, 8) are the most
+highly organized of all the
+Adephaga. The inner lobe
+(lacinia) of the first maxilla
+terminates in an articulated
+hook, while in the second
+maxillae (labium) both inner
+and outer lobes (&ldquo;ligula&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;para-glossae&rdquo;) are much
+reduced. The face (clypeus) is
+broad, extending on either side
+in front of the insertion of the
+feelers. The beetles are elegant
+insects with long, slender legs,
+running quickly, and flying in
+the sunshine. The pronotum
+and elytra are often adorned
+with bright colours or metallic
+lustre, and marked with stripes
+or spots. The beetles are fierce
+in nature and predaceous in
+habit, their sharp toothed
+mandibles being well adapted
+for the capture of small insect-victims. The larvae are more
+specialized than those of other Adephaga, the head and prothorax
+being very large and broad, the succeeding segments slender and incompletely
+chitinized. The fifth abdominal segment has a pair of
+strong dorsal hook-like processes, by means of which the larva
+supports itself in the burrow which it excavates in the earth, the
+great head blocking the entrance with the mandibles ready to seize
+on any unwary insect that may venture within reach.</p>
+
+<p>Two or three families may be regarded as aberrant Adephaga.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page671" id="page671"></a>671</span>
+The <i>Paussidae</i> are a very remarkable family of small beetles, mostly
+tropical, found only in ants&rsquo; nests, or flying by night, and apparently
+migrating from one nest to another. The number of antennal
+segments varies from eleven to two. It is supposed that these
+beetles secrete a sweet substance on which the ants feed, but they
+have been seen to devour the ants&rsquo; eggs and grubs. The <i>Gyrinidae</i>,
+or whirligig beetles (fig. 9), are a curious aquatic family with the
+feelers (fig. 9, b) short and reduced as in most <i>Paussidae</i>. They are
+flattened oval in form, circling with gliding motion over the surface
+film of the water, and occasionally diving, when they carry down
+with them a bubble of air. The fore-legs are elongate and adapted
+for clasping, while the short and flattened intermediate and hind
+legs form very perfect oar-like propellers. The larva of <i>Gyrinus</i>
+(fig. 9, c) is slender with elongate legs, and the abdominal segments
+carry paired tracheal gills.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Staphylinoidea.</span>&mdash;The members of this tribe may be easily
+recognized by their wing-nervuration. Close to a transverse fold
+near the base of the wing, the median nervure divides into branches
+which extend to the wing-margin; there is a second transverse fold
+near the tip of the wing, and cross nervures are altogether wanting.
+There are four malpighian tubes, and all five tarsal segments are
+usually recognizable. With very few exceptions, the larva in this
+group is active and campodeiform, with cerci and elongate legs as in
+the Adephaga, but the leg has only four segments and one claw.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:423px; height:187px" src="images/img671a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;<i>Silpha quadripunctata</i>. Europe.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;<i>Necrophorus vespillo</i><br /> (Sexton Beetle). Europe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Silphidae</i>, or carrion beetles, form one of the best-known
+families of this group. They are rotund or elongate insects with
+conical front haunches, the elytra generally covering (fig. 10) the
+whole dorsal region of the abdomen, but sometimes leaving as many
+as four terga exposed (fig. 11). Some of these beetles are brightly
+coloured, while others are dull black. They are usually found in
+carrion, and the species of <i>Necrophorus</i> (fig. 11) and <i>Necrophaga</i> are
+valuable scavengers from their habit of burying small vertebrate
+carcases which may serve as food for their larvae. At this work a
+number of individuals are associated together. The larvae that live
+underground have spiny dorsal plates, while those of the <i>Silpha</i>
+(fig. 10) and other genera that go openly about in search of food
+resemble wood-lice. About 1000 species of <i>Silphidae</i> are known.
+Allied to the <i>Silphidae</i> are a number of small and obscure families,
+for which reference must be made to monographs of the order.
+Of special interest among these are the <i>Histeridae</i>, compact beetles
+(fig. 12) with very hard cuticle and somewhat abbreviated elytra,
+with over 2000 species, most of which live on decaying matter, and
+the curious little <i>Pselaphidae</i>, with three-segmented tarsi, elongate
+palpi, and shortened abdomen; the latter are usually found in ants&rsquo;
+nests, where they are tended by the ants, which take a sweet fluid
+secreted among little tufts of hair on the beetles&rsquo; bodies; these
+beetles, which are carried about by the ants, sometimes devour
+their larvae. The <i>Trichopterygidae</i>, with their delicate narrow
+fringed wings, are the smallest of all beetles, while the <i>Platypsyllidae</i>
+consist of only a single species of curious form found on the beaver.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:455px; height:183px" src="images/img671b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span> <i>Hister iv-maculatus</i><br /> (Mimic Beetle). Europe.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span> <i>Oxyporus rufus</i>.<br /> Europe.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span> <i>Stenus biguttatus</i>.<br /> Europe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Staphylinidae</i>, or rove-beetles&mdash;a large family of nearly
+10,000 species&mdash;may be known by their very short elytra, which
+cover only two of the abdominal segments, leaving the elongate
+hind-body with seven or eight exposed, firm terga (figs. 13, 14).
+These segments are very mobile, and as the rove-beetles run along
+they often curl the abdomen upwards and forwards like the tail of a
+scorpion. The <i>Staphylinid</i> larvae are typically campodeiform.
+Beetles and larvae are frequently carnivorous in habit, hunting for
+small insects under stones, or pursuing the soft-skinned grubs of
+beetles and flies that bore in woody stems or succulent roots. Many
+<i>Staphylinidae</i> are constant inmates of ants&rsquo; nests.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:319px; height:224px" src="images/img671c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Glow-worm. <i>Lampyris noctiluca</i>. a, Male; b, female; c, larva (ventral view). Europe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Malacodermata.</span>&mdash;In this tribe may be included a number of
+families distinguished by the softness of the cuticle, the presence of
+seven or eight abdominal sterna and of four malpighian tubes,
+and the firm, well-armoured
+larva (fig. 15, c)
+which is often predaceous
+in habit. The mesothoracic
+epimera bound the
+coxal cavities of the intermediate
+legs. The <i>Lymexylonidae</i>,
+a small family
+of this group, characterized
+by its slender, undifferentiated
+feelers and
+feet, is believed by
+Lameere to comprise the
+most primitive of all living
+beetles, and Sharp lays
+stress on the undeveloped
+structure of the tribe
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Lampyridae</i> are a
+large family, of which the glow-worm (<i>Lampyris</i>) and the &ldquo;soldier
+beetles&rdquo; (<i>Telephorus</i>) are familiar examples. The female &ldquo;glow-worm&rdquo;
+(fig. 15, b), emitting the well-known light (see above), is
+wingless and like a larva; the luminosity seems to be an attraction
+to the male, whose eyes are often exceptionally well developed.
+Some male members of the family have remarkably complex feelers.
+In many genera of <i>Lampyridae</i> the female can fly as well as the
+male; among these are the South European &ldquo;fireflies.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1" colspan="2"><img style="width:331px; height:150px" src="images/img671d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;<i>Clerus apiarus</i> (Hive Beetle). Europe.</td>
+<td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;<i>Dermestes lardarius</i> (Bacon Beetle).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Trichodermata.</span>&mdash;Several families of rather soft-skinned beetles,
+such as the <i>Melyridae</i>, <i>Cleridae</i> (fig. 16), <i>Corynetidae</i>, <i>Dermestidae</i>
+(fig. 17), and <i>Dascillidae</i>,
+are included
+in this tribe. They
+may be distinguished
+from the
+Malacodermata by
+the presence of only
+five or six abdominal
+sterna, while six malpighian
+tubes are
+present in some of
+the families. The
+beetles are hairy
+and their larvae
+well-armoured and often predaceous. Several species of <i>Dermestidae</i>
+are commonly found in houses, feeding on cheeses, dried meat,
+skins and other such substances. The &ldquo;bacon beetle&rdquo; (<i>Dermestes
+lardarius</i>), and its hard hairy larva, are well known. According to
+Sharp, all Dermestid larvae probably feed on dried animal matters;
+he mentions one species that can find sufficient food in the horsehair
+of furniture, and another that eats the dried insect-skins hanging in
+old cobwebs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Sternoxia.</span>&mdash;This is an important tribe of beetles, including
+families with four malpighian tubes and only five or six abdominal
+sterna, while in the thorax there is a backwardly directed process
+of the prosternum that fits into a mesosternal cavity. The larvae
+are elongate and worm-like, with short legs but often with hard strong
+cuticle.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:434px; height:275px" src="images/img671e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle; C, adult Click Beetle (<i>Agriotes lineatum</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Elateridae</i> or click beetles (fig. 18) have the prosternal process
+just mentioned, capable of movement in and out of the mesosternal
+cavity, the beetles being thus enabled to leap into the air, hence their
+popular name of &ldquo;click-beetles&rdquo; or &ldquo;skip-jacks.&rdquo; The prothorax
+is convex in front, and is usually drawn out behind into a prominent
+process on either side, while the elytra are elongate and tapering.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page672" id="page672"></a>672</span>
+Many of the tropical American <i>Elateridae</i> emit light from the spots
+on the prothorax and an area beneath the base of the abdomen;
+these are &ldquo;fireflies&rdquo; (see above). The larvae of <i>Elateridae</i> are
+elongate, worm-like grubs, with narrow bodies, very firm cuticle,
+short legs, and a distinct anal proleg. They are admirably adapted
+for moving through the soil, where some of them live on decaying
+organic matter, while others are predaceous. Several of the elaterid
+larvae, however, gnaw roots and are highly destructive to farm crops.
+These are the well-known &ldquo;wire-worms&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 406px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:356px; height:509px" src="images/img672a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;<i>Catoxantha bicolor</i>. Java.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Buprestidae</i> are distinguished from the <i>Elateridae</i> by the immobility
+of the prosternal process in the mesosternal cavity and by
+the absence of the lateral processes at the hind corners of the
+prothorax. Many
+tropical <i>Buprestidae</i>
+are of large size (fig.
+19), and exhibit
+magnificent metallic
+colours; their elytra
+are used as ornaments
+in human
+dress. The larvae
+are remarkable for
+their small head,
+very broad thorax,
+with reduced legs,
+and narrow elongate
+abdomen. They
+feed by burrowing in
+the roots and stems
+of plants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bostrychoidea.</span>&mdash;This tribe is distinguished
+from the
+Malacoderma and
+allied groups by the
+mesothoracic epimera
+not bounding
+the coxal cavities
+of the intermediate
+legs. The downwardly
+directed
+head is covered by
+the pronotum, and
+the three terminal
+antennal segments
+form a distinct club.
+To this group belong the <i>Bostrychidae</i> and <i>Ptinidae</i>, well known
+(especially the latter family) for their ravages in old timber. The
+larvae are stout and soft-skinned, with short legs in correlation
+with their burrowing habit. The noises made by some <i>Ptinidae</i>
+(<i>Anobium</i>) tapping on the walls of their burrows with their mandibles
+give rise to the &ldquo;death tick&rdquo; that has for long alarmed the
+superstitious.</p>
+
+<p style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</p>
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:213px; height:353px" src="images/img672b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;<i>Hydrophilus piceus</i> (Black Water Beetle). Europe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Clavicornia.</span>&mdash;This is a somewhat heterogeneous group, most of
+whose members are characterized by clubbed feelers and simple,
+unbroadened tarsal segments&mdash;usually
+five on each foot&mdash;but in some families
+and genera the males have less than the
+normal number on the feet of one pair.
+There are either four or six malpighian
+tubes. A large number of families,
+distinguished from each other by more
+or less trivial characters, are included
+here, and there is considerable diversity
+in the form of the larvae. The best-known
+family is the <i>Hydrophilidae</i>, in
+which the feelers are short with less
+than eleven segments and the maxillary
+palpi very long. Some members of this
+family&mdash;the large black <i>Hydrophilus
+piceus</i> (fig. 20), for example&mdash;are
+specialized for an aquatic life, the body
+being convex and smooth as in the
+<i>Dyticidae</i>, and the intermediate and
+hind-legs fringed for swimming. When
+<i>Hydrophilus</i> dives it carries a supply
+of air between the elytra and the dorsal
+surface of the abdomen, while air is
+also entangled in the pubescence which
+extends beneath the abdomen on either
+side, being scooped in bubbles by the
+terminal segments of the feelers when
+the insect rises to the surface. Many of the <i>Hydrophilidae</i> construct,
+for the protection of their eggs, a cocoon formed of a silky
+material derived from glands opening at the tip of the abdomen.
+That of <i>Hydrophilus</i> is attached to a floating leaf, and is provided
+with a hollow, tapering process, which projects above the
+surface and presumably conveys air to the enclosed eggs. Other
+<i>Hydrophilidae</i> carry their egg-cocoons about with them beneath
+the abdomen. Many <i>Hydrophilidae</i>, unmodified for aquatic life,
+inhabit marshes. The larvae in this family are well-armoured,
+active and predaceous. Of the numerous other families of the
+Clavicornia may be mentioned the <i>Cucujidae</i> and <i>Cryptophagidae</i>,
+small beetles, examples of which may be found feeding on stored
+seeds or vegetable refuse, and the <i>Mycetophagidae</i>, which devour
+fungi. The <i>Nitidulidae</i> are a large family with 1600 species,
+among which members of the genus <i>Meligethes</i> are often found in
+numbers feeding on blossoms, while others live under the bark of
+trees and prey on the grubs of boring beetles.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:464px; height:297px" src="images/img672c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;(a) <i>Tenebrio molitor</i> (Flour Beetle).<br /> Europe.
+(b) Larva, or mealworm.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;<i>Blaps mortisaga</i><br /> (Churchyard Beetle). Europe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Heteromera.</span>&mdash;This tribe is distinguished by the presence of the
+normal five segments in the feet of the fore and intermediate legs,
+while only four segments are visible in the hind-foot. Considerable
+diversity is to be noticed in details of structure within this group,
+and for an enumeration of all the various families which have been
+proposed and their distinguishing characters the reader is referred
+to one of the monographs mentioned below. Some of the best-known
+members of the group belong to the <i>Tenebrionidae</i>, a large
+family containing over 10,000 species and distributed all over the
+world. The tenebrionid larva is elongate, with well-chitinized
+cuticle, short legs and two stumpy tail processes, the common mealworm
+(fig. 21) being a familiar example. Several species of this
+family are found habitually in stores of flour or grain. The beetles
+have feelers with eleven segments, whereof the terminal few are
+thickened so as to form a club. The true &ldquo;black-beetles&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;churchyard beetles&rdquo; (<i>Blaps</i>) (fig. 22) belong to this family; like
+members of several allied genera they are sooty in colour, and somewhat
+resemble ground beetles (<i>Carabi</i>) in general appearance.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:447px; height:219px" src="images/img672d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;<i>Meloe proscarabaeus</i><br /> (Oil Beetle). Europe.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;<i>Lytta vesicatoria</i><br /> (Blister Beetle). Europe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The most interesting of the Heteromera, and perhaps of all the
+Coleoptera, are some beetles which pass through two or more larval
+forms in the course of the life-history (hypermetamorphosis). These
+belong to the families <i>Rhipidophoridae</i> and <i>Meloidae</i>. The latter are
+the oil beetles (fig. 23) or blister beetles (fig. 24), insects with rather
+soft cuticle, the elytra (often abbreviated) not fitting closely to the
+sides of the abdomen, the head constricted behind the eyes to form
+a neck, and the claws of the feet divided to the base. Several of the
+<i>Meloidae</i> (such as the &ldquo;Spanish fly,&rdquo; fig. 24) are of economic
+importance, as they contain a vesicant substance used for raising
+medicinal blisters on the human skin. The wonderful transformations
+of these insects were first investigated by G. Newport in 1851,
+and have recently been more fully studied by C. V. Riley (1878)
+and J. H. Fabre. The first larval stage is the &ldquo;triungulin,&rdquo; a tiny,
+active, armoured larva with long legs (each foot with three claws)
+and cercopods. In the European species of <i>Sitaris</i> and <i>Meloe</i> these
+little larvae have the instinct of clinging to any hairy object. All
+that do not happen to attach themselves to a bee of the genus
+<i>Anthophora</i> perish, but those that succeed in reaching the right
+host are carried to the nest, and as the bee lays an egg in the cell the
+triungulin slips off her body on to the egg, which floats on the surface
+of the honey. After eating the contents of the egg, the larva moults
+and becomes a fleshy grub with short legs and with paired spiracles
+close to the dorsal region, so that, as it floats in and devours the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page673" id="page673"></a>673</span>
+honey, it obtains a supply of air. After a resting (pseudo-pupal)
+stage and another larval stage, the pupa is developed. In the
+American <span class="sc">Epicauta vittata</span> the larva is parasitic on the eggs and egg-cases
+of a locust. The triungulin searches for the eggs, and, after a
+moult, becomes changed into a soft-skinned tapering larva. This is
+followed by a resting (pseudo-pupal) stage, and this by two successive
+larval stages like the grub of a chafer. The <span class="sc">Rhipidophoridae</span> are
+beetles with, short elytra, the feelers pectinate in the males and serrate
+in the females. The life-history of <i>Metoecus</i> has been studied by
+T. A. Chapman, who finds that the eggs are laid in old wood, and that
+the triungulin seeks to attach itself to a social wasp, who carries it
+to her nest. There it feeds first as an internal parasite of the wasp-grub,
+then bores its way out, moults and devours the wasp larva
+from outside. The wasps are said to leave the larval or pupal
+<i>Metoecus</i> unmolested, but they are hostile to the developed beetles,
+which hasten to leave the nest as soon as possible.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Strepsiptera.</span>&mdash;Much difference of opinion has prevailed with
+regard to the curious, tiny, parasitic insects included in this division,
+some authorities considering that they should be referred to a distinct
+order, while others would group them in the family <i>Meloidae</i> just
+described. While from the nature of their life-history there is no
+doubt that they have a rather close relationship to the <i>Meloidae</i>,
+their structure is so remarkable that it seems advisable to regard
+them as at least a distinct tribe of Coleoptera.</p>
+
+<p>They may be comprised in a single family, the <i>Stylopidae</i>. The
+males are very small, free-flying insects with the prothorax, mesothorax
+and elytra greatly reduced, the latter appearing as little,
+twisted strips, while the metathorax is relatively large, with its
+wings broad and capable of longitudinal folding. The feelers are
+branched and the jaws vestigial. The female is a segmented, worm-like
+creature, spending her whole life within the body of the bee,
+wasp or bug on which she is parasitic. One end of her body protrudes
+from between two of the abdominal segments of the host;
+it has been a subject of dispute whether this protruded end is the
+head or the tail, but there can be little doubt that it is the latter.
+While thus carried about by the host-insect, the female is fertilized
+by the free-flying male, and gives birth to a number of tiny triungulin
+larvae. The chief points in the life-history of <i>Stylops</i> and <i>Xenos</i>,
+which are parasitic on certain bees (<i>Andrena</i>) and wasps (<i>Polistes</i>),
+have been investigated by K. T. E. von Siebold (1843) and N.
+Nassonov (1892). The little triungulins escape on to the body of
+the bee or wasp; then those that are to survive must leave their
+host for a non-parasitized insect. Clinging to her hairs they are
+carried to the nest, where they bore into the body of a bee or wasp
+larva, and after a moult become soft-skinned legless maggots. The
+growth of the parasitic larva does not stop the development of the
+host-larva, and when the latter pupates and assumes the winged
+form, the stylopid, which has completed its transformation, is
+carried to the outer world. The presence of a <i>Stylops</i> causes derangement
+in the body of its host, and can be recognized by various
+external signs. Other genera of the family are parasitic on Hemiptera&mdash;bugs
+and frog-hoppers&mdash;but nothing is known as to the details of
+their life-history.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Lamellicornia.</span>&mdash;This is a very well-marked tribe of beetles,
+characterized by the peculiar elongation and flattening of three or
+more of the terminal antennal segments, so that the feeler seems to
+end in a number of leaf-like plates, or small comb-teeth (fig. 26, b, c).
+The wings are well developed for flight, and there is a tendency
+in the group, especially among the males, towards an excessive
+development of the mandibles or the presence of enormous, horn-like
+processes on the head or pronotum. There are four malpighian tubes.
+The larvae are furnished with large heads, powerful mandibles and
+well-developed legs, but the body-segments are feebly chitinized,
+and the tail-end is swollen. They feed in wood or spend an underground
+life devouring roots or animal excrement.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Lucanidae</i> or stag beetles (figs. 1 and 25) have the terminal
+antennal segments pectinate, and so arranged that the comb-like
+part of the feeler cannot be curled up, while the elytra completely
+cover the abdomen. There are about 600 species in the family,
+the males being usually larger than the females, and remarkable
+for the size of their mandibles. In the same species, however, great
+variation occurs in the development of the mandibles, and the
+breadth of the head varies correspondingly, the smallest type of
+male being but little different in appearance from the female. The
+larvae of <i>Lucanidae</i> live within the wood of trees, and may take
+three or four years to attain their full growth. The <i>Passalidae</i> are a
+tropical family of beetles generally considered to be intermediate
+between stag-beetles and chafers, the enlarged segments of the feeler
+being capable of close approximation.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:523px; height:435px" src="images/img673a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;<i>Cladognathus cinnamomeus</i>.<br /> Java.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;<i>Melolontha fullo</i> (Cockchafer).<br /> S. Europe, b,
+Antenna of male; c, antenna of female.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Scarabaeidae</i> or chafers are an enormous family of about
+15,000 species. The plate-like segments of the feeler (fig. 26, b, c)
+can be brought close together so as to form a club-like termination;
+usually the hinder abdominal segments are not covered by the elytra.
+In this family there is often a marked divergence between the sexes;
+the terminal antennal segments are larger in the male than in the
+female, and the males may carry large spinous processes on the head
+or prothorax, or both. These structures were believed by C. Darwin
+to be explicable by sexual selection. The larvae have the three pairs
+of legs well developed, and the hinder abdominal segments swollen.
+Most of the <i>Scarabaeidae</i> are vegetable-feeders, but one section
+of the family&mdash;represented in temperate countries by the dor-beetles
+(<i>Geotrupes</i>) (fig. 28) and <i>Aphodius</i>, and in warmer regions
+by the &ldquo;sacred&rdquo; beetles of the Egyptians (<i>Scarabaeus</i>) (fig. 27),
+and allied genera&mdash;feed both in the adult and larval stages, on dung
+or decaying animal matter. The heavy grubs of <i>Geotrupes</i>, their
+swollen tail-ends black with the contained food-material, are often
+dug up in numbers in well-manured fields. The habits of <i>Scarabaeus</i>
+have been described in detail by J. H. Fabre. The female beetle in
+spring-time collects dung, which she forms into a ball by continuous
+rolling, sometimes assisted by a companion. This ball is buried in a
+suitable place, and serves the insect as a store of food. During
+summer the insects rest in their underground retreats, then in autumn
+they reappear to bury another supply of dung, which serves as food
+for the larvae. Fabre states that the mother-insect carefully
+arranges the food-supply so that the most nutritious and easily
+digested portion is nearest the egg, to form the first meal of the
+young larva. In some species of <i>Copris</i> it is stated that the female
+lays only two or three eggs at a time, watching the offspring grow to
+maturity, and then rearing another brood.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:408px; height:246px" src="images/img673b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;<i>Scarabaeus Aegyptiorum</i>.<br /> Africa.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;<i>Geotrupes Blackburnei</i>.<br /> N. America.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:429px; height:177px" src="images/img673c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;<i>Phaneus Imperator</i>.<br /> S. America.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;<i>Cetonia Baxii</i>.<br /> W. Africa.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Among the vegetable-feeding chafers we usually find that while
+the perfect insect devours leaves, the larva lives underground and
+feeds on roots. Such are the habits of the cockchafer (<i>Melolontha
+vulgaris</i>) and other species that often cause great injury to farm and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page674" id="page674"></a>674</span>
+garden crops (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chafer</a></span>). Many of these insects, such as the species
+of <i>Phanaeus</i> (fig. 29) and <i>Cetonia</i> (fig. 30), are adorned with metallic
+or other brilliant colours. The African &ldquo;goliath-beetles&rdquo; (fig. 31)
+and the American &ldquo;elephant-beetles&rdquo; (<i>Dynastes</i>) are the largest of
+all insects.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:612px; height:936px" src="images/img674a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;<i>Goliathus giganteus</i> (Goliath Beetle).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Anchistopoda.</span>&mdash;The families of beetles included by Kolbe in this
+group are distinguished by the possession of six malpighian tubes,
+and a great reduction in one or two of the tarsal segments, so that
+there seem to be only four or three segments in each foot; hence the
+names <i>Tetramera</i> and <i>Trimera</i> formerly applied to them. The larvae
+have soft-skinned bodies sometimes protected by rows of spiny
+tubercles, the legs being fairly developed in some families and greatly
+reduced or absent in others. As might be expected, degeneration in
+larval structure is correlated with a concealed habit of life.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Coccinellidae</i>, or ladybirds (fig. 32), are a large family of
+beetles, well known by their rounded convex bodies, usually shining
+and hairless. They have eleven segments to the feeler, which is
+clubbed at the tip, and apparently three segments only in each foot.
+Ladybirds are often brightly marked with spots and dashes, their
+coloration being commonly regarded as an advertisement of inedibility.
+The larvae have a somewhat swollen abdomen, which is
+protected by bristle-bearing tubercles. Like the perfect insects,
+they are predaceous, feeding on plant-lice (<i>Aphidae</i>) and scale insects
+(<i>Coccidae</i>). Their role in nature is therefore beneficial to the cultivator.
+The <i>Endomychidae</i> (fig. 33), an allied family, are mostly
+fungus-eaters. In the <i>Erotylidae</i> and a few other small related
+families the feet are evidently four-segmented.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:396px; height:198px" src="images/img674b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;<i>Anatio ocellata</i><br /> (Eyed Ladybird). Europe.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;<i>Endomychus coccineus</i>.<br /> Europe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:346px; height:223px" src="images/img674c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;<i>Sagra cyanea</i>.<br /> W. Africa.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;<i>Eumorphus ivguttatus</i>.<br /> Sumatra.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:383px; height:336px" src="images/img674d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;<i>Lophonocerus barbicornis</i>. S. America.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Chrysomelidae</i>, or leaf-beetles (figs. 34, 35), are a very large
+family, with &ldquo;tetramerous&rdquo; tarsi; there seem to be only four
+segments to the foot, but there are really five, the fourth being
+greatly reduced. The mandibles are strong, adapted for biting the
+vegetable substances on which these beetles feed, and the palps of
+the second maxillae have three segments. Most of the <i>Chrysomelidae</i>
+are metallic in colour and convex in form; in some the head is
+concealed beneath the prothorax, and the so-called &ldquo;tortoise&rdquo;
+beetles (<i>Cassidinae</i>) have the elytra raised into a prominent median
+ridge. The most active form of larva found in this family resembles
+in shape that of a ladybird, tapering towards the tail end, and
+having the trunk segments protected by small firm sclerites. Such
+larvae, and also many with soft cuticle and swollen abdomen&mdash;those
+of the notorious &ldquo;Colorado beetle,&rdquo; for example&mdash;feed openly
+on foliage. Others, with soft, white, cylindrical bodies, which recall
+the caterpillars of moths, burrow in the leaves or stems of plants.
+The larvae of the tortoise-beetles have the curious habit of forming
+an umbrella-like shield out of their own excrement, held in position
+by the upturned tail-process. The larvae of the beautiful, elongate,
+metallic <i>Donaciae</i> live in the roots and stems of aquatic plants,
+obtaining thence both food and air. The larva pierces the vessels
+of the plant with sharp processes at the hinder end of its body.
+In this way it is believed that the sub-aqueous cocoon in which the
+pupal stage is passed becomes filled with air.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Cerambycidae</i>, or longhorn beetles, are recognizable by their
+slender, elongate feelers, which are never clubbed and rarely serrate.
+The foot has apparently four segments, as in the <i>Chrysomelidae</i>.
+The beetles are usually elongate and elegant in form, often adorned
+with bright bands of colour, and some of the tropical species attain
+a very large size (figs. 36, 37). The feelers are usually longer in the
+male than in the female, exceeding in some cases by many times the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page675" id="page675"></a>675</span>
+length of the body. The larvae have soft, fleshy bodies, with the
+head and prothorax large and broad, and the legs very much reduced.
+They live and feed in the wood of trees. Consequently, beetles of
+this family are most abundant in forest regions, and reach their
+highest development in the dense virgin forests of tropical countries,
+South America being particularly rich in peculiar genera.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:373px; height:402px" src="images/img675a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;<i>Phryneta aurocincta</i>. West Africa.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Bruchidae</i>, or seed-beetles, agree with the two preceding
+families in tarsal structure; the head is largely hidden by the
+pronotum, and the elytra are short enough to leave the end of the
+abdomen exposed (fig. 38). The development of the pea and bean-beetles
+has been carefully studied by C. V. Riley, who finds that the
+young larva, hatched from the egg laid on the pod, has three pairs
+of legs, and that these are lost after the moult that occurs when the
+grub has bored its way into the seed. In Great Britain the beetle,
+after completing its development, winters in the seed, waiting to
+emerge and lay its eggs on the blossom in the ensuing spring.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:470px; height:141px" src="images/img675b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;<i>Bruchus piei</i><br /> (Pea Beetle.) Europe.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;<i>Platyrrhinus<br /> latirostris</i>. Europe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Rhynchophora.</span>&mdash;The <i>Rhynchophora</i> are a group of beetles easily
+recognized by the elongation of the head into a beak or snout, which
+carries the feelers at its sides and the jaws at its tip. The third tarsal
+segment is broad and bi-lobed, and the fourth is so small that the
+feet seem to be only four-segmented. There are six malpighian
+tubes. The ventral sclerite of the head-skeleton (gula), well developed
+in most families of beetles, is absent among the <i>Rhynchophora</i>, while
+the palps of the maxillae are much reduced. The larvae have soft,
+white bodies and, with very few exceptions, no legs.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:468px; height:263px" src="images/img675c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;<i>Brenthus anchorago</i>.<br /> Tropical Countries.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;<i>Otiorrhynchus <br />ligustici</i>. Europe.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;<i>Lixus paraplecticus</i>.<br /> Europe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Of the four families included in this group, the <i>Anthribidae</i> (fig. 39)
+have jointed, flexible palps, feelers&mdash;often of excessive length&mdash;with
+a short basal segment, and the three terminal segments forming
+a club, and, in some genera, larvae with legs. There are nearly 1000
+known species, most of which live in tropical countries. The
+<i>Brenthidae</i> are a remarkable family almost confined to the tropics;
+they are elongate and narrow in form (fig. 40), with a straight,
+cylindrical snout which in some male beetles of the family is longer
+than the rest of the body.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:124px" src="images/img675d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;<i>Scolytus ulmi</i>. (Bark Beetle). Europe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The <i>Curculionidae</i>, or weevils (<i>q.v.</i>), comprising 23,000 species,
+are by far the largest family of the group. The maxillary palps are
+short and rigid, and there is no distinct
+labrum, while the feelers are usually of
+an &ldquo;elbowed&rdquo; form, the basal segment
+being very elongate (figs. 41, 42). They
+are vegetable feeders, both in the perfect
+and larval stages, and are often highly
+injurious. The female uses her snout
+as a boring instrument to prepare a
+suitable place for egg-laying. The larvae
+(fig. 3) of some weevils live in seeds;
+others devour roots, while the parent-beetles
+eat leaves; others, again, are
+found in wood or under bark. The <i>Scolytidae</i>, or bark-beetles, are
+a family of some 1500 species, closely allied to the <i>Curculionidae</i>,
+differing only in the feeble development of the snout. They have
+clubbed feelers, and their cylindrical bodies (fig. 43) are well adapted
+for their burrowing habits under the bark of trees. Usually the
+mother-beetle makes a fairly straight tunnel along which, at short
+intervals, she lays her eggs. The grubs, when hatched, start galleries
+nearly at right angles to this, and when fully grown form oval cells
+in which they pupate; from these the young beetles emerge by
+making circular holes directly outward through the bark.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;In addition to what may be found in numerous
+important works on the Hexapoda (<i>q.v.</i>) as a whole, such as J. O.
+Westwood&rsquo;s <i>Modern Classification of Insects</i>, vol. i. (London, 1838);
+J. H. Fabre&rsquo;s <i>Souvenirs Entomologiques</i> (Paris, 1879-1891); D.
+Sharp&rsquo;s contribution to the Cambridge Natural History (vol. vi.,
+London, 1899); and L. C. Miall&rsquo;s <i>Aquatic Insects</i> (London, 1895),
+the special literature of the <i>Coleoptera</i> is enormous. Classical
+anatomical memoirs are those of L. Dufour (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> ii., iii.,
+iv., vi., viii., xiv., 1824-1828); <i>Ib.</i> (ser. 2, Zool.) i., 1834; and
+H. E. Strauss-Dürkheim, <i>Anatomie comparée des animaux articulées</i>
+(Paris, 1828).</p>
+
+<p>The wings of <i>Coleoptera</i> (including the elytra) are described and
+discussed by F. Meinert (<i>Entom. Tijdsk.</i> v., 1880); C. Hoffbauer
+(<i>Zeit. f. wissen. Zool.</i> liv., 1892); J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham
+(<i>Amer. Nat.</i> xxxii., 1898); and W. L. Tower (<i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i>
+xvii., 1903). The morphology of the abdomen, ovipositor and genital
+armature is dealt with by K. W. Verhoeff (<i>Ent. Nachtr.</i> xx., 1894,
+and <i>Arch. f. Naturg.</i> lxi., lxii., 1895-1896); and B. Wandolleck (<i>Zool.
+Jahrb. Anat.</i> xxii., 1905).</p>
+
+<p>Luminous organs are described by H. von Wielowiejski (<i>Zeits. f.
+wissen. Zool.</i> xxxvii., 1882); C. Heinemann (<i>Arch. f. mikr. Anat.</i>
+xxvii., 1886); and R. Dubois (<i>Bull. soc. zool. France</i>, 1886); and
+stridulating organs by C. J. Gahan (<i>Trans. Entom. Soc.</i>, 1900). See
+also C. Darwin&rsquo;s <i>Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex</i>
+(London, 1871).</p>
+
+<p>Many larvae of <i>Coleoptera</i> are described and beautifully figured by
+J. C. Schiödte (<i>Naturh. Tidsskr.</i> i.-xiii., 1861-1872). Hypermetamorphosis
+in the <i>Meloidae</i> is described by G. Newport (<i>Trans.
+Linn. Soc.</i> xx., xxi., 1851-1853); C. V. Riley (<i>Rep. U.S. Entom.
+Comm.</i> i., 1878); J. H. Fabre (<i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> (4), ix., xix., 1848-1853);
+H. Beauregard (<i>Les Insectes vésicants</i>, Paris, 1890); and
+A. Chabaud (<i>Ann. Soc. Ent. France</i>, lx., 1891); in the <i>Bruchidae</i>
+by Riley (<i>Insect Life</i>, iv., v., 1892-1893); and in the <i>Strepsiptera</i>
+(<i>Stylopidae</i>) by K. T. E. von Siebold (<i>Arch. f. Naturg.</i> ix., 1843);
+N. Nassonov (<i>Bull. Univ. Narsovie</i>, 1892); and C. T. Brues (<i>Zool.
+Jahrb. Anat.</i> xiii., 1903).</p>
+
+<p>For various schemes of classification of the <i>Coleoptera</i> see E. L.
+Geoffroy (<i>Insectes qui se trouvent aux environs de Paris</i>, Paris, 1762);
+A. G. Olivier (<i>Coléoptères</i>, Paris, 1789-1808); W. S. MacLeay
+(<i>Annulosa Javanica</i>, London, 1825); the general works of Westwood
+and Sharp, mentioned above; M. Gemminger and B. de Harold
+(<i>Catalogus Coleopterorum</i>, 12 vols., Munich, 1868-1872); T.
+Lacordaire and F. Chapuis (<i>Genera des Coléoptères</i>, 10 vols., Paris,
+1854-1874); J. L. Leconte and G. H. Horn (<i>Classification of Coleoptera
+of N. America</i>, Washington, Smithsonian Inst., 1883); L.
+Ganglbauer (<i>Die Käfer von Mitteleuropa</i>, Vienna, 1892, &amp;c.); A.
+Lameere (<i>Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.</i> xliv., xlvii., 1900-1903); and H. J.
+Kolbe (<i>Arch. f. Naturg.</i> lxvii., 1901).</p>
+
+<p>For the British species, W. W. Fowler (<i>Coleoptera of the British
+Islands</i>, 5 vols., London, 1887-1891) is the standard work; and W. F.
+Johnson and J. N. Halbert&rsquo;s &ldquo;Beetles of Ireland&rdquo; (<i>Proc. R. Irish
+Acad.</i>, 3, vi., 1902) is valuable faunistically. Among the large
+number of systematic writers on the order generally, or on special
+families, may be mentioned D. Sharp, T. V. Wollaston, H. W. Bates,
+G. C. Champion, E. Reitter, G. C. Crotch, H. S. Gorham, M. Jacoby,
+L. Fairmaire and C. O. Waterhouse.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1g" id="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Instar is a convenient term suggested by D. Sharp to indicate
+a stage in the life-history of an insect between two successive castings
+of the cuticle.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLEPEPER, JOHN COLEPEPER<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Culpepper</span>), <span class="sc">1st
+Baron</span> (d. 1660), English politician, was the only son of Sir
+John Colepeper of Wigsell, Sussex. He began his career in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page676" id="page676"></a>676</span>
+military service abroad, and came first into public notice at
+home through his knowledge of country affairs, being summoned
+often before the council board to give evidence on such matters.
+He was knighted, and was elected member for Kent in the Long
+Parliament, when he took the popular side, speaking against
+monopolies on the 9th of November 1640, being entrusted with
+the impeachment of Sir Robert Berkeley on the 12th of February
+1641, supporting Stafford&rsquo;s attainder, and being appointed to
+the committee of defence on the 12th of August 1641. He
+separated, however, from the popular party on the Church
+question, owing to political rather than religious objections,
+fearing the effect of the revolutionary changes which were now
+contemplated. He opposed the London petition for the abolition
+of episcopacy, the project of religious union with the Scots, and
+the Root and Branch Bill, and on the 1st of September he
+moved a resolution in defence of the prayer-book. In the
+following session he opposed the militia bill and the Grand
+Remonstrance, and finally on the 2nd of January 1642 he
+joined the king&rsquo;s party, taking office as chancellor of the exchequer.
+He highly disapproved of the attempt upon the five
+members, which was made without his knowledge, but advised
+the enterprise against Hull. On the 25th of August 1642 he
+appeared at the bar of the House of Commons to deliver the
+king&rsquo;s final proposals for peace, and was afterwards present at
+Edgehill, where he took part in Prince Rupert&rsquo;s charge and
+opposed the retreat of the king&rsquo;s forces from the battlefield.
+In December he was made by Charles master of the rolls. He
+was a leading member of the Oxford Parliament, and was said,
+in opposition to the general opinion, to have counselled considerable
+concessions to secure peace. His influence in military
+affairs caused him to be much disliked by Prince Rupert and
+the army, and the general animosity against him was increased
+by his advancement to the peerage on the 21st of October 1644
+by the title of Baron Colepeper of Thoresway in Lincolnshire.</p>
+
+<p>He was despatched with Hyde in charge of the prince of Wales
+to the West in March 1645, and on the 2nd of March 1646, after
+Charles&rsquo;s final defeat, embarked with the prince for Scilly, and
+thence to France. He strongly advocated the gaining over
+of the Scots by religious concessions, a policy supported by the
+queen and Mazarin, but opposed by Hyde and other leading
+royalists, and constantly urged this course upon the king, at the
+same time deprecating any yielding on the subject of the militia.
+He promoted the mission of Sir John Berkeley in 1647 to secure
+an understanding between Charles and the army. In 1648 he
+accompanied the prince in his unsuccessful naval expedition,
+and returned with him to the Hague, where violent altercations
+broke out among the royalist leaders, Colepeper going so far, on
+one occasion in the council, as to challenge Prince Rupert, and
+being himself severely assaulted in the streets by Sir Robert
+Walsh. He continued after the execution of the king to press
+the acceptance on Charles II. of the Scottish proposals. He was
+sent to Russia in 1650, where he obtained a loan of 20,000
+roubles from the tsar, and, soon after his return, to Holland, to
+procure military assistance. By the treaty, agreed to between
+Cromwell and Mazarin, of August 1654, Colepeper was obliged
+to leave France, and he appears henceforth to have resided in
+Flanders. He accompanied Charles II. to the south of France
+in September 1659, at the time of the treaty of the Pyrenees.
+At the Restoration he returned to England, but only survived
+a few weeks, dying on the 11th of June 1660.</p>
+
+<p>Several contemporary writers agree in testifying to Colepeper&rsquo;s
+great debating powers and to his resources as an adviser, but
+complain of his want of stability and of his uncertain temper.
+Clarendon, with whom he was often on ill terms, speaks generally
+in his praise, and repels the charge of corruption levelled against
+him. That he was gifted with considerable political foresight
+is shown by a remarkable letter written on the 20th of September
+1658 on the death of Cromwell, in which he foretells with
+uncommon sagacity the future developments in the political
+situation, advises the royalists to remain inactive till the right
+moment and profit by the division of their opponents, and
+distinguishes Monck as the one person willing and capable of
+effecting the Restoration (<i>Clarendon State Papers</i>, iii. 412).
+Colepeper was twice married, (1) to Philippa, daughter of Sir
+John Snelling, by whom he had one son, who died young, and
+a daughter, and (2) to Judith, daughter of Sir J. Colepeper
+of Hollingbourn, Kent, by whom he had seven children. Of
+these Thomas (d. 1719; governor of Virginia 1680-1683) was
+the successor in the title, which became extinct on the death
+of his younger brother Cheney in 1725.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLERAINE<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span>, a seaport and market town of Co. Londonderry,
+Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, on the Bann, 4 m.
+from its mouth, and 61½ m. N.W. by N. from Dublin by the
+Northern Counties (Midland) railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 6958. The town stands upon both sides of the river,
+which is crossed by a handsome stone bridge, connecting the
+town and its suburb, Waterside or Killowen. The principal
+part is on the east bank, and consists of a central square called
+the Diamond, and several diverging streets. Among institutions
+may be mentioned the public schools founded in 1613 and
+maintained by the Honourable Irish Society, and the Academical
+Institution, maintained by the Irish Society and the London
+Clothworkers&rsquo; Company. The linen trade has long been
+extensively carried on in the town, from which, indeed, a fine
+description of cloth is known as &ldquo;Coleraines.&rdquo; Whisky-distilling,
+pork-curing, and the salmon and eel fisheries are prosecuted.
+The mouth of the river was formerly obstructed by a bar, but
+piers were constructed, and the harbours greatly improved by
+grants from the Irish Society of London and from a loan under
+the River Bann Navigation Act 1879. Coleraine ceased to
+return one member to the Imperial parliament in 1885; having
+previously returned two to the Irish parliament until the Union.
+It was incorporated by James I. It owed its importance mainly
+to the Irish Society, which was incorporated as the Company
+for the New Plantation of Ulster in 1613. Though fortified only
+by an earthen wall, it managed to hold out against the rebels
+in 1641. There are no remains of a former priory, monastery
+and castle. A rath or encampment of large size occupies Mount
+Sandel, 1 m. south-east.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLERIDGE, HARTLEY<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1796-1849), English man of letters,
+eldest son of the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, was born on the
+19th of September 1796, near Bristol. His early years were
+passed under Southey&rsquo;s care at Greta Hall, Keswick, and he was
+educated by the Rev. John Dawes at Ambleside. In 1815 he
+went to Oxford, as scholar of Merton College. His university
+career, however, was very unfortunate. He had inherited the
+weakness of purpose, as well as the splendid conversational
+powers, of his father, and lapsed into habits of intemperance.
+He was successful in gaining an Oriel fellowship, but at the
+close of the probationary year (1820) was judged to have forfeited
+it. The authorities could not be prevailed upon to reverse
+their decision; but they awarded to him a free gift of £300.
+Hartley Coleridge then spent two years in London, where he
+wrote short poems for the <i>London Magazine</i>. His next step was
+to become a partner in a school at Ambleside, but this scheme
+failed. In 1830 a Leeds publisher, Mr. F. E. Bingley, made a
+contract with him to write biographies of Yorkshire and Lancashire
+worthies. These were afterwards republished under the
+title of <i>Biographia Borealis</i> (1833) and <i>Worthies of Yorkshire
+and Lancashire</i> (1836). Bingley also printed a volume of his
+poems in 1833, and Coleridge lived in his house until the contract
+came to an end through the bankruptcy of the publisher. From
+this time, except for two short periods in 1837 and 1838 when
+he acted as master at Sedbergh grammar school, he lived quietly
+at Grasmere and (1840-1849) Rydal, spending his time in
+study and wanderings about the countryside. His figure was as
+familiar as Wordsworth&rsquo;s, and his gentleness and simplicity of
+manner won for him the friendship of the country-people. In
+1839 appeared his edition of Massinger and Ford, with biographies
+of both dramatists. The closing decade of Coleridge&rsquo;s
+life was wasted in what he himself calls &ldquo;the woeful impotence
+of weak resolve.&rdquo; He died on the 6th of January 1849. The
+prose style of Hartley Coleridge is marked by much finish and
+vivacity; but his literary reputation must chiefly rest on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page677" id="page677"></a>677</span>
+sanity of his criticisms, and above all on his <i>Prometheus</i>, an
+unfinished lyric drama, and on his sonnets. As a sonneteer he
+achieved real excellence, the form being exactly suited to his
+sensitive genius. <i>Essays and Marginalia</i>, and <i>Poems</i>, with a
+memoir by his brother Derwent, appeared in 1851.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span>, <span class="sc">1st Baron</span> (1820-1894),
+lord chief justice of England, was the eldest son of Sir
+John Taylor Coleridge. He was born at Heath&rsquo;s Court, Ottery
+St Mary, on the 3rd of December 1820. He was educated at
+Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, of which he was a scholar.
+He was called to the bar in 1846, and went the western circuit,
+rising steadily, through more than twenty years of hard work,
+till in 1865 he was returned as member for Exeter in the Liberal
+interest. The impression which he made on the heads of his
+party was so favourable that they determined, early in the
+session of 1867, to put him forward as the protagonist of their
+attack on the Conservative government. But that move
+seemed to many of their staunchest adherents unwise, and it
+was frustrated by the active opposition of a section, including
+Hastings Russell (later ninth duke of Bedford), his brother
+Arthur, member for Tavistock, Alexander Mitchell of Stow,
+A. W. Kinglake and Henry Seymour. They met to deliberate
+in the tea-room of the House, and were afterwards sometimes
+confounded with the tea-room party which was of subsequent
+formation and under the guidance of a different group. The
+protest was sufficient to prevent the contemplated attack being
+made, but the Liberals returned to power in good time with a
+large majority behind them in 1868. Coleridge was made, first
+solicitor-, and then attorney-general.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1863 a small body of Oxford men in parliament
+had opened fire against the legislation which kept their university
+bound by ecclesiastical swaddling clothes. They had made a
+good deal of progress in converting the House of Commons to
+their views before the general election of 1865. That election
+having brought Coleridge into parliament, he was hailed as a
+most valuable ally, whose great university distinction, brilliant
+success as an orator at the bar, and hereditary connexion with
+the High Church party, entitled him to take the lead in a movement
+which, although gathering strength, was yet very far
+from having achieved complete success. The clerically-minded
+section of the Conservative party could not but listen to the son
+of Sir John Coleridge, the godson of Keble, and the grand-nephew
+of the man who had been an indirect cause of the Anglican
+revival of 1833,&mdash;for John Stuart Mill was right when he said
+that the poet Coleridge and the philosopher Bentham were,
+so far as England was concerned, the leaders of the two chief
+movements of their times: &ldquo;it was they who taught the teachers,
+and who were the two great seminal minds.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Walking up one evening from the House of Commons to dine
+at the Athenaeum with Henry Bruce (afterwards Lord Aberdare)
+and another friend, Coleridge said: &ldquo;There is a trial coming
+on which will be one of the most remarkable <i>causes célèbres</i>
+that has ever been heard of.&rdquo; This was the Tichborne case,
+which led to proceedings in the criminal courts rising almost to
+the dignity of a political event. The Tichborne trial was the
+most conspicuous feature of Coleridge&rsquo;s later years at the bar,
+and tasked his powers as an advocate to the uttermost, though
+he was assisted by the splendid abilities and industry of Charles
+(afterwards Lord) Bowen. In November 1873 Coleridge succeeded
+Sir W. Bovill as chief justice of the common pleas, and
+was immediately afterwards raised to the peerage as Baron
+Coleridge of Ottery St Mary. In 1880 he was made lord chief
+justice of England on the death of Sir Alexander Cockburn.</p>
+
+<p>In jury cases his quickness in apprehending facts and his
+lucidity in arranging them were very remarkable indeed. He
+was not one of the most learned of lawyers, but he was a great
+deal more learned than many people believed him to be, and as
+an ecclesiastical lawyer had perhaps few or no superiors. His
+fault&mdash;a natural fault in one who had been so successful as an
+advocate&mdash;was that of being too apt to take one side. He
+allowed, also, certain political or personal prepossessions to colour
+the tone of his remarks from the bench. A game-preserving
+landlord had not to thank the gods when his case, however
+buttressed by generally accepted claims, came before Coleridge.
+Towards the end of his life his health failed, and he became
+somewhat indolent. On the whole, he was not so strong a man
+in his judicial capacity as Campbell or Cockburn; but it must
+be admitted that his scholarship, his refinement, his power of
+oratory, and his character raised the tone of the bench while he
+sat upon it, and that if it has been adorned by greater judicial
+abilities, it has hardly ever known a greater combination of
+varied merits. It is curious to observe that of all judges the
+man whom he put highest was one very unlike himself, the
+great master of the rolls, Sir William Grant. Coleridge died in
+harness on the 14th of June 1894.</p>
+
+<p>Coleridge&rsquo;s work, first as a barrister, and then as a judge,
+prevented his publishing as much as he otherwise would have
+done, but his addresses and papers would, if collected, fill a
+substantial volume and do much honour to his memory. One
+of the best, and one most eminently characteristic of the man,
+was his inaugural address to the Philosophical Institution at
+Edinburgh in 1870; another was a paper on Wordsworth (1873).
+He was an exceptionally good letter-writer. Of travel he had
+very little experience. He had hardly been to Paris; once,
+quite near the end of his career, he spent a few days in Holland,
+and came back a willing slave to the genius of Rembrandt; but
+his longest absence from England was a visit, which had something
+of a representative legal character, to the United States.
+It is strange that a man so steeped in Greek and Roman poetry,
+so deeply interested in the past, present and future of Christianity,
+never saw Rome, or Athens, or the Holy Land. A subsidiary
+cause, no doubt, was the fatal custom of neglecting
+modern languages at English schools. He felt himself at a
+disadvantage when he passed beyond English-speaking lands,
+and cordially disliked the situation. No notice of Coleridge
+should omit to make mention of his extraordinary store of
+anecdotes, which were nearly always connected with Eton,
+Oxford, the bar or the bench. His exquisite voice, considerable
+power of mimicry, and perfect method of narration added
+greatly to the charm. He once told, at the table of Dr Jowett,
+master of Balliol, anecdotes through the whole of dinner on
+Saturday evening, through the whole of breakfast, lunch and
+dinner the next day, through the whole journey on Monday
+morning from Oxford to Paddington, without ever once repeating
+himself. He was frequently to be seen at the Athenaeum, was
+a member both of Grillion&rsquo;s and The Club, as well as of the
+Literary Society, of which he was president, and whose meetings
+he very rarely missed. Bishop Copleston is said to have divided
+the human race into three classes,&mdash;men, women and Coleridges.
+If he did so, he meant, no doubt, to imply that the family of
+whom the poet of <i>Christabel</i> was the chief example regarded
+themselves as a class to themselves, the objects of a special
+dispensation. John Duke Coleridge was sarcastic and critical,
+and at times over-sensitive. But his strongest characteristics
+were love of liberty and justice. By birth and connexions a
+Conservative, he was a Liberal by conviction, and loyal to his
+party and its great leader, Mr Gladstone.</p>
+
+<p>Coleridge had three sons and a daughter by his first wife,
+Jane Fortescue, daughter of the Rev. George Seymour of
+Freshwater. She was an artist of real genius, and her portrait
+of Cardinal Newman was considered much better than the one
+by Millais. She died in February 1878; a short notice of her
+by Dean Church of St Paul&rsquo;s was published in the <i>Guardian</i>,
+and was reprinted in her husband&rsquo;s privately printed collection
+of poems. Coleridge remained for some years a widower, but
+married in 1885 Amy Augusta Jackson Lawford, who survived
+him. He was succeeded in the peerage by his eldest son, Bernard
+John Seymour (b. 1851), who went to the bar and became a K.C.
+in 1892. In 1907 he was appointed a judge of the Supreme
+Court. The two other sons were Stephen (b. 1854), a barrister,
+secretary to the Anti-Vivisection Society, and Gilbert James
+Duke (b. 1859).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Life and Correspondence</i>, edited by E. H. Coleridge, was
+published in 1904; see further E. Manson, <i>Builders of our Law</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page678" id="page678"></a>678</span>
+(1904); and for the history of the Coleridge family see Lord Coleridge,
+<i>The Story of a Devonshire House</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. G. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1790-1876), English
+judge, the second son of Captain James Coleridge and nephew
+of the poet S. T. Coleridge, was born at Tiverton, Devon, and
+was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where he had
+a brilliant career. He graduated in 1812 and was soon after
+made a fellow of Exeter; in 1819 he was called to the bar at the
+Middle Temple and practised for some years on the western
+circuit. In 1824, on Gifford&rsquo;s retirement, he assumed the
+editorship of the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, resigning it a year afterwards
+in favour of Lockhart. In 1825 he published his excellent
+edition of <i>Blackstone&rsquo;s Commentaries</i>, and in 1832 he was made
+a serjeant-at-law and recorder of Exeter. In 1835 he was
+appointed one of the judges of the king&rsquo;s bench. In 1852 his
+university created him a D.C.L., and in 1858 he resigned his
+judgeship, and was made a member of the privy council. In
+1869, although in extreme old age, he produced his pleasant
+<i>Memoir of the Rev. John Keble</i>, whose friend he had been since
+their college days, a third edition of which was issued within
+a year. He died on the 11th of February 1876 at Ottery St Mary,
+Devon, leaving two sons and a daughter; the eldest son, John
+Duke, 1st Baron Coleridge (<i>q.v.</i>), became lord chief justice of
+England; the second son, Henry James (1822-1893), left the
+Anglican for the Roman Catholic church in 1852, and became
+well-known as a Jesuit divine, editor of <i>The Month</i>, and author
+of numerous theological works. Sir John Taylor Coleridge&rsquo;s
+brothers, James Duke and Henry Nelson (husband of Sara
+Coleridge), are referred to in other articles; his brother Francis
+George was the father of Arthur Duke Coleridge (b. 1830), clerk
+of assizes on the midland circuit and author of <i>Eton in the Forties</i>,
+whose daughter Mary E. Coleridge (1861-1907) became a
+well-known writer of fiction.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1772-1834), English poet
+and philosopher, was born on the 21st of October 1772, at his
+father&rsquo;s vicarage of Ottery St Mary&rsquo;s, Devonshire. His father,
+the Rev. John Coleridge (1719-1781), was a man of some mark.
+He was known for his great scholarship, simplicity of character,
+and affectionate interest in the pupils of the grammar school,
+of which he was appointed master a few months before becoming
+vicar of the parish (1760), reigning in both capacities till his
+death. He had married twice. The poet was the youngest
+child of his second wife, Anne Bowdon (d. 1809), a woman of
+great good sense, and anxiously ambitious for the success of
+her sons. On the death of his father, a presentation to Christ&rsquo;s
+Hospital was procured for Coleridge by the judge, Sir Francis
+Buller, an old pupil of his father&rsquo;s. He had already begun to
+give evidence of a powerful imagination, and he has described
+in a letter to his valued friend, Tom Poole, the pernicious effect
+which the admiration of an uncle and his circle of friends had
+upon him at this period. For eight years he continued at Christ&rsquo;s
+Hospital. Of these school-days Charles Lamb has given delightful
+glimpses in the <i>Essays of Elia</i>. The headmaster, Bowyer
+(as he was called, though his name was Boyer), was a severe
+disciplinarian, but respected by his pupils. Middleton, afterwards
+known as a Greek scholar, and bishop of Calcutta, reported
+Coleridge to Bowyer as a boy who read Virgil for amusement,
+and from that time Bowyer began to notice him and encouraged
+his reading. Some compositions in English poetry, written at
+sixteen, and not without a touch of genius, give evidence of the
+influence which Bowles, whose poems were then in vogue, had
+over his mind at this time. Before he left school his constitutional
+delicacy of frame, increased by swimming the New River
+in his clothes, began to give him serious discomfort.</p>
+
+<p>In February 1791 he was entered at Jesus College, Cambridge.
+A school-fellow who followed him to the university has described
+in glowing terms evenings in his rooms, &ldquo;when Aeschylus, and
+Plato, and Thucydides were pushed aside, with a pile of lexicons
+and the like, to discuss the pamphlets of the day. Ever and
+anon a pamphlet issued from the pen of Burke. There was no
+need of having the book before us;&mdash;Coleridge had read it in
+the morning, and in the evening he would repeat whole pages
+verbatim.&rdquo; William Frend, a fellow of Jesus, accused of sedition
+and Unitarianism, was at this time tried and expelled from
+Cambridge. Coleridge had imbibed his sentiments, and joined
+the ranks of his partisans. He grew discontented with university
+life, and in 1793, pressed by debt, went to London. Perhaps
+he was also influenced by his passion for Mary Evans, the sister
+of one of his school-fellows. A poem in the <i>Morning Chronicle</i>
+brought him a guinea, and when that was spent he enlisted in
+the 15th Dragoons under the name of Silas Tomkyn Comberbache.
+One of the officers of the dragoon regiment, finding a
+Latin sentence inscribed on a wall, discovered the condition of
+the very awkward recruit. Shortly afterwards an old school-fellow
+(G. L. Tuckett) heard of his whereabouts, and by the
+intervention of his brother, Captain James Coleridge, his discharge
+was procured. He returned for a short time to Cambridge, but
+quitted the university without a degree in 1794. In the same
+year he visited Oxford, and after a short tour in Wales went to
+Bristol, where he met Southey. The French Revolution had
+stirred the mind of Southey to its depths. Coleridge received
+with rapture his new friend&rsquo;s scheme of Pantisocracy. On the
+banks of the Susquehanna was to be founded a brotherly community,
+where selfishness was to be extinguished, and the
+virtues were to reign supreme. No funds were forthcoming,
+and in 1795, to the chagrin of Coleridge, the scheme was dropped.
+In 1794 <i>The Fall of Robespierre</i>, of which Coleridge wrote the
+first act and Southey the other two, appeared. At Bristol
+Coleridge formed the acquaintance of Joseph Cottle, the bookseller,
+who offered him thirty guineas for a volume of poems.
+In October of 1795 Coleridge married Sarah Fricker, and took
+up his residence at Clevedon on the Bristol Channel. A few
+weeks afterwards Southey married a sister of Mrs Coleridge, and
+on the same day quitted England for Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>Coleridge began to lecture in Bristol on politics and religion.
+He embodied the first two lectures in his first prose publication,
+<i>Conciones ad Populum</i> (1795). The book contained much
+invective against Pitt, and in after life Coleridge declared that,
+with this exception, and a few pages involving philosophical
+tenets which he afterwards rejected, there was little or nothing
+he desired to retract. The first volume of <i>Poems</i> was published
+by Cottle early in 1796. Coleridge projected a periodical called
+<i>The Watchman</i>, and in 1796 undertook a journey, well described
+in the <i>Biographic Literaria</i>, to enlist subscribers. <i>The Watchman</i>
+had a brief life of two months, but at this time Coleridge began
+to think of becoming a Unitarian preacher, and abandoning
+literature for ever. Hazlitt has recorded his very favourable
+impression of a remarkable sermon delivered at Shrewsbury;
+but there are other accounts of Coleridge&rsquo;s preaching not so
+enthusiastic. In the summer of 1795 he met for the first time
+the brother poet with whose name his own will be for ever
+associated. Wordsworth and his sister had established themselves
+at Racedown in the Dorsetshire hills, and here Coleridge
+visited them in 1797. There are few things in literary history
+more remarkable than this friendship. The gifted Dorothy
+Wordsworth described Coleridge as &ldquo;thin and pale, the lower
+part of the face not good, wide mouth, thick lips, not very good
+teeth, longish, loose, half-curling, rough, black hair,&rdquo;&mdash;but all
+was forgotten in the magic charm of his utterance. Wordsworth,
+who declared, &ldquo;The only wonderful man I ever knew was
+Coleridge,&rdquo; seems at once to have desired to see more of his new
+friend. He and his sister removed in July 1797 to Alfoxden,
+near Nether Stowey, to be in Coleridge&rsquo;s neighbourhood, and
+in the most delightful and unrestrained intercourse the friends
+spent many happy days. It was the delight of each one to
+communicate to the other the productions of his mind, and the
+creative faculty of both poets was now at its best. One evening,
+at Watchett on the British Channel, <i>The Ancient Mariner</i> first
+took shape. Coleridge was anxious to embody a dream of a
+friend, and the suggestion of the shooting of the albatross came
+from Wordsworth, who gained the idea from Shelvocke&rsquo;s <i>Voyage</i>
+(1726). A joint volume was planned. Wordsworth was to
+show the real poetry that lies hidden in commonplace subjects,
+while Coleridge was to treat supernatural subjects to illustrate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page679" id="page679"></a>679</span>
+the common emotions of humanity. From this sprang the
+<i>Lyrical Ballads</i>, to which Coleridge contributed <i>The Ancient
+Mariner</i>, the <i>Nightingale</i> and two scenes from <i>Osorio</i>, and after
+much cogitation the book was published in 1798 at Bristol by
+Cottle, to whose reminiscences, often indulging too much in
+detail, we owe the account of this remarkable time. A second
+edition of the <i>Lyrical Ballads</i> in 1800 included another poem
+by Coleridge&mdash;<i>Love</i>, to which subsequently the sub-title was
+given of <i>An Introduction to the Tale of the Dark Ladie</i>. To the
+Stowey period belong also the tragedy of <i>Osorio</i> (afterwards
+known as <i>Remorse</i>), <i>Kubla Khan</i> and the first part of <i>Christabel</i>.
+In 1798 an annuity, granted him by the brothers Wedgwood,
+led Coleridge to abandon his reluctantly formed intention of
+becoming a Unitarian minister. For many years he had desired
+to see the continent, and in September 1798, in company with
+Wordsworth and his sister, he left England for Hamburg.
+<i>Satyrane&rsquo;s Letters</i> (republished in <i>Biog. Lit.</i> 1817) give an account
+of the tour.</p>
+
+<p>A new period in Coleridge&rsquo;s life now began. He soon left the
+Wordsworths to spend four months at Ratzeburg, whence he
+removed to Göttingen to attend lectures. A great intellectual
+movement had begun in Germany. Coleridge was soon in the
+full whirl of excitement. He learnt much from Blumenbach and
+Eichhorn, and took interest in all that was going on around him.
+During his stay of nine months in Germany, he made himself
+master of the language to such purpose that the translation of
+<i>Wallenstein</i>&mdash;his first piece of literary work after his return to
+England&mdash;was actually accomplished in six weeks. It was
+published in 1800, and, although it failed to make any impression
+on the general public, it became at once prized by Scott and
+others as it deserved. It is matter for regret that a request to
+Coleridge that he should undertake to translate <i>Faust</i> never
+received serious attention from him. During these years Coleridge
+wrote many newspaper articles and some poems, among
+them &ldquo;Fire, Famine and Slaughter,&rdquo; for the <i>Morning Post</i>
+(January 8, 1798). He had vehemently opposed Pitt&rsquo;s policy,
+but a change came over his way of thought, and he found
+himself separated from Fox on the question of a struggle with
+Napoleon. He had lost his admiration for the Revolutionists,
+as his &ldquo;Ode to France&rdquo; shows (<i>Morning Post</i>, April 16, 1798).
+Like many other Whigs, he felt that all questions of domestic
+policy must at a time of European peril be postponed. From
+this time, however, his value for the ordered liberty of constitutional
+government increased; and though never exactly to be
+found among the ranks of old-fashioned Constitutionalists,
+during the remainder of his life he kept steadily in view the
+principles which received their full exposition in his well-known
+work on <i>Church and State</i>. In the year 1800 Coleridge left
+London for the Lakes. Here in that year he wrote the second
+part of <i>Christabel</i>. In 1803 Southey became a joint lodger with
+Coleridge at Greta Hall, Keswick, of which in 1812 Southey
+became sole tenant and occupier.</p>
+
+<p>In 1801 begins the period of Coleridge&rsquo;s life during which, in
+spite of the evidence of work shown in his compositions, he sank
+more and more under the dominion of opium, in which he may
+have first indulged at Cambridge. Few things are so sad to
+read as the letters in which he details the consequences of his
+transgression. He was occasionally seen in London during the
+first years of the century, and wherever he appeared he was the
+delight of admiring circles. He toured in Scotland with the
+Wordsworths in 1803, visited Malta in 1804, when for ten
+months he acted as secretary to the governor, and stayed nearly
+eight months at Naples and Rome in 1805-1806. In Rome he
+received a hint that his articles in the <i>Morning Post</i> had been
+brought to Napoleon&rsquo;s notice, and he made the voyage from
+Leghorn in an American ship. On a visit to Somersetshire in
+1807 he met De Quincey for the first time, and the younger man&rsquo;s
+admiration was shown by a gift of £300, &ldquo;from an unknown
+friend.&rdquo; In 1809 he started a magazine called <i>The Friend</i>,
+which continued only for eight months. At the same time
+Coleridge began to contribute to the <i>Courier</i>. In 1808 he
+lectured at the Royal Institution, but with little success, and
+two years later he gave his lectures on Shakespeare and other
+poets. These lectures attracted great attention and were
+followed by two other series. In 1812 his income from the
+Wedgwoods was reduced, and he settled the remainder on his
+wife. His friends were generous in assisting him with money.
+Eventually Mackintosh obtained a grant of £100 a year for him
+in 1824 during the lifetime of George IV., as one of the royal
+associates of the Society of Literature, and at different times
+he received help principally from Stuart, the publisher, Poole,
+Sotheby, Sir George Beaumont, Byron and Wordsworth, while
+his children shared Southey&rsquo;s home at Keswick. But between
+1812 and 1817 Coleridge made a good deal by his work, and was
+able to send money to his wife in addition to the annuity she
+received. The tragedy of <i>Remorse</i> was produced at Drury
+Lane in 1813, and met with considerable success. Three years
+after this, having failed to conquer the opium habit, he determined
+to enter the family of Mr James Gillman, who lived at
+Highgate. The letter in which he discloses his misery to this
+kind and thoughtful man gives a real insight into his character.
+Under judicious treatment the hour of mastery at last arrived.
+The shore was reached, but the vessel had been miserably
+shattered in its passage through the rocks. For the rest of his
+life he hardly ever left his home at Highgate. During his
+residence there, <i>Christabel</i>, written many years before, and
+known to a favoured few, was first published in a volume with
+<i>Kubla Khan</i> and the <i>Pains of Sleep</i> in 1816. He read widely
+and wisely, in poetry, philosophy and divinity. In 1816 and the
+following year, he gave his <i>Lay Sermons</i> to the world. <i>Sibylline
+Leaves</i> appeared in 1817; the <i>Biographia Literaria</i> and a revised
+edition of <i>The Friend</i> soon followed. Seven years afterwards
+his most popular prose work&mdash;<i>The Aids to Reflection</i>&mdash;first
+appeared. His last publication, in 1830, was the work on <i>Church
+and State</i>. It was not till 1840 that his <i>Confessions of an Inquiring
+Spirit</i>, by far his most seminal work, was posthumously published.
+In 1833 he appeared at the meeting of the British Association
+at Cambridge, but he died in the following year (25th of July
+1834), and was buried in the churchyard close to the house of
+Mr Gillman, where he had enjoyed every consolation which
+friendship and love could render. Coleridge died in the communion
+of the Church of England, of whose polity and teaching
+he had been for many years a loving admirer. An interesting
+letter to his god-child, written twelve days before his death,
+sums up his spiritual experience in a most touching form.</p>
+
+<p>Of the extraordinary influence which he exercised in conversation
+it is impossible to speak fully here. Many of the most
+remarkable among the younger men of that period resorted to
+Highgate as to the shrine of an oracle, and although one or two
+disparaging judgments, such as that of Carlyle, have been
+recorded, there can be no doubt that since Samuel Johnson
+there had been no such power in England. His nephew, Henry
+Nelson Coleridge, gathered together some specimens of the
+<i>Table Talk</i> of the few last years. But remarkable as these are
+for the breadth of sympathy and extent of reading disclosed,
+they will hardly convey the impressions furnished in a dramatic
+form, as in Boswell&rsquo;s great work. Four volumes of <i>Literary
+Remains</i> were published after his death, and these, along with the
+chapters on the poetry of Wordsworth in the <i>Biographia Literaria</i>,
+may be said to exhibit the full range of Coleridge&rsquo;s power as
+a critic of poetry. In this region he stands supreme. With
+regard to the preface, which contains Wordsworth&rsquo;s theory,
+Coleridge has honestly expressed his dissent:&mdash;&ldquo;With many
+parts of this preface, in the sense attributed to them, and which
+the words undoubtedly seem to authorize, I never concurred;
+but, on the contrary, objected to them as erroneous in principle,
+and contradictory (in appearance at least) both to other parts
+of the same preface, and to the author&rsquo;s own practice in the
+greater number of the poems themselves.&rdquo; This disclaimer of
+perfect agreement renders the remaining portion of what he
+says more valuable. Coleridge was in England the creator of
+that higher criticism which had already in Germany accomplished
+so much in the hands of Lessing and Goethe. It is enough
+to refer here to the fragmentary series of his Shakespearian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page680" id="page680"></a>680</span>
+criticisms, containing evidence of the truest insight, and a
+marvellous appreciation of the judicial &ldquo;sanity&rdquo; which raises
+the greatest name in literature far above even the highest of
+the poets who approached him.</p>
+
+<p>As a poet Coleridge&rsquo;s own place is safe. His niche in the great
+gallery of English poets is secure. Of no one can it be more
+emphatically said that at his highest he was &ldquo;of imagination
+all compact.&rdquo; He does not possess the fiery pulse and humaneness
+of Burns, but the exquisite perfection of his metre and the
+subtle alliance of his thought and expression must always
+secure for him the warmest admiration of true lovers of poetic
+art. In his early poems may be found traces of the fierce struggle
+of his youth. The most remarkable is the <i>Monody on the Death
+of Chatterton</i> and the <i>Religious Musings</i>. In what may be
+called his second period, the ode entitled <i>France</i>, considered
+by Shelley the finest in the language, is most memorable. The
+whole soul of the poet is reflected in the <i>Ode to Dejection</i>. The
+well-known lines&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>&ldquo;O Lady! we receive but what we give,</p>
+<p class="i05">And in our life alone does nature live;</p>
+<p class="i05">Ours is her wedding garment, ours her shroud,&rdquo;</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">with the passage which follows, contain more vividly, perhaps,
+than anything which Coleridge has written, the expression of
+the shaping and colouring function which he assigns, in the
+<i>Biographia Literaria</i>, to imagination. <i>Christabel</i> and the <i>Ancient
+Mariner</i> have so completely taken possession of the highest place,
+that it is needless to do more than allude to them. The supernatural
+has never received such treatment as in these two wonderful
+productions of his genius, and though the first of them
+remains a torso, it is the loveliest torso in the gallery of English
+literature. Although Coleridge had, for many years before his
+death, almost entirely forsaken poetry, the few fragments of
+work which remain, written in later years, show little trace of
+weakness, although they are wanting in the unearthly melody
+which imparts such a charm to <i>Kubla Khan</i>, <i>Love</i> and <i>Youth
+and Age</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="author">(G. D. B.; H. Ch.)</div>
+
+<p>In the latter part of his life, and for the generation which
+followed, Coleridge was ranked by many young English churchmen
+of liberal views as the greatest religious thinker of their
+time. As Carlyle has told in his <i>Life of Sterling</i>, the poet&rsquo;s
+distinction, in the eyes of the younger churchmen with philosophic
+interests, lay in his having recovered and preserved his
+Christian faith after having passed through periods of rationalism
+and Unitarianism, and faced the full results of German criticism
+and philosophy. His opinions, however, were at all periods
+somewhat mutable, and it would be difficult to state them in
+any form that would hold good for the whole even of his later
+writings. He was, indeed, too receptive of thought impressions
+of all kinds to be a consistent systematizer. As a schoolboy, by
+his own account, he was for a time a Voltairean, on the strength
+of a perusal of the <i>Philosophical Dictionary</i>. At college, as we
+have seen, he turned Unitarian. From that position he gradually
+moved towards pantheism, a way of thought to which he
+had shown remarkable leanings when, as a schoolboy, he discoursed
+of Neo-Platonism to Charles Lamb, or&mdash;if we may trust
+his recollection&mdash;translated the hymns of Synesius. Early in
+life, too, he met with the doctrines of Jacob Behmen, of whom,
+in the <i>Biographia Literaria</i>, he speaks with affection and gratitude
+as having given him vital philosophic guidance. Between
+pantheism and Unitarianism he seems to have balanced till his
+thirty-fifth year, always tending towards the former in virtue
+of the recoil from &ldquo;anthropomorphism&rdquo; which originally took
+him to Unitarianism. In 1796, when he named his first child
+David Hartley, but would not have him baptized, he held by
+the &ldquo;Christian materialism&rdquo; of the writer in question, whom in
+his <i>Religious Musings</i> he terms &ldquo;wisest of mortal kind.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>When, again, he met Wordsworth in 1797, the two poets freely
+and sympathetically discussed Spinoza, for whom Coleridge
+always retained a deep admiration; and when in 1798 he gave
+up his Unitarian preaching, he named his second child Berkeley,
+signifying a new allegiance, but still without accepting Christian
+rites otherwise than passively. Shortly afterwards he went to
+Germany, where he began to study Kant, and was much captivated
+by Lessing. In the <i>Biographia</i> he avows that the writings
+of Kant &ldquo;more than any other work, at once invigorated and
+disciplined my understanding&rdquo;; yet the gist of his estimate
+there is that Kant left his system undeveloped, as regards his
+idea of the Noumenon, for fear of orthodox persecution&mdash;a
+judgment hardly compatible with any assumption of Kant&rsquo;s
+Christian orthodoxy, which was notoriously inadequate. But
+after his stay at Malta, Coleridge announced to his friends that
+he had given up his &ldquo;Socinianism&rdquo; (of which ever afterwards
+he spoke with asperity), professing a return to Christian faith,
+though still putting on it a mystical construction, as when he told
+Crabb Robinson that &ldquo;Jesus Christ was a Platonic philosopher.&rdquo;
+At this stage he was much in sympathy with the historico-rationalistic
+criticism of the Old Testament, as carried on in
+Germany; giving his assent, for instance, to the naturalistic
+doctrine of Schiller&rsquo;s <i>Die Sendung Moses</i>. From about 1810
+onwards, however, he openly professed Christian orthodoxy,
+while privately indicating views which cannot be so described.
+And even his published speculations were such as to draw from
+J. H. Newman a protest that they took &ldquo;a liberty which no
+Christian can tolerate,&rdquo; and carried him to &ldquo;conclusions which
+were often heathen rather than Christian.&rdquo; This would apply
+to some of his positions concerning the Logos and the Trinity.
+After giving up Unitarianism he claimed that from the first he
+had been a Trinitarian on Platonic lines; and some of his latest
+statements of the doctrine are certainly more pantheistic than
+Christian.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation seems to be that while on Christian grounds
+he repeatedly denounced pantheism as being in all its forms
+equivalent to atheism, he was latterly much swayed by the
+thought of Schelling in the pantheistic direction which was
+natural to him. To these conflicting tendencies were probably
+due his self-contradictions on the problem of original sin and the
+conflicting claims of feeling and reason. It would seem that,
+in the extreme spiritual vicissitudes of his life, conscious alternately
+of personal weakness and of the largest speculative grasp,
+he at times threw himself entirely on the consolations of evangelical
+faith, and at others reconstructed the cosmos for himself
+in terms of Neo-Platonism and the philosophy of Schelling. So
+great were his variations even in his latter years, that he could
+speak to his friend Allsop in a highly latitudinarian sense,
+declaring that in Christianity &ldquo;the miracles are supererogatory,&rdquo;
+and that &ldquo;the law of God and the great principles of the Christian
+religion would have been the same had Christ never assumed
+humanity.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From Schelling, whom he praised as having developed Kant
+where Fichte failed to do so, he borrowed much and often, not
+only in the metaphysical sections of the <i>Biographia</i> but in his
+aesthetic lectures, and further in the cosmic speculations of the
+posthumous <i>Theory of Life</i>. On the first score he makes but
+an equivocal acknowledgment, claiming to have thought on
+Schelling&rsquo;s lines before reading him; but it has been shown by
+Hamilton and Ferrier that besides transcribing much from
+Schelling without avowal he silently appropriated the learning
+of Maass on philosophical history. In other directions he laid
+under tribute Herder and Lessing; yet all the while he cast
+severe imputations of plagiarism upon Hume and others. His
+own plagiarisms were doubtless facilitated by the physiological
+effects of opium.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch as he finally followed in philosophy the mainly
+poetical or theosophic movement of Schelling, which satisfied
+neither the logical needs appealed to by Hegel nor the new
+demand for naturalistic induction, Coleridge, after arousing a
+great amount of philosophic interest in his own country in the
+second quarter of the century, has ceased to &ldquo;make a school.&rdquo;
+Thus his significance in intellectual history remains that of a
+great stimulator. He undoubtedly did much to deepen and
+liberalize Christian thought in England, his influence being
+specially marked in the school of F. D. Maurice, and in the lives
+of men like John Sterling. And even his many borrowings from
+the German were assimilated with a rare power of development,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page681" id="page681"></a>681</span>
+which bore fruit not only in a widening of the field of English
+philosophy but in the larger scientific thought of a later
+generation.</p>
+
+<div class="author">(J. M. Ro.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of Coleridge&rsquo;s four children, two (Hartley and Sara) are separately
+noticed. His second child, Berkeley, died when a baby. The third,
+Derwent (1800-1883), a distinguished scholar and author, was master
+of Helston school, Cornwall (1825-1841), first principal of St Mark&rsquo;s
+College, Chelsea (1841-1864), and rector of Hanwell (1864-1880);
+and his daughter Christabel (b. 1843) and son Ernest Hartley (b.
+1846) both became well known in the world of letters, the former as a
+novelist, the latter as a biographer and critic.</p>
+
+<p>After Coleridge&rsquo;s death several of his works were edited by his
+nephew, Henry Nelson Coleridge, the husband of Sara, the poet&rsquo;s
+only daughter. In 1847 Sara Coleridge published the <i>Biographia
+Literaria</i>, enriched with annotations and biographical supplement
+from her own pen. Three volumes of political writings, entitled
+<i>Essays on his Own Times</i>, were also published by Sara Coleridge in
+1850. The standard life of Coleridge is that by J. Dykes Campbell
+(1894); his letters were edited by E. H. Coleridge.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLERIDGE, SARA<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1802-1852), English author, the fourth
+child and only daughter of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his
+wife Sarah Fricker of Bristol, was born on the 23rd of December
+1802, at Greta Hall, Keswick. Here, after 1803, the Coleridges,
+Southey and his wife (Mrs Coleridge&rsquo;s sister), and Mrs Lovell
+(another sister), widow of Robert Lovell, the Quaker poet, all lived
+together; but Coleridge was often away from home; and
+&ldquo;Uncle Southey&rdquo; was a <i>pater familias</i>. The Wordsworths at
+Grasmere were their neighbours. Wordsworth, in his poem,
+the <i>Triad</i>, has left us a description, or &ldquo;poetical glorification,&rdquo;
+as Sara Coleridge calls it, of the three girls&mdash;his own daughter
+Dora, Edith Southey and Sara Coleridge, the &ldquo;last of the three,
+though eldest born.&rdquo; Greta Hall was Sara Coleridge&rsquo;s home
+until her marriage; and the little Lake colony seems to have
+been her only school. Guided by Southey, and with his ample
+library at her command, she read by herself the chief Greek and
+Latin classics, and before she was five-and-twenty had learnt
+French, German, Italian and Spanish.</p>
+
+<p>In 1822 Sara Coleridge published <i>Account of the Abipones</i>, a
+translation in three large volumes of Dobrizhoffer, undertaken in
+connexion with Southey&rsquo;s <i>Tale of Paraguay</i>, which had been
+suggested to him by Dobrizhoffer&rsquo;s volumes; and Southey
+alludes to his niece, the translator (canto iii. stanza 16), where he
+speaks of the pleasure the old missionary would have felt if</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>&ldquo;.... he could in Merlin&rsquo;s glass have seen</p>
+<p class="i05">By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught.&rdquo;</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">In less grandiloquent terms, Charles Lamb, writing about the
+<i>Tale of Paraguay</i> to Southey in 1825, says, &ldquo;How she Dobrizhoffered
+it all out, puzzles my slender Latinity to conjecture.&rdquo;
+In 1825 her second work appeared, a translation from the medieval
+French of the &ldquo;Loyal Serviteur,&rdquo; <i>The Right Joyous and Pleasant
+History of the Feats, Jests, and Prowesses of the Chevalier Bayard,
+the Good Knight without Fear and without Reproach: By the
+Loyal Servant</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In September 1829 at Crosthwaite church, Keswick, after an
+engagement of seven years&rsquo; duration, Sara Coleridge was married
+to her cousin, Henry Nelson Coleridge (1798-1843), younger son
+of Captain James Coleridge (1760-1836). He was then a chancery
+barrister in London. The first eight years of her married life were
+spent in a little cottage in Hampstead. There four of her children
+were born, of whom two survived. In 1834 Mrs Coleridge published
+her <i>Pretty Lessons in Verse for Good Children; with some
+Lessons in Latin in Easy Rhyme</i>. These were originally written
+for the instruction of her own children, and became very popular.
+In 1837 the Coleridges removed to Chester Place, Regent&rsquo;s Park;
+and in the same year appeared <i>Phantasmion, a Fairy Tale</i>, Sara
+Coleridge&rsquo;s longest original work. The songs in <i>Phantasmion</i>
+were much admired at the time by Leigh Hunt and other critics.
+Some of them, such as &ldquo;Sylvan Stay&rdquo; and &ldquo;One Face Alone,&rdquo;
+are extremely graceful and musical, and the whole fairy tale is
+noticeable for the beauty of the story and the richness of its
+language.</p>
+
+<p>In 1843 Henry Coleridge died, leaving to his widow the unfinished
+task of editing her father&rsquo;s works. To these she added
+some compositions of her own, among which are the <i>Essay on
+Rationalism, with a special application to the Doctrine of Baptismal</i>
+<i>Regeneration</i>, appended to Coleridge&rsquo;s <i>Aids to Reflection</i>, a Preface
+to the <i>Essays on his Own Times, by S. T. Coleridge</i>, and the Introduction
+to the <i>Biographia Literaria</i>. During the last few years of
+her life Sara Coleridge was a confirmed invalid. Shortly before
+she died she amused herself by writing a little autobiography for
+her daughter. This, which reaches only to her ninth year, was
+completed by her daughter, and published in 1873, together with
+some of her letters, under the title <i>Memoirs and Letters of Sara
+Coleridge</i>. The letters show a cultured and highly speculative
+mind. They contain many apt criticisms of known people and
+books, and are specially interesting for their allusions to Wordsworth
+and the Lake Poets. Sara Coleridge died in London on
+the 3rd of May 1852.</p>
+
+<p>Her son, Herbert Coleridge (1830-1861), won a double first
+class in classics and mathematics at Oxford in 1852. He was
+secretary to a committee appointed by the Philological Society
+to consider the project of a standard English dictionary, a scheme
+of which the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, published by the Clarendon
+Press, was the ultimate outcome. His personal researches into
+the subject were contained in his <i>Glossarial Index to the Printed
+English Literature of the Thirteenth Century</i> (1859).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLET, JOHN<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1467?-1510), English divine and educationist,
+the eldest son of Sir Henry Colet (lord mayor of London 1486
+and 1495), was born in London about 1467. He was educated
+at St Anthony&rsquo;s school and at Magdalen College, Oxford, where
+he took the M.A. degree in 1490. He already held the non-resident
+rectory of Dennington, Suffolk, and the vicarage of
+St Dunstan&rsquo;s, Stepney, and was now collated rector of Thurning,
+Hunts. In 1493 he went to Paris and thence to Italy, studying
+canon and civil law, patristics and the rudiments of Greek.
+During his residence abroad he became acquainted with Budaeus
+(Guillaume Budé) and Erasmus, and with the teaching of
+Savonarola. On his return to England in 1496 he took orders
+and settled at Oxford, where he lectured on the epistles of St Paul,
+replacing the old scholastic method of interpretation by an
+exegesis more in harmony with the new learning. His methods
+did much to influence Erasmus, who visited Oxford in 1498,
+and in after years Erasmus received an annuity from him.
+Since 1494 he had been prebendary of York, and canon of St
+Martin le Grand, London. In 1502 he became prebendary of
+Salisbury, in 1505 prebendary of St Paul&rsquo;s, and immediately
+afterwards dean of the same cathedral, having previously taken
+the degree of doctor of divinity. Here he continued his
+practice of lecturing on the books of the Bible; and he soon
+afterwards established a perpetual divinity lecture, on three
+days in each week, in St Paul&rsquo;s church. About the year 1508,
+having inherited his father&rsquo;s large wealth, Colet formed his plan
+for the re-foundation of St Paul&rsquo;s school, which he completed
+in 1512, and endowed with estates of an annual value of £122
+and upwards. The celebrated grammarian William Lilly was
+the first master, and the company of mercers were (in 1510)
+appointed trustees, the first example of non-clerical management
+in education. The dean&rsquo;s religious opinions were so
+much more liberal than those of the contemporary clergy
+(whose ignorance and corruption he denounced) that they
+deemed him little better than a heretic; but William Warham,
+the archbishop, refused to prosecute him. Similarly Henry
+VIII. held him in high esteem despite his sermons against
+the French wars. In 1514 he made the Canterbury pilgrimage,
+and in 1515 preached at Wolsey&rsquo;s installation as cardinal.
+Colet died of the sweating sickness on the 16th of September 1519.
+He was buried on the south side of the choir of St Paul&rsquo;s, where
+a stone was laid over his grave, with no other inscription than
+his name. Besides the preferments above mentioned, he was
+rector of the gild of Jesus at St Paul&rsquo;s and chaplain to Henry VIII.</p>
+
+<p>Colet, though never dreaming of a formal breach with the
+Roman Church, was a keen reformer, who disapproved of auricular
+confession, and of the celibacy of the clergy. Though no great
+scholar or writer, he was a powerful force in the England of his
+day, and helped materially to disintegrate the medieval conditions
+still obtaining, and to introduce the humanist movement.
+Among his works, which were first collectively published in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page682" id="page682"></a>682</span>
+1867-1876, are <i>Absolutissimus de octo orationis partium constructione
+libellus</i> (Antwerp, 1530), <i>Rudimenta Grammatices</i>
+(London, 1539), <i>Daily Devotions</i>, <i>Monition to a Godly Life</i>,
+<i>Epistolae ad Erasmum</i>, and commentaries on different parts of
+the Bible.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Seebohm, <i>The Oxford Reformers</i>; J. H. Lupton, <i>Life of
+John Colet</i> (1887); art. in <i>The Times</i>, July 7, 1909.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLET, LOUISE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1810-1876), French poet and novelist,
+was born at Aix of a Provençal family named Revoil, on the
+15th of September 1810. In 1835 she came to Paris with her
+husband Hippolyte Colet (1808-1851), a composer of music and
+professor of harmony and counterpoint at the conservatoire.
+In 1836 appeared her <i>Fleurs du Midi</i>, a volume of verse, of liberal
+tendency, followed by <i>Penserosa</i> (1839), a second volume of verse;
+by <i>La Jeunesse de Goethe</i> (1839), a one-act comedy; by <i>Les C&oelig;urs
+brisés</i> (1843), a novel; <i>Les Funerailles de Napoléon</i> (1840), a
+poem, and <i>La Jeunesse de Mirabeau</i> (1841), a novel. Her works
+were crowned five or six times by the Institute, a distinction
+which she owed, however, to the influence of Victor Cousin
+rather than to the quality of her work. The criticisms on her
+books and on the prizes conferred on her by the Academy
+exasperated her; and in 1841 Paris was diverted by her attempted
+reprisals on Alphonse Karr for certain notices in <i>Les Guêpes</i>.
+In 1849 she had to defend an action brought against her by the
+heirs of Madame Récamier, whose correspondence with Benjamin
+Constant she had published in the columns of the <i>Presse</i>. She
+produced a host of writings in prose and verse, but she is perhaps
+best known for her intimate connexion with some of her famous
+contemporaries, Abel Villemain, Gustave Flaubert and Victor
+Cousin. Only one of her books is now of interest&mdash;<i>Lui: roman
+contemporain</i> (1859), the novel in which she told the story of her
+life. She died on the 8th of March 1876.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLEUS<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span>, a genus of herbaceous or shrubby plants belonging
+to the natural order Labiatae, chiefly natives of the tropics.
+They are very ornamental plants, the colour of their leaves being
+exceedingly varied, and often very brilliant. They are of the
+easiest culture. The cuttings of young shoots should be propagated
+every year, about March, being planted in thumb pots,
+in sandy loam, and placed in a close temperature of 70°. After
+taking root shift into 6-in. pots, using ordinary light loamy
+compost, containing abundance of leaf-mould and sand, and
+keeping them near the light. They may be passed on into
+larger pots as often as required, but 8-in. pots will be large enough
+for general purposes, as they can be fed with liquid manure.
+The young spring-struck plants like a warm growing atmosphere,
+but by midsummer they will bear more air and stand in a greenhouse
+or conservatory. They should be wintered in a temperature
+of 60° to 65°. The stopping of the young shoots must be
+regulated by the consideration whether bushy or pyramidal plants
+are desired. Some of the varieties are half-hardy and are used
+for summer bedding.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLFAX, SCHUYLER<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1823-1885), American political leader,
+vice-president of the United States from 1869 to 1873, was born
+in New York city on the 23rd of March 1823. His father died
+before the son&rsquo;s birth, and his mother subsequently married a
+Mr Matthews. The son attended the public schools of New York
+until he was ten, and then became a clerk in his step-father&rsquo;s
+store, removing in 1836 with his mother and step-father to New
+Carlisle, Indiana. In 1841 he removed to South Bend, where
+for eight years he was deputy auditor (his step-father being
+auditor) of St Joseph county; in 1842-1844 he was assistant
+enrolling clerk of the state senate and senate reporter for the
+<i>Indiana State Journal</i>. In 1845 he established the <i>St Joseph
+Valley Register</i>, which he published for eighteen years and made
+an influential Whig and later Republican journal. In 1850 he
+was a member of the state constitutional convention, and in
+1854 took an active part in organizing the &ldquo;Anti-Nebraska
+men&rdquo; (later called Republicans) of his state, and was by them
+sent to Congress. Here he served with distinction from 1855
+until 1869, the last six years as speaker of the House. At the
+close of the Civil War he was a leading member of the radical
+wing of the Republican party, advocating the disfranchisement
+of all who had been prominent in the service of the Confederacy,
+and declaring that &ldquo;loyalty must govern what loyalty has preserved.&rdquo;
+In 1868 he had presidential aspirations, and was not
+without supporters. He accepted, however, the Republican
+nomination as vice-president on a ticket headed by General
+Grant, and was elected; but he failed in 1872 to secure renomination.
+During the political campaign of 1872 he was accused,
+with other prominent politicians, of being implicated in corrupt
+transactions with the Crédit Mobilier, and a congressional
+investigation brought out the fact that he had agreed to take
+twenty shares from this concern, and had received dividends
+amounting to $1200. It also leaked out during the investigation
+that he had received in 1868, as a campaign contribution, a gift
+of $4000 from a contractor who had supplied the government with
+envelopes while Colfax was chairman of the post office committee
+of the House. At the close of his term Colfax returned to private
+life under a cloud, and during the remainder of his lifetime
+earned a livelihood by delivering popular lectures. He died at
+Mankato, Minnesota, on the 13th of January 1885.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. C. Hollister&rsquo;s <i>Life of Schuyler Colfax</i> (New York, 1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLIC<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolon">&#954;&#972;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span> or <span class="grk" title="kôlon">&#954;&#8182;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span>, the large intestine),
+a term in medicine of very indefinite meaning, used by physicians
+outside England for any paroxysmal abdominal pain, but generally
+limited in England to a sudden sharp pain having its origin
+in the pelvis of the kidney, the ureter, gall-bladder, bile-ducts
+or intestine. Thus it is customary to speak of renal, biliary or
+intestinal colic. There is a growing tendency, however, among
+professional men of to-day, to restrict the use of the word to
+a pain produced by the contraction of the muscular walls of any
+of the hollow viscera of which the aperture has become more or
+less occluded, temporarily or otherwise. For renal and biliary
+colic, see the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kidney Diseases</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liver</a></span>, only intestinal
+colic being treated in this place.</p>
+
+<p>In infants, usually those who are &ldquo;bottle-fed,&rdquo; colic is exceedingly
+common, and is shown by the drawing up of their legs,
+their restlessness and their continuous cries.</p>
+
+<p>Among adults one of the most serious causes is that due to
+lead-poisoning and known as lead colic (<i>Syn.</i> painters&rsquo; colic,
+<i>colica Pictonum</i>, Devonshire colic), from its having been clearly
+ascertained to be due to the absorption of lead into the system
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lead-Poisoning</a></span>). This disease had been observed and
+described long before its cause was discovered. Its occurrence
+in an epidemic form among the inhabitants of Poitou was recorded
+by François Citois (1572-1652) in 1617, under the title
+of <i>Novus et popularis apud Pictones dolor colicus biliosus</i>. The
+disease was thereafter termed <i>colica Pictonum</i>. It was supposed
+to be due to the acidity of the native wines, but it was afterwards
+found to depend on lead contained in them. A similar epidemic
+broke out in certain parts of Germany in the end of the 17th
+century, and was at the time believed by various physicians
+to be caused by the admixture of acid wines with litharge to
+sweeten them.</p>
+
+<p>About the middle of the 18th century this disease, which had
+long been known to prevail in Devonshire, was carefully investigated
+by Sir George Baker (1722-1809), who succeeded in tracing
+it unmistakably to the contamination of the native beverage,
+cider, with lead, either accidentally from the leadwork of the vats
+and other apparatus for preparing the liquor, or from its being
+sweetened with litharge.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany a similar colic resulting from the absorption of
+copper occurs, but it is almost unknown in England.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest form of colic is that arising from habitual
+constipation, the muscular wall of the intestines contracting
+painfully to overcome the resistance of hardened scybalous
+masses of faeces, which cause more or less obstruction to the
+onward passage of the intestinal contents. Another equally
+common cause is that due to irritating or indigestible food such
+as apples, pears or nuts, heavy pastry, meat pies and puddings,
+&amp;c. It may then be associated with either constipation or
+diarrhoea, though the latter is the more common. It may
+result from any form of enteritis as simple, mucous and ulcerative
+colitis, or an intestinal malignant growth. The presence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page683" id="page683"></a>683</span>
+of <i>ascaris lumbricoides</i> may, by reflex action, set up a very painful
+nervous spasm; and certain forms of influenza (<i>q.v.</i>) are ushered
+in by colic of a very pronounced type. Many physicians describe
+a rheumatic colic due to cold and damp, and among women
+disease of the pelvic organs may give rise to an exactly similar pain.
+There are also those forms of colic which must be classed as
+functional or neuralgic, though this view of the case must never
+be accepted until every other possible cause is found to be untenable.
+From this short account of a few of the commoner
+causes of the trouble, it will be clear that colic is merely a symptom
+of disease, not a disease in itself, and that no diagnosis
+has been made until the cause of the pain has been determined.</p>
+
+<p>Intestinal colic is paroxysmal, usually both beginning and
+ending suddenly. The pain is generally referred to the neighbourhood
+of the umbilicus, and may radiate all over the abdomen.
+It varies in intensity from a slight momentary discomfort to a
+pain so severe as to cause the patient to shriek or even to break
+out into a cold clammy sweat. It is usually relieved by pressure,
+and this point is one which aids in the differential diagnosis
+between a simple colic and peritonitis, the pain of the latter
+being increased by pressure. But should the colic be due to
+a malignant growth, or should the intestines be distended with
+gas, pressure will probably increase the pain. The temperature
+is usually subnormal, but may be slightly raised, and the pulse
+is in proportion.</p>
+
+<p>In the treatment of simple colic the patient must be confined
+to bed, hot fomentations applied to the abdomen and a purge
+administered, a few drops of laudanum being added when the
+pain is exceptionally severe. But the whole difficulty lies in
+making the differential diagnosis. Acute intestinal obstruction
+(ileus) begins just as an attack of simple colic, but the rapid
+increase of illness, frequent vomiting, anxious countenance,
+and still more the condition of the pulse, warn a trained observer
+of the far more serious state. Appendicitis and peritonitis, as
+also the gastric crises of locomotor ataxy, must all be excluded.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLIGNY, GASPARD DE<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1519-1572), admiral of France and
+Protestant leader, came of a noble family of Burgundy, who
+traced their descent from the 11th century, and in the reign of
+Louis XI. were in the service of the king of France. His father,
+Gaspard de Coligny, known as the maréchal de Châtillon (d.
+1522), served in the Italian wars from 1495 to 1515, and was
+created marshal of France in 1516. By his wife, Louise de
+Montmorency, sister of the future constable, he had three
+sons: Odet, cardinal de Châtillon; Gaspard, the admiral; and
+Francis, seigneur d&rsquo;Andelot; all of whom played an important
+part in the first period of the wars of religion. At twenty-two
+young Gaspard came to court, and there contracted a friendship
+with Francis of Guise. In the campaign of 1543 Coligny distinguished
+himself greatly, and was wounded at the sieges of
+Montmédy and Bains. In 1544 he served in the Italian campaign
+under the duke of Enghien, and was knighted on the field of
+Ceresole. Returning to France, he took part in different military
+operations; and having been made colonel-general of the infantry
+(April 1547), exhibited great capacity and intelligence as a
+military reformer. He was made admiral on the death of
+d&rsquo;Annebaut (1552). In 1557 he was entrusted with the defence
+of Saint Quentin. In the siege he displayed great courage, resolution,
+and strength of character; but the place was taken, and he
+was imprisoned in the stronghold of L&rsquo;Ecluse. On payment of
+a ransom of 50,000 crowns he recovered his liberty. But he had
+by this time become a Huguenot, through the influence of his
+brother, d&rsquo;Andelot&mdash;the first letter which Calvin addressed to
+him is dated the 4th of September 1558&mdash;and he busied himself
+secretly with protecting his co-religionists, a colony of whom
+he sent to Brazil, whence they were afterwards expelled by the
+Portuguese.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Henry II. he placed himself, with Louis, prince
+of Condé, in the front of his sect, and demanded religious toleration
+and certain other reforms. In 1560, at the Assembly of
+Notables at Fontainebleau, the hostility between Coligny and
+Francis of Guise broke forth violently. When the civil wars
+began in 1562, Coligny decided to take arms only after long
+hesitation, and he was always ready to negotiate. In none of
+these wars did he show superior genius, but he acted throughout
+with great prudence and extraordinary tenacity; he was &ldquo;le
+héros de la mauvaise fortune.&rdquo; In 1569 the defeat and death
+of the prince of Condé at Jarnac left him sole leader of the
+Protestant armies. Victorious at Arnay-le-Duc, he obtained
+in 1570 the pacification of St Germain. Returning to the court
+in 1571, he grew rapidly in favour with Charles XI. As a means
+of emancipating the king from the tutelage of his mother and
+the faction of the Guises, the admiral proposed to him a descent
+on Spanish Flanders, with an army drawn from both sects and
+commanded by Charles in person. The king&rsquo;s regard for the
+admiral, and the bold front of the Huguenots, alarmed the
+queen-mother; and the massacre of St Bartholomew was the
+consequence. On the 22nd of August 1572 Coligny was shot in
+the street by Maurevel, a bravo in the pay of the queen-mother
+and Guise; the bullets, however, only tore a finger from his
+right hand and shattered his left elbow. The king visited him,
+but the queen-mother prevented all private intercourse between
+them. On the 24th of August, the night of the massacre, he
+was attacked in his house, and a servant of the duke of Guise,
+generally known as Besme, slew him and cast him from a window
+into the courtyard at his master&rsquo;s feet. His papers were seized
+and burned by the queen-mother; among them, according to
+Brantôme, was a history of the civil war, &ldquo;très-beau et tres-bien
+faict, et digne d&rsquo;estre imprimé.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>By his wife, Charlotte de Laval, Coligny had several children,
+among them being Louise, who married first Charles de Téligny
+and afterwards William the Silent, prince of Orange, and Francis,
+admiral of Guienne, who was one of the devoted servants of
+Henry IV. Gaspard de Coligny (1584-1646), son of Francis,
+was marshal of France during the reign of Louis XIII.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Jean du Bouchet, <i>Preuves de l&rsquo;histoire généalogique de l&rsquo;illustre
+maison de Coligny</i> (Paris, 1661); biography by François Hotman,
+1575 (French translation, 1665); L. J. Delaborde, <i>Gaspard de
+Coligny</i> (1879-1882); Erich Marcks, <i>Gaspard von Coligny, sein Leben
+und das Frankreich seiner Zeit</i> (Stuttgart, 1892); H. Patry, &ldquo;Coligny
+et la Papauté,&rdquo; in the <i>Bulletin du protestantisme français</i> (1902);
+A. W. Whitehead, <i>Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France</i> (1904);
+and C. Merki, <i>L&rsquo;Amiral de Coligny</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLIMA<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span>, a small Pacific coast state of Mexico, lying between
+Jalisco on the N.W. and N., and Michoacan on the E. Including
+the Revilla Gigédo islands its area is only 2272 sq. m., which
+thus makes it the second smallest of the Mexican states. Pop.
+(1895) 55,264; (1900) 65,115. The larger part of its territory
+is within the narrow, flat coastal plain, beyond which it rises
+toward the north-east into the foothills of the Sierra Madre, the
+higher masses of the range, including the Colima volcano, lying
+outside the state. It is drained by the Ameria and Coahuayana
+rivers and their affluents, which are largely used for irrigation.
+There are tidewater lagoons and morasses on the coast which
+accentuate its malarious character. One of the largest of these,
+Cuitlán, immediately south of Manzanillo, is the centre of a
+large salt-producing industry. The soil is generally fertile and
+productive, but lack of transportation facilities has been a
+serious obstacle to any production greatly exceeding local
+demands. The dry and rainy seasons are sharply defined, the
+rainfall being abundant in the latter. The climate is hot, humid
+and malarious, becoming drier and healthier on the higher
+mountain slopes of the interior. Stock-raising is an important
+industry in the higher parts of the state, but the horses, mules
+and cattle raised have been limited to local demands. Agriculture,
+however, is the principal occupation of the state, the
+more important products being sugar, rice, Indian corn, palm
+oil, coffee, indigo, cotton and cacao. The production of cacao
+is small, and that of indigo and cotton is declining, the latter
+being limited to the requirements of small local mills. There
+are two crops of Indian corn a year, but sugar and rice are the
+principal crops. The &ldquo;Caracolillo&rdquo; coffee, produced on the
+slopes of the mountains culminating in the volcano of Colima, is
+reputed the best in Mexico, and the entire crop (about 506,000 &#8468;.
+in 1906) is consumed in the country at a price much above
+other grades. There are important mineral deposits in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page684" id="page684"></a>684</span>
+state, including iron, copper and lead, but mining enterprise
+has made no progress through lack of transportation facilities.
+Salt is made on the coast and shipped inland, and palm-leaf
+hats are manufactured and exported. Hides and deerskins are
+also exported in large quantities. A narrow-gauge railway has
+been in operation between the capital and Manzanillo for many
+years, and in 1907 a branch of the Mexican Central was completed
+between Guadalajara and the capital, and the narrow-gauge
+line to the coast was widened to the standard gauge. The
+chief cities of the state are the capital Colima, Manzanillo,
+Comala (the second largest town in the state), 5 m. from the
+capital, with which it is connected by an electric railway, Ixtlahuacan
+Coquimatlan and Almoloyan.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLIMA<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span>, a city of Mexico and capital of a state of the same
+name, 570 m. (direct) W. by S. of Mexico City and about 36 m.
+inland from the Pacific coast. Pop. (1895) 18,977; (1900)
+20,698. Colima is picturesquely situated on the Colima river,
+in a large fertile valley about 1650 ft. above the sea, and lies
+in the midst of fine mountain-scenery. About 30 m. to the
+north-east the volcano of Colima, in the state of Jalisco, rises
+to an elevation of 12,685 ft.; it is the most westerly of the
+active volcanoes of Mexico. Colima enjoys a moderately cool
+and healthy climate, especially in the dry season (November
+to June). The city is regularly laid out and is in great part
+well built, with good public buildings, several churches, a theatre,
+two hospitals, and a handsome market completed in 1905.
+Tramways connect the central plaza with the railway station,
+cemetery, and the suburb of Villa de Alvarez, 2½ m. distant, and
+an extension of 5 m. was projected in 1906 to Comala. The
+local industries include two old-fashioned cotton mills, an ice
+plant, corn-grinding mill, and five cigarette factories. Colima
+is the commercial centre for a large district, but trade has been
+greatly restricted by lack of transportation facilities. A railway
+connects with the port of Manzanillo, and the Mexican Central
+railway serves Colima itself. Colima was founded in 1522 by
+Gonzalo de Sandoval. It has not played a very prominent part
+in Mexican history because of its inaccessibility, and for the
+same reason has suffered less from revolutionary violence.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLIN, ALEXANDRE<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1526-1612), Flemish sculptor, was
+born at Malines. In 1563 he went, at the invitation of the
+emperor Ferdinand I., to Innsbruck, to work on the magnificent
+monument which was being erected to Maximilian I. in the nave
+of the Franciscan church. Of the twenty-four marble alti-rilievi,
+representing the emperor&rsquo;s principal acts and victories, which
+adorn the sides of this tomb, twenty were executed by Colin,
+apparently in three years. The work displays a remarkable
+combination of liveliness and spirit with extreme care and finish,
+its delicacy rivalling that of a fine cameo. Thorwaldsen is said
+to have pronounced it the finest work of its kind. Colin, who
+was sculptor in ordinary both to the emperor and to his son, the
+archduke Ferdinand of Tirol, did a great deal of work for his
+patrons at Innsbruck and in its neighbourhood; particular
+mention may be made of the sepulchres of the archduke and his
+first wife, Philippine Welser, both in the same church as the
+Maximilian monument, and of Bishop Jean Nas. His tomb in
+the cemetery at Innsbruck bears a fine bas-relief executed by
+one of his sons.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLL<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span>, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 432. It is situated about 7 m. west of Caliach
+Point in Mull, and measures 12 m. from N.E. to S.W.,
+with a breadth varying from ¾ m. to 4 m. It is composed of
+gneiss, is generally rather flat, save in the west where Ben Hogh
+reaches a height of 339 ft., and has several lakes. The pasturage
+is good and the soil fairly fertile. Much dairy produce is exported,
+besides sheep and cattle. The antiquities include stone
+circles, duns, the ruins of Breachacha Castle, once a fortress of
+the Lords of the Isles. A steamer from Oban calls regularly
+at Arinagour.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLAERT, HANS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span>, Flemish engraver, son of Adrian Collaert,
+a draughtsman and engraver of repute, was born at Antwerp
+about 1545. After working some years in his father&rsquo;s studio,
+he went to Rome to perfect himself in his art. His engravings
+after Rubens are very highly esteemed. He left many works;
+among the best may be mentioned a &ldquo;Life of Saint Francis,&rdquo;
+16 prints; a &ldquo;Last Judgment,&rdquo; folio; &ldquo;Monilium, Bullarum,
+Inauriumque Artificiosissimae Icones,&rdquo; 10 prints, 1581; &ldquo;The
+Dead Christ in his Mother&rsquo;s Lap&rdquo;; &ldquo;Marcus Curtius&rdquo;; &ldquo;Moses
+Striking the Rock,&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Resurrection of Lazarus,&rdquo; after
+Lambert Lombard; &ldquo;The Fathers of the Desert&rdquo;; and
+&ldquo;Biblia Sacra and the History of the Church,&rdquo; after Rubens.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLAR<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span>, something worn or fastened round the neck (Lat.
+<i>collare</i>, from <i>collum</i>, neck), particularly a band of linen, lace or
+other material, which, under various shapes at different periods,
+has been worn by men and women to serve as a completion or
+finish to the neckband of a garment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span>); also a
+chain, worn as a personal ornament, a badge of livery, a symbol
+of office, or as part of the insignia of an order of knighthood, an
+application of the term with which the present article deals.
+The word is also applied to that part of the draught-harness of a
+horse which fits over the animal&rsquo;s neck, to which the traces are
+attached, and against which the strain of the drawing of the
+vehicle is exercised, and to a circular piece of metal passed round
+the joints of a rod or pipe, to prevent movement or to make the
+joint steam- or water-tight.</p>
+
+<p>Necklaces with beads and jewels threaded thereon or the plain
+laces with a hanging ornament are among the common braveries
+of all times and countries. From these come the collar and the
+neck-chain. Torques or twisted collars of metal are found in
+burying-places of the barbarous people of northern Europe.
+British chiefs wore them, and gold torques were around the necks
+of the leaders of the first of the Saxon invaders of Britain, among
+whose descendants, however, the fashion seems to have languished.
+Edward the Confessor was buried with a neck-chain
+of gold 2 ft. long, fastened with a jewelled locket and carrying
+an enamelled crucifix.</p>
+
+<p>The extravagant age of Richard II. saw a great revival of the
+neck-chain, heavy links twisted of gold or silver. From this
+time onward neck chains, with or without pendant devices,
+were commonly worn by men and women of the richer sort.
+The men abandoned them in the time of Charles I.</p>
+
+<p>Closely allied to the chain are the livery collars which appeared
+in the 14th century, worn by those who thus displayed their
+alliances or their fealty. Thus Charles V. of France in 1378
+granted to his chamberlain Geoffrey de Belleville the right of
+bearing in all feasts and in all companies the collar of the <i>Cosse
+de Geneste</i> or Broomcod, a collar which was accepted and worn
+even by the English kings, Charles VI. sending such collars to
+Richard II. and to his three uncles. This French collar, a chain
+of couples of broom-cods linked by jewels, is seen in the contemporary
+portrait of Richard II. at Wilton. The like collar was
+worn by Henry IV. on the way to his crowning. During the
+sitting of the English parliament in 1394 the complaints of the
+earl of Arundel against Richard II. are recorded, one of his
+grievances being that the king was wont to wear the livery of
+the collar of the duke of Lancaster, his uncle, and that people of
+the king&rsquo;s following wore the same livery. To which the king
+answered that soon after the return from Spain (in 1389) of his
+uncle, the said duke, he himself took the collar from his uncle&rsquo;s
+neck, putting it on his own, which collar the king would wear
+and use for a sign of the good and whole-hearted love between
+them, even as he wore the liveries of his other uncles. Livery
+collars of the king of France, of Queen Anne and of the dukes
+of York and Lancaster are numbered with the royal plate and
+jewels which in the first year of Henry IV. had come to the king&rsquo;s
+hands. The inventory shows that Queen Anne&rsquo;s collar was made
+up of sprigs of rosemary garnished with pearls. The York
+collar had falcons and fetterlocks, and the Lancaster collar was
+doubtless that collar of Esses (or S S) used by the duke&rsquo;s son,
+Henry of Bolingbroke, as an earl, duke and king. This famous
+livery collar, which has never passed out of use, takes many
+forms, its Esses being sometimes linked together chainwise, and
+sometimes, in early examples, bestowed as the ornamental
+bosses of a garter-shaped strap-collar. The oldest effigy bearing
+it is that in Spratton church of Sir John Swinford, who died in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page685" id="page685"></a>685</span>
+1371. Swinford was a follower of John of Gaunt, and the date
+of his death easily disposes of the fancy that the Esses were
+devised by Henry IV. to stand for his motto or &ldquo;word&rdquo; of
+<i>Soverayne</i>. Many explanations are given of the origin of these
+letters, but none has as yet been established with sufficient proof.
+During the reigns of Henry IV., his son and grandson, the collar
+of Esses was a royal badge of the Lancastrian house and party,
+the white swan being its pendant. In one of Henry VI.&rsquo;s own
+collars the S was joined to the Broomcod of the French device,
+thus symbolizing the king&rsquo;s claim to the two kingdoms.</p>
+
+<p>The kings of the house of York and their chief followers wore
+the Yorkist collar of suns and roses, with the white lion of March,
+the Clare bull, or Richard&rsquo;s white boar for a pendant device.
+Henry VII. brought back the collar of Esses, a portcullis or a
+rose hanging from it, although in a portrait of this king, now
+possessed by the Society of Antiquaries, his neck bears the <i>rose
+en soleil</i> alternating with knots, and his son, when young, had
+a collar of roses red and white. Besides these royal collars, the
+14th and 15th centuries show many of private devices. A brass
+at Mildenhall shows a knight whose badge of a dog or wolf
+circled by a crown hangs from a collar with edges suggesting a
+pruned bough or the ragged staff. Thomas of Markenfield
+(d. c. 1415) on his brass at Ripon has a strange collar of park
+palings with a badge of a hart in a park, and the Lord Berkeley
+(d. 1392) wears one set with mermaids.</p>
+
+<p>Collars of various devices are now worn by the grand crosses
+of the European orders of knighthood. The custom was begun
+by Philip of Burgundy, who gave his knights of the Golden Fleece,
+an order founded on the 10th of February 1429-1430, badges
+of a golden fleece hung from that collar of flints, steels and sparks
+which is seen in so many old Flemish portraits. To this day
+it remains the most beautiful of all the collars, keeping in the
+main the lines of its Flemish designer, although a vulgar fancy
+sometimes destroys the symbolism of the golden fleece by changing
+it for an unmeaning fleece of diamonds. Following this new
+fashion, Louis XI. of France, when instituting his order of
+St Michael in 1469, gave the knights collars of scallop shells
+linked on a chain. The chain was doubled by Charles VIII.,
+and the pattern suffered other changes before the order lapsed
+in 1830. Until the reign of Henry VIII., the Garter, most
+ancient of the great knightly orders, had no collar. But the
+Tudor king must needs match in all things with continental
+sovereigns, and the present collar of the Garter knights, with
+its golden knots and its buckled garters enclosing white roses
+set on red roses, has its origin in the Tudor age. An illustration
+in colours of the Garter collar is given on Plate I. in the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Knighthood and Chivalry</a></span>, while descriptions of the collars
+of the other principal orders are also given. The collar of the
+Thistle with the thistles and rue-sprigs is as old as the reign of
+James II. The Bath collar, in its first form of white knots linking
+closed crowns to roses and thistles issuing from sceptres, dates
+from 1725, up to which time the knights of the Bath had hung
+their medallion from a ribbon.</p>
+
+<p>Founding the order of the Saint Esprit in 1578, Henry III.
+of France devised a collar of enflamed fleur-de-lis and cyphers
+of H and L, a fashion which was soon afterwards varied by
+Henry his successor. Elephants have been always borne on
+the collar of the Elephant founded in Denmark in 1478, the other
+links of which have taken many shapes. Another Danish order,
+the Dannebrog, said to be &ldquo;re-instituted&rdquo; by Christian V. in
+1671, has a collar of crosses formy alternating with the crowned
+letters C and W, the latter standing for Waldemar the Victorious,
+whom a legend of no value described as founding the order in
+1219. Of other European orders, that of St Andrew, founded
+by Peter of Russia in 1698, has eagles and Andrew crosses and
+cyphers, while the Black Eagle of Prussia has the Prussian eagle
+with thunderbolts in its claws beside roundels charged with
+cyphers of the letters F.R.</p>
+
+<p>Plain collars of Esses are now worn in the United Kingdom
+by kings-of-arms, heralds and serjeants-at-arms. Certain legal
+dignitaries have worn them since the 16th century, the collar
+of the lord chief-justice having knots and roses between the
+letters. Henry IV.&rsquo;s parliament in his second year restricted
+the free use of the king&rsquo;s livery collar to his sons and to all dukes,
+earls, barons and bannerets, while simple knights and squires
+might use it when in the royal presence or in going to and from
+the hostel of the king. The giving of a livery collar by the king
+made a squire of a man even as the stroke of the royal sword
+made him a knight. Collars of Esses are sometimes seen on the
+necks of ladies. The queen of Henry IV. wears one. So do the
+wife of a 16th century Knightley on her tomb at Upton, and
+Penelope, Lady Spencer (d. 1667), on her Brington monument.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1545 the lord mayor of London has worn a royal livery
+collar of Esses. This collar, however, has its origin in no royal
+favour, Sir John Alen, thrice a lord mayor, having bequeathed
+it to the then lord mayor and his successors &ldquo;to use and occupie
+yerely at and uppon principall and festivall dayes.&rdquo; It was
+enlarged in 1567, and in its present shape has 28 Esses alternating
+with knots and roses and joined with a portcullis. Lord mayors
+of York use a plain gold chain of a triple row of links given in
+1670; this chain, since the day when certain links were found
+wanting, is weighed on its return by the outgoing mayor. In
+Ireland the lord mayor of Dublin wears a collar given by
+Charles II., while Cork&rsquo;s mayor has another which the Cork
+council bought of a silversmith in 1755, stipulating that it should
+be like the Dublin one. The lady mayoress of York wears a plain
+chain given with that of the lord mayor in 1670, and, like his,
+weighed on its return to official keeping. For some two hundred
+and thirty years the mayoress of Kingston-on-Hull enjoyed a
+like ornament until a thrifty council in 1835 sold her chain as a
+useless thing.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years municipal patriotism and the persuasions of
+enterprising tradesmen have notably increased the number
+of English provincial mayors wearing collars or chains of office.
+Unlike civic maces, swords and caps of maintenance, these
+gauds are without significance. The mayor of Derby is decorated
+with the collar once borne by a lord chief-justice of the king&rsquo;s
+bench, and his brother of Kingston-on-Thames uses without
+authority an old collar of Esses which once hung over a herald&rsquo;s
+tabard. By a modern custom the friends of the London sheriffs
+now give them collars of gold and enamel, which they retain as
+mementoes of their year of office.</p>
+<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLATERAL<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (from Med. Lat. <i>collateralis</i>,&mdash;<i>cum</i>, with, and
+<i>latus</i>, <i>lateris</i>, side,&mdash;side by side, hence parallel or additional),
+a term used in law in several senses. <i>Collateral relationship</i>
+means the relationship between persons who are descended
+from the same stock or ancestor, but in a different line; as
+opposed to <i>lineal</i>, which is the relationship between ascendants
+and descendants in a direct line, as between father and son,
+grandfather and grandson. A <i>collateral agreement</i> is an agreement
+made contemporaneously with a written contract as part of the
+transaction, but without being incorporated with it. <i>Collateral
+facts</i>, in evidence, are those facts which do not bear directly on
+the matters in dispute. <i>Collateral security</i> is an additional
+security for the better safety of the mortgagee, <i>i.e.</i> property
+or right of action deposited to secure the fulfilment of an
+obligation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLATIA<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span>, an ancient town of Latium, 10 m. E. by N. of
+Rome by the Via Collatina. It appears in the legendary history
+of Rome as captured by Tarquinius Priscus. Livy tells us it was
+taken from the Sabines, while Virgil speaks of it as a Latin
+colony. In the time of Cicero it had lost all importance; Strabo
+names it as a mere village, in private hands, while for Pliny it
+was one of the lost cities of Latium. The site is undoubtedly
+to be sought on the hill now occupied by the large medieval
+fortified farmhouse of Lunghezza, immediately to the south
+of the Anio, which occupies the site of the citadel joined by a
+narrow neck to the tableland to the south-east on which the
+city stood: this is protected by wide valleys on each side, and
+is isolated at the south-east end by a deep narrow valley enlarged
+by cutting. No remains are to be seen, but the site is admirably
+adapted for an ancient settlement. The road may be traced
+leading to the south end of this tableland, being identical with
+the modern road to Lunghezza for the middle part of its course
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page686" id="page686"></a>686</span>
+only. The current indentification with Castellaccio, 2 m. to the
+south-east, is untenable.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, i. 138 seq.,
+iii. 201.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLATION<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (Lat. <i>collatio</i>, from <i>conferre</i>, to bring together
+or compare), the bringing together of things for the special
+purpose of comparison, and thus, particularly, the critical
+examination of the texts of documents or MSS. and the result
+of such comparison. The word is also a term in printing and
+bookbinding for the register of the &ldquo;signatures,&rdquo; the number
+of quires and leaves in each quire of a book or MS. In Roman
+and Scots law &ldquo;collation&rdquo; answers to the English law term
+&ldquo;hotch-pot&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). From another meaning of the Latin word,
+a consultation or conference, and so a treatise or homily, comes
+the title of a work of Johannes Cassianus (<i>q.v.</i>), the <i>Conferences
+of the Fathers</i> (<i>Collationes Patrum</i>). Readings from this and
+similar works were customary in monasteries; by the <i>regula</i>
+of St Benedict it is ordered that on rising from supper there
+should be read <i>collationes</i>, passages from the lives of the Fathers
+and other edifying works; the word is then applied to the
+discussions arising from such readings. On fast days it was
+usual in monasteries to have a very light meal after the <i>Collatio</i>,
+and hence the meal itself came to be called &ldquo;collation,&rdquo; a meaning
+which survives in the modern use of the word for any light
+or quickly prepared repast.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLÉ, CHARLES<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1709-1783), French dramatist and song-writer,
+the son of a notary, was born at Paris in 1709. He
+was early interested in the rhymes of Jean Heguanier, then the
+most famous maker of couplets in Paris. From a notary&rsquo;s office
+Collé was transferred to that of M. de Neulan, the receiver-general
+of finance, and remained there for nearly twenty years.
+When about seventeen, however, he made the acquaintance of
+Alexis Piron, and afterwards, through Gallet (d. 1757), of
+Panard. The example of these three masters of the vaudeville,
+while determining his vocation, made him diffident; and for
+some time he composed nothing but <i>amphigouris</i>&mdash;verses whose
+merit was measured by their unintelligibility. The friendship
+of the younger Crébillon, however, diverted him from this
+by-way of art, and the establishment in 1729 of the famous
+&ldquo;Caveau&rdquo; gave him a field for the display of his fine talent
+for popular song. In 1739 the Society of the Caveau, which
+numbered among its members Helvétius, Charles Duclos,
+Pierre Joseph Bernard, called Gentil-Bernard, Jean Philippe
+Rameau, Alexis Piron, and the two Crébillons, was dissolved,
+and was not reconstituted till twenty years afterwards. His
+first and his best comedy, <i>La Vérité dans le vin</i>, appeared in 1747.
+Meanwhile, the Regent Orleans, who was an excellent comic
+actor, particularly in representations of low life, and had been
+looking out for an author to write suitable parts for him, made
+Collé his reader. It was for the duke and his associates that
+Collé composed the greater part of his <i>Théâtre de société</i>. In
+1763 Collé produced at the Théâtre Français <i>Dupuis et Desronais</i>,
+a successful sentimental comedy, which was followed
+in 1771 by <i>La Veuve</i>, which was a complete failure. In 1774
+appeared <i>La Partie de chasse de Henri Quatre</i> (partly taken from
+Dodsley&rsquo;s <i>King and the Miller of Mansfield</i>), Collé&rsquo;s last and best
+play. From 1748 to 1772, besides these and a multitude of
+songs, Collé was writing his <i>Journal</i>, a curious collection of
+literary and personal strictures on his boon companions as well
+as on their enemies, on Piron as on Voltaire, on La Harpe as on
+Corneille. Collé died on the 3rd of November 1783. His lyrics
+are frank and jovial, though often licentious. The subjects
+are love and wine; occasionally, however, as in the famous
+lyric (1756) on the capture of Port Mahon, for which the author
+received a pension of 600 livres, the note of patriotism is struck
+with no unskilful hand, while in many others Collé shows himself
+possessed of considerable epigrammatic force.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also H. Bonhomme&rsquo;s edition (1868) of his <i>Journal et Mémoires</i>
+(1748-1772); Grimm&rsquo;s <i>Correspondance</i>; and C. A. Sainte-Beuve,
+<i>Nouveaux lundis</i>, vol. vii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLECTIVISM<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span>, a term used to denote the economic principle
+of the ownership by a community of all the means of production
+in order to secure to the people collectively an equitable distribution
+of the produce of their associated labour. Though
+often used in a narrow sense to express the economic basis of
+Socialism, the latter term is so generally employed in the same
+sense that collectivism is best discussed in connexion with it
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Socialism</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLECTOR<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span>, a term technically used for various officials,
+and particularly in India for the chief administrative official of a
+district. The word was in this case originally a translation of
+<i>tahsildar</i>, and indicates that the special duty of the office is the
+collection of revenue; but the collector has also magisterial
+powers and is a species of autocrat within the bounds of his
+district. The title is confined to the regulation provinces, especially
+Madras; in the non-regulation provinces the same duties are
+discharged by the deputy-commissioner (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commissioner</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLE DI VAL D&rsquo; ELSA<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in
+the province of Siena, 5 m. by rail S. of Poggibonsi, which is 16 m.
+N.W. of Siena. Pop. (1901) town 1987; commune 9879. The
+old (upper) town (732 ft. above sea-level), contains the cathedral,
+dating from the 13th century, with a pulpit partly of this period;
+the façade has been modernized. There are also some old palaces
+of good architecture, and the old house where Arnolfo di Cambio,
+the first architect of the cathedral at Florence (1232-1301) was
+born. The lower town (460 ft.) contains glass-works; the paper
+and iron industries (the former as old as 1377) are less important.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLEGE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (<i>Collegium</i>), in Roman law, a number of persons
+associated together by the possession of common functions,&mdash;a
+body of colleagues. Its later meaning applied to any union of
+persons, and <i>collegium</i> was the equivalent of <span class="grk" title="hetaireia">&#7953;&#964;&#945;&#953;&#961;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>. In
+many respects, <i>e.g.</i> in the distinction between the responsibilities
+and rights of the society and those of individual members thereof,
+the collegium was what we should now call a corporation (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Collegia might exist for purposes of trade like the English gilds,
+or for religious purposes (<i>e.g.</i> the college of augurs, of pontifices,
+&amp;c.), or for political purposes, <i>e.g.</i> <i>tribunorum plebis collegia</i>.
+By the Roman law a collegium must have at least three members.
+The name is now usually applied to educational corporations,
+such as the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, with which, in the
+numerous English statutes relating to colleges, the colleges of
+Winchester and Eton are usually associated. These colleges are
+in the eye of the law eleemosynary corporations. In some of the
+earlier statutes of Queen Elizabeth they are spoken of as having
+an ecclesiastical character, but the doctrine of the common law
+since the Reformation has been that they are purely lay corporations,
+notwithstanding that most or all of their members may be
+persons in priest&rsquo;s orders. This is said to have been settled by
+Dr Patrick&rsquo;s case (<i>Raymond&rsquo;s Reports</i>, p. 101).</p>
+
+<p>Colleges appear to have grown out of the voluntary association
+of students and teachers at the university. According to some
+accounts these must at one time have been numerous and flourishing
+beyond anything we are now acquainted with. We are told,
+for example, of 300 halls or societies at Oxford, and 30,000
+students. In early times there seems to have been a strong
+desire to confine the scholars to certain licensed houses beyond
+the influence of the townspeople. Men of wealth and culture,
+and notably the political bishops and chancellors of England,
+obtained charters from the crown for the incorporation of
+societies of scholars, and these in time became exclusively the
+places of abode for students attending the university. At the
+same time the corporations thus founded were not necessarily
+attached to the locality of the university. The early statutes of
+Merton College, for example, allow the residence of the college
+to be shifted as occasion required; and the foundations of Wolsey
+at Oxford and Ipswich seem to have been the same in intention.
+In later times (until the introduction of non-collegiate students)
+the university and the colleges became coextensive; every
+member of the university had to attach himself to some college
+or hall, and every person admitted to a college or hall was obliged
+to matriculate himself in the university.</p>
+
+<p>In Ayliffe&rsquo;s <i>Ancient and Present State of the University of Oxford</i>
+it is stated that a college must be &ldquo;made up of three persons (at
+least) joined in community. And the reason of this almost seems
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page687" id="page687"></a>687</span>
+to speak its own necessity, without the help of any express law to
+countenance it: because among two persons only there cannot
+be, in fact, a major part; and then if any disagreement should
+happen to arise between them it cannot be, in fact, brought to a
+conclusion by such a number alone in case both the parties should
+firmly adhere to their dissenting opinions; and thus it is declared
+by the civil law. But by the canon law it is known to be otherwise;
+for by that law two persons in number may make and
+constitute a college, forasmuch as according to this law two
+persons make and constitute an assembly or congregation. The
+common law of England, or rather the constant usage of our
+princes in erecting aggregate bodies, which has established this rule
+among us as a law, has been herein agreeable to the method and
+doctrine of the civil law, for that in all their grants and charters
+of incorporation of colleges they have not framed any aggregate
+body consisting of less than three in number.&rdquo; Another principle,
+apparently derived from the civil law, is that a man cannot be
+a fellow in two colleges at the same time. The law of England
+steadily resisted any attempt to introduce the principle of inequality
+into colleges. An act of 1542, reciting that divers founders
+of colleges have given in their statutes a power of veto to individual
+members, enacts that every statute made by any such
+founder, whereby the grant or election of the governor or ruler
+with the assent of the most part of such corporation should be in
+any wise hindered by any one or more being the lesser number
+(contrary to the common law), shall be void.</p>
+
+<p>The corporation consists of a head or master, fellows and
+scholars. Students, not being on the foundation, residing in the
+college, are not considered to be members of the corporation.
+The governing body in all cases is the head and fellows.</p>
+
+<p>It is considered essential to corporations of an ecclesiastical
+or educational character that they should have a Visitor whose
+duty it is to see that the statutes of the founder are obeyed.
+The duties of this officer have been ascertained by the courts of
+law in a great variety of decided cases. Subject to such restrictions
+as may be imposed on him by the statutes of the college,
+his duties are generally to interpret the statutes of the college
+in disputed cases, and to enforce them where they have been
+violated. For this purpose he is empowered to &ldquo;visit&rdquo; the
+society&mdash;usually at certain stated intervals. In questions
+within his jurisdiction his judgment is conclusive, but his jurisdiction
+does not extend to any cases under the common laws
+of the country, or to trusts attached to the college. Generally
+the visitorship resides in the founder and his heirs unless he has
+otherwise appointed, and in default of him in the crown.</p>
+
+<p>The fellowships, scholarships, &amp;c., of colleges were until a
+comparatively recent date subject to various restrictions.
+Birth in a particular county, education at a particular school,
+relationship to the founder and holy orders, are amongst the
+most usual of the conditions giving a preferential or conclusive
+claim to the emoluments. Most of these restrictions have been
+or are being swept away. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oxford</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cambridge</a></span>;
+<span class="sc">&amp;c.</span>)</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;college&rdquo; (like &ldquo;academy&rdquo;) is also applied to
+various institutions, <i>e.g.</i> to colleges of physicians and surgeons,
+and to the electoral college in the United States presidential
+elections, &amp;c. For the Sacred College see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cardinal</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1400-1475), Italian soldier
+of fortune, was born at Bergamo. While he was still a child his
+father was attacked and murdered in his castle of Trezzo by
+Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan. After wandering about
+Italy he entered the service of various <i>condottieri</i>, such as Braccio
+da Montone and Carmagnola. At the age of thirty-two he was
+serving the Venetian republic, and although Francesco Maria
+Gonzaga was commander-in-chief, Colleoni was the life and soul
+of the army. He recaptured many towns and districts for
+Venice from the Milanese, and when Gonzaga went over to the
+enemy he continued to serve the Venetians under Erasmo da
+Narni (known as Gattamelata) and Francesco A. Sforza, winning
+battles at Brescia, Verona and on the lake of Garda. When
+peace was made between Milan and Venice in 1441 Colleoni went
+over to the Milanese, together with Sforza in 1443. But although
+well treated at first, he soon fell under the suspicion of the
+treacherous Visconti and was imprisoned at Monza, where he
+remained until the duke&rsquo;s death in 1447. Milan then fell under
+the lordship of Sforza, whom Colleoni served for a time, but in
+1448 he took leave of Sforza and returned to the Venetians.
+Disgusted at not having been elected captain-general, he went
+over to Sforza once more, but Venice could not do without him
+and by offering him increased emoluments induced him to return,
+and in 1455 he was appointed captain-general of the republic
+for life. Although he occasionally fought on his own account,
+when Venice was at peace, he remained at the disposal of the
+republic in time of war until his death.</p>
+
+<p>Colleoni was perhaps the most respectable of all the Italian
+<i>condottieri</i>, and although he often changed sides, no act of
+treachery is imputed to him, nor did he subject the territories
+he passed through to the rapine and exactions practised by other
+soldiers of fortune. When not fighting he devoted his time to
+introducing agricultural improvements on the vast estates with
+which the Venetians had endowed him, and to charitable works.
+At his death in 1475 he left a large sum to the republic for the
+Turkish war, with a request that an equestrian statue of himself
+should be erected in the Piazza San Marco. The statue was
+made by Verrocchio, but as no monument was permitted in the
+famous Piazza it was placed opposite the hospital of St Mark
+by way of compromise.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. M. Bonomi, <i>Il Castello di Cavernago e i conti Martinengo
+Colleoni</i> (Bergamo, 1884); for an account of his wars see S. Romanin,
+<i>Storia documentata di Venezia</i>, vol. iv. (Venice, 1855), and other
+histories of Venice.                                     (L. V.*)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLETER<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kollos">&#954;&#972;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, glue), a botanical term for the
+gum-secreting hairs on the buds of certain plants.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLETTA, PIETRO<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1775-1831), Neapolitan general and
+historian, entered the Neapolitan artillery in 1796 and took part
+in the campaign against the French in 1798. On the entry of
+the French into Naples and the establishment of the Parthenopean
+republic (1799) he adhered to the new government, and
+when the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (<i>q.v.</i>) reconquered the
+city Colletta was thrown into prison and only escaped the death
+penalty by means of judiciously administered bribes. Turned
+out of the army he became a civil engineer, but when the
+Bourbons were expelled a second time in 1806 and Joseph Bonaparte
+seized the throne of Naples, he was reinstated in his rank
+and served in the expedition against the brigands and rebels of
+Calabria. In 1812 he was promoted general, and made director
+of roads and bridges. He served under Joachim Murat and
+fought the Austrians on the Panaro in 1815. On the restoration
+of Ferdinand Colletta was permitted to retain his rank in the
+army, and given command of the Salerno division. At the outbreak
+of the revolution of 1820 the king called him to his councils,
+and when the constitution had been granted Colletta was sent
+to put down the separatist rising in Sicily, which he did with
+great severity. He fought in the constitutionalist army against
+the Austrians at Rieti (7th of March 1821), and on the re-establishment
+of autocracy he was arrested and imprisoned for three
+months by order of the prince of Canosa, the chief of police, his
+particular enemy. He would have been executed had not
+the Austrians intervened in his favour, and he was exiled instead
+to Brünn in Moravia; in 1823 he was permitted to settle in
+Florence, where he spent the rest of his days engaged on his
+<i>Storia del reame di Napoli</i>. He died in 1831. His history
+(1st ed., Capolago, 1834), which deals with the reigns of Charles
+III. and Ferdinand IV. (1734-1825), is still the standard work
+for that period; but its value is somewhat diminished by the
+author&rsquo;s bitterness against his opponents and the fact that he
+does not give chapter and verse for his statements, many of
+which are based on his recollection of documents seen, but not
+available at the time of writing. Still, having been an actor in
+many of the events recorded, he is on the whole accurate and
+trustworthy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gino Capponi&rsquo;s memoir of him published in the <i>Storia del
+reame di Napoli</i> (2nd ed., Florence, 1848).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLEY, SIR GEORGE POMEROY<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1835-1881), British
+general, third son of George Pomeroy Colley, of Rathangan,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page688" id="page688"></a>688</span>
+Co. Kildare, Ireland, and grandson of the fourth Viscount Harberton,
+was born on the 1st of November 1835, and entered the
+2nd Queen&rsquo;s Regiment from Sandhurst as ensign in 1852. From
+1854 to 1860 he served in South Africa, and was employed in
+surveying and as a magistrate in charge of the Bashi river district
+in Kaffraria. Early in 1860 he went with his regiment to China to
+join the Anglo-French expedition, and took part in the capture
+of the Taku forts and the entry into Peking, returning to South
+Africa to complete his work in Kaffraria (brevet-majority).
+In 1862 he entered the Staff College and passed out in one year
+with honours. After serving as brigade-major at Devonport for
+five years, he went to the War Office in 1870 to assist in the
+preparation of (Lord) Cardwell&rsquo;s measures of army reform. He
+was appointed professor of military administration at the Staff
+College in 1871. Early in 1873 he joined Sir Garnet Wolseley at
+the Gold Coast, where he took charge of the transport, and the
+success of the Ashanti expedition was in no small degree due to
+his exertions. He was promoted brevet-colonel and awarded the
+C.B. In 1875 he accompanied Wolseley to Natal (C.M.G.). On
+his return home he was appointed military secretary to Lord
+Lytton, governor-general of India, and in 1877 private secretary
+(K.C.S.I.). In 1879 he joined Wolseley as chief of the staff and
+brigadier-general in S.E. Africa, but, on the murder of Cavagnari
+at Kabul, returned to India. In 1880 he succeeded Wolseley in
+S.E. Africa as high commissioner and general commanding, and
+conducted the operations against the rebel Boers. He was
+defeated at Laing&rsquo;s Nek and at the Ingogo river, and killed at
+Majuba Hill on the 27th of February 1881. He had a very high
+reputation not only for a theoretical knowledge of military
+affairs, but also as a practical soldier.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life of Sir George Pomeroy Colley</i> by Lieut.-Gen. Sir W. F.
+Butler (London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLIER, ARTHUR<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1680-1732), English philosopher, was
+born at the rectory of Steeple Langford, Wiltshire, on the 12th of
+October 1680. He entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, in July
+1697, but in October 1698 he and his brother William became
+members of Balliol. His father having died in 1697, it was
+arranged that the family living of Langford Magna should be given
+to Arthur as soon as he was old enough. He was presented to the
+benefice in 1704, and held it till his death. His sermons show no
+traces of his bold theological speculations, and he seems to have
+been faithful in the discharge of his duty. He was often in
+pecuniary difficulties, from which at last he was obliged to free
+himself by selling the reversion of Langford rectory to Corpus
+Christi College, Oxford. His philosophical opinions grew out of
+a diligent study of Descartes and Malebranche. John Norris of
+Bemerton also strongly influenced him by his <i>Essay on the Ideal
+World</i> (1701-1704). It is remarkable that Collier makes no
+reference to Locke, and shows no sign of having any knowledge
+of his works. As early as 1703 he seems to have become convinced
+of the non-existence of an external world. In 1712 he
+wrote two essays, which are still in manuscript, one on substance
+and accident, and the other called <i>Clavis Philosophica</i>. His
+chief work appeared in 1713, under the title <i>Clavis Universalis</i>,
+or a <i>New Inquiry after Truth</i>, being a <i>Demonstration of the Non-Existence
+or Impossibility of an External World</i> (printed privately,
+Edinburgh, 1836, and reprinted in <i>Metaphysical Tracts</i>, 1837,
+edited by Sam. Parr). It was favourably mentioned by Reid,
+Stewart and others, was frequently referred to by the Leibnitzians,
+and was translated into German by von Eschenbach in
+1756. Berkeley&rsquo;s <i>Principles of Knowledge</i> and <i>Theory of Vision</i>
+preceded it by three and four years respectively, but there is no
+evidence that they were known to Collier before the publication
+of his book.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His views are grounded on two presuppositions:&mdash;first, the utter
+aversion of common sense to any theory of representative perception;
+second, the opinion which Collier held in common with Berkeley,
+and Hume afterwards, that the difference between imagination and
+sense perception is only one of degree. The former is the basis of
+the negative part of his argument; the latter supplies him with all
+the positive account he has to give, and that is meagre enough.
+The <i>Clavis</i> consists of two parts. After explaining that he will use
+the term &ldquo;external world&rdquo; in the sense of absolute, self-existent,
+independent matter, he attempts in the first part to prove that the
+visible world is not external, by showing&mdash;first, that the seeming
+externality of a visible object is no proof of real externality, and
+second, that a visible object, as such, is not external. The image
+of a centaur seems as much external to the mind as any object of
+sense; and since the difference between imagination and perception
+is only one of degree, God could so act upon the mind of a person
+imagining a centaur, that he would perceive it as vividly as any
+object can be seen. Similar illustrations are used to prove the second
+proposition, that a visible object, as such, is not external. The first
+part ends with a reply to objections based on the universal consent
+of men, on the assurance given by touch of the extra existence of the
+visible world, and on the truth and goodness of God (Descartes),
+which would be impugned if our senses deceived us. Collier argues
+naively that if universal consent means the consent of those who have
+considered the subject, it may be claimed for his view. He thinks
+with Berkeley that objects of sight are quite distinct from those of
+touch, and that the one therefore cannot give any assurance of the
+other; and he asks the Cartesians to consider how far God&rsquo;s truth
+and goodness are called in question by their denial of the externality
+of the secondary qualities. The second part of the book is taken up
+with a number of metaphysical arguments to prove the impossibility
+of an external world. The pivot of this part is the logical principle of
+contradiction. From the hypothesis of an external world a series of
+contradictions are deduced, such as that the world is both finite and
+infinite, is movable and immovable, &amp;c.; and finally, Aristotle and
+various other philosophers are quoted, to show that the external
+matter they dealt with, as mere potentiality, is just nothing at all.
+Among other uses and consequences of his treatise, Collier thinks it
+furnishes an easy refutation of the Romish doctrine of transubstantiation.
+If there is no external world, the distinction between
+substance and accidents vanishes, and these become the sole essence
+of material objects, so that there is no room for any change whilst
+they remain as before. Sir William Hamilton thinks that the
+logically necessary advance from the old theory of representative
+perception to idealism was stayed by anxiety to save this miracle of
+the church; and he gives Collier credit for being the first to make
+the discovery.</p>
+
+<p>His <i>Clavis Universalis</i> is interesting on account of the resemblance
+between its views and those of Berkeley. Both were moved by their
+dissatisfaction with the theory of representative perception. Both
+have the feeling that it is inconsistent with the common sense of
+mankind, which will insist that the very object perceived is the sole
+reality. They equally affirm that the so-called representative image
+is the sole reality, and discard as unthinkable the unperceiving
+material cause of the philosophers. Of objects of sense, they say,
+their <i>esse</i> is <i>percipi</i>. But Collier never got beyond a bald assertion
+of the fact, while Berkeley addressed himself to an explanation of it.
+The thought of a distinction between direct and indirect perception
+never dawned upon Collier. To the question how all matter exists
+in dependence on percipient mind his only reply is, &ldquo;Just how my
+reader pleases, provided it be somehow.&rdquo; As cause of our sensations
+and ground of our belief in externality, he substituted for an unintelligible
+material substance an equally unintelligible operation of
+divine power. His book exhibits no traces of a scientific development.
+The most that can be said about him is that he was an
+intelligent student of Descartes and Malebranche, and had the ability
+to apply the results of his reading to the facts of his experience. In
+philosophy he is a curiosity, and nothing more. His biographer
+attributes the comparative failure of the <i>Clavis</i> to its inferiority in
+point of style, but the crudeness of his thought had quite as much to
+do with his failure to gain a hearing. Hamilton (<i>Discussions</i>, p. 197)
+allows greater sagacity to Collier than to Berkeley, on the ground
+that he did not vainly attempt to enlist men&rsquo;s natural belief against
+the hypothetical realism of the philosophers. But Collier did so as
+far as his light enabled him. He appealed to the popular conviction
+that the proper object of sense is the sole reality, although he
+despaired of getting men to give up their belief in its externality, and
+asserted that nothing but prejudice prevented them from doing so;
+and there is little doubt that, if it had ever occurred to him, as it did to
+Berkeley, to explain the genesis of the notion of externality, he would
+have been more hopeful of commending his theory to the popular
+mind.</p>
+
+<p>In theology Collier was an adherent of the High Church party,
+though his views were by no means orthodox. In the Jacobite
+<i>Mist&rsquo;s Journal</i> he attacked Bishop Hoadly&rsquo;s defence of sincere
+errors. His views on the problems of Arianism, and his attempt to
+reconcile it with orthodox theology, are contained in <i>A Specimen of
+True Philosophy</i> (1730, reprinted in <i>Metaphysical Tracts</i>, 1837) and
+<i>Logology, or a Treatise on the Logos in Seven Sermons on John i.
+1, 2, 3, 14</i> (1732, analysed in <i>Metaph. Tracts</i>). These may be
+compared with Berkeley&rsquo;s <i>Siris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>See Robt. Benson, <i>Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Arthur
+Collier</i> (1837); Tennemann, <i>History of Philosophy</i>; Hamilton,
+<i>Discussions</i>; A. C. Fraser, edition of <i>Berkeley&rsquo;s Works</i>; G. Lyon,
+&ldquo;Un Idéaliste anglais au XVIII. siècle,&rdquo; in <i>Rev. philos.</i> (1880),
+x. 375.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLIER, JEREMY<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1650-1726), English nonjuring divine,
+was born at Stow-with-Quy, Cambridgeshire, on the 23rd of
+September 1650. He was educated at Ipswich free school, over
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page689" id="page689"></a>689</span>
+which his father presided, and at Caius College, Cambridge,
+graduating B.A. in 1673 and M.A. in 1676. He acted for a short
+time as a private chaplain, but was appointed in 1679 to the
+small rectory of Ampton, near Bury St Edmunds, and in 1685 he
+was made lecturer of Gray&rsquo;s Inn.</p>
+
+<p>At the Revolution he was committed to Newgate for writing in
+favour of James II. a tract entitled <i>The Desertion discuss&rsquo;d in a
+Letter to a Country Gentleman</i> (1688), in answer to Bishop Burnet&rsquo;s
+defence of King William&rsquo;s position. He was released after some
+months of imprisonment, without trial, by the intervention of his
+friends. In the two following years he continued to harass the
+government by his publications: and in 1692 he was again in
+prison under suspicion of treasonable correspondence with James.
+His scruples forbade him to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the
+court by accepting bail, but he was soon released. But in
+1696 for his boldness in granting absolution on the scaffold to
+Sir John Friend and Sir William Parkyns, who had attempted
+the assassination of William, he was obliged to flee, and for the
+rest of his life continued under sentence of outlawry.</p>
+
+<p>When the storm had blown over he returned to London, and
+employed his leisure in works which were less political in their
+tone. In 1697 appeared the first volume of his <i>Essays on Several
+Moral Subjects</i>, to which a second was added in 1705, and a third
+in 1709. The first series contained six essays, the most notable
+being that &ldquo;On the office of a Chaplain,&rdquo; which throws much
+light on the position of a large section of the clergy at that time.
+Collier deprecated the extent of the authority assumed by the
+patron and the servility of the poorer clergy.</p>
+
+<p>In 1698 Collier produced his famous <i>Short View of the Immorality
+and Profaneness of the English Stage...</i>. He dealt
+with the immodesty of the contemporary stage, supporting his
+contentions by a long series of references attesting the comparative
+decency of Latin and Greek drama; with the profane
+language indulged in by the players; the abuse of the clergy
+common in the drama; the encouragement of vice by representing
+the vicious characters as admirable and successful; and
+finally he supported his general position by the analysis of
+particular plays, Dryden&rsquo;s <i>Amphitryon</i>, Vanbrugh&rsquo;s <i>Relapse</i> and
+D&rsquo;Urfey&rsquo;s <i>Don Quixote</i>. The Book abounds in hypercriticism,
+particularly in the imputation of profanity; and in a useless
+display of learning, neither intrinsically valuable nor conducive
+to the argument. He had no artistic appreciation of the subject
+he discussed, and he mistook cause for effect in asserting that the
+decline in public morality was due to the flagrant indecency of
+the stage. Yet, in the words of Macaulay, who gives an admirable
+account of the discussion in his essay on the comic dramatists of
+the Restoration, &ldquo;when all deductions have been made, great
+merit must be allowed to the work.&rdquo; Dryden acknowledged,
+in the preface to his <i>Fables</i>, the justice of Collier&rsquo;s strictures,
+though he protested against the manner of the onslaught;<a name="FnAnchor_1h" id="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but
+Congreve made an angry reply; Vanbrugh and others followed.
+Collier was prepared to meet any number of antagonists, and
+defended himself in numerous tracts. <i>The Short View</i> was
+followed by a <i>Defence</i> (1699), a <i>Second Defence</i> (1700), and <i>Mr
+Collier&rsquo;s Dissuasive from the Playhouse, in a Letter to a Person of
+Quality</i> (1703), and a <i>Further Vindication</i> (1708). The fight
+lasted in all some ten years; but Collier had right on his side,
+and triumphed; his position was, moreover, strengthened by the
+fact that he was known as a Troy and high churchman, and that
+his attack could not, therefore, be assigned to Puritan rancour
+against the stage.</p>
+
+<p>From 1701 to 1721 Collier was employed on his <i>Great Historical,
+Geographical, Genealogical and Poetical Dictionary</i>, founded on,
+and partly translated from, Louis Moréri&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire historique</i>,
+and in the compilation and issue of the two volumes
+folio of his own <i>Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain from the
+first planting of Christianity to the end of the reign of Charles II</i>.
+(1708-1714). The latter work was attacked by Burnet and others,
+but the author showed himself as keen a controversialist as ever.
+Many attempts were made to shake his fidelity to the lost cause
+of the Stuarts, but he continued indomitable to the end. In
+1712 George Hickes was the only survivor of the nonjuring
+bishops, and in the next year Collier was consecrated. He
+had a share in an attempt made towards union with the Greek
+Church. He had a long correspondence with the Eastern
+authorities, his last letters on the subject being written in 1725.
+Collier preferred the version of the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i>
+issued in 1549, and regretted that certain practices and petitions
+there enjoined were omitted in later editions. His first tract on
+the subject, <i>Reasons for Restoring some Prayers</i> (1717), was
+followed by others. In 1718 was published a new <i>Communion
+Office taken partly from Primitive Liturgies and partly from the
+first English Reformed Common Prayer Book,...</i> which embodied
+the changes desired by Collier. The controversy that
+ensued made a split in the nonjuring communion. His last work
+was a volume of <i>Practical Discourses</i>, published in 1725. He
+died on the 26th of April 1726.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;There is an excellent account of Collier in
+A. Kippis&rsquo;s <i>Biographia Britannica</i>, vol. iv. (1789), where some
+sensible observations by the editor are added to the original biography.
+A full list of Collier&rsquo;s writings is given by the Rev. Wm.
+Hunt in the article in the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>. For
+particulars of Collier&rsquo;s history as a nonjuring bishop, see Thomas
+Lathbury, <i>A History of the Nonjurors ...</i> (1845). There is an
+excellent account of the <i>Short View</i> and the controversy arising
+from it in A. Beljame&rsquo;s <i>Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre
+au XVIIIe siècle</i> (2nd ed., 1897), pp. 244-263.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1h" id="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;He is too much given to horse-play in his raillery, and comes
+to battle like a dictator from the plough. I will not say, &lsquo;the zeal
+of God&rsquo;s house has eaten him up&rsquo;; but I am sure it has devoured
+some part of his good manners and civility.&rdquo; (Dryden, <i>Works</i>, ed.
+Scott, xi. 239).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1789-1883), English Shakespearian
+critic, was born in London, on the 11th of January 1789. His
+father, John Dyer Collier (1762-1825), was a successful journalist,
+and his connexion with the press obtained for his son a position
+on the <i>Morning Chronicle</i> as leader writer, dramatic critic and
+reporter, which continued till 1847; he was also for some time
+a reporter for <i>The Times</i>. He was summoned before the House
+of Commons in 1819 for giving an incorrect report of a speech
+by Joseph Hume. He entered the Middle Temple in 1811, but
+was not called to the bar until 1829. The delay was partly due
+to his indiscretion in publishing the <i>Criticisms on the Bar</i> (1819)
+by &ldquo;Amicus Curiae.&rdquo; His leisure was given to the study of
+Shakespeare and the early English drama. After some minor
+publications he produced in 1825-1827 a new edition of Dodsley&rsquo;s
+<i>Old Plays</i>, and in 1833 a supplementary volume entitled <i>Five
+Old Plays</i>. In 1831 appeared his <i>History of English Dramatic
+Poetry and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration</i>, a badly arranged,
+but valuable work. It obtained for him the post of librarian
+to the duke of Devonshire, and, subsequently, access to the
+chief collections of early English literature throughout the
+kingdom, especially to the treasures of Bridgwater House.
+These opportunities were unhappily misused to effect a series of
+literary fabrications, which may be charitably, and perhaps
+not unjustly, attributed to literary monomania, but of which
+it is difficult to speak with patience, so completely did they for
+a long time bewilder the chronology of Shakespeare&rsquo;s writings,
+and such suspicion have they thrown upon MS. evidence in
+general. After <i>New Facts</i>, <i>New Particulars</i> and <i>Further Particulars</i>
+respecting Shakespeare had appeared and passed muster,
+Collier produced (1852) the famous <i>Perkins Folio</i>, a copy of the
+second folio (1632), so called from a name written on the title-page.
+On this book were numerous MS. emendations of Shakespeare
+said by Collier to be from the hand of &ldquo;an old corrector.&rdquo;
+He published these corrections as <i>Notes and Emendations to
+the Text of Shakespeare</i> (1852), and boldly incorporated them
+in his edition (1853) of Shakespeare. Their authenticity was
+disputed by S. W. Singer in <i>The Text of Shakespeare Vindicated</i>
+(1853) and by E. A. Brae in <i>Literary Cookery</i> (1855) on internal
+evidence; and when in 1859 the folio was submitted by its
+owner, the duke of Devonshire, to experts at the British Museum,
+the emendations were incontestably proved to be forgeries of
+modern date. Collier was exposed by Mr Nicholas Hamilton in
+his <i>Inquiry</i> (1860). The point whether he was deceiver or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page690" id="page690"></a>690</span>
+deceived was left undecided, but the falsifications of which he
+was unquestionably guilty among the MSS. at Dulwich College
+have left little doubt respecting it. He had produced the
+<i>Memoirs of Edward Alleyn</i> for the Shakespeare Society in 1841.
+He followed up this volume with the <i>Alleyn Papers</i> (1843) and
+the <i>Diary of P. Henslowe</i> (1845). He forged the name of Shakespeare
+in a genuine letter at Dulwich, and the spurious entries
+in Alleyn&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i> were proved to be by Collier&rsquo;s hand when the
+sale of his library in 1884 gave access to a transcript he had
+made of the <i>Diary</i> with interlineations corresponding with the
+Dulwich forgeries. No statement of his can be accepted without
+verification, and no manuscript he has handled without careful
+examination, but he did much useful work. He compiled a
+valuable <i>Bibliographical and Critical Account of the Rarest
+Books in the English Language</i> (1865); he reprinted a great
+number of early English tracts of extreme rarity, and rendered
+good service to the numerous antiquarian societies with which
+he was connected, especially in the editions he produced for the
+Camden Society and the Percy Society. His <i>Old Man&rsquo;s Diary</i>
+(1871-1872) is an interesting record, though even here the taint
+of fabrication is not absent. Unfortunately what he did amiss
+is more striking to the imagination than what he did aright,
+and he will be chiefly remembered by it. He died at Maidenhead,
+where he had long resided, on the 17th of September
+1883.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For an account of the discussion raised by Collier&rsquo;s emendations
+see C.M. Ingleby, <i>Complete View of the Shakespeare Controversy</i> (1861).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1771-1811), Austrian
+dramatist, was born in Vienna, on the 26th of December 1771.
+He received a legal education and entered the Austrian ministry
+of finance where he found speedy promotion. In 1805 and in
+1809, when Austria was under the heel of Napoleon, Collin was
+entrusted with important political missions. In 1803 he was,
+together with other members of his family, ennobled, and in
+1809 made <i>Hofrat</i>. He died on the 28th of July 1811. His
+tragedy <i>Regulus</i> (1801), written in strict classical form, was
+received with enthusiasm in Vienna, where literary taste,
+less advanced than that of North Germany, was still under the
+ban of French classicism. But in his later dramas, <i>Coriolan</i>
+(1804), <i>Polyxena</i> (1804), <i>Balboa</i> (1806), <i>Bianca della Porta</i>
+(1808), he made some attempt to reconcile the pseudo-classic
+type of tragedy with that of Shakespeare and the German
+romanticists. As a lyric poet (<i>Gedichte</i>, collected 1812), Collin
+has left a collection of stirring <i>Wehrmannslieder</i> for the fighters
+in the cause of Austrian freedom, as well as some excellent
+ballads (<i>Kaiser Max auf der Martinswand</i>, <i>Herzog Leupold vor
+Solothurn</i>). His younger brother Matthäus von Collin (1779-1824),
+was, as editor of the <i>Wiener Jahrbücher für Literatur</i>, an
+even more potent force in the literary life of Vienna. He was,
+moreover, in sympathy with the Romantic movement, and
+intimate with its leaders. His dramas on themes from Austrian
+national history (<i>Belas Krieg mit dem Vater</i>, 1808, <i>Der Tod
+Friedrichs des Streitbaren</i>, 1813) may be regarded as the
+immediate precursors of Grillparzer&rsquo;s historical tragedies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Gesammelte Werke</i> appeared in 6 vols. (1812-1814); he is the
+subject of an excellent monograph by F. Laban (1879). See also
+A. Hauffen, <i>Das Drama der klassischen Periode</i>, ii. 2 (1891), where
+a reprint of <i>Regulus</i> will be found. M. von Collin&rsquo;s <i>Dramatische
+Dichtungen</i> were published in 4 vols. (1815-1817); his <i>Nachgelassene
+Schriften</i>, edited by J. von Hammer, in 2 vols. (1827). A study
+of his life and work by J. Wihan will be found in <i>Euphorion</i>, Ergänzungsheft,
+v. (1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLIN D&rsquo;HARLEVILLE, JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1755-1806),
+French dramatist, was born at Mévoisins, near Maintenon
+(Eure-et-Loire), on the 30th of May 1755. His first dramatic
+success was <i>L&rsquo;Inconstant</i>, a comedy accepted by the Comédie
+Française in 1780, but not produced there until six years later,
+though it was played elsewhere in 1784. This was followed
+by <i>L&rsquo;Optimiste, ou l&rsquo;homme toujours content</i> (1788), and <i>Châteaux
+en Espagne</i> (1789). His best play, <i>Le Vieux Célibataire</i>, appeared
+in 1793. Among his other plays are&mdash;the one-act comedy
+<i>Monsieur de Crac dans son petit castel</i> (1791), <i>Les Artistes</i> (1796),
+<i>Les M&oelig;urs du jour</i> (1800) and <i>Malice pour malice</i> (1803).
+Collin was one of the original members of the Institute of France,
+and died in Paris on the 24th of February 1806.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The 1822 edition of his <i>Théâtre et poésies fugitives</i> contains a notice
+by his friend the dramatist Andrieux. His <i>Théâtre</i> was also edited
+by L. Moland in 1876; and by Édouard Thierry in 1882.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLING, ROBERT<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1749-1820), and <span class="bold">CHARLES</span> (1751-1836),
+English stock breeders, famous for their improvement of the
+Shorthorn breed of cattle, were the sons of Charles Colling, a
+farmer of Ketton near Darlington. Their lives are closely
+connected with the history of the Shorthorn breed. Of the two
+brothers, Charles is probably the better known, and it was his
+visit to the farm of Robert Bakewell at Dishley that first led the
+brothers to realize the possibilities of scientific cattle breeding.
+Charles succeeded to his father&rsquo;s farm at Ketton. Robert,
+after being first apprenticed to a grocer in Shields, took a farm
+at Barmpton. An animal which he bought at Charles&rsquo;s advice
+for £8 and afterwards sold to his brother, became known as the
+celebrated &ldquo;Hubback,&rdquo; a bull which formed the basis of both
+the Ketton and Barmpton herds. The two brothers pursued
+the same system of &ldquo;in and in&rdquo; breeding which they had learned
+from Bakewell, and both the Ketton and the Barmpton herds
+were sold by auction in the autumn of 1810. The former with
+47 lots brought £7116, and the latter with 61 lots £7852. Robert
+Colling died unmarried at Barmpton on the 7th of March 1820,
+leaving his property to his brother. Charles Colling, who is
+remembered as the owner of the famous bulls &ldquo;Hubback,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Favourite&rdquo; and &ldquo;Comet,&rdquo; was more of a specialist and a
+business man than his brother. He died on the 16th of January
+1836.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1899, for a
+biographical sketch of the brothers Colling, by C. J. Bates.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1750-1810),
+British naval commander, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
+on the 26th of September 1750. He was early sent to
+school; and when only eleven years of age he was put on board
+the &ldquo;Shannon,&rdquo; then under the command of Captain (afterwards
+Admiral) Brathwaite, a relative of his own, to whose care and
+attention he was in a great measure indebted for that nautical
+knowledge which shone forth so conspicuously in his subsequent
+career. After serving under Captain Brathwaite for some years,
+and also under Admiral Roddam, he went in 1774 to Boston with
+Admiral Graves, and served in the naval brigade at the battle
+of Bunker Hill (17th of June 1775), where he gained his lieutenancy.
+In 1779 he was made commander of the &ldquo;Badger,&rdquo;
+and shortly afterwards post-captain of the &ldquo;Hinchinbroke,&rdquo; a
+small frigate. In the spring of 1780 that vessel, under the
+command of Nelson, was employed upon an expedition to the
+Spanish Main, where it was proposed to pass into the Pacific
+by navigating boats along the river San Juan and the lakes
+Nicaragua and Leon. The attempt failed, and most of those
+engaged in it became victims to the deadly influence of the
+climate. Nelson was promoted to a larger vessel, and Collingwood
+succeeded him in the command. It is a fact worthy of
+record that the latter succeeded the former very frequently
+from the time when they first became acquainted, until the star
+of Nelson set at Trafalgar&mdash;giving place to that of Collingwood,
+less brilliant certainly, but not less steady in its lustre.</p>
+
+<p>After commanding in another small frigate, Collingwood
+was promoted to the &ldquo;Sampson&rdquo; (64); and in 1783 he was
+appointed to the &ldquo;Mediator,&rdquo; destined for the West Indies,
+where, with Nelson, who had a command on that station, he
+remained till the end of 1786. With Nelson he warmly co-operated
+in carrying into execution the provisions of the navigation
+laws, which had been infringed by the United States, whose
+ships, notwithstanding the separation of the countries, continued
+to trade to the West Indies, although that privilege was by law
+exclusively confined to British vessels. In 1786 Collingwood
+returned to England, where, with the exception of a voyage to
+the West Indies, he remained until 1793, in which year he was
+appointed captain of the &ldquo;Prince,&rdquo; the flag-ship of Rear-Admiral
+Bowyer. About two years previous to this event he
+had married Miss Sarah Roddam&mdash;a fortunate alliance, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page691" id="page691"></a>691</span>
+continued to be a solace to him amidst the privations to which
+the life of a seaman must ever be subject.</p>
+
+<p>As captain of the &ldquo;Barfleur,&rdquo; Collingwood was present at the
+naval engagement which was fought on the 1st of June 1794;
+and on that occasion he displayed equal judgment and courage.
+On board the &ldquo;Excellent&rdquo; he shared in the victory of the 14th
+of February 1797, when Sir John Jervis (Lord St Vincent)
+humbled the Spanish fleet off Cape St Vincent. His conduct in
+this engagement was the theme of universal admiration throughout
+the fleet, and greatly advanced his fame as a naval officer.
+After blockading Cadiz for some time, he returned for a few
+weeks to Portsmouth to repair. In the beginning of 1799
+Collingwood was raised to the rank of vice-admiral, and hoisting
+his flag in the &ldquo;Triumph,&rdquo; he joined the Channel Fleet, with
+which he proceeded to the Mediterranean, where the principal
+naval forces of France and Spain were assembled. Collingwood
+continued actively employed in watching the enemy, until the
+peace of Amiens restored him once more to the bosom of his
+family.</p>
+
+<p>The domestic repose, however, which he so highly relished,
+was cut short by the recommencement of hostilities with France,
+and in the spring of 1803 he quitted the home to which he was
+never again to return. The duty upon which he was employed
+was that of watching the French fleet off Brest, and in the
+discharge of it he displayed the most unwearied vigilance.
+Nearly two years were spent in this employment; but Napoleon
+had at length matured his plans and equipped his armament,
+and the grand struggle which was to decide the fate of Europe
+and the dominion of the sea was close at hand. The enemy&rsquo;s
+fleet having sailed from Toulon, Admiral Collingwood was
+appointed to the command of a squadron, with orders to pursue
+them. The combined fleets of France and Spain, after spreading
+terror throughout the West Indies, returned to Cadiz. On their
+way thither they bore down upon Admiral Collingwood, who
+had only three vessels with him; but he succeeded in eluding
+the pursuit, although chased by sixteen ships of the line. Ere
+one-half of the enemy had entered the harbour he drew up
+before it and resumed the blockade, at the same time employing
+an ingenious artifice to conceal the inferiority of his force. But
+the combined fleet was at last compelled to quit Cadiz; and the
+battle of Trafalgar immediately followed. The brilliant conduct
+of Admiral Collingwood upon this occasion has been much and
+justly applauded. The French admiral drew up his fleet in the
+form of a crescent, and in a double line, every alternate ship
+being about a cable&rsquo;s length to windward of her second, both
+ahead and astern. The British fleet bore down upon this
+formidable and skilfully arranged armament in two separate
+lines, the one led by Nelson in the &ldquo;Victory,&rdquo; and the other
+by Collingwood in the &ldquo;Royal Sovereign.&rdquo; The latter vessel
+was the swifter sailer, and having shot considerably ahead of the
+rest of the fleet, was the first engaged. &ldquo;See,&rdquo; said Nelson,
+pointing to the &ldquo;Royal Sovereign&rdquo; as she penetrated the centre
+of the enemy&rsquo;s line, &ldquo;see how that noble fellow Collingwood
+carries his ship into action!&rdquo; Probably it was at the same
+instant that Collingwood, as if in response to the observation of
+his great commander, remarked to his captain, &ldquo;What would
+Nelson give to be here?&rdquo; The consummate valour and skill
+evinced by Collingwood had a powerful moral influence upon
+both fleets. It was with the Spanish admiral&rsquo;s ship that the
+&ldquo;Royal Sovereign&rdquo; closed; and with such rapidity and precision
+did she pour in her broadsides upon the &ldquo;Santa Anna,&rdquo; that the
+latter was on the eve of striking in the midst of thirty-three sail
+of the line, and almost before another British ship had fired a
+gun. Several other vessels, however, seeing the imminent peril
+of the Spanish flag-ship, came to her assistance, and hemmed
+in the &ldquo;Royal Sovereign&rdquo; on all sides; but the latter, after
+suffering severely, was relieved by the arrival of the rest of the
+British squadron; and not long afterwards the &ldquo;Santa Anna&rdquo;
+struck her colours. The result of the battle of Trafalgar, and the
+expense at which it was purchased, are well known. On the
+death of Nelson, Collingwood assumed the supreme command;
+and by his skill and judgment greatly contributed to the preservation
+of the British ships, as well as of those which were captured
+from the enemy. He was raised to the peerage as Baron
+Collingwood of Coldburne and Heathpool, and received the
+thanks of both Houses of Parliament, with a pension of £2000
+per annum.</p>
+
+<p>From this period until the death of Lord Collingwood no great
+naval action was fought; but he was much occupied in important
+political transactions, in which he displayed remarkable tact and
+judgment. Being appointed to the command of the Mediterranean
+fleet, he continued to cruise about, keeping a watchful eye
+upon the movements of the enemy. His health, however, which
+had begun to decline previously to the action of Trafalgar in 1805,
+seemed entirely to give way, and he repeatedly requested government
+to be relieved of his command, that he might return home;
+but he was urgently requested to remain, on the ground that his
+country could not dispense with his services. This conduct has
+been regarded as harsh; but the good sense and political sagacity
+which he displayed afford some palliation of the conduct of the
+government; and the high estimation in which he was held is
+proved by the circumstance that among the many able admirals,
+equal in rank and duration of service, none stood so prominently
+forward as to command the confidence of ministers and of the
+country to the same extent as he did. After many fruitless
+attempts to induce the enemy to put to sea, as well as to fall in
+with them when they had done so (which circumstance materially
+contributed to hasten his death), he expired on board the &ldquo;Ville
+de Paris,&rdquo; then lying off Port Mahon, on the 7th of March 1810.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Collingwood&rsquo;s merits as a naval officer were in every
+respect of the first order. In original genius and romantic daring
+he was inferior to Nelson, who indeed had no equal in an age
+fertile in great commanders. In seamanship, in general talent,
+and in reasoning upon the probability of events from a number of
+conflicting and ambiguous statements, Collingwood was equal to
+the hero of the Nile; indeed, many who were familiar with both
+give him the palm of superiority. His political penetration was
+remarkable; and so high was the opinion generally entertained of
+his judgment, that he was consulted in all quarters, and on all
+occasions, upon questions of general policy, of regulation, and
+even of trade. He was distinguished for benevolence and generosity;
+his acts of charity were frequent and bountiful, and the
+petition of real distress was never rejected by him. He was an
+enemy to impressment and to flogging; and so kind was he to his
+crew, that he obtained amongst them the honourable name of
+father. Between Nelson and Collingwood a close intimacy
+subsisted, from their first acquaintance in early life till the fall of
+the former at Trafalgar; and they lie side by side in the cathedral
+of St Paul&rsquo;s.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The selections from the public and private correspondence of
+Lord Collingwood, published in 2 vols., 8vo, in 1828, contain some
+of the best specimens of letter-writing in the language. See also <i>A
+Fine Old English Gentleman exemplified in the Life and Character of
+Lord Collingwood, a Biographical Study</i>, by William Davies (London,
+1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLINGWOOD<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span>, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
+suburban to Melbourne on the N.E., on the Yarra Yarra river.
+Pop. (1901) 32,766. It was the first town in Victoria incorporated
+after Melbourne and Geelong. It is esteemed one of
+the healthiest of the metropolitan suburbs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLINGWOOD<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span>, a town of Simcoe county, Ontario, Canada,
+90 m. N.N.W. of Toronto, on Georgian Bay, and on the Grand
+Trunk railway. Pop. (1901) 5755. It is the eastern terminus of
+two lines of steamers for the ports of Lakes Huron and Superior.
+It contains a large stone dry-dock and shipyard, pork factory,
+and saw and planing mills, and has a large lumber, grain and
+produce export trade, besides a shipbuilding plant and steel works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, ANTHONY<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1676-1729), English deist, was born at
+Heston, near Hounslow in Middlesex, on the 21st of June 1676.
+He was educated at Eton and King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, and
+was for some time a student at the Middle Temple. The most
+interesting episode of his life was his intimacy with Locke, who in
+his letters speaks of him with affection and admiration. In 1715
+he settled in Essex, where he held the offices of justice of the peace
+and deputy-lieutenant, which he had before held in Middlesex.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page692" id="page692"></a>692</span>
+He died at his house in Harley Street, London, on the 13th of
+December 1729.</p>
+
+<p>His writings are important as gathering together the results of
+previous English Freethinkers. The imperturbable courtesy of
+his style is in striking contrast to the violence of his opponents;
+and it must be remembered that, in spite of his unorthodoxy, he
+was not an atheist or even an agnostic. In his own words,
+&ldquo;Ignorance is the foundation of atheism, and freethinking the
+cure of it&rdquo; (<i>Discourse of Freethinking</i>, 105).</p>
+
+<p>His first work of note was his <i>Essay concerning the Use of
+Reason in Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human
+Testimony</i> (1707), in which he rejected the distinction between
+<i>above</i> reason and <i>contrary to</i> reason, and demanded that revelation
+should conform to man&rsquo;s natural ideas of God. Like all his works,
+it was published anonymously, although the identity of the
+author was never long concealed. Six years later appeared his
+chief work, <i>A Discourse of Freethinking, occasioned by the Rise and
+Growth of a Sect called Freethinkers</i> (1713). Notwithstanding the
+ambiguity of its title, and the fact that it attacks the priests of all
+churches without moderation, it contends for the most part, at
+least explicitly, for no more than must be admitted by every
+Protestant. Freethinking is a right which cannot and must not
+be limited, for it is the only means of attaining to a knowledge of
+truth, it essentially contributes to the well-being of society, and it
+is not only permitted but enjoined by the Bible. In fact the first
+introduction of Christianity and the success of all missionary
+enterprise involve freethinking (in its etymological sense) on the
+part of those converted. In England this essay, which was
+regarded and treated as a plea for deism, made a great sensation,
+calling forth several replies, among others from William Whiston,
+Bishop Hare, Bishop Hoadly, and Richard Bentley, who, under
+the signature of <i>Phileleutherus Lipsiensis</i>, roughly handles
+certain arguments carelessly expressed by Collins, but triumphs
+chiefly by an attack on trivial points of scholarship, his own
+pamphlet being by no means faultless in this very respect. Swift
+also, being satirically referred to in the book, made it the subject
+of a caricature.</p>
+
+<p>In 1724 Collins published his <i>Discourse of the Grounds and
+Reasons of the Christian Religion</i>, with <i>An Apology for Free Debate
+and Liberty of Writing</i> prefixed. Ostensibly it is written in
+opposition to Whiston&rsquo;s attempt to show that the books of the Old
+Testament did originally contain prophecies of events in the New
+Testament story, but that these had been eliminated or corrupted
+by the Jews, and to prove that the fulfilment of prophecy by the
+events of Christ&rsquo;s life is all &ldquo;secondary, secret, allegorical, and
+mystical,&rdquo; since the original and literal reference is always to some
+other fact. Since, further, according to him the fulfilment of
+prophecy is the only valid proof of Christianity, he thus secretly
+aims a blow at Christianity as a revelation. The canonicity of the
+New Testament he ventures openly to deny, on the ground that
+the canon could be fixed only by men who were inspired. No less
+than thirty-five answers were directed against this book, the most
+noteworthy of which were those of Bishop Edward Chandler,
+Arthur Sykes and Samuel Clarke. To these, but with special
+reference to the work of Chandler, which maintained that a
+number of prophecies were literally fulfilled in Christ, Collins
+replied by his <i>Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered</i> (1727). An
+appendix contends against Whiston that the book of <i>Daniel</i> was
+forged in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deism</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In philosophy, Collins takes a foremost place as a defender of
+Necessitarianism. His brief <i>Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty</i>
+(1715) has not been excelled, at all events in its main outlines, as a
+statement of the determinist standpoint. One of his arguments,
+however, calls for special criticism,&mdash;his assertion that it is self-evident
+that nothing that has a beginning can be without a cause
+is an unwarranted assumption of the very point at issue. He was
+attacked in an elaborate treatise by Samuel Clarke, in whose
+system the freedom of the will is made essential to religion and
+morality. During Clarke&rsquo;s lifetime, fearing perhaps to be
+branded as an enemy of religion and morality, Collins made no
+reply, but in 1729 he published an answer, entitled <i>Liberty and
+Necessity</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these works he wrote <i>A Letter to Mr Dodwell</i>, arguing
+that it is conceivable that the soul may be material, and, secondly,
+that if the soul be immaterial it does not follow, as Clarke had
+contended, that it is immortal; <i>Vindication of the Divine Attributes</i>
+(1710); <i>Priestcraft in Perfection</i> (1709), in which he asserts
+that the clause &ldquo;the Church ... Faith&rdquo; in the twentieth of the
+Thirty-nine Articles was inserted by fraud.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Kippis, <i>Biographia Britannica</i>; G. Lechler, <i>Geschichte des
+englischen Deismus</i> (1841); J. Hunt, <i>Religious Thought in England</i>,
+ii. (1871); Leslie Stephen, <i>English Thought in the 18th Century</i>, i.
+(1881); A. W. Benn, <i>Hist. of English Rationalism in the 19th Century</i>
+(London, 1906), vol. i. ch. iii.; J. M. Robertson, <i>Short History of
+Freethought</i> (London, 1906); and Deism.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1848-1908), English literary
+critic, was born on the 26th of March 1848 at Bourton on the
+Water, Gloucestershire. From King Edward&rsquo;s school, Birmingham,
+he went to Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated in
+1872, and at once devoted himself to a literary career, as journalist,
+essayist and lecturer. His first book was a study of Sir
+Joshua Reynolds (1874), and later he edited various classical
+English writers, and published volumes on <i>Bolingbroke and
+Voltaire in England</i> (1886), a <i>Study of English Literature</i> (1891), a
+study of <i>Dean Swift</i> (1893), <i>Essays and Studies</i> (1895), <i>Ephemera
+Critica</i> (1901), <i>Essays in Poetry and Criticism</i> (1905), and <i>Rousseau
+and Voltaire</i> (1908), his original essays being sharply controversial
+in tone, but full of knowledge. In 1904 he became professor of
+English literature at Birmingham University. For many years he
+was a prominent University Extension lecturer, and a constant
+contributor to the principal reviews. On the 15th of September
+1908 he was found dead in a ditch near Lowestoft, at which place
+he had been staying with a doctor for the benefit of his health.
+The circumstances necessitated the holding of an inquest, the
+verdict being that of &ldquo;accidental death.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, MORTIMER<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1827-1876), English writer, was born
+at Plymouth, where his father, Francis Collins, was a solicitor, on
+the 29th of June 1827. He was educated at a private school, and
+after some years spent as mathematical master at Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s
+College, Guernsey, he went to London, where he devoted
+himself to journalism in the Conservative interest. In 1855 he
+published his <i>Idyls and Rhymes</i>; and in 1865 appeared his first
+story, <i>Who is the Heir?</i> A second volume of lyrics, <i>The Inn of
+Strange Meetings</i>, was issued in 1871; and in 1872 he produced
+his longest and best sustained poem, <i>The British Birds, a communication
+from the Ghost of Aristophanes</i>. He also wrote several
+capital novels, the best of which is perhaps <i>Sweet Anne Page</i>
+(1868). Some of his lyrics, in their light grace, their sparkling
+wit, their airy philosophy, are equal to anything of their kind in
+modern English. On his second marriage in 1868 he settled at
+Knowl Hill, Berkshire. Collins was an athlete, an excellent
+pedestrian, and an enthusiastic lover of country life; and from
+this time he rarely left his home for a day. Conservative in his
+political and literary tastes, an ardent upholder of Church and
+State, he was yet a hater of convention; and his many and very
+varied gifts endeared him to a large circle of friends. He died on
+the 28th of July 1876.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, WILLIAM<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1721-1759), English poet, was born on
+the 25th of December 1721. He divides with Gray the glory of
+being the greatest English lyrist of the 18th century. After some
+childish studies in Chichester, of which his father, a rich hatter,
+was the mayor, he was sent, in January 1733, to Winchester
+College, where Whitehead and Joseph Warton were his school-fellows.
+When he had been nine months at the school, Pope paid
+Winchester a visit and proposed a subject for a prize poem; it is
+legitimate to suppose that the lofty forehead, the brisk dark eyes
+and gracious oval of the childish face, as we know it in the only
+portrait existing of Collins, did not escape the great man&rsquo;s notice,
+then not a little occupied with the composition of the <i>Essay on
+Man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1734 the young poet published his first verses, in a sixpenny
+pamphlet on <i>The Royal Nuptials</i>, of which, however, no copy has
+come down to us; another poem, probably satiric, called <i>The
+Battle of the Schoolbooks</i>, was written about this time, and has also
+been lost. Fired by his poetic fellows to further feats in verse,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page693" id="page693"></a>693</span>
+Collins produced, in his seventeenth year, those <i>Persian Eclogues</i>
+which were the only writings of his that were valued by the world
+during his own lifetime. They were not printed for some years,
+and meanwhile Collins sent, in January and October 1739, some
+verses to the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, which attracted the notice
+and admiration of Johnson, then still young and uninfluential.
+In March 1740 he was admitted a commoner of Queen&rsquo;s College,
+Oxford, but did not go up to Oxford until July 1741, when he
+obtained a demyship at Magdalen College. At Oxford he continued
+his affectionate intimacy with the Wartons, and gained
+the friendship of Gilbert White. Early in 1742 the <i>Persian
+Eclogues</i> appeared in London. They were four in number, and
+formed a modest pamphlet of not more than 300 lines in all. In a
+later edition, of 1759, the title was changed to <i>Oriental Eclogues</i>.
+Those pieces may be compared with Victor Hugo&rsquo;s <i>Les Orientales</i>,
+to which, of course, they are greatly inferior. Considered with
+regard to the time at which they were produced, they are more
+than meritorious, even brilliant, and one at least&mdash;the second&mdash;can
+be read with enjoyment at the present day. The rest, perhaps,
+will be found somewhat artificial and effete.</p>
+
+<p>In November 1743 Collins was made bachelor of arts, and a
+few days after taking his degree published his second work,
+<i>Verses humbly addressed to Sir Thomas Hanmer</i>. This poem,
+written in heroic couplets, shows a great advance in individuality,
+and resembles, in its habit of personifying qualities of the mind,
+the riper lyrics of its author. For the rest, it is an enthusiastic
+review of poetry, culminating in a laudation of Shakespeare.
+It is supposed that he left Oxford abruptly in the summer of
+1744 to attend his mother&rsquo;s death-bed, and did not return.
+He is said to have now visited an uncle in Flanders. His indolence,
+which had been no less marked at the university than his
+genius, combined with a fatal irresolution to make it extremely
+difficult to choose for him a path in life. The army and the
+church were successively suggested and rejected; and he finally
+arrived in London, bent on enjoying a small property as an independent
+man about town. He made the acquaintance of
+Johnson and others, and was urged by those friends to undertake
+various important writings&mdash;a <i>History of the Revival of Learning</i>,
+several tragedies, and a version of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Poetics</i>, among
+others&mdash;all of which he began but lacked force of will to continue.
+He soon squandered his means, plunged, with most disastrous
+effects, into profligate excesses, and sowed the seed of his untimely
+misfortune.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this time, however, that he composed his matchless
+<i>Odes</i>&mdash;twelve in number&mdash;which appeared on the 12th of
+December 1746, dated 1747. The original project was to have
+combined them with the odes of Joseph Warton, but the latter
+proved at that time to be the more marketable article. Collins&rsquo;s
+little volume fell dead from the press, but it won him the admiration
+and friendship of the poet Thomson, with whom, until the
+death of the latter in 1748, he lived on terms of affectionate
+intimacy. In 1749 Collins was raised beyond the fear of poverty
+by the death of his uncle, Colonel Martyn, who left him about
+£2000, and he left London to settle in his native city. He had
+hardly begun to taste the sweets of a life devoted to literature
+and quiet, before the weakness of his will began to develop in
+the direction of insanity, and he hurried abroad to attempt to
+dispel the gathering gloom by travel. In the interval he had
+published two short pieces of consummate grace and beauty&mdash;the
+<i>Elegy on Thomson</i>, in 1749, and the <i>Dirge in Cymbeline</i>,
+later in the same year. In the beginning of 1750 he composed
+the <i>Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands</i>, which was
+dedicated to the author of <i>Douglas</i>, and not printed till long
+after the death of Collins, and an <i>Ode on the Music of the Grecian
+Theatre</i>, which no longer exists, and in which English literature
+probably has sustained a severe loss. With this poem his literary
+career closes, although he lingered in great misery for nearly
+nine years. From Gilbert White, who jotted down some pages
+of invaluable recollections of Collins in 1781, and from other
+friends, we learn that his madness was occasionally violent,
+and that he was confined for a time in an asylum at Oxford.
+But for the most part he resided at Chichester, suffering from
+extreme debility of body when the mind was clear, and incapable
+of any regular occupation. Music affected him in a singular
+manner, and it is recorded that he was wont to slip out into
+the cathedral cloisters during the services, and moan and howl
+in horrible accordance with the choir. In this miserable condition
+he passed out of sight of all his friends, and in 1756 it
+was supposed, even by Johnson, that he was dead; in point
+of fact, however, his sufferings did not cease until the 12th of
+June 1759. No journal or magazine recorded the death of the
+forgotten poet, though Goldsmith, only two months before, had
+begun the laudation which was soon to become universal.</p>
+
+<p>No English poet so great as Collins has left behind him so
+small a bulk of writings. Not more than 1500 lines of his have
+been handed down to us, but among these not one is slovenly, and
+few are poor. His odes are the most sculpturesque and faultless
+in the language. They lack fire, but in charm and precision of
+diction, exquisite propriety of form, and lofty poetic suggestion
+they stand unrivalled. The ode named <i>The Passions</i> is the most
+popular; that <i>To Evening</i> is the classical example of perfect
+unrhymed verse. In this, and the <i>Ode to Simplicity</i>, one seems
+to be handling an antique vase of matchless delicacy and elegance.
+In his descriptions of nature it is unquestionable that he owed
+something to the influence of Thomson. Distinction may
+be said to be the crowning grace of the style of Collins; its
+leading peculiarity is the incessant personification of some
+quality of the character. In the <i>Ode on Popular Superstitions</i>
+he produced a still nobler work; this poem, the most considerable
+in size which has been preserved, contains passages which are
+beyond question unrivalled for rich melancholy fulness in the
+literature between Milton and Keats.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The life of Collins was written by Dr Johnson; he found an
+enthusiastic editor in Dr Langhorne in 1765, and in 1858 a kindly
+biographer in Mr Moy Thomas.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, WILLIAM<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1787-1847), English painter, son of an
+Irish picture dealer and man of letters, the author of a <i>Life of
+George Morland</i>, was born in London. He studied under Etty
+in 1807, and in 1809 exhibited his first pictures of repute&mdash;&ldquo;Boys
+at Breakfast,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Boys with a Bird&rsquo;s Nest.&rdquo; In 1815 he was
+made associate of the Royal Academy, and was elected R. A. in
+1820. For the next sixteen years he was a constant exhibitor;
+his fishermen, shrimp-catchers, boats and nets, stretches of coast
+and sand, and, above all, his rustic children were universally
+popular. Then, however, he went abroad on the advice of
+Wilkie, and for two years (1837-1838) studied the life, manners
+and scenery of Italy. In 1839 he exhibited the first fruits of this
+journey; and in 1840, in which year he was appointed librarian
+to the Academy, he made his first appearance as a painter of
+history. In 1842 he returned to his early manner and choice
+of subject, and during the last years of life enjoyed greater
+popularity than ever. Collins was a good colourist and an
+excellent draughtsman. His earlier pictures are deficient in
+breadth and force, but his later work, though also carefully
+executed, is rich in effects of tone and in broadly painted
+masses. His biography by his son, W. Wilkie Collins, the novelist,
+appeared in 1848.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1824-1889), English novelist,
+elder son of William Collins, R.A., the landscape painter, was
+born in London on the 8th of January 1824. He was educated
+at a private school in Highbury, and when only a small boy of
+twelve was taken by his parents to Italy, where the family lived
+for three years. On their return to England Wilkie Collins was
+articled to a firm in the tea trade, but four years later he abandoned
+that business for the law, and was entered at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn
+in 1846, being called to the bar three years later. He found little
+pleasure in his new career, however; though what he learned in
+it was exceedingly valuable to him later. On his father&rsquo;s death
+in 1847 young Collins made his first essay in literature, publishing
+the <i>Life of William Collins</i>, in two volumes, in the following year.
+In 1850 he put forth his first work of fiction, <i>Antonina, or the
+Fall of Rome</i>, which was clearly inspired by his life in Italy.
+<i>Basil</i> appeared in 1852, and <i>Hide and Seek</i> in 1854. About this
+time he made the acquaintance of Charles Dickens, and began
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page694" id="page694"></a>694</span>
+to contribute to <i>Household Words</i>, where <i>After Dark</i> (1856) and
+<i>The Dead Secret</i> (1857) ran serially. His great success was
+achieved in 1860 with the publication of <i>The Woman in White</i>,
+which was first printed in <i>All the Year Round</i>. From that time
+he enjoyed as much popularity as any novelist of his day, <i>No
+Name</i> (1862), <i>Armadale</i> (1866), and <i>The Moonstone</i>, a capital
+detective story (1868), being among his most successful books.
+After <i>The New Magdalen</i> (1873) his ingenuity became gradually
+exhausted, and his later stories were little more than faint echoes
+of earlier successes. He died in Wimpole Street, London, on
+the 23rd of September 1889. Collins&rsquo;s gift was of the melodramatic
+order, and while many of his stories made excellent
+plays, several of them were actually reconstructed from pieces
+designed originally for stage production. But if his colours
+were occasionally crude and his methods violent, he was at least
+a master of situation and effect. His trick of telling a story
+through the mouths of different characters is sometimes irritatingly
+disconnected; but it had the merit of giving an air of
+actual evidence and reality to the elucidation of a mystery. He
+possessed in the highest degree the gift of absorbing interest;
+the turns and complexities of his plots are surprisingly ingenious,
+and many of his characters are not only real, but uncommon.
+Count Fosco in <i>The Woman in White</i> is perhaps his masterpiece;
+the character has been imitated again and again, but no imitation
+has ever attained to the subtlety and humour of the original.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLODION<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolla">&#954;&#972;&#955;&#955;&#945;</span>, glue), a colourless, viscid
+fluid, made by dissolving gun-cotton and the other varieties of
+pyroxylin in a mixture of alcohol and ether. It was discovered
+in 1846 by Louis Nicolas Ménard in Paris, and independently in
+1848 by Dr J. Parkers Maynard in Boston. The quality of
+collodion differs according to the proportions of alcohol and ether
+and the nature of the pyroxylin it contains. Collodion in which
+there is a great excess of ether gives by its evaporation a very
+tough film; the film left by collodion containing a large quantity
+of alcohol is soft and easily torn; but in hot climates the presence
+of an excess of alcohol is an advantage, as it prevents the rapid
+evaporation of the ether. Under the microscope, the film
+produced by collodion of good quality appears translucent and
+colourless. To preserve collodion it should be kept cool and out
+of the action of the light; iodized collodion that has been discoloured
+by the development of free iodine may be purified by
+the immersion in it of a strip of silver foil. For the iodizing
+of collodion, ammonium bromide and iodide, and the iodides
+of calcium and cadmium are the agents employed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photography</a></span>).
+Collodion is used in surgery since, when painted
+on the skin, it rapidly dries and covers the skin with a thin
+film which contracts as it dries and therefore affords both
+pressure and protection. Flexible collodion, containing Canada
+balsam and castor oil, does not crack, but, on the other hand,
+does not contract. It is therefore of less value. Collodion is
+applied to small aseptic wounds, to small-pox pustules, and
+occasionally to the end of the urethra in boys in order to prevent
+nocturnal incontinence. Collodion and crystals of carbolic acid,
+taken in equal parts, are useful in relieving toothache due to
+the presence of a carious cavity. <i>Vesicating</i> or <i>Blistering
+Collodion</i> contains cantharidin as one of its constituents. The
+styptic colloid of Richardson is a strong solution of tannin in
+gun-cotton collodion. Similarly collodion may be impregnated
+with salicylic acid, carbolic acid, iodine and other substances.
+Small balloons are manufactured from collodion by coating the
+interior of glass globes with the liquid; the film when dry is
+removed from the glass by applying suction to the mouth of the
+vessel. M. E. Gripon found (<i>Compt. rend.</i>, 1875) that collodion
+membranes, like glass, reflect light and polarize it both by
+refraction and reflection; they also transmit a very much larger
+proportion of radiant heat, for the study of which they are
+preferable to mica.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLOT D&rsquo;HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1750-1796), French
+revolutionist, was a Parisian by birth and an actor by profession.
+After figuring for some years at the principal provincial theatres
+of France and Holland, he became director of the playhouse at
+Geneva. He had from the first a share in the revolutionary
+tumult; but it was not until 1791 that he became a figure of
+importance. Then, however, by the publication of <i>L&rsquo;Almanach
+du Père Gérard</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_1i" id="FnAnchor_1i" href="#Footnote_1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a little book setting forth, in homely style, the
+advantages of a constitutional monarchy, he suddenly acquired
+great popularity. His renown was soon increased by his active
+interference on behalf of the Swiss of the Château-Vieux Regiment,
+condemned to the galleys for mutiny at Nancy. His
+efforts resulted in their liberation; he went himself to Brest in
+search of them; and a civic feast was decreed on his behalf
+and theirs, which gave occasion for one of the few poems published
+during his life by André Chénier. But his opinions became
+more and more radical. He was a member of the Commune of
+Paris on the 10th of August 1792, and was elected deputy for
+Paris to the Convention, where he was the first to demand the
+abolition of royalty (on the 21st of September 1792), and he
+voted the death of Louis XVI. &ldquo;<i>sans sursis</i>.&rdquo; In the struggle
+between the Mountain and the Girondists he displayed great
+energy; and after the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 31st of May 1793 he
+made himself conspicuous by his pitiless pursuit of the defeated
+party. In June he was made president of the Convention; and
+in September he was admitted to the Committee of Public
+Safety, on which he was very active. After having entrusted
+him with several missions, the Convention sent him, on the
+30th of October 1793, to Lyons to punish the revolt of that city.
+There he introduced the Terror in its most terrible form.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1794 an attempt was made to assassinate Collot; but
+it only increased his popularity, and this won him the hatred of
+Robespierre, against whom he took sides on the 9th Thermidor,
+when he presided over the Convention during a part of the
+session. During the Thermidorian reaction he was one of the
+first to be accused of complicity with the fallen leader, but was
+acquitted. Denounced a second time, he defended himself by
+pleading that he had acted for the cause of the Revolution, but
+was condemned with Barère and Billaud-Varenne to transportation
+to Cayenne (March 1795), where he died early in 1796.</p>
+
+<p>Collot d&rsquo;Herbois wrote and adapted from the English and
+Spanish many plays, one of which, <i>Le Paysan magistrat</i>, kept
+the stage for several years. <i>L&rsquo;Almanach du Père Gérard</i> was
+reprinted under the title of <i>Étrennes aux amis de la Constitution
+française, ou entretiens du Père Gérard avec ses concitoyens</i>
+(Paris, 1792).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention</i>
+(Paris, 1885-1886), t. ii. pp. 501-512. The principal documents
+relative to the trial of Collot d&rsquo;Herbois, Barère and Billaud-Varenne
+are indicated in Aulard, <i>Recueil des actes du comité de salut public</i>,
+t. i. pp. 5 and 6.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1i" id="Footnote_1i" href="#FnAnchor_1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Michel Gérard was a popular Breton peasant deputy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jacobins</a></span>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLUSION<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>colludere</i>, strictly, to play with), a
+secret agreement or compact for some improper purpose. In
+judicial proceedings, and particularly in matrimonial causes
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divorce</a></span>), collusion is a deceitful agreement between two
+or more persons, or between one of them and a third party,
+to bring an action against the other in order to obtain a judicial
+decision, or some remedy which would not have been obtained
+unless the parties had combined for the purpose or suppressed
+material facts or otherwise.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLLYER, ROBERT<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1823-&emsp;&emsp;), American Unitarian clergyman,
+was born in Keighley, Yorkshire, England, on the 8th of
+December 1823. At the age of eight he was compelled to leave
+school and support himself by work in a linen factory. He
+was naturally studious, however, and supplemented his scant
+schooling by night study. At fourteen he was apprenticed to
+a blacksmith, and for several years worked at this trade at Ilkley.
+In 1849 he became a local Methodist minister, and in the following
+year emigrated to the United States, where he obtained employment
+as a hammer maker at Shoemakersville, Pennsylvania.
+Here he soon began to preach on Sundays while still employed in
+the factory on week-days. His earnest, rugged, simple style
+of oratory made him extremely popular, and at once secured for
+him a wide reputation. His advocacy of anti-slavery principles,
+then frowned upon by the Methodist authorities, aroused
+opposition, and eventually resulted in his trial for heresy and
+the revocation of his licence. He continued, however, as an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page695" id="page695"></a>695</span>
+independent preacher and lecturer, and in 1859, having joined
+the Unitarian Church, became a missionary of that church in
+Chicago, Illinois. In 1860 he organized and became pastor of
+the Unity Church, the second Unitarian church in Chicago.
+Under his guidance the church grew to be one of the strongest of
+that denomination in the West, and Mr Collyer himself came
+to be looked upon as one of the foremost pulpit orators in the
+country. During the Civil War he was active in the work of
+the Sanitary Commission. In 1879 he left Chicago and became
+pastor of the church of the Messiah in New York city, and in
+1903 he became pastor emeritus. He published: <i>Nature and
+Life</i> (1867); <i>A Man in Earnest: Life of A. H. Conant</i> (1868);
+<i>The Life That Now is</i> (1871); <i>The Simple Truth</i> (1877); <i>Talks
+to Young Men: With Asides to Young Women</i> (1888); <i>Things
+New and Old</i> (1893); <i>Father Taylor</i> (1906); and <i>A History of
+the Town and Parish of Ilkley</i> (with Horsefall Turner, 1886).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLMAN, SAINT<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (d. 676), bishop of Lindisfarne, was probably
+an Irish monk at Iona. Journeying southwards he became
+bishop of Lindisfarne in 661, and a favoured friend of Oswio,
+king of Northumbria. He was at the synod of Whitby in 664,
+when the great dispute between the Roman and the Celtic parties
+in the church was considered; as spokesman of the latter party
+he upheld the Celtic usages, but King Oswio decided against him
+and his cause was lost. After this event Colman and some
+monks went to Iona and then to Ireland. He settled on the
+island of Inishbofin, where he built a monastery and where he
+died on the 8th of August 676.</p>
+
+<p>Colman must be distinguished from St Colman of Cloyne
+(c. 522-600), an Irish saint, who became a Christian about 570;
+and also from another Irishman, St Colman Ela (553-610),
+a kinsman of St Columba. The word Colman is derived from
+the Latin <i>columbus</i>, a dove, and the <i>Book of Leinster</i> mentions
+209 saints of this name.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLMAN, GEORGE<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1732-1794), English dramatist and
+essayist, usually called &ldquo;the Elder,&rdquo; and sometimes &ldquo;George
+the First,&rdquo; to distinguish him from his son, was born in 1732 at
+Florence, where his father was stationed as resident at the court
+of the grand duke of Tuscany. Colman&rsquo;s father died within a
+year of his son&rsquo;s birth, and the boy&rsquo;s education was undertaken
+by William Pulteney, afterwards Lord Bath, whose wife was
+Mrs Colman&rsquo;s sister. After attending a private school in Marylebone,
+he was sent to Westminster School, which he left in due
+course for Christ Church, Oxford. Here he made the acquaintance
+of Bonnell Thornton, the parodist, and together they founded
+<i>The Connoisseur</i> (1754-1756), a periodical which, although it
+reached its 140th number, &ldquo;wanted weight,&rdquo; as Johnson said.
+He left Oxford after taking his degree in 1755, and, having been
+entered at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn before his return to London, he was
+called to the bar in 1757. A friendship formed with David
+Garrick did not help his career as a barrister, but he continued
+to practise until the death of Lord Bath, out of respect for his
+wishes.</p>
+
+<p>In 1760 he produced his first play, <i>Polly Honeycomb</i>, which met
+with great success. In 1761 <i>The Jealous Wife</i>, a comedy partly
+founded on <i>Tom Jones</i>, made Colman famous. The death of
+Lord Bath in 1764 placed him in possession of independent means.
+In 1765 appeared his metrical translation of the plays of Terence;
+and in 1766 he produced <i>The Clandestine Marriage</i>, jointly with
+Garrick, whose refusal to take the part of Lord Ogleby led to a
+quarrel between the two authors. In the next year he purchased
+a fourth share in the Covent Garden Theatre, a step which is
+said to have induced General Pulteney to revoke a will by which
+he had left Colman large estates. The general, who died in that
+year, did, however, leave him a considerable annuity. Colman
+was acting manager of Covent Garden for seven years, and during
+that period he produced several &ldquo;adapted&rdquo; plays of Shakespeare.
+In 1768 he was elected to the Literary Club, then nominally consisting
+of twelve members. In 1774 he sold his share in the
+great playhouse, which had involved him in much litigation with
+his partners, to Leake; and three years later he purchased
+of Samuel Foote, then broken in health and spirits, the little
+theatre in the Haymarket. He was attacked with paralysis in
+1785; in 1789 his brain became affected, and he died on the 14th
+of August 1794. Besides the works already cited, Colman was
+author of adaptations of Beaumont and Fletcher&rsquo;s <i>Bonduca</i>,
+Ben Jonson&rsquo;s <i>Epicoene</i>, Milton&rsquo;s <i>Comus</i>, and of other plays.
+He also produced an edition of the works of Beaumont and
+Fletcher (1778), a version of the <i>Ars Poëtica</i> of Horace, an
+excellent translation from the <i>Mercator</i> of Plautus for Bonnell
+Thornton&rsquo;s edition (1769-1772), some thirty plays, many
+parodies and occasional pieces. An incomplete edition of his
+dramatic works was published in 1777 in four volumes.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">George Colman</span> (1762-1836), known as &ldquo;the
+Younger,&rdquo; English dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was
+born on the 21st of October 1762. He passed from Westminster
+school to Christ Church, Oxford, and King&rsquo;s College, Aberdeen,
+and was finally entered as a student of law at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn,
+London. While in Aberdeen he published a poem satirizing
+Charles James Fox, called <i>The Man of the People</i>; and in 1782
+he produced, at his father&rsquo;s playhouse in the Haymarket, his
+first play, <i>The Female Dramatist</i>, for which Smollett&rsquo;s <i>Roderick
+Random</i> supplied the materials. It was unanimously condemned,
+but <i>Two to One</i> (1784) was entirely successful. It was followed
+by <i>Turk and no Turk</i> (1785), a musical comedy; <i>Inkle and
+Yarico</i> (1787), an opera; <i>Ways and Means</i> (1788); <i>The Iron
+Chest</i> (1796), taken from William Godwin&rsquo;s <i>Adventures of Caleb
+Williams</i>; <i>The Poor Gentleman</i> (1802); <i>John Bull, or an
+Englishman&rsquo;s Fireside</i> (1803), his most successful piece; <i>The
+Heir at Law</i> (1808), which enriched the stage with one immortal
+character, &ldquo;Dr Pangloss,&rdquo; and numerous other pieces, many of
+them adapted from the French.</p>
+
+<p>The failing health of the elder Colman obliged him to relinquish
+the management of the Haymarket theatre in 1789, when the
+younger George succeeded him, at a yearly salary of £600. On
+the death of the father the patent was continued to the son;
+but difficulties arose in his way, he was involved in litigation
+with Thomas Harris, and was unable to pay the expenses of
+the performances at the Haymarket. He was forced to take
+sanctuary within the Rules of the King&rsquo;s Bench. Here he resided
+for many years continuing to direct the affairs of his theatre.
+Released at last through the kindness of George IV., who had
+appointed him exon of the Yeomen of the Guard, a dignity
+disposed of by Colman to the highest bidder, he was made
+examiner of plays by the duke of Montrose, then lord chamberlain.
+This office, to the disgust of all contemporary dramatists, to
+whose MSS. he was as illiberal as he was severe, he held till his
+death. Although his own productions were open to charges of
+indecency and profanity, he was so severe a censor of others
+that he would not pass even such words as &ldquo;heaven,&rdquo; &ldquo;providence&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;angel.&rdquo; His comedies are a curious mixture of
+genuine comic force and sentimentality. A collection of them
+was published (1827) in Paris, with a life of the author, by
+J. W. Lake.</p>
+
+<p>Colman, whose witty conversation made him a favourite, was
+also the author of a great deal of so-called humorous poetry
+(mostly coarse, though much of it was popular)&mdash;<i>My Night
+Gown and Slippers</i> (1797), reprinted under the name of <i>Broad
+Grins</i>, in 1802; and <i>Poetical Vagaries</i> (1812). Some of his
+writings were published under the assumed name of Arthur
+Griffinhood of Turnham Green. He died in Brompton, London,
+on the 17th of October 1836. He had, as early as 1784, contracted
+a runaway marriage with an actress, Clara Morris, to whose
+brother David Morris, he eventually disposed of his share in the
+Haymarket theatre. Many of the leading parts in his plays
+were written especially for Mrs Gibbs (<i>née</i> Logan), whom he was
+said to have secretly married after the death of his first wife.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the second George Colman&rsquo;s memoirs of his early life, entitled
+<i>Random Records</i> (1830), and R. B. Peake, <i>Memoirs of the Colman
+Family</i> (1842).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLMAN, SAMUEL<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1832-&emsp;&emsp;), American landscape painter,
+was born at Portland, Maine, on the 4th of March 1832. He
+was a pupil of Ashur B. Durand in New York, and in 1860-1862
+studied in Spain, Italy, France and England. In 1871-1876 he
+was again in Europe. In 1860, with James D. Smilie, he founded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page696" id="page696"></a>696</span>
+the American Water Color Society, and became its first president
+(1866-1867), his own water-colour paintings being particularly
+fine. He was elected a member of the National Academy of
+Design in 1862. Among his works are &ldquo;The Ships of the Western
+Plains,&rdquo; in the Union League Club, New York; and &ldquo;The
+Spanish Peaks, Colorado,&rdquo; in the Metropolitan Museum, New
+York.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLMAR<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Kolmar</span>, a town of Germany, in the imperial
+province of Alsace-Lorraine, formerly the capital of the department
+of Haut-Rhin in France, on the Logelbach and Lauch,
+tributaries of the Ill, 40 m. S.S.W. from Strassburg on the main
+line of railway to Basel. Pop. (1905) 41,582. It is the seat of
+the government for Upper Alsace, and of the supreme court of
+appeal for Alsace-Lorraine. The town is surrounded by pleasant
+promenades, on the site of the old fortifications, and has numerous
+narrow and picturesque streets. Of its edifices the most remarkable
+are the Roman Catholic parish church of St Martin,
+known also as the <i>Münster</i>, dating from the 13th and 14th
+centuries, the Lutheran parish church (15th century), the former
+Dominican monastery (1232-1289), known as &ldquo;Unterlinden&rdquo;
+and now used as a museum, the Kaufhaus (trade-hall) of the
+15th century, and the handsome government offices (formerly
+the Prefecture). Colmar is the centre of considerable textile
+industries, comprising wool, cotton and silk-weaving, and has
+important manufactures of sewing thread, starch, sugar and
+machinery. Bleaching and brewing are also carried on, and
+the neighbourhood is rich in vineyards and fruit-gardens. The
+considerable trade of the place is assisted by a chamber of
+commerce and a branch of the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank).</p>
+
+<p>Colmar (probably the <i>columbarium</i> of the Romans) is first
+mentioned, as a royal <i>villa</i>, in a charter of Louis the Pious in
+823, and it was here that Charles the Fat held a diet in 884. It
+was raised to the status of a town and surrounded with walls by
+Wölfelin, advocate (<i>Landvogt</i>) of the emperor Frederick II. in
+Alsace, a masterful and ambitious man, whose accumulated
+wealth was confiscated by the emperor in 1235, and who is said
+to have been murdered by his wife lest her portion should also
+be seized. In 1226 Colmar became an imperial city, and the
+civic rights (<i>Stadtrecht</i>) conferred on it in 1274 by Rudolph of
+Habsburg became the model for those of many other cities. Its
+civic history is much the same as that of other medieval towns:
+a struggle between the democratic gilds and the aristocratic
+&ldquo;families,&rdquo; which ended in 1347 in the inclusion of the former
+in the governing body, and in the 17th century in the complete
+exclusion of the latter. In 1255 Colmar joined the league of
+Rhenish cities, and in 1476 and 1477 took a vigorous share
+in the struggle against Charles the Bold. In 1632, during the
+Thirty Years&rsquo; War, it was taken by the Swedes, and in 1635 by
+the French, who held it till after the Peace of Westphalia (1649).
+In 1673 the French again occupied it and dismantled the fortifications.
+In 1681 it was formally annexed to France by a decree
+of Louis XIV.&rsquo;s <i>Chambre de Réunion</i>, and remained French till
+1871, when it passed with Alsace-Lorraine to the new German
+empire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Annalen und Chronik von Kolmar,&rdquo; German translation,
+G. H. Pabst, in <i>Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit</i> (2nd ed.,
+G. Wattenbach, Leipzig, 1897); Sigmund Billing, <i>Kleine Chronik
+der Stadt Kolmar</i> (Colmar, 1891); Hund, <i>Kolmar vor und während
+seiner Entwickelung zur Reichsstadt</i> (Strassburg, 1899); J. Liblin,
+<i>Chronique de Colmar</i>, 58-1400 (Mülhausen, 1867-1868); T. F. X.
+Hunkler, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Kolmar</i> (Colmar, 1838). For further
+references see Ulysse Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources. Topobibliographie</i>
+(Montbéliard, 1894-1899); and Waltz, <i>Bibliographie
+de la ville de Colmar</i> (Mülhausen, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLNE<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span>, a market town and municipal borough in the Clitheroe
+parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 34½ m. N. by E.
+from Manchester by the Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire railway; it is
+served also by a branch of the Midland railway from Skipton.
+Pop. (1901) 23,000. It stands on a hilly site above a small affluent
+of the river Calder. The church of St Bartholomew retains some
+Norman work, but is chiefly of various later periods. There is
+a cloth hall or piece hall, originally used as an exchange when
+woollens were the staple of the town. The grammar school is
+of interest as the place where John Tillotson (1630-1694),
+archbishop of Canterbury, received early education. Colne is a
+place of great antiquity, and many Roman coins have been
+found on the site. As early as the 14th century it was the seat
+of a woollen manufacture; but its principal manufactures now
+are cottons, printed calicoes and muslin. In the neighbourhood
+are several limestone and slate quarries. The town was
+incorporated in 1895, and the corporation consists of a mayor,
+6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5063 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOCYNTH<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Coloquintida</span> or <span class="sc">Bitter Apple</span>, <i>Citrullus
+Colocynthis</i>, a plant of the natural order Cucurbitaceae. The
+flowers are unisexual; the male blossoms have five stamens
+with sinuous anthers, the female have reniform stigmas, and an
+ovary with three large fleshy placentas. The fruit is round,
+and about the size of an orange; it has a thick yellowish rind,
+and a light, spongy and very bitter pulp, which yields the
+colocynth of druggists. The seeds, which number from 200 to
+300, and are disposed in vertical rows on the three parietal
+placentas of the fruit, are flat and ovoid and dark-brown; they
+are used as food by some of the tribes of the Sahara, and a coarse
+oil is expressed from them. The pulp contains only about 3.5%
+of fixed oil, whilst the seeds contains about 15%. The foliage
+resembles that of the cucumber, and the root is perennial. The
+plant has a wide range, being found in Ceylon, India, Persia,
+Arabia, Syria, North Africa, the Grecian Archipelago, the Cape
+Verd Islands, and the south-east of Spain. The term <i>pakkuoth</i>,
+translated &ldquo;wild gourds&rdquo; in 2 Kings iv. 39, is thought to refer
+to the fruit of the colocynth; but, according to Dr Olaf Celsius
+(1670-1756), a Swedish theologian and naturalist, it signifies
+a plant known as the squirting cucumber, <i>Ecbalium Elaterium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The commercial colocynth consists of the peeled and dried
+fruits. In the preparation of the drug, the seeds are always
+removed from the pulp. Its active principle is an intensely
+bitter amorphous or crystalline glucoside, colocynthin, C<span class="su">56</span>H<span class="su">84</span>O<span class="su">23</span>,
+soluble in water, ether and alcohol, and decomposable by acids
+into glucose and a resin, colocynthein, C<span class="su">40</span>H<span class="su">54</span>O<span class="su">13</span>. Colocynthein
+also occurs as such in the drug, together with at least two other
+resins, citrullin and colocynthiden. Colocynthin has been used
+as a hypodermic purgative&mdash;a class of drugs practically nonexistent,
+and highly to be desired in numberless cases of apoplexy.
+The dose recommended for hypodermic injection is fifteen
+minims of a 1% solution in glycerin.</p>
+
+<p>The British Pharmacopeia contains a compound extract of
+colocynth, which no one ever uses; a compound pill&mdash;dose 4 to 8
+grains&mdash;in which oil of cloves is included in order to relieve the
+griping caused by the drug; and the Pilula Colocynthidis et
+Hyoscyami, which contains 2 parts of the compound pill to 1 of
+extract of hyoscyamus. This is by far the best preparation, the
+hyoscyamus being added to prevent the pain and griping which
+is attendant on the use of colocynth alone. The official dose
+of this pill is 4 to 8 grains, but the most effective and least disagreeable
+manner in which to obtain its action is to give four
+two-grain pills at intervals of an hour or so.</p>
+
+<p>In minute doses colocynth acts simply as a bitter, but is never
+given for this purpose. In ordinary doses it greatly increases
+the secretion of the small intestine and stimulates its muscular
+coat. The gall-bladder is also stimulated, and the biliary function
+of the liver, so that colocynth is both an excretory and a secretory
+cholagogue. The action which follows hypodermic injection
+is due to the excretion of the drug from the blood into the
+alimentary canal. Though colocynth is a drastic hydragogue
+cathartic, it is desirable, as a rule, to supplement its action by
+some drug, such as aloes, which acts on the large intestine,
+and a sedative must always be added. Owing to its irritant
+properties, the drug must not be used habitually, but it is very
+valuable in initiating the treatment of simple chronic constipation,
+and its pharmacological properties obviously render it
+especially useful in cases of hepatitis and congestion of the liver.</p>
+
+<p>Colocynth was known to the ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic
+physicians; and in an Anglo-Saxon herbal of the 11th century
+(Cockayne, <i>Leechdoms</i>, &amp;c., vol. i. p. 325, London, 1864), the
+following directions are given as to its use:&mdash;&ldquo;For stirring of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page697" id="page697"></a>697</span>
+inwards, take the inward neshness of the fruit, without the
+kernels, by weight of two pennies; give it, pounded in lithe beer
+to be drunk, it stirreth the inwards.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOGNE<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Köln</i>, or officially, since 1900, <i>Cöln</i>), a city
+and archiepiscopal see of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
+province, a fortress of the first rank, and one of the most important
+commercial towns of the empire. Pop. (1885) 239,437;
+(1900) 370,685; (1905) 428,503, of which about 80% are Roman
+Catholics. It lies in the form of a vast semicircle on the left
+bank of the Rhine, 44 m. by rail north-east from Aix-la-Chapelle,
+24 south-east from Düsseldorf and 57 north-north-west from
+Coblenz. Its situation on the broad and navigable Rhine, and
+at the centre of an extensive network of railways, giving it direct
+communication with all the important cities of Europe, has
+greatly fostered its trade, while its close proximity to the beautiful
+scenery of the Rhine, has rendered it a favourite tourist resort.
+When viewed from a distance, especially from the river, the
+city, with its medieval towers and buildings, the whole surmounted
+by the majestic cathedral, is picturesque and imposing.
+The ancient walls and ditches, which formerly environed the
+city, were dismantled between 1881 and 1885, and the site of the
+old fortifications, bought from the government by the municipality,
+were converted into a fine boulevard, the Ring, nearly
+4 m. long. Beyond the Ring, about ½ m. farther out, a new
+continuous line of wall fortifications, with outlying clusters of
+earthworks and forts, has since been erected; 1000 acres, now
+occupied by handsome streets, squares and two public parks,
+were thus added to the inner town, almost doubling its area.</p>
+
+<p>Cologne is connected by bridges with the suburb of Deutz.
+Within the outer municipal boundary are included (besides
+Deutz) the suburbs of Bayenthal, Lindenthal, Ehrenfeld, Nippes,
+Sülz, Bickendorf, Niehl and Poll, protected by another widely
+extended circle of detached forts on both banks of the Rhine.
+Of the former city gates four have been retained, restored and
+converted into museums: the Severin gate, on the south,
+contains the geological section of the natural history museum;
+the Hahnen gate, on the west, is fitted as the historical and
+antiquarian museum of the city; and the Eigelstein gate, on
+the north, accommodates the zoological section of the natural
+history museum.</p>
+
+<p>Cologne, with the tortuous, narrow and dark streets and lanes
+of the old inner town, is still regarded as one of the least attractive
+capital cities of Germany; but in modern times it has been
+greatly improved, and the evil smells which formerly characterized
+it have yielded to proper sanitary arrangements. The most
+important squares are the Domhof, the Heumarkt, Neumarkt,
+Alte Markt and Waidmarkt in the old inner, and the Hansa-platz
+in the new inner town. The long Hohe-strasse of the old town
+is the chief business street.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral or Dom, the principal edifice and chief object
+of interest in Cologne, is one of the finest and purest monuments
+of Gothic architecture in Europe (for plan, &amp;c. see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>:
+<i>Romanesque and Gothic in Germany</i>). It stands on the
+site of a cathedral begun about the beginning of the 9th century
+by Hildebold, metropolitan of Cologne, and finished under
+Willibert in 873. This structure was ruined by the Normans,
+was rebuilt, but in 1248 was almost wholly destroyed by fire.
+The foundation of the present cathedral was then laid by Conrad
+of Hochstaden (archbishop from <span class="correction" title="amended from 1288">1238</span> to 1261). The original
+plan of the building has been attributed to Gerhard von Rile
+(d. c. 1295). In 1322 the new choir was consecrated, and the
+bones of the Three Kings were removed to it from the place they
+had occupied in the former cathedral. After Conrad&rsquo;s death
+the work of building advanced but slowly, and at the time
+of the Reformation it ceased entirely. In the early part of the
+19th century the repairing of the cathedral was taken in hand,
+in 1842 the building of fresh portions necessary for the completion
+of the whole structure was begun, and on the 15th of
+October 1880 the edifice, finally finished, was opened in the
+presence of the emperor William I. and all the reigning German
+princes. The cathedral, which is in the form of a cross, has a
+length of 480, and a breadth of 282 ft.; the height of the central
+aisle is 154 ft.; that of each of the towers 511 ft. The heaviest
+of the seven bells (<i>Kaiserglocke</i>), cast in 1874 from the metal
+of French guns, weighs 543 cwt., and is the largest and heaviest
+bell that is rung. In the choir the heart of Marie de&rsquo; Medici is
+buried; and in the adjoining side-chapels are monuments of
+the founder and other archbishops of Cologne, and the shrine
+of the Three Kings, which is adorned with gold and precious
+stones. The three kings of Cologne (Kaspar, Melchior and
+Balthazar) were supposed to be the three wise men who came
+from the East to pay adoration to the infant Christ; according
+to the legend, the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa brought
+their bones from Milan in 1162, and had them buried in Cologne
+cathedral, and miraculous powers of healing were attributed
+to these relics. The very numerous and richly-coloured windows,
+presented at various times to the cathedral, add greatly to the
+imposing effect of the interior. The view of the cathedral has
+been much improved by a clearance of the old houses on the
+Domhof, including the archiepiscopal palace, but the new Hof,
+though flanked by many fine buildings, is displeasing owing to
+the intrusion of numerous modern palatial hotels and shops.</p>
+
+<p>Among the other churches of Cologne, which was fondly styled
+in the middle ages the &ldquo;holy city&rdquo; (<i>heilige Stadt</i>) and &ldquo;German
+Rome,&rdquo; and, according to legend, possessed as many sacred
+fanes as there are days in the year, are several of interest both
+for their age and for the monuments and works of art they
+contain. In St Peter&rsquo;s are the famous altar-piece by Rubens,
+representing the Crucifixion of St Peter, several works by Lucas
+van Leyden, and some old German glass-paintings. St Martin&rsquo;s,
+built between the 10th and 12th centuries, has a fine baptistery;
+St Gereon&rsquo;s, built in the 11th century on the site of a Roman
+rotunda, is noted for its mosaics, and glass and oil-paintings; the
+Minorite church, begun in the same year as the cathedral, contains
+the tomb of Duns Scotus. Besides these may be mentioned
+the church of St Pantaleon, a 13th-century structure, with a
+monument to Theophano, wife of the emperor Otto II.; St
+Cunibert, in the Byzantine-Moorish style, completed in 1248;
+St Maria im Capitol, the oldest church in Cologne, dedicated
+in 1049 by Pope Leo IX., noted for its crypt, organ and paintings;
+St Cecilia, St Ursula, containing the bones of that saint and,
+according to legend, of the 11,000 English virgins massacred
+near Cologne while on a pilgrimage to Rome; St Severin, the
+church of the Apostles, and that of St Andrew (1220 and 1414),
+which contains the remains of Albertus Magnus in a gilded
+shrine. Most of these, and also many other old churches, have
+been completely restored. Among newer ecclesiastical buildings
+must be mentioned the handsome Roman Catholic church in
+Deutz, completed in 1896, and a large synagogue, in the new
+town west of the Ring, finished in 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more prominent secular buildings are the Gürzenich,
+a former meeting-place of the diets of the Holy Roman
+Empire, built between 1441 and 1447, of which the ground floor
+was in 1875 converted into a stock exchange, and the upper hall,
+capable of accommodating 3000 persons, is largely utilized for
+public festivities, particularly during the time of the Carnival:
+the Rathaus, dating from the 13th century, with beautiful
+Gobelin tapestries; the Tempelhaus, the ancestral seat of the
+patrician family of the Overstolzens, a beautiful building dating
+from the 13th century, and now the chamber of commerce; the
+Wallraf-Richartz Museum, in which is a collection of paintings
+by old Italian and Dutch masters, together with some works
+by modern artists; the Zeughaus, or arsenal, built on Roman
+foundations; the Supreme Court for the Rhine provinces; the
+post-office (1893); the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank); and the
+municipal library and archives. The Wolkenburg, a fine Gothic
+house of the 15th century, originally a patrician residence, was
+restored in 1874, and is now the headquarters of the famous men&rsquo;s
+choral society of Cologne (Kölner Männergesangverein).</p>
+
+<p>A handsome central railway station (high level), on the site
+of the old station, and close to the cathedral, was built in 1889-1894.
+The railway to Bonn and the Upper Rhine now follows
+the line of the <i>ceinture</i> of the new inner fortifications, and on
+this section there are three city stations in addition to the central.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page698" id="page698"></a>698</span>
+Like all important German towns, Cologne contains many fine
+monuments. The most conspicuous is the colossal equestrian
+statue (22½ ft. high) of Frederick William III. of Prussia in the
+Heumarkt. There are also monuments to Moltke (1881), to
+Count Johann von Werth (1885), the cavalry leader of the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; War, and to Bismarck (1879). Near the cathedral is
+an archiepiscopal museum of church antiquities. Cologne is
+richly endowed with literary and scientific institutions. It has
+an academy of practical medicine, a commercial high school, a
+theological seminary, four Gymnasia (classical schools), numerous
+lower-grade schools, a conservatory of music and several
+high-grade ladies&rsquo; colleges. Of its three theatres, the municipal
+theatre (Stadttheater) is famed for its operatic productions.</p>
+
+<p>Commercially, Cologne is one of the chief centres on the Rhine,
+and has a very important trade in corn, wine, mineral ores,
+coals, drugs, dyes, manufactured wares, groceries, leather and
+hides, timber, porcelain and many other commodities. A large
+new harbour, with spacious quays, has been constructed towards
+the south of the city. In 1903, the traffic of the port amounted
+to over one million tons. Industrially, also, Cologne is a place
+of high importance. Of the numerous manufactures, among
+which may be especially mentioned sugar, chocolate, tobacco
+and cigars, the most famous is the perfume known as <i>eau de
+Cologne</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) (<i>Kölnisches Wasser</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Cologne-water).</p>
+
+<p>Of the newspapers published at Cologne the most important
+is the <i>Kölnische Zeitung</i> (often referred to as the &ldquo;Cologne
+Gazette&rdquo;), which has the largest circulation of any paper in
+Germany, and great weight and influence. It must be distinguished
+from the <i>Kölnische Volkszeitung</i>, which is the organ
+of the Clerical party in the Prussian Rhine provinces.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Cologne occupies the site of <i>Oppidum Ubiorum</i>,
+the chief town of the Ubii, and here in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 50 a Roman colony,
+<i>Colonia</i>, was planted by the emperor Claudius, at the request
+of his wife Agrippina, who was born in the place. After her it
+was named Colonia Agrippina or Agrippinensis. Cologne rose to
+be the chief town of Germania Secunda, and had the privilege
+of the Jus Italicum. Both Vitellius and Trajan were at Cologne
+when they became emperors. About 330 the city was taken by
+the Franks but was not permanently occupied by them till the
+5th century, becoming in 475 the residence of the Frankish
+king Childeric. It was the seat of a <i>pagus</i> or <i>gau</i>, and counts
+of Cologne are mentioned in the 9th century.</p>
+
+<p>The succession of bishops in Cologne is traceable, except for
+a gap covering the troubled 5th century, from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 313, when the
+see was founded. It was made the metropolitan see for the
+bishoprics of the Lower Rhine and part of Westphalia by Charlemagne,
+the first archbishop being Hildebold, who occupied the
+see from 785 to his death in 819. Of his successors one of the
+most illustrious was Bruno (<i>q.v.</i>), brother of the emperor Otto I.,
+archbishop from 953 to 965, who was the first of the archbishops
+to exercise temporal jurisdiction, and was also &ldquo;archduke&rdquo; of
+Lorraine. The territorial power of the archbishops was already
+great when, in 1180, on the partition of the Saxon duchy, the
+duchy of Westphalia was assigned to them. In the 11th century
+they became <i>ex-officio</i> arch-chancellors of Italy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archchancellor</a></span>),
+and by the Golden Bull of 1356 they were finally
+placed among the electors (<i>Kurfürsten</i>) of the Empire. With
+Cologne itself, a free imperial city, the archbishop-electors were
+at perpetual feud; in 1262 the archiepiscopal see was transferred
+to Brühl, and in 1273 to Bonn; it was not till 1671 that the
+quarrel was finally adjusted. The archbishopric was secularized
+in 1801, all its territories on the left bank of the Rhine being
+annexed to France; in 1803 those on the right bank were
+divided up among various German states; and in 1815 by the
+congress of Vienna, the whole was assigned to Prussia. The
+last archbishop-elector, Maximilian of Austria, died in 1801.</p>
+
+<p>In Archbishop Hildebold&rsquo;s day Cologne was still contained by
+the square of its Roman walls, within which stood the cathedral
+and the newly-founded church of St Maria (known later as
+&ldquo;im Capitol&rdquo;); the city was, however, surrounded by a ring
+of churches, among which those of St Gereon, St Ursula, St
+Severin and St Cunibert were conspicuous. In 881 Norman
+pirates, sailing up the Rhine, took and sacked the city; but
+it rapidly recovered, and in the 11th century had become the
+chief trading centre of Germany. Early in the 12th century the
+city was enlarged by the inclusion of suburbs of Oversburg;
+Niederich and St Aposteln; in 1180 these were enclosed in a
+permanent rampart which, in the 13th century, was strengthened
+with the walls and gates that survived till the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>The municipal history of Cologne is of considerable interest.
+In general it follows the same lines as that of other cities of Lower
+Germany and the Netherlands. At first the bishop ruled through
+his burgrave, advocate, and nominated jurats (<i>scabini</i>, <i>Schöffen</i>).
+Then, as the trading classes grew in wealth, his jurisdiction began
+to be disputed; the <i>conjuratio pro libertate</i> of 1112 seems to
+have been an attempt to establish a commune (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commune,
+Medieval</a></span>). Peculiar to Cologne, however, was the <i>Richerzeche</i>
+(<i>rigirzegheide</i>), a corporation of all the wealthy patricians,
+which gradually absorbed in its hands the direction of the city&rsquo;s
+government (the first record of its active interference is in 1225).
+In the 13th century the archbishops made repeated efforts to
+reassert their authority, and in 1259 Archbishop Conrad of
+Hochstaden, by appealing to the democratic element of the
+population, the &ldquo;brotherhoods&rdquo; (<i>fraternitates</i>) of the craftsmen,
+succeeded in overthrowing the Richerzeche and driving its
+members into exile. His successor, Engelbert II., however,
+attempted to overthrow the democratic constitution set up by
+him, with the result that in 1262 the brotherhoods combined
+with the patricians against the archbishop, and the Richerzeche
+returned to share its authority with the elected &ldquo;great council&rdquo;
+(<i>Weiter Rat</i>). As yet, however, none of the trade or craft gilds,
+as such, had a share in the government, which continued in the
+hands of the patrician families, membership of which was
+necessary even for election to the council and to the parochial
+offices. This continued long after the battle of Worringen (1288)
+had finally secured for the city full self-government, and the
+archbishops had ceased to reside within its walls. In the 14th
+century a narrow patrician council selected from the Richerzeche,
+with two burgomasters, was supreme. In 1370 an insurrection
+of the weavers was suppressed; but in 1396, the rule of the
+patricians, having been weakened by internal dissensions, a
+bloodless revolution led to the establishment of a comparatively
+democratic constitution, based on the organization of the trade
+and craft gilds, which lasted with but slight modification till the
+French Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The greatness of Cologne, in the middle ages as now, was due
+to her trade. Wine and herrings were the chief articles of her
+commerce; but her weavers had been in repute from time
+immemorial, and exports of cloth were large, while her goldsmiths
+and armourers were famous. So early as the 11th century
+her merchants were settled in London, their colony forming the
+nucleus of the Steelyard. When, in 1201, the city joined the
+Hanseatic League (<i>q.v.</i>) its power and repute were so great that
+it was made the chief place of a third of the confederation.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of their feuds with the archbishops, the burghers of
+Cologne were stanch Catholics, and the number of the magnificent
+medieval churches left is evidence at once of their piety
+and their wealth. The university, founded in 1389 by the sole
+efforts of the citizens, soon gained a great reputation; in the
+15th century its students numbered much more than a thousand,
+and its influence extended to Scotland and the Scandinavian
+kingdoms. Its decline began, however, from the moment when
+the Catholic sentiment of the city closed it to the influence of
+the Reformers; the number of its students sank to vanishing
+point, and though, under the influence of the Jesuits, it subsequently
+revived, it never recovered its old importance. A final
+blow was dealt it when, in 1777, the enlightened archbishop
+Maximilian Frederick (d. 1784) founded the university of Bonn,
+and in 1798, amid the confusion of the revolutionary epoch, it
+ceased to exist.</p>
+
+<p>The same intolerance that ruined the university all but
+ruined the city too. It is difficult, indeed, to blame the burghers
+for resisting the dubious reforming efforts of Hermann of Wied,
+archbishop from 1515 to 1546, inspired mainly by secular
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page699" id="page699"></a>699</span>
+ambitions; but the expulsion of the Jews in 1414, and still more
+the exclusion, under Jesuit influence, of Protestants from the
+right to acquire citizenship, and from the magistracy, dealt
+severe blows at the prosperity of the place. A variety of other
+causes contributed to its decay: the opening up of new trade
+routes, the gradual ossification of the gilds into close and corrupt
+corporations, above all the wars in the Netherlands, the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; War, and the Wars of the Spanish and Austrian Succession.
+When in 1794 Cologne was occupied by the French, it
+was a poor and decayed city of some 40,000 inhabitants, of whom
+only 6000 possessed civic rights. When, in 1801, by the treaty
+of Lunéville, it was incorporated in France, it was not important
+enough to be more than the chief town of an arrondissement.
+On the death of the last elector in 1801 the archiepiscopal see
+was left vacant. With the assignment of the city to Prussia by
+the congress of Vienna in 1815 a new era of prosperity began.
+The university, indeed, was definitively established at Bonn,
+but the archbishopric was restored (1821) as part of the new
+ecclesiastical organization of Prussia, and the city became the
+seat of the president of a governmental district. Its prosperity
+now rapidly increased; when railways were introduced it became
+the meeting-place of several lines, and in 1881 its growth necessitated
+the pushing outward of the circle of fortifications.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Ennen, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Köln</i> (5 vols., Cologne, 1863-1880)
+to 1648, and <i>Frankreich und der Niederrhein</i> (2 vols., ib., 1855, 1856),
+a history of the city and electorate of Cologne since the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; War; R. Schultze and C. Steuernagel, <i>Colonia Agrippinensis</i>
+(Bonn, 1895); K. Heldmann, <i>Der Kölngau und die Civitas Köln</i>
+(Halle, 1900); L. Korth, <i>Köln im Mittelalter</i> (Cologne, 1890);
+F. Lau, <i>Entwickelung der kommunalen Verfassung der Stadt Köln
+bis zum Jahre 1396</i> (Bonn, 1898); K. Hegel, <i>Städte und Gilden der
+germanischen Völker im Mittelalter</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891), ii. p. 323;
+H. Keussen, <i>Historische Topographie der Stadt Köln im Mittelalter</i>
+(Bonn, 1906); W. Behnke, <i>Aus Kölns Franzosenzeit</i> (Cologne, 1901);
+Helmken, <i>Köln und seine Sehenswürdigkeiten</i> (20th ed., Cologne,
+1903). For sources see L. Ennen and G. Eckertz, <i>Quellen zur
+Geschichte der Stadt Köln</i> (6 vols., Cologne, 1860-1879); later
+sources will be found in U. Chevalier, <i>Répertoire des sources hist.
+Topo-bibliographie</i> (Montbéliard, 1894-1899), s.v. Cologne, which
+gives also a full list of works on everything connected with the city;
+also in Dahlmann-Waitz, <i>Quellenkunde</i> (ed. Leipzig, 1906), p. 17,
+Nos. 252, 253. For the archdiocese and electorate of Cologne see
+Binterim and Mooren, <i>Die Erzdiözese Köln bis zur französischen
+Staatsumwälzung</i>, new ed. by A. Mooren in 2 vols. (Düsseldorf, 1892,
+1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOMAN<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (1070-1116), king of Hungary, was the son of
+King Geza of Hungary by a Greek concubine. King Ladislaus
+would have made the book-loving youth a monk, and even
+designated him for the see of Eger; but Coloman had no inclination
+for an ecclesiastical career, and, with the assistance of his
+friends, succeeded in escaping to Poland. On the death of
+Ladislaus (1095), he returned to Hungary and seized the crown,
+passing over his legitimately born younger brother Almos, the
+son of the Greek princess Sinadene. Almos did not submit to
+this usurpation, and was more or less of an active rebel till 1108,
+when the emperor Henry V. espoused his cause and invaded
+Hungary. The Germans were unsuccessful; but Coloman
+thought fit to be reconciled with his kinsman and restored to him
+his estates. Five years later, however, fearing lest his brother
+might stand in the way of his heir, the infant prince Stephen,
+Coloman imprisoned Almos and his son Béla in a monastery and
+had them blinded. Despite his adoption of these barbarous
+Byzantine methods, Coloman was a good king and a wise ruler.
+In foreign affairs he preserved the policy of St Ladislaus by
+endeavouring to provide Hungary with her greatest need, a
+suitable seaboard. In 1097 he overthrew Peter, king of Croatia,
+and acquired the greater part of Dalmatia, though here he
+encountered formidable rivals in the Greek and German emperors,
+Venice, the pope and the Norman-Italian dukes, all equally
+interested in the fate of that province, so that Coloman had to
+proceed cautiously in his expansive policy. By 1102, however,
+Zara, Traú, Spalato and all the islands as far as the Cetina were
+in his hands. But it was as a legislator and administrator that
+Coloman was greatest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>). He was not
+only one of the most learned, but also one of the most statesmanlike
+sovereigns of the earlier middle ages. Coloman was
+twice married, (1) in 1097 to Buzella, daughter of Roger, duke of
+Calabria, the chief supporter of the pope, and (2) in 1112 to the
+Russian princess, Euphemia, who played him false and was sent
+back in disgrace to her kinsfolk the following year. Coloman
+died on the 3rd of February 1116.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1831-1899), British vice-admiral,
+historian, critic and inventor, the son of General G. T.
+Colomb, was born in Scotland, on the 29th of May 1831. He
+entered the navy in 1846, and served first at sea off Portugal in
+1847; afterwards, in 1848, in the Mediterranean, and from
+1848 to 1851 as midshipman of the &ldquo;Reynard&rdquo; in operations
+against piracy in Chinese waters; as midshipman and mate of
+the &ldquo;Serpent&rdquo; during the Burmese War of 1852-53; as mate
+of the &ldquo;Phoenix&rdquo; in the Arctic Expedition of 1854; as lieutenant
+of the &ldquo;Hastings&rdquo; in the Baltic during the Russian War,
+taking part in the attack on Sveaborg. He became what was
+known at that time as a &ldquo;gunner&rsquo;s lieutenant&rdquo; in 1857, and
+from 1859 to 1863 he served as flag-lieutenant to rear-admiral
+Sir Thomas Pasley at Devonport. Between 1858 and 1868 he
+was employed in home waters on a variety of special services,
+chiefly connected with gunnery, signalling and the tactical
+characteristics and capacities of steam warships. From 1868
+to 1870 he commanded the &ldquo;Dryad,&rdquo; and was engaged in the
+suppression of the slave trade. In 1874, while captain of the
+&ldquo;Audacious,&rdquo; he served for three years as flag-captain to vice-admiral
+Ryder in China; and finally he was appointed, in 1880,
+to command the &ldquo;Thunderer&rdquo; in the Mediterranean. Next
+year he was appointed captain of the steam reserve at Portsmouth;
+and after serving three years in that capacity, he remained
+at Portsmouth as flag-captain to the commander-in-chief
+until 1886, when he was retired by superannuation before he
+had attained flag rank. Subsequently he became rear-admiral,
+and finally vice-admiral on the retired list.</p>
+
+<p>Few men of his day had seen more active and more varied
+service than Colomb. But the real work on which his title to
+remembrance rests is the influence he exercised on the thought
+and practice of the navy. He was one of the first to perceive
+the vast changes which must ensue from the introduction of
+steam into the navy, which would necessitate a new system of
+signals and a new method of tactics. He set himself to devise
+the former as far back as 1858, but his system of signals was
+not adopted by the navy until 1867.</p>
+
+<p>What he had done for signals Colomb next did for tactics.
+Having first determined by experiment&mdash;for which he was given
+special facilities by the admiralty&mdash;what are the man&oelig;uvring
+powers of ships propelled by steam under varying conditions
+of speed and helm, he proceeded to devise a system of tactics
+based on these data. In the sequel he prepared a new evolutionary
+signal-book, which was adopted by the royal navy, and
+still remains in substance the foundation of the existing system
+of tactical evolutions at sea. The same series of experimental
+studies led him to conclusions concerning the chief causes of
+collisions at sea; and these conclusions, though stoutly combated
+in many quarters at the outset, have since been generally
+accepted, and were ultimately embodied in the international
+code of regulations adopted by the leading maritime nations on
+the recommendation of a conference at Washington in 1889.</p>
+
+<p>After his retirement Colomb devoted himself rather to the
+history of naval warfare, and to the large principles disclosed by
+its intelligent study, than to experimental inquiries having an
+immediate practical aim. As in his active career he had wrought
+organic changes in the ordering, direction and control of fleets,
+so by his historic studies, pursued after his retirement, he helped
+greatly to effect, if he did not exclusively initiate, an equally
+momentous change in the popular, and even the professional,
+way of regarding sea-power and its conditions. He did not invent
+the term &ldquo;sea-power,&rdquo;&mdash;it is, as is shown elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sea-Power</a></span>),
+of very ancient origin,&mdash;nor did he employ it until
+Captain Mahan had made it a household word with all. But he
+thoroughly grasped its conditions, and in his great work on naval
+warfare (first published in 1891) he enunciated its principles
+with great cogency and with keen historic insight. The central
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page700" id="page700"></a>700</span>
+idea of his teaching was that naval supremacy is the condition
+precedent of all vigorous military offensive across the seas, and,
+conversely, that no vigorous military offensive can be undertaken
+across the seas until the naval force of the enemy has been
+accounted for&mdash;either destroyed or defeated and compelled to
+withdraw to the shelter of its own ports, or at least driven from
+the seas by the menace of a force it dare not encounter in the
+open. This broad and indefeasible principle he enunciated and
+defended in essay after essay, in lecture after lecture, until what
+at first was rejected as a paradox came in the end to be accepted
+as a commonplace. He worked quite independently of Captain
+Mahan, and his chief conclusions were published before Captain
+Mahan&rsquo;s works appeared.</p>
+
+<p>He died quite suddenly and in the full swing of his
+literary activity on the 13th of October 1899, at Steeple Court,
+Botley, Hants. His latest published work was a biography of
+his friend Sir Astley Cooper Key, and his last article was a critical
+examination of the tactics adopted at Trafalgar, which showed
+his acumen and insight at their best.</p>
+
+<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">Sir John Colomb</span> (1838-1909), was
+closely associated in the pioneer work done for British naval
+strategy and Imperial defence, and his name stands no less high
+among those who during this period promoted accurate thinking
+on the subject of sea-power. Entering the Royal Marines in
+1854, he rose to be captain in 1867, retiring in 1869; and thenceforth
+he devoted himself to the study of naval and military
+problems, on which he had already published some excellent
+essays. His books on <i>Colonial Defence and Colonial Opinions</i>
+(1873), <i>The Defence of Great and Greater Britain</i> (1879), <i>Naval
+Intelligence and the Protection of Commerce</i> (1881), <i>The Use and
+the Application of Marine Forces</i> (1883), <i>Imperial Federation:
+Naval and Military</i> (1887), followed later by other similar works,
+made him well known among the rising school of Imperialists,
+and he was returned to parliament (1886-1892) as Conservative
+member for Bow, and afterwards (1895-1906) for Great Yarmouth.
+In 1887 he was created C.M.G., and in 1888 K.C.M.G. He died
+in London on the 27th of May 1909. In Kerry, Ireland, he
+was a large landowner, and became a member of the Irish privy
+council (1903), and in 1906 he sat on the Royal Commission
+dealing with congested districts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOMBES<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span>, a town of France in the department of Seine,
+arrondissement of St Denis, 7 m. N.N.W. of Paris. Pop. (1906)
+28,920. It has a 16th-century church with 12th-century tower, a
+race-course, and numerous villa residences and boarding-schools.
+Manufactures include oil, vinegar and measuring-instruments.
+A castle formerly stood here, in which died Henrietta Maria,
+queen of Charles I. of England.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOMBEY<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span>, a village of Lorraine, 4 m. E. of Metz, famous as
+the scene of a battle between the Germans and the French fought
+on the 14th of August 1870. It is often called the battle of
+Borny, from another village 2½ m. E. of Metz. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metz</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOMBIA<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span>, a republic of South America occupying the
+N.W. angle of that continent and bounded N. by the Caribbean
+Sea and Venezuela, E. by Venezuela and Brazil, S. by Brazil,
+Peru and Ecuador, and W. by Ecuador, the Pacific Ocean,
+Panama and the Caribbean Sea. The republic is very irregular
+in outline and has an extreme length from north to south of
+1050 m., exclusive of territory occupied by Peru on the north
+bank of the upper Amazon, and an extreme width of 860 m.
+The approximate area of this territory, according to official
+calculations, is 481,979 sq. m., which is reduced to 465,733 sq. m.
+by Gotha planimetrical measurements. This makes Colombia
+fourth in area among the South American states.</p>
+
+<p>The loss of the department of Panama left the republic with
+unsettled frontiers on every side, and some of the boundary
+disputes still unsolved in 1909 concern immense areas of territory.
+The boundary with Costa Rica was settled in 1900 by an award
+of the President of France, but the secession of Panama in 1903
+gave Colombia another unsettled line on the north-west. If
+the line which formerly separated the Colombian departments
+of Cauca and Panama is taken as forming the international
+boundary, this line follows the water-parting between the
+streams which flow eastward to the Atrato, and those which
+flow westward to the Gulf of San Miguel, the terminal points
+being near Cape Tiburon on the Caribbean coast, and at about
+7° 10&prime; N. lat. on the Pacific coast. The boundary dispute with
+Venezuela was referred in 1883 to the king of Spain, and the award
+was made in 1891. Venezuela, however, refused to accept the
+decision. The line decided upon, and accepted by Colombia,
+starts from the north shore of Calabozo Bay on the west side of
+the Gulf of Maracaibo, and runs west and south-west to and
+along the water-parting (Sierra de Perija) between the drainage
+basins of the Magdalena and Lake Maracaibo as far as the source
+in lat. 8° 50&prime; N. of a small branch of the Catatumbo river, thence
+in a south-easterly direction across the Catatumbo and Zulia
+rivers to a point in 72° 30&prime; W. long., 8° 12&prime; N. lat., thence in an
+irregular southerly direction across the Cordillera de Mérida to
+the source of the Sarare, whence it runs eastward along that river,
+the Arauca, and the Meta to the Orinoco. Thence the line runs
+south and south-east along the Orinoco, Atabapo and Guainia
+to the Pedra de Cucuhy, which serves as a boundary mark for
+three republics. Of the eastern part of the territory lying
+between the Meta and the Brazilian frontier, Venezuela claims
+as far west as the meridian of 69° 10&prime;. Negotiations for the
+settlement of the boundary with Brazil (<i>q.v.</i>) were resumed in
+1906, and were advanced in the following year to an agreement
+providing for the settlement of conflicting claims by a mixed
+commission. With Ecuador and Peru the boundary disputes are
+extremely complicated, certain parts of the disputed territory
+being claimed by all three republics. Colombia holds possession
+as far south as the Napo in lat. 2° 47&prime; S., and claims territory
+occupied by Peru as far south as the Amazon. On the other
+hand Peru claims as far north as La Chorrera in 0° 49&prime; S. lat.,
+including territory occupied by Colombia, and the eastern half
+of the Ecuadorean department of Oriente, and Ecuador would
+extend her southern boundary line to the Putumayo, in long.
+71° 1&prime; S., and make that river her northern boundary as far
+north as the Peruvian claim extends. The provisional line starts
+from the Japura river (known as the Caqueta in Colombia) in
+lat. 1° 30&prime; S., long. 69° 24&prime; W., and runs south-west to the 70th
+meridian, thence slightly north of west to the Igaraparana river,
+thence up that stream to the Peruvian military post of La
+Chorrera, in 0° 49&prime; S. lat., thence west of south to Huiririmachico,
+on the Napo. Thence the line runs north-west along the
+Napo, Coca and San Francisco rivers to the Andean watershed,
+which becomes the dividing line northward for a distance of
+nearly 80 m., where the line turns westward and reaches the
+Pacific at the head of Panguapi Bay, into which the southern
+outlet of the Mira river discharges (about 1° 34&prime; N. lat.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Physical Geography.</i>&mdash;Colombia is usually described as an extremely
+mountainous country, which is true of much less than half
+its total area. Nearly one half its area lies south-east of the Andes
+and consists of extensive <i>llanos</i> and forested plains, traversed by
+several of the western tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoco.
+These plains slope gently toward the east, those of the Amazon basin
+apparently lying in great terraces whose escarpments have the character
+of low, detached ranges of hills forming successive rims to the
+great basin which they partly enclose. The elevation and slope of
+this immense region, which has an approximate length of 640 m.
+and average width of 320 m., may be inferred from the elevations
+of the Caqueta, or Japura river, which was explored by Crevaux in
+1878-1879. At Santa Maria, near the Cordillera (about 75° 30&prime; W.
+long.), the elevation is 613 ft. above sea-level, on the 73rd meridian
+it is 538 ft., and near the 70th meridian 426 ft.&mdash;a fall of 187 ft.
+in a distance of about 400 m. The northern part of this great region
+has a somewhat lower elevation and gentler slope, and consists of
+open grassy plains, which are within the zone of alternating wet and
+dry seasons. In the south and toward the great lower basin of the
+Amazon, where the rainfall is continuous throughout the year, the
+plains are heavily forested. The larger part of this territory is
+unexplored except along the principal rivers, and is inhabited by
+scattered tribes of Indians. Near the Cordilleras and along some of
+the larger rivers there are a few small settlements of whites and
+mestizos, but their aggregate number is small and their economic
+value to the republic is inconsiderable. There are some cattle
+ranges on the open plains, however, but they are too isolated to
+have much importance. A small part of the northern Colombia,
+on the lower courses of the Atrato and Magdalena, extending across
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page701" id="page701"></a>701</span>
+the country from the Eastern to the Western Cordilleras with a
+varying width of 100 to 150 m., not including the lower river basins
+which penetrate much farther inland, also consists of low, alluvial
+plains, partly covered with swamps and intricate watercourses,
+densely overgrown with vegetation, but in places admirably adapted
+to different kinds of tropical agriculture. These plains are broken
+in places by low ranges of hills which are usually occupied by the
+principal industrial settlements of this part of the republic, the
+lower levels being for the most part swampy and unsuited for white
+occupation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img style="border:0; width:678px; height:919px"
+     src="images/img701.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+<p class="noind f90"><a href="images/img701a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p>The other part of the republic, which may be roughly estimated at
+two-fifths of its total area, consists of an extremely rugged mountainous
+country, traversed from south to north
+by the parallel river valleys of the Magdalena,
+Cauca and Atrato. The mountain chains which
+cover this part of Colombia are the northern
+terminal ranges of the great Andean system.
+In northern Ecuador the Andes narrows into
+a single massive range which has the character
+of a confused mass of peaks and ridges on the
+southern frontier of Colombia. There are several
+lofty plateaus in this region which form a huge
+central watershed for rivers flowing east to the
+Amazon, west to the Pacific, and north to the
+Caribbean Sea. The higher plateaus are called
+<i>paramos</i>, cold, windswept, mist-drenched deserts,
+lying between the elevations of 10,000 and 15,000
+ft., which are often the only passes over the
+Cordilleras, and yet are almost impassable because
+of their morasses, heavy mists, and cold, piercing
+winds. The <i>paramos</i> of Cruz Verde (11,695 ft.)
+and Pasto, and the volcanoes of Chiles (15,900
+ft.), Chumbul (15,715 ft.), and Pasto (13,990 ft.)
+are prominent landmarks of this desolate region.
+North of this great plateau the Andes divides
+into three great ranges, the Western, Central and
+Eastern Cordilleras. The Central is the axis of
+the system, is distinguished by a line of lofty
+volcanoes and <i>paramos</i>, some of which show their
+white mantles 2000 to 3000 ft. above the line of
+perpetual snow (approx. 15,000 ft. in this latitude),
+and is sometimes distinguished with the
+name borne by the republic for the time being.
+This range runs in a north-north-east direction
+and separates the valleys of the Magdalena and
+Cauca, terminating in some low hills south-west
+of El Banco, a small town on the lower Magdalena.
+The principal summits of this range are Tajumbina
+(13,534 ft.), Pan de Azucar (15,978 ft.), Purace
+(15,420 ft.), Sotara (15,420 ft.), Huila <span class="correction" title="missing round bracket">(over</span> 18,000
+ft.), Tolima (18,432 ft.), Santa Isabel (16,700 ft.),
+Ruiz (18,373 ft.), and Mesa de Herveo (18,300 ft.).
+The last named affords a magnificent spectacle
+from Bogotá, its level top which is 5 or 6 m. across,
+and is formed by the rim of an immense crater,
+having the appearance of a table, down the sides
+of which for more than 3000 ft. hangs a spotless
+white drapery of perpetual snow. The Western
+Cordillera branches from the main range first
+and follows the coast very closely as far north
+as the 4th parallel, where the San Juan and
+Atrato rivers, though flowing in opposite directions
+and separated near the 5th parallel by a low
+transverse ridge, combine to interpose valleys
+between it and the Cordillera de Baudo, which
+thereafter becomes the true coast range. It then
+forms the divide between the Cauca and Atrato
+valleys, and terminates near the Caribbean coast.
+The general elevation of this range is lower than
+that of the others, its culminating points being the
+volcano Munchique (11,850 ft.)and Cerro Leon (10,847 ft.). The range
+is covered with vegetation and its Pacific slopes are precipitous and
+humid. The Cordillera de Baudo, which becomes the coast range
+above lat. 4° N., is the southern extension of the low mountainous
+chain forming the backbone of the Isthmus of Panama, and may be
+considered the southern termination of the great North American
+system. Its elevations are low and heavily wooded. It divides on
+the Panama frontier, the easterly branch forming the watershed
+between the Atrato and the rivers of eastern Panama, and serving as
+the frontier between the two republics. The passes across these
+ranges are comparatively low, but they are difficult because of the
+precipitous character of their Pacific slopes and the density of the
+vegetation on them. The Eastern Cordillera is in some respects the
+most important of the three branches of the Colombian Andes. Its
+general elevation is below that of the Central Cordillera, and it has
+few summits rising above the line of perpetual snow, the highest
+being the Sierra Nevada de Cocui, in lat. 6° 30&rsquo; N. Between Cocui
+and the southern frontier of Colombia there are no noteworthy
+elevations except the so-called Paramo de Suma Paz near Bogotá,
+the highest point of which is 14,146 ft. above sea-level, and the Chita
+<i>paramo</i>, or range, north-east of Bogotá (16,700 ft.). Between the
+5th and 6th parallels the range divides into two branches, the eastern
+passing into Venezuela, where it is called the Cordillera de Merida,
+and the northern continuing north and north-east as the Sierra de
+Perija and the Sierra de Oca, to terminate at the north-eastern
+extremity of the Goajira peninsula. The culminating point in the
+first-mentioned range is the Cerro Pintado (11,800 ft.). West of
+this range, and lying between the 10th parallel and the Caribbean
+coast, is a remarkable group of lofty peaks and knotted ranges
+known as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the highest snow-crowned
+summit of which rises 17,389 ft. above the sea according to
+some, and 16,728 according to other authorities. This group of
+mountains, covering an approximate area of 6500 sq. m., lies immediately
+on the coast, and its highest summits were long considered
+inaccessible. It stands detached from the lower ranges of the
+Eastern Cordillera, and gives the impression that it is essentially
+independent. The eastern Cordillera region is noteworthy for its
+large areas of plateau and elevated valley within the limits of the
+vertical temperate zone. In this region is to be found the greater
+part of the white population, the best products of Colombian civilization,
+and the greatest industrial development. The &ldquo;sabana&rdquo; of
+Bogotá is a good illustration of the higher of these plateaus (8563 ft.,
+according to Stieler&rsquo;s <i>Hand-Atlas</i>), with its mild temperature,
+inexhaustible fertility and numerous productions of the temperate
+zone. It has an area of about 2000 sq. m. The lower valleys,
+plateaus and mountain slopes of this range are celebrated for their
+coffee, which, with better means of transportation, would be a greater
+source of prosperity for the republic than the gold-mines of Antioquia.
+The mountainous region of Colombia is subject to volcanic disturbances
+and earthquake shocks are frequent, especially in the south.
+These shocks, however, are less severe than in Venezuela or in
+Ecuador.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page702" id="page702"></a>702</span></p>
+
+<p>There are few islands on the coast of Colombia, and the great
+majority of these are too small to appear on the maps in general use.
+Gorgona is one of the larger islands on the Pacific coast,
+and is situated about 25 m. from the mainland in lat.
+<span class="sidenote">Islands.</span>
+3° N. It is 5¾ m. long by 1¾ m. wide, and rises to an extreme elevation
+of 1296 ft. above sea-level. It is a beautiful island, and is
+celebrated as one of Pizarro&rsquo;s stopping places. It has been used
+by the Colombian government for political offenders. Malpelo island,
+282 m. west by south of Charambira point, in lat. 3° 40&prime; N., long.
+81° 24&prime; W., nominally belongs to Colombia. It is a small, rocky,
+uninhabited island, rising to an elevation of 846 ft. above the sea,
+and has no ascertained value. The famous Pearl islands of the
+Gulf of Panama are claimed by Colombia, and their pearl oyster
+fisheries are considered a rentable asset by the government. The
+group covers an area of about 450 sq. m., and consists of 16 islands
+and several rocks. The largest is Rey Island, which is about 17 m.
+long, north to south, and 8 m. broad, with an extreme elevation of
+600 ft. The other larger islands are San José, Pedro Gonzales,
+Casaya, Saboga and Pacheca. There are several fishing villages
+whose inhabitants are largely engaged in the pearl fisheries, and a
+number of cocoa-nut plantations. The islands belong chiefly to
+Panama merchants. There are several groups of small islands on
+the northern coast, and a few small islands so near the mainland as
+to form sheltered harbours, as at Cartagena. The largest of these
+islands is Baru, lying immediately south of the entrance to Cartagena
+harbour. North-west of Colombia in the Caribbean Sea are several
+small islands belonging to the republic, two of which (Great and
+Little Corn Is.) lie very near the coast of Nicaragua. The largest
+and most important of these islands is Vieja Providencia (Old
+Providence), 120 m. off the Mosquito Coast, 4½ m. long, which
+supports a small population.</p>
+
+<p>The rivers of Colombia may be divided, for convenience of description,
+into three general classes according to the destination of their
+waters, the Pacific, Caribbean and Atlantic&mdash;the last
+reaching their destination through the Amazon and
+<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
+Orinoco. Of these, the Caribbean rivers are of the greatest economic
+importance to the country, though those of the eastern plains may at
+some time become nearly as important as transportation routes in a
+region possessing forest products of great importance and rich in
+agricultural and pastoral possibilities. It is worthy of note that the
+principal rivers of these three classes&mdash;the Patia, Cauca, Magdalena,
+Caquetá and Putumayo&mdash;all have their sources on the high plateaus
+of southern Colombia and within a comparatively limited area.
+The Pacific coast rivers are numerous, and discharge a very large
+volume of water into the ocean in proportion to the area of their
+drainage basins, because of the heavy rainfall on the western slopes
+of the Coast range. The proximity of this range to the coast limits
+them to short, precipitous courses, with comparatively short navigable
+channels. The principal rivers of this group, starting from
+the southern frontier, are the Mira, Patia, Iscuande, Micai, Buenaventura
+or Dagua, San Juan and Baudo. The Mira has its principal
+sources in Ecuador, and for a short distance forms the boundary
+line between the two republics, but its outlets and navigable channel
+are within Colombia. It has a large delta in proportion to the length
+of the river, which is visible evidence of the very large quantity
+of material brought down from the neighbouring mountain slopes.
+The Patia is the longest river of the Pacific group, and is the only one
+having its sources on the eastern side of the Western Cordillera.
+It is formed by the confluence of the Sotara and Guaitara at the point
+where the united streams turn westward to cut their way through
+the mountains to the sea. The Sotara or upper Patia rises on the
+southern slope of a transverse ridge or dyke, between the Central
+and Western Cordilleras, in the vicinity of Popayan, and flows
+southward about 120 m. to the point of confluence with the Guaitara.
+The latter has its sources on the elevated plateau of Tuquerres and
+flows north-west to meet the Sotara. The canyon of the Patia through
+the Western Cordillera is known as the &ldquo;Minima gorge,&rdquo; and has
+been cut to a depth of 1676 ft., above which the perpendicular
+mountain sides rise like a wall some thousands of feet more. The
+upper course of the Guaitara is known as the Carchi, which for a
+short distance forms the boundary line between Colombia and
+Ecuador. At one point in its course it is crossed by the Rumichaca
+arch, a natural arch of stone, popularly known as the &ldquo;Inca&rsquo;s bridge,&rdquo;
+which with the Minima gorge should be classed among the natural
+wonders of the world. There is a narrow belt of low, swampy
+country between the Cordillera and the coast, traversed at intervals
+by mountain spurs, and across this the river channels are usually
+navigable. The San Juan has built a large delta at its mouth,
+and is navigable for a distance of 140 m. inland, the river flowing
+parallel with the coast for a long distance instead of crossing the
+coastal plain. It rises in the angle between the Western Cordillera
+and a low transverse ridge connecting it with the Baudo coast
+range, and flows westward down to the valley between the two
+ranges, and then southward through this valley to about lat. 4° 15&prime; N.,
+where it turns sharply westward and crosses a narrow belt of lowland
+to the coast. It probably has the largest discharge of water of the
+Pacific group, and has about 300 m. of navigable channels, including
+its tributaries, although the river itself is only 190 m. long and the
+sand-bars at its mouth have only 7 or 8 ft. of water on them. The
+San Juan is distinguished for having been one of the proposed
+routes for a ship canal between the Caribbean and Pacific. At one
+point in its upper course it is so near the Atrato that, according to a
+survey by Captain C. S. Cochrane, R.N., in 1824, a canal 400 yds.
+long with a maximum cutting of 70 ft., together with some improvements
+in the two streams, would give free communication. His
+calculations were made, of course, for the smaller craft of that
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The rivers belonging to the Caribbean system, all of which flow
+in a northerly direction, are the Atrato, Bacuba, Sinú, Magdalena
+and Zulia. The Bacuba, Suriquilla or Leon, is a small stream rising
+on the western slopes of the Cordillera and flowing into the upper
+end of the Gulf of Uraba. Like the Atrato it brings down much silt,
+which is rapidly filling that depression. There are many small
+streams and one important river, the Sinú, flowing into the sea
+between this gulf and the mouth of the Magdalena. The Sinú rises
+on the northern slopes of the Alto del Viento near the 7th parallel,
+and flows almost due north across the coastal plain for a distance
+of about 286 m. to the Gulf of Morosquillo. It has a very sinuous
+channel which is navigable for small steamers for some distance,
+but there is no good port at its outlet, and a considerable part of the
+region through which it flows is malarial and sparsely settled. The
+most important rivers of Colombia, however, are the Magdalena and
+its principal tributary, the Cauca. They both rise on the high table-land
+of southern Colombia about 14,000 ft. above sea-level&mdash;the
+Magdalena in the Laguna del Buey (Ox Lake) on the Las Papas
+plateau, and the Cauca a short distance westward in the Laguna de
+Santiago on the Paramo de Guanacas&mdash;and flow northward in
+parallel courses with the great Central Cordillera, forming the water-parting
+between their drainage basins. The principal tributaries
+of the Magdalena are the Suaza, Neiva, Cabrera, Prado, Fusagasaga,
+Funza or Bogotá, Carare, Opon, Sogamoso, Lebrija and Cesar,
+and the western the La Plata, Paez, Saldaña, Cuello, Guali, Samana
+or Miel, Nare or Negro and Cauca. There are also many smaller
+streams flowing into the Magdalena from both sides of the valley.
+Of those named, the Funza drains the &ldquo;sabana&rdquo; of Bogotá and is
+celebrated for the great fall of Tequendama, about 480 ft. in height;
+the Sogamoso passes through some of the richest districts of the
+republic; and the Cesar rises on the elevated slopes of the Sierra
+Nevada de Santa Marta and flows southward across a low plain,
+in which are many lakes, to join the Magdalena where it bends
+westward to meet the Cauca. The course of the Magdalena traverses
+nine degrees of latitude and is nearly 1000 m. long. It is navigable
+for steamers up to La Dorada, near Honda, 561 m. above its mouth,
+which is closed by sand-bars to all but light-draught vessels, and for
+93 m. above the rapids at Honda, to Girardot. The river is also
+navigable at high water for small steamers up to Neiva, 100 m.
+farther and 1535 ft. above sea-level, beyond which point it descends
+precipitously from the plateaus of southern Colombia. The Honda
+rapids have a fall of only 20 ft. in a distance of 2 m., but the current
+is swift and the channel tortuous for a distance of 20 m., which
+make it impossible for the light-draught, flat-bottomed steamers of
+the lower river to ascend them. The Cauca differs much from the
+Magdalena, although its principal features are the same. The latter
+descends 12,500 ft. before it becomes navigable, but at 10,000 ft.
+below its source the Cauca enters a long narrow valley with an
+average elevation of 3500 ft., where it is navigable for over 200 m.,
+and then descends 2500 ft. through a series of impetuous rapids for a
+distance of about 250 m., between Cartago and Cáceres, with a break
+of 60 m. above Antioquia, where smooth water permits isolated
+navigation. While, therefore, the Magdalena is navigable throughout
+the greater part of its course, or from Girardot to the coast, with an
+abrupt break of only 20 ft. at Honda which could easily be overcome,
+the Cauca has only 200 m. of navigable water in the upper valley
+and another 200 m. on its lower course before it joins the Magdalena
+in lat. 9° 30&prime;, the two being separated by 250 m. of canyon and
+rapids. So difficult is the country through which the Cauca has cut
+its tortuous course that the fertile upper valley is completely isolated
+from the Caribbean, and has no other practicable outlet than the
+overland route from Cali to Buenaventura, on the Pacific. The
+upper sources of the Cauca flow through a highly volcanic region,
+and are so impregnated with sulphuric and other acids that fish
+cannot live in them. This is especially true of the Rio Vinagre,
+which rises on the Purace volcano. The principal tributaries are
+the Piendamó, Ovejas, Palo, Amaime and Nechi, from the central
+Cordillera, of which the last named is the most important, and the
+Jamundi and a large number of small streams from the Western.
+The largest branch of the Cauca on its western side, however, is the
+San Jorge, which, though rising in the Western Cordillera on the
+northern slopes of the Alto del Viento, in about lat. 7° N., and not
+far from the sources of the Sinú and Bacuba, is essentially a river
+of the plain, flowing north-east across a level country filled with
+small lakes and subject to inundations to a junction with the Cauca
+just before it joins the Magdalena. Both the San Jorge and Nechi
+are navigable for considerable distances. The valley of the Cauca
+is much narrower than that of the Magdalena, and between Cartago
+and Cáceres the mountain ranges on both sides press down upon the
+river and confine it to a narrow canyon. The Cauca unites with the
+Magdalena about 200 m. from the sea through several widely separated
+channels, which are continually changing through the wearing away
+of the alluvial banks. These changes in the channel are also at work
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page703" id="page703"></a>703</span>
+in the Lower Magdalena. The remaining rivers of the Caribbean
+system, exclusive of the smaller ones rising in the Sierra Nevada
+de Santa Marta, are the Zulia and Catatumbo, which rise in the
+mountains of northern Santander and flow across the low plains of
+the Venezuelan state of Zulia into Lake Maracaibo.</p>
+
+<p>Of the rivers of the great eastern plains, whose waters pass through
+the Orinoco and Amazon to the Atlantic, little can be said beyond
+the barest geographical description. The size and courses of many
+of their affluents are still unknown, as this great region has been only
+partially explored. The largest of these rivers flow across the plains
+in an easterly direction, those of the Orinoco system inclining northward,
+and those of the Amazon system southward. The first include
+the Guaviare or Guayabero, the Vichada, the Meta, and the upper
+course of the Arauca. The Guaviare was explored by Crevaux in
+1881. It rises on the eastern slopes of the Eastern Cordillera between
+the 3rd and 4th parallels, about 75 m. south of Bogotá, and flows
+with a slight southward curve across the llanos to the Orinoco, into
+which it discharges at San Fernando de Atabapo in lat. 4° N. Its
+largest tributary is the Inirida, which enters from the south. The
+Guaviare has about 600 m. of navigable channel. The Meta rises
+on the opposite side of the Cordillera from Bogotá, and flows with a
+sluggish current east-north-east across the llanos to the Orinoco,
+into which it discharges below the Atures rapids, in lat. 6° 22&prime; N.
+It is navigable throughout almost its whole length, small steamers
+ascending it to a point within 100 m. of Bogotá. Its principal
+tributaries, so far as known, are the Tuca, Chire and Casanare.
+The principal rivers of the Amazon system are the Napo, the upper
+part of which forms the provisional boundary line with Ecuador,
+the Putumayo or Iça, and the Caqueta or Japurá (Yapurá), which
+flow from the Andes entirely across the eastern plains, and the
+Guainia, which rises on the northern slopes of the Serra Tunaji
+near the provisional Brazilian frontier, and flows with a great northward
+curve to the Venezuelan and Brazilian frontiers, and is thereafter
+known as the Rio Negro, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon.
+There are many large tributaries of these rivers in the unexplored
+regions of south-eastern Colombia, but their names as well as their
+courses are still unsettled.</p>
+
+<p>The coast of Colombia faces on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean
+Sea, and is divided by the Isthmus of Panama into two completely
+separated parts. The Pacific coast-line, omitting minor
+convolutions, has a length of about 500 m., while that of
+<span class="sidenote">Coasts.</span>
+the Caribbean is about 700 m. The former has been of slight service
+in the development of the country because of the unsettled and
+unhealthy character of the coast region, and the high mountain
+barriers between its natural ports and the settled parts of the republic.
+There are only two commercial ports on the coast, Tumaco
+and Buenaventura, though there are several natural harbours
+which would be of great service were there any demand for them.
+The rivers Mira, Patia and San Juan permit the entrance of small
+steamers, as also some of the smaller rivers. The larger bays on
+this coast are Tumaco, Chocó, Magdalena, Cabita, Coqui, Puerto
+Utria, Solano, Cupica and Octavia&mdash;some of them affording exceptionally
+safe and well-sheltered harbours. The Caribbean coast
+of Colombia has only four ports engaged in international trade&mdash;Barranquilla,
+Cartagena, Santa Marta and Rio Hacha. There are
+some smaller ports on the coast, but they are open only to vessels
+of light draft and have no trade worth mention. Barranquilla,
+the principal port of the republic, is situated on the Magdalena,
+and its seaport, or landing-place, is Puerto Colombia at the inner
+end of Savanilla Bay, where a steel pier 4000 ft. long has been built
+out to deep water, alongside which ocean-going vessels can receive and
+discharge cargo. The bay is slowly filling up, however, and two
+other landing-places&mdash;Salgar and Savanilla&mdash;had to be abandoned
+before Puerto Colombia was selected. The pier-head had 24 ft. of
+water alongside in 1907, but the silt brought down by the Magdalena
+is turned westward by the current along this coast, and may at any
+time fill the bay with dangerous shoals. The oldest and best port
+on the coast is Cartagena, 65 m. south-west of Barranquilla, which
+has a well-sheltered harbour protected by islands, and is connected
+with the Magdalena at Calamar by railway. The next best port is
+that of Santa Marta, about 46 m. east-north-east of Barranquilla
+(in a straight line), with which it is connected by 23 m. of railway
+and 50 m. of inland navigation on the Ciénaga de Santa Marta and
+eastern outlets of the Magdalena. Santa Marta is situated on a
+small, almost landlocked bay, well protected from prevailing
+winds by high land on the north and north-east, affording excellent
+anchorage in waters free from shoaling through the deposit of silt.
+The depth of the bay ranges from 4½ to 19 fathoms. The town
+stands at the foot of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, which
+restricts the area of cultivatable land in its immediate vicinity,
+and the enclosing high lands make the climate hot and somewhat
+dangerous for foreigners. Since the development of the fruit trade
+on the shores of the Caribbean sea and Gulf of Mexico by an important
+American company, which owns a large tract of land near
+Santa Marta devoted to banana cultivation, and has built a railway
+50 m. inland principally for the transportation of fruit, the trade
+of the port has greatly increased. The population of this region,
+however, is sparse, and its growth is slow. The fourth port on this
+coast is Rio Hacha, an open roadstead, about 93 m. east of Santa
+Marta, at the mouth of the small river Rancheira descending from
+the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. It has
+little trade, and the undeveloped, unpopulated state of the country
+behind it affords no promise of immediate growth. There are other
+small towns on the coast which are ports for the small vessels engaged
+in the coasting and river trade, but they have no international importance
+because of their inaccessibility to ocean-going steamers,
+or the extremely small volume of their trade. The Gulf of Uraba is
+a large bight or southerly extension of the Gulf of Darien. It
+receives the waters of the Atrato, Bacuba, and a number of small
+rivers, and penetrates the land about 50 m., but has very little commercial
+importance because of the unhealthy and unsettled character
+of the neighbouring country, and because of the bar across its
+entrance formed by silt from the Atrato. The Gulf of Morosquillo,
+a broad shallow indentation of the coast south of Cartagena, receives
+the waters of the Rio Sinú, at the mouth of which is the small port
+of Cispata. Between the mouth of the Magdalena and Santa Marta
+is the Ciénaga de Santa Marta, a large marshy lagoon separated
+from the sea by a narrow sand spit, having its &ldquo;boca&rdquo; or outlet
+at its eastern side. There is some traffic in small steamers on its
+shallow waters, which is increasing with the development of fruit
+cultivation on its eastern and southern sides. It extends inland
+about 31 m., and marks a deep indentation of the coast like the
+Gulf of Uraba.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The geology of Colombia is very imperfectly known, and
+it is only by a comparison with the neighbouring regions that it is
+possible to form any clear idea of the geological structure and
+succession. The oldest rocks are gneisses and schists, together with
+granite and other eruptive rocks. These are overlaid by sandstones,
+slates and limestones, alternating with porphyries and porphyrites
+sometimes in the form of sheets, sometimes as breccias and conglomerates.
+Cretaceous fossils have been found abundantly in this
+series, but it is still possible that earlier systems may be represented.
+Coal-bearing beds, possibly of Tertiary age, occur in Antioquia and
+elsewhere. Structurally, the four main chains of Colombia differ
+considerably from one another in geological constitution. The
+low Cordilleras of the Chocos, on the west coast, are covered by soft
+Quaternary sandstones and marls containing shells of extant species,
+such as still inhabit the neighbouring ocean. The Western Cordillera
+is the direct continuation of the Western Cordillera of Ecuador,
+and, like the latter, to judge from the scattered observations which
+are all that are available, consists chiefly of sandstones and porphyritic
+rocks of the Cretaceous series. Between the Western and the
+Central Cordilleras is a longitudinal depression along which the river
+Cauca finds its way towards the sea. On the western side of this
+depression there are red sandstones with coal-seams, possibly
+Tertiary; the floor and the eastern side consist chiefly of ancient
+crystalline and schistose rocks. The Central Cordillera is the direct
+continuation of the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador, and is formed
+chiefly of gneiss and other crystalline rocks, but sedimentary deposits
+of Cretaceous age also occur. Finally the Eastern branch, known
+as the Cordillera of Bogotá, is composed almost entirely of Cretaceous
+beds thrown into a series of regular anticlinals and synclinals similar
+to those of the Jura Mountains. The older rocks occasionally appear
+in the centre of the anticlinals. In all these branches of the Andes
+the folds run approximately in the direction of the chains, but the
+Sierra de Santa Marta appears to belong to a totally distinct system
+of folding, the direction of the folds being from west to east, bending
+gradually towards the south-east. Although volcanoes are by no
+means absent, they are much less important than in Ecuador, and
+their products take a far smaller share in the formation of the Andes.
+In Ecuador the depression between the Eastern and Western Cordilleras
+is almost entirely filled with modern lavas and agglomerates;
+in Colombia the corresponding Cauca depression is almost free from
+such deposits. In the Central Cordillera volcanoes extend to about
+5° N.; in the Western Cordillera they barely enter within the
+limits of Colombia; in the Cordillera of Bogotá they are entirely
+absent.<a name="FnAnchor_1j" id="FnAnchor_1j" href="#Footnote_1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;Were it not for the high altitudes of western Colombia,
+high temperatures would prevail over the whole country, except
+where modified by the north-east trade winds and the cold ocean
+current which sweeps up the western coast. The elevated plateaus
+and summits of the Andes are responsible, however, for many
+important and profound modifications in climate, not only in respect
+to the lower temperatures of the higher elevations, but also in respect
+to the higher temperatures of the sheltered lowland valleys and the
+varying climatic conditions of the neighbouring plains. The
+republic lies almost wholly within the north torrid zone, a comparatively
+small part of the forested Amazonian plain extending beyond
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page704" id="page704"></a>704</span>
+the equator into the south torrid zone. The great Andean barrier
+which crosses the republic from the south to north acts as a condenser
+to the prevailing easterly winds from the Atlantic, and causes a very
+heavy rainfall on their eastern slopes and over the forested Amazon
+plain. High temperatures as well as excessive humidity prevail
+throughout this region. Farther north, on the open llanos of the
+Orinoco tributaries, the year is divided into equal parts, an alternating
+wet and dry season, the sun temperatures being high followed
+by cool nights, and the temperatures of the rainy season being even
+higher. The rainfall is heavy in the wet season, causing many of the
+rivers to spread over extensive areas, but in the dry season the inundated
+plains become dry, the large rivers fed by the snows and
+rainfall of the Andes return within their banks, the shallow lagoons
+and smaller streams dry up, vegetation disappears, and the level
+plain becomes a desert. The northern plains of the republic are
+swept by the north-east trades, and here, too, the mountain barriers
+exercise a strongly modifying influence. The low ridges of the Sierra
+de Perijá do not wholly shut out these moisture-laden winds, but
+they cause a heavy rainfall on their eastern slopes, and create a
+dry area on their western flanks, of which the Vale of Upar is an
+example. The higher masses of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
+cover a very limited area, leaving the trade winds a comparatively
+unbroken sweep across the northern plains until checked by the
+Western Cordillera, the Panama ranges and the Sierra de Baudo,
+where a heavy precipitation follows. Farther south the coast ranges
+cause a very heavy rainfall on their western slopes, which are quite
+as uninhabitable because of rain and heat as are the coasts of
+southern Chile through rain and cold. The rainfall on this coast is
+said to average 73 in., though it is much higher at certain points
+and in the Atrato Valley. As a result the coastal plain is covered
+with swamps and tangled forests, and is extremely unhealthy,
+except at a few favoured points on the coast. High temperatures
+prevail throughout the greater part of the Magdalena and Cauca
+valleys, because the mountain ranges which enclose them shut out
+the prevailing winds. At Honda, on the Magdalena, 664 ft. above
+sea-level, the mean temperature for the year is 82° F., and the
+mercury frequently rises to 102° in the shade. These lowland plains
+and valleys comprise the climatic tropical zone of Colombia, which
+is characterized by high temperatures, and by excessive humidity
+and dense forests, an exception to the last-named characteristic
+being the open llanos where dry summers prevail. Above this
+tropical zone in the mountainous regions are to be found all the
+varying gradations of climate which we are accustomed to associate
+with changes in latitude. There are the subtropical districts of the
+valleys and slopes between 1500 and 7500 ft. elevation, which include
+some of the most fertile and productive areas in Colombia; the
+temperate districts between 7500 and 10,000 ft., the cold, bleak and
+inhospitable <i>paramos</i> between 10,000 and 15,000 ft., and above
+these the arctic wastes of ice and snow. The temperate and subtropical
+regions cover the greater part of the departments traversed
+by the Eastern Cordillera, the northern end of the Central Cordillera,
+the Santa Marta plateaus, and the Upper Cauca Valley. They
+include the larger part of the white population and the chief productive
+industries of the country. There is no satisfactory record
+of temperatures and rainfall in these widely different climatic zones
+from which correct averages can be drawn and compared. Observations
+have been made and recorded at Bogotá and at some other large
+towns, but for the greater part of the country we have only fragmentary
+reports. The mean annual temperature on the eastern
+plains, so far as known, ranges from 87° F. on the forested slopes
+to 90° and 91° on the llanos of the Meta and Arauca. On the
+Caribbean coastal plain it ranges from 80° to 84°, but at Tumaco,
+on the Pacific coast, within two degrees of the equator, it is only 79°.
+At Medellin, in the mountainous region of Antioquia, 4950 ft. above
+sea-level, the mean annual temperature is 70°, and the yearly rainfall
+55 in., while at Bogotá, 8563 ft., the former is 57° and the latter
+44 in. At Tuquerres, near the frontier of Ecuador, 10,200 ft. elevation,
+the mean annual temperature is said to be 55°. The changes of
+seasons are no less complicated and confusing. A considerable
+part of the republic is covered by the equatorial belt of calms,
+whose oscillations divide the year into a wet and dry season. This
+division is modified, however, by the location of mountain ranges
+and by elevation. In the Amazon region there is no great change
+during the year, and on the northern plains the so-called dry season
+is one of light rains except where mountain ranges break the sweep
+of the north-east trades. The alternating wet and dry seasons are
+likewise to be found on the Pacific coastal plain, though this region
+is not entirely dry and vegetation never dries up as on the <i>llanos</i>.
+Above the lowland plains the seasons vary in character according
+to geographical position and elevation. The two-season division
+rules in the departments of Santander and Antioquia, but without
+the extremes of humidity and aridity characteristic of the eastern
+plains. Farther south, at elevations between 800 and 9500 ft.,
+the year is divided into four distinct seasons&mdash;two wet and two dry&mdash;the
+former called <i>inviernos</i> (winters) and the latter <i>veranos</i>
+(summers). These seasons are governed by the apparent movements
+of the sun, the winters occurring at the equinoxes and the summers
+at the solstices. The <i>sabana</i> of Bogotá and neighbouring districts
+are subject to these changes of season. At higher altitudes long,
+cold, wet winters are experienced, with so short and cold a summer
+between them that the bleak <i>paramos</i> are left uninhabited except
+by a few shepherds in the short dry season.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;The geographical position of Colombia gives to it a
+fauna and flora largely characteristic of the great tropical region of
+the Amazon on the south-east, and of the mountainous regions of
+Central America on the north-west. At the same time it is rich in
+animal and plant types of its own, especially the latter, and is
+considered one of the best fields in South America for the student
+and collector. The fauna is essentially tropical, though a few species
+characteristic of colder regions are to be found in the higher Andes.
+Of the Quadrumana there are at least seventeen distinct species,
+and this number may be increased after a thorough exploration of
+the forested eastern plains. They are all arboreal in habit, and are
+to be found throughout the forested lowlands and lower mountain
+slopes. The carnivora are represented by seven or eight species of
+the Felidae, the largest of which are the puma (<i>Felis concolor</i>) and
+the jaguar (<i>F. onca</i>). These animals, together with the smaller
+ocelot, have a wide geographical range, and are very numerous in the
+valley of the Magdalena. Two species of bear and the &ldquo;coatí&rdquo;
+(<i>Nasua</i>) represent the plantigrades and inhabit the mountain slopes,
+and, of Pachydermata, the peccary (<i>Dicotyles</i>) and &ldquo;danta&rdquo; or
+tapir (<i>Tapirus</i>) have a wide distribution throughout the lowland
+and lower plateau forests. The Colombian tapir is known as the
+<i>Tapirus Roulini</i>, and is slightly smaller than the Brazilian species
+(<i>T. americanus</i>). There are deer in the forests and on the open
+savannahs, the rabbit and squirrel are to be seen on the eastern slopes
+of the Andes, and partly amphibious rodents, the &ldquo;capybara&rdquo;
+(<i>Hydrochoerus</i>) and &ldquo;guagua&rdquo; (<i>Coelogenys subniger</i>), are very
+numerous along the wooded watercourses. The sloth, armadillo,
+opossum, skunk and a species of fox complete the list of the more
+common quadrupeds so far as known, though it is certain that a
+careful biological survey would discover many others. The large
+rivers of Colombia and the lakes of the lowlands are filled with
+alligators, turtles, and fish, and several species of fish are highly
+esteemed by the natives as food. The saurians are represented on
+land by several species of lizard, some of them conspicuous for their
+brilliant colouring, and by the large &ldquo;iguana,&rdquo; whose flesh is considered
+a great delicacy. Among the ophidians, which include many
+harmless species, are the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, the dreaded
+<i>Lachesis</i> and the coral snake. The &ldquo;manatee&rdquo; (<i>Manatus americanus</i>)
+is found in the Atrato and other large Colombian rivers.</p>
+
+<p>In bird and insect life Colombia is second only to Brazil. The
+condor, which inhabits the higher Cordilleras, is peculiar to the whole
+Andean region, and is the largest of the Raptores. Among other
+members of this order are the eagle, osprey, vulture, buzzard, kite
+and hawk, with about a dozen species in all. Parrots and paroquets
+are numerous everywhere in the tropical and subtropical regions,
+as also the gorgeously coloured macaw and awkward toucan. The
+largest class, perhaps, is that formed by the astonishing number of
+water-fowl which throng the shallow lagoons and river beaches
+at certain seasons of the year. They are mostly migratory in habit,
+and are to be found in many other countries. Among these are the
+large white crane and small crane, the blue heron, the snowy-white
+egret, the roseate spoonbill (<i>Platalea ajaja</i>), stork, bittern and many
+species of ducks. The largest and most conspicuous member of this
+interesting family is the <i>Mycteria americana</i>, the gigantic stork so
+frequently seen in the Amazon valley, and even more numerous
+about the lagoons of northern Colombia. One of the best game-birds
+of the forest is the &ldquo;crested curassow&rdquo; (<i>Crax alector</i>), sometimes
+weighing 12lb, which feeds on arboreal fruits and rarely comes to
+the ground. Colombia also possesses many species of the beautiful
+little humming-bird, among which are the tiny <i>Steganura Underwoodi</i>
+and the sword-bill, <i>Docimastes ensiferus</i>, which were found by Mr
+Albert Millican on a bleak <i>paramo</i> 12,000 ft. above sea-level. One
+of the most interesting birds found in the country is the &ldquo;weaver-bird&rdquo;
+(<i>Cassicus persicus</i>), which lives in colonies and suspends its
+long, pouch-like nest from the end of a horizontal branch of some
+high, isolated tree. In regard to insects, what has been said of
+Brazil will apply very closely to Colombia. Mosquitoes, butterflies,
+spiders, beetles and ants are infinitely numerous, and some of the
+species are indescribably troublesome.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora.</i>&mdash;The Colombian flora is richer in species and individual
+characteristics than the fauna, owing in part to its greater dependence
+on climatic conditions. It ranges from the purely tropical types
+of the lowlands to the Alpine species of the more elevated <i>paramos</i>.
+It should be remembered, however, that large areas of the lowland
+plains have only a very limited arboreal growth. These plains
+include the extensive llanos of the Orinoco tributaries where coarse,
+hardy grasses and occasional clumps of palms are almost the only
+vegetation to be seen. There are other open plains in northern
+Colombia, sometimes covered with a shrubby growth, and the
+&ldquo;mesas&rdquo; (flat-topped mountains) and plateaus of the Cordilleras
+are frequently bare of trees. Farther up, on the cold, bleak <i>paramos</i>,
+only stunted and hardy trees are to be found. On the other hand,
+a luxuriant forest growth covers a very large part of the republic,
+including the southern plains of the Amazon tributaries, the foothills,
+slopes and valleys of the Cordilleras, a larger part of the
+northern plains, and the whole surface of the Western Cordillera and
+coast. The most conspicuous and perhaps the most universal type
+in all these regions, below an approximate elevation of 10,000 ft.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page705" id="page705"></a>705</span>
+is the palm, whose varieties and uses are incredibly numerous.
+On the eastern plains are to be found the &ldquo;miriti&rdquo; (<i>Mauritia
+flexuosa</i>) and the &ldquo;pirijao&rdquo; or peach palm (<i>Guilielma speciosa</i>),
+called the &ldquo;pupunha&rdquo; on the Amazon, whose fruit, fibre, leaf, sap,
+pith and wood meet so large a part of the primary needs of the
+aborigines. A noteworthy palm of the eastern Andean slopes is the
+&ldquo;corneto&rdquo; (<i>Deckeria</i>), whose tall, slender trunk starts from the apex
+of a number of aerial roots, rising like a cone 6 to 8 ft. above the
+ground. It is one of the most fruitful of palms, its clusters weighing
+from 120 to 200 &#8468; each. Extensive groves of the coco-nut palm
+are to be found on the Caribbean coast, the fruit and fibre of which
+figure among the national exports. In north-eastern Colombia,
+where a part of the year is dry, the &ldquo;curuas&rdquo; form the prevailing
+species, but farther south, on the slopes of the Cordilleras up to an
+elevation of 10,000 ft., the wax-palm, or &ldquo;palma de cera&rdquo; (<i>Ceroxylon
+andicola</i>), is said to be the most numerous. It is a tall slender palm,
+and is the source of the vegetable wax so largely used in some parts
+of the country in the manufacture of matches, a single stem sometimes
+yielding 16-20 &#8468;. Another widely distributed species in
+central Colombia is known as the &ldquo;palmita del Azufral&rdquo; in some
+localities, and as the &ldquo;palma real&rdquo; and &ldquo;palma dolce&rdquo; in others.
+Humboldt says it is not the &ldquo;palma real&rdquo; of Cuba (<i>Oreodoxa regia</i>),
+but in the Rio Sinú region is the <i>Cocos butyracea</i>, or the &ldquo;palma
+dolce,&rdquo; from which palm wine is derived. Another palm of much
+economic importance in Colombia is the &ldquo;tagua&rdquo; (<i>Phytelephas
+macrocarpa</i>), which grows abundantly in the valleys of the Magdalena,
+Atrato and Patia, and produces a large melon-shaped fruit in which
+are found the extremely hard, fine-grained nuts or seeds known in
+the commercial world as vegetable ivory. The Colombian &ldquo;Panama
+hat&rdquo; is made from the fibres extracted from the ribs of the fan-shaped
+leaves of still another species of palm, <i>Carludovica palmata</i>,
+while in the Rio Sinú region the natives make a kind of butter
+(&ldquo;manteca de Corozo&rdquo;) from the <i>Elaeis melanococca</i>, Mart., by
+peeling the nuts in water and then purifying the oil extracted in this
+way by boiling. This oil was formerly used for illuminating purposes.
+The forests are never made up wholly of palms, but are composed
+of trees of widely different characters, including many common to
+the Amazon region, together with others found in Central American
+forests, such as mahogany and &ldquo;vera&rdquo; or lignum vitae (<i>Zygophyllum
+arboreum</i>). Brazilwood (<i>Caesalpinia echinata</i>), valuable for its
+timber and colouring extract, and &ldquo;roco&rdquo; (<i>Bixa orellana</i>), the
+&ldquo;urucú&rdquo; of Brazil which furnishes the anatto of commerce, are
+widely distributed in central and southern Colombia, and another
+species of the first-named genus, the <i>C. coariaria</i>, produces the
+&ldquo;divi-divi&rdquo; of the Colombian export trade&mdash;a peculiarly shaped
+seed-pod, rich in tannic and gallic acids, and used for tanning leather.
+The rubber-producing <i>Hevea guayanensis</i> is found in abundance on
+the Amazon tributaries, and the <i>Castilloa elastica</i> is common to all
+the Caribbean river valleys. Southern Colombia, especially the
+eastern slopes of the Andes, produces another valuable tree, the
+<i>Cinchona calisaya</i>, from the bark of which quinine is made. These
+are but a few of the valuable cabinet woods, dye-woods, &amp;c., which
+are to be found in the forests, but have hardly been reached by
+commerce because of their inaccessibility and the unsettled state of
+the country. The adventurous orchid-hunter, however, has penetrated
+deeply into their recesses in search of choice varieties, and
+collectors of these valuable plants are largely indebted to Colombia
+for their specimens of <i>Cattleya Mendelli</i>, <i>Warscewiczii</i> and <i>Trianae</i>;
+<i>Dowiana aurea</i>; <i>Odontoglossum crispum</i>, <i>Pescatorei</i>, <i>vexillarium</i>,
+<i>odoratum</i>, <i>coronarium</i>, <i>Harryanum</i>, and <i>blandum</i>; <i>Miltonia vexillaria</i>;
+<i>Oncidium carthaginense</i> and <i>Kramerianum</i>; <i>Masdevalliae</i>,
+<i>Epidendra</i>, <i>Schomburgkiae</i> and many others. Colombia is also the
+home of the American &ldquo;Alpine rose&rdquo; (<i>Befaria</i>), which is to be found
+between 9000 and 11,000 ft. elevation, and grows to a height of
+5-6 ft. Tree ferns have a remarkable growth in many localities,
+their stems being used in southern Cundinamarca to make corduroy
+roads. The South American bamboo (<i>Bambusa guadia</i>) has a very
+wide range, and is found nearly up to the limit of perpetual snow.
+The cactus is also widely distributed, and is represented by several
+well-known species. Among the more common fruit-trees, some of
+which are exotics, may be mentioned cacáo (<i>Theobroma</i>), orange,
+lemon, lime, pine-apple, banana, guava (<i>Psidium</i>), breadfruit (<i>Artocarpus</i>),
+cashew (<i>Anacardium</i>), alligator pear (<i>Persea</i>), with the apple,
+peach, pear, and other fruits of the temperate zone on the elevated
+plateaus. Other food and economic plants are coffee, rice, tobacco,
+sugar-cane, cotton, indigo, vanilla, cassava or &ldquo;yucca,&rdquo; sweet and
+white potatoes, wheat, maize, rye, barley, and vegetables of both
+tropical and temperate climates. It is claimed in Colombia that a
+species of wild potato found on the <i>paramos</i> is the parent of the
+cultivated potato.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The number of the population of Colombia
+is very largely a matter of speculation. A census was taken in
+1871, when the population was 2,951,323. What the vegetative
+increase has been since then (for there has been no immigration)
+is purely conjectural, as there are no available returns of births
+and deaths upon which an estimate can be based. Civil war
+has caused a large loss of life, and the withdrawal from their
+homes of a considerable part of the male population, some of them
+for military service and a greater number going into concealment
+to escape it, and it is certain that the rate of increase has been
+small. Some statistical authorities have adopted 1½% as the
+rate, but this is too high for such a period. All things considered,
+an annual increase of 1% for the thirty-five years between
+1871 and 1906 would seem to be more nearly correct, which would
+give a population in the latter year&mdash;exclusive of the population
+of Panama&mdash;of a little over 3,800,000. The <i>Statesman&rsquo;s Year
+Book</i> for 1907 estimates it at 4,279,674 in 1905, including about
+150,000 wild Indians, while Supan&rsquo;s <i>Die Bevölkerung der Erde</i>
+(1904) places it at 3,917,000 in 1899. Of the total only 10%
+is classed as white and 15% as Indian, 40% as <i>mestizos</i> (white
+and Indian mixture), and 35% negroes and their mixtures with
+the other two races. The large proportion of mestizos, if these
+percentages are correct, is significant because it implies a persistence
+of type that may largely determine the character of
+Colombia&rsquo;s future population, unless the more slowly increasing
+white element can be reinforced by immigration.</p>
+
+<p>The white contingent in the population of Colombia is chiefly
+composed of the descendants of the Spanish colonists who settled
+there during the three centuries following its discovery and
+conquest. Mining enterprises and climate drew them into the
+highlands of the interior, and there they have remained down
+to the present day, their only settlements on the hot, unhealthy
+coast being the few ports necessary for commercial and political
+intercourse with the mother country. The isolation of these
+distant inland settlements has served to preserve the language,
+manners and physical characteristics of these early colonists
+with less variation than in any other Spanish-American state.
+They form an intelligent, high-spirited class of people, with all
+the defects and virtues of their ancestry. Their isolation has
+made them ignorant to some extent of the world&rsquo;s progress,
+while a supersensitive patriotism blinds them to the discredit
+and disorganization which political strife and misrule have
+brought upon them. A very small proportion of the white element
+consists of foreigners engaged in commercial and industrial
+pursuits, but they very rarely become permanently identified
+with the fortunes of the country. The native whites form the
+governing class, and enjoy most of the powers and privileges of
+political office.</p>
+
+<p>Of the original inhabitants there remain only a few scattered
+tribes in the forests, who refuse to submit to civilized requirements,
+and a much larger number who live in organized communities
+and have adopted the language, customs and habits
+of the dominant race. Their total number is estimated at 15%
+of the population, or nearly 600,000, including the 120,000
+to 150,000 credited to the uncivilized tribes. Many of the
+civilized Indian communities have not become wholly Hispanicized
+and still retain their own dialects and customs, their attitude
+being that of a conquered race submitting to the customs and
+demands of a social organization of which they form no part.
+According to Uricoechea there are at least twenty-seven native
+languages spoken in the western part of Colombia, fourteen in
+Tolima, thirteen in the region of the Caquetá, twelve in Panama,
+Bolívar and Magdalena, ten in Bogotá and Cundinamarca,
+and thirty-four in the region of the Meta, while twelve had died
+out during the preceding century. The tribes of the Caribbean
+seaboard, from Chiriqui to Goajira, are generally attached to the
+great Carib stock; those of the eastern plains show affinities
+with the neighbouring Brazilian races; those of the elevated
+Tuquerres district are of the Peruvian type; and the tribes of
+Antioquia, Cauca, Popayan and Neiva preserve characteristics
+more akin to those of the Aztecs than to any other race. At
+the time of the Spanish Conquest the most important of these
+tribes was the Muyscas or Chibchas, who inhabited the tablelands
+of Bogotá and Tunja, and had attained a considerable
+degree of civilization. They lived in settled communities,
+cultivated the soil to some extent, and ascribed their progress
+toward civilization to a legendary cause remarkably similar to
+those of the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru. They are
+represented by some tribes living on the head-waters of the Meta,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page706" id="page706"></a>706</span>
+and their blood flows in the veins of the <i>mestizos</i> of the Bogotá
+plateau. Their ancient language has been partly preserved
+through the labours of Gonzalo Bermudez, José Dadei, Bernardo
+de Lugo, and Ezequiel Uricoechea, the last having made it the
+subject of a special study. According to this author the Chibchas
+were composed of three loosely united nationalities governed
+by three independent chiefs&mdash;the <i>Zipa</i> of Muequetá (the present
+Funza), the <i>Zaque</i> of Hunsa (now Tunja), and the <i>Jeque</i> of Iraca,
+who was regarded as the successor of the god Nemterequeteba,
+whom they worshipped as the author of their civilization. The
+latter had his residence at Suamoz, or Sogamoso.</p>
+
+<p>The Tayronas, of the Santa Marta highlands, who have
+totally disappeared, were also remarkable for the progress which
+they had made toward civilization. Evidence of this is to be
+found in the excellent roads which they constructed, and in the
+skilfully made gold ornaments which have been found in the
+district which they occupied, as well as in the contemporary
+accounts of them by their conquerors. Among the tribes which
+are still living in a savage state are the Mesayas, Caquetas,
+Mocoas, Amarizanos, Guipanabis and Andaquies of the unsettled
+eastern territories; the Goajiros, Motilones, Guainetas,
+and Cocinas of the Rio Hacha, Upar and Santa Marta districts;
+and the Dariens, Cunacunas, and Chocos of the Atrato basin.
+These tribes have successfully resisted all efforts to bring them
+under political and ecclesiastical control, and their subjection
+is still a matter of no small concern to the Colombian government.
+As late as the year 1900 Mr Albert Millican, while collecting
+orchids on the Opon river, a tributary of the Magdalena
+between Bogotá and the Caribbean coast, was attacked by
+hostile Indians, and one of his companions was killed by a
+poisoned arrow. These hostile tribes are usually too small to
+make much trouble, but they are able to make exploration and
+settlement decidedly dangerous in some districts.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>mestizos</i>, like the whites and Indians, chiefly inhabit the
+more elevated regions of the interior. They are of a sturdy,
+patient type, like their Indian ancestors, and are sufficiently
+industrious to carry on many of the small industries and occupations,
+and to meet the labour requirements of the inhabited
+plateau districts. Those of the urban middle classes are shopkeepers
+and artizans, and those of the lower class are domestics
+and day labourers. The whites of Spanish descent object to
+manual labour, and this places all such occupations in the hands
+of the coloured races. In the country the <i>mestizos</i> are small
+agriculturists, herders, labourers and fishermen; but there are
+many educated and successful merchants and professional men
+among them. There are no social barriers in their intercourse
+with the whites, nor race barriers against those who have political
+aspirations. The negroes of pure blood are to be found principally
+on the coastal plains and in the great lowland river valleys,
+where they live in great part on the bounties of nature. A small
+percentage of them are engaged in trade and other occupations;
+a few are small agriculturists.</p>
+
+<p>Bogotá was reputed to be a centre of learning in colonial times,
+but there was no great breadth and depth to it, and it produced
+nothing of real value. By nature the Spanish-American loves
+art and literature, and the poetic faculty is developed in him
+to a degree rarely found among the Teutonic races. Writing
+and reciting poetry are universal, and fill as important a place
+in social life as instrumental music. In Colombia, as elsewhere,
+much attention has been given to belles-lettres among the
+whites of Spanish descent, but as yet the republic has practically
+nothing of a permanent character to show for it. The natural
+sciences attracted attention very early through the labours of
+José Celestino Mútis, who was followed by a number of writers
+of local repute, such as Zea, Cabal, Cáldas, Pombo, Cespedes,
+Camacho and Lozano. We are indebted to Humboldt for our
+earliest geographical descriptions of the northern part of the
+continent, but to the Italian, Augustin Codazzi, who became a
+Colombian after the War of Independence, Colombia is indebted
+for the first systematic exploration of her territory. Geographical
+description has had a peculiar fascination for Colombian
+writers, and there have been a number of books issued since the
+appearance of Codazzi&rsquo;s <i>Resumen</i> and <i>Atlas</i>. Historical writing
+has also received much attention, beginning with the early work
+of José Manuel Restrepo (1827), and a considerable number of
+histories, compendiums and memoirs have been published, but
+none of real importance. Some good work has been done in
+ethnography and archaeology by some writers of the colonial
+period, and by Ezequiel Uricoechea and Ernesto Restrepo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Territorial Divisions and Towns.</i>&mdash;Previously to 1903 the republic
+was divided into nine departments, which were then
+reduced to eight by the secession of Panama. This division of
+the national territory was modified in 1905, by creating seven
+additional departments from detached portions of the old ones,
+and by cutting up the unsettled districts of Goajira and the great
+eastern plains into four <i>intendencias</i>. The fifteen departments
+thus constituted, with the official estimates of 1905 regarding
+their areas and populations, are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Department.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area <br />sq. m.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Estimated <br />Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Capital.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Estimated <br />Population.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Antioquia</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">750,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Medellin</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Atlantico</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,080</td> <td class="tcr rb">104,674</td> <td class="tcl rb">Barranquilla</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,115</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bolívar</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,940</td> <td class="tcr rb">250,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cartagena</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Boyacá</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,630</td> <td class="tcr rb">350,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tunja</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cáldas</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,920</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Manizales</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cauca</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,030</td> <td class="tcr rb">400,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Popayán</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cundinamarca</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,060</td> <td class="tcr rb">225,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Facatativá</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Galán</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,950</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">San Gil</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Huila</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,690</td> <td class="tcr rb">150,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Neiva</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magdalena</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,460</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Santa Marta</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nariño</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,040</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Pasto</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Quesada</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Zipaquirá</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Santander</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,970</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bucaramanga</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tolima</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibagué</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tundama</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,390</td> <td class="tcr rb">300,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Santa Rosa</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Federal District</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,000</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bogotá</td> <td class="tcr rb">120,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Intendencias (4)</td> <td class="tcr rb">277,620</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Totals</td> <td class="tcr allb">444,980</td> <td class="tcr allb">4,279,674</td> <td class="tcc allb">..</td> <td class="tcc allb">..</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Of these departments the original eight are Antioquia, Bolívar,
+Boyacá (or Bojacá), Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Santander
+and Tolima. The four intendencias are called Goajira,
+Meta, Alto Caquetá and Putumayo, and their aggregate area is
+estimated to be considerably more than half of the republic.
+The first covers the Goajira peninsula, which formerly belonged
+to the department of Magdalena, and the other three roughly
+correspond to the drainage basins of the three great rivers of the
+eastern plains whose names they bear. These territories formerly
+belonged to the departments of Boyacá, Cundinamarca and
+Cauca. The seven new departments are: Atlantico, taken
+from the northern extremity of Bolívar; Cáldas, the southern
+part of Antioquia; Galán, the southern districts of Santander,
+including Charalá, Socorro, Velez, and its capital San Gil;
+Huila, the southern part of Tolima, including the headwaters
+of the Magdalena and the districts about Neiva and La Plata;
+Nariño, the southern part of Cauca extending from the eastern
+Cordillera to the Pacific coast; Quesada, a cluster of small, well-populated
+districts north of Bogotá formerly belonging to
+Cundinamarca, including Zipaquirá, Guatavita, Ubaté and
+Pacho; and Tundama, the northern part of Boyacá lying on the
+frontier of Galán in the vicinity of its capital Santa Rosa. The
+Federal District consists of a small area surrounding the national
+capital taken from the department of Cundinamarca. These
+fifteen departments are subdivided into provinces, 92 in all,
+and these into municipalities, of which there are 740.</p>
+
+<p>The larger cities and towns of the republic other than the
+department capitals, with their estimated populations in 1904,
+are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aguadas (Antioquia)</td> <td class="tcr">13,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Antioquia (Antioquia)</td> <td class="tcr">13,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Barbacoas (Nariño)</td> <td class="tcr">16,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Buga (Cauca)</td> <td class="tcr">12,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cali (Cauca)</td> <td class="tcr">16,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chiquinquira (Boyacá)</td> <td class="tcr">18,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">La Mesa (Cundinamarca)</td> <td class="tcr">10,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Pamplona (Santander)</td> <td class="tcr">11,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Palmira (Cauca)</td> <td class="tcr">15,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="page707" id="page707"></a>707</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Pié de Cuesta (Santander)</td> <td class="tcr">12,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Puerto Nacional</td> <td class="tcr">16,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Rio Negro (Antioquia)</td> <td class="tcr">12,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Santa Rosa de Osos (Antioquia)</td> <td class="tcr">11,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sonson</td> <td class="tcr">15,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">San José de Cúcuta (Santander)</td> <td class="tcr">13,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Soatá (Boyacá)</td> <td class="tcr">16,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Socorro (Galán)</td> <td class="tcr">20,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Velez (Galán)</td> <td class="tcr">15,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Among the smaller towns which deserve mention are Ambalema
+on the upper Magdalena, celebrated for its tobacco and cigars;
+Buenaventura (<i>q.v.</i>); Chaparral (9000), a market town of Tolima
+in the valley of the Saldaña, with coal, iron and petroleum in
+its vicinity; Honda (6000), an important commercial centre at
+the head of navigation on the lower Magdalena; Girardot, a
+railway centre on the upper Magdalena; and Quibdó, a small
+river town at the head of navigation on the Atrato.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The railway problem in Colombia is one
+of peculiar difficulty. The larger part of the inhabited and
+productive districts of the republic is situated in the mountainous
+departments of the interior, and is separated from the coast by
+low, swampy, malarial plains, and by very difficult mountain
+chains. These centres of production are also separated from
+each other by high ridges and deep valleys, making it extremely
+difficult to connect them by a single transportation route. The
+one common outlet for these districts is the Magdalena river,
+whose navigable channel penetrates directly into the heart of
+the country. From Bogotá the Spaniards constructed two
+partially-paved highways, one leading down to the Magdalena
+in the vicinity of Honda, while the other passed down into the
+upper valley of the same river in a south-westerly direction, over
+which communication was maintained with Popayan and other
+settlements of southern Colombia and Ecuador. This highway
+was known as the <i>camino real</i>. Political independence and
+misrule led to the abandonment of these roads, and they are now
+little better than the bridle-paths which are usually the only
+means of communication between the scattered communities
+of the Cordilleras. In some of the more thickly settled and
+prosperous districts of the Eastern Cordillera these bridle paths
+have been so much improved that they may be considered
+reasonably good mountain roads, the traffic over them being
+that of pack animals and not of wheeled vehicles. Navigation
+on the lower Magdalena closely resembles that of the Mississippi,
+the same type of light-draft, flat-bottomed steamboat being used,
+and similar obstacles and dangers to navigation being encountered.
+There is also the same liability to change its channel,
+as shown in the case of Mompox, once an important and prosperous
+town of the lower plain situated on the main channel,
+now a decaying, unimportant place on a shallow branch 20 m.
+east of the main river. Small steamers also navigate the lower
+Cauca and Nechi rivers, and a limited service is maintained on
+the upper Cauca.</p>
+
+<p>With three exceptions all the railway lines of the country
+lead to the Magdalena, and are dependent upon its steamship
+service for transportation to and from the coast. In 1906,
+according to an official statement, these lines were: (1) The
+Barranquilla and Savanilla (Puerto Colombia), 17½ m. in length;
+(2) the Cartagena and Calamar, 65 m.; (3) the La Dorada &amp;
+Arancaplumas (around the Honda rapids), 20½ m.; (4) the
+Colombian National, from Girardot to Facatativá, 80 m., of
+which 48½ m. were completed in 1906; (5) the Girardot to
+Espinal, 13½ m., part of a projected line running south-west from
+Girardot; (6) the Sabana railway, from Bogotá to Facatativá,
+25 m.; (7) the Northern, from Bogotá to Zipaquirá, 31 m.;
+(8) the Southern, from Bogotá to Sibaté, 18 m.; and (9) the
+Puerto Berrio &amp; Medellin, about 78 m. long, of which 36 are
+completed. The three lines which do not connect with the
+Magdalena are: (1) the Cúcuta and Villamazar, 43½ m., the
+latter being a port on the Zulia river near the Venezuelan
+frontier; (2) the Santa Marta railway, running inland from that
+port through the banana-producing districts, with 41½ m. in
+operation in 1907; and (3) the Buenaventura and Cali, 23 m.
+in operation inland from the former. This gives a total extension
+of 383 m. in 1906, of which 226 were built to connect with steamship
+transportation on the Magdalena, 49 to unite Bogotá with
+neighbouring localities, and 108 to furnish other outlets for
+productive regions. There is no system outlined in the location
+of these detached lines, though in 1905-1908 President Reyes
+planned to connect them in such a way as to form an extensive
+system radiating from the national capital. Tramway lines
+were in operation in Bogotá, Barranquilla and Cartagena in 1907.</p>
+
+<p>The telegraph and postal services are comparatively poor,
+owing to the difficulty of maintaining lines and carrying mails
+through a rugged and uninhabited tropical country. The total
+length of telegraph lines in 1903 was 6470 m., the only cable
+connexion being at Buenaventura, on the Pacific coast. All
+the principal Caribbean ports and department capitals are
+connected with Bogotá, but interruptions are frequent because
+of the difficulty of maintaining lines through so wild a country.</p>
+
+<p>There are only five ports, Buenaventura, Barranquilla, Cartagena,
+Santa Marta and Rio Hacha, which are engaged in foreign
+commerce, though Tumaco and Villamazar are favourably
+situated for carrying on a small trade with Ecuador and Venezuela.
+Colombia has no part in the carrying trade, however,
+her merchants marine in 1905 consisting of only one steamer
+of 457 tons and five sailing vessels of 1385 tons. Aside from these,
+small steamers are employed on some of the small rivers with
+barges, called &ldquo;bongoes,&rdquo; to bring down produce and carry back
+merchandise to the inland trading centres. The coasting trade
+is insignificant, and does not support a regular service of even
+the smallest boats. The foreign carrying trade is entirely in the
+hands of foreigners, in which the Germans take the lead, with
+the British a close second. The Caribbean ports are in frequent
+communication with those of Europe and the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;The larger part of the Colombian population is
+engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Maize, wheat and
+other cereals are cultivated on the elevated plateaus, with the fruits
+and vegetables of the temperate zone, and the European in Bogotá
+is able to supply his table very much as he would do at home. The
+plains and valleys of lower elevation are used for the cultivation
+of coffee and other sub-tropical products, the former being produced
+in nearly all the departments at elevations ranging from 3500 to
+6500 ft. This industry has been greatly prejudiced by civil wars,
+which not only destroyed the plantations and interrupted transportation,
+but deprived them of the labouring force essential to
+their maintenance and development. It is estimated that the
+revolutionary struggle of 1899-1903 destroyed 10% of the able-bodied
+agricultural population of the Santa Marta district, and this
+estimate, if true, will hold good for all the inhabited districts of the
+Eastern Cordillera. The best coffee is produced in the department of
+Cundinamarca in the almost inaccessible districts of Fusagasagá
+and La Palma. Tolima coffee is also considered to be exceptionally
+good. The department of Santander, however, is the largest producer,
+and much of its output in the past has been placed upon the
+market as &ldquo;Maracaibo,&rdquo; the outlet for this region being through
+the Venezuelan port of that name. Coffee cultivation in the Santa
+Marta region is receiving much attention on account of its proximity
+to the coast.</p>
+
+<p>The tropical productions of the lower plains include, among
+others, many of the leading products of the world, such as cacáo,
+cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco, and bananas, with others destined wholly
+for home consumption, as yams, cassava and arracacha. Potatoes
+are widely cultivated in the temperate and sub-tropical regions,
+and sweet potatoes in the sub-tropical and tropical. <span class="correction" title="amended from Athough">Although</span> it is
+found growing wild, cacáo is cultivated to a limited extent, and the
+product is insufficient for home consumption. Cotton is cultivated
+only on a small scale, although there are large areas suitable for the
+plant. The staple product is short, but experiments have been
+initiated in the Santa Marta region to improve it. Sugar cane is
+another plant admirably adapted to the Colombian lowlands, but
+it is cultivated to so limited an extent that the sugar produced is
+barely sufficient for home consumption. Both cultivation and
+manufacture have been carried on in the old time way, by the
+rudest of methods, and the principal product is a coarse brown sugar,
+called <i>panela</i>, universally used by the poorer classes as an article of
+food and for making a popular beverage. Antiquated refining
+processes are also used in the manufacture of an inferior white
+sugar, but the quantity produced is small, and it is unable to compete
+with beet-sugar from Germany. A considerable part of the sugar-cane
+produced is likewise devoted to the manufacture of <i>chicha</i>
+(rum), the consumption of which is common among the Indians
+and half-breeds of the Andean regions.</p>
+
+<p>Rice is grown to a very limited extent, though it is a common
+article of diet and the partially submerged lowlands are naturally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page708" id="page708"></a>708</span>
+adapted to its production. Tobacco was cultivated in New Granada
+and Venezuela in colonial times, when its sale was a royal monopoly
+and its cultivation was restricted to specified localities. The
+Colombian product is best known through the Ambalema, Girardot,
+and Palmira tobacco, especially the Ambalema cigars, which are
+considered by some to be hardly inferior to those of Havana, but the
+plant is cultivated in other places and would probably be an important
+article of export were it possible to obtain labourers for its
+cultivation. Banana cultivation for commercial purposes is a
+comparatively modern industry, dating from 1892 when the first
+recorded export of fruit was made. Its development is due to the
+efforts of an American fruit-importing company, which purchased
+lands in the vicinity of Santa Marta for the production of bananas
+and taught the natives that the industry could be made profitable.
+A railway was built inland for the transportation of fruit to Santa
+Marta, and is being extended toward the Magdalena as fast as new
+plantations are opened. The growth of the industry is shown in the
+export returns, which were 171,891 bunches for 1892, and 1,397,388
+bunches for 1906, the area under cultivation being about 7000 acres
+in the last-mentioned year. Yams, sweet potatoes, cassava and
+arracacha are chiefly cultivated for domestic needs, but in common
+with other fruits and vegetables they give occupation to the small
+agriculturalists near the larger towns.</p>
+
+<p>The pastoral industry dates from colonial times and engages the
+services of a considerable number of people, but its comparative
+importance is not great. The open plains, &ldquo;mesas,&rdquo; and plateaus
+of the north support large herds of cattle, and several cattle ranches
+have been established on the Meta and its tributaries. Live cattle,
+to a limited extent, are exported to Cuba and other West Indian
+markets, but the chief produce from this industry is hides. The
+department of Santander devotes considerable attention to horse-breeding.
+Goats are largely produced for their skins, and in some
+localities, as in Cauca, sheep are raised for their wool. Swine are
+common to the whole country, and some attention has been given
+to the breeding of mules.</p>
+
+<p><i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;The mineral resources of Colombia are commonly
+believed to be the principal source of her wealth, and this because of
+the precious metals extracted from her mines since the Spanish
+invasion. The estimate aggregate for three and a half centuries is
+certainly large, but the exact amount will probably never be known,
+because the returns in colonial times were as defective as those of
+disorderly independence have been. Humboldt and Chevalier
+estimated the total output down to 1845 at £1,200,000, which
+Professor Soetbeer subsequently increased to £169,422,750. A
+later Colombian authority, Vicente Restrepo, whose studies of gold
+and silver mining in Colombia have been generally accepted as conclusive
+and trustworthy, after a careful sifting of the evidence on
+which these two widely diverse conclusions were based and an
+examination of records not seen by Humboldt and Soetbeer, reaches
+the conclusion that the region comprised within the limits of the
+republic, including Panama, had produced down to 1886 an aggregate
+of £127,800,000 in gold and £6,600,000 in silver. This aggregate he
+distributes as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">16th century</td> <td class="tcr">£10,600,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">17th&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">34,600,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">18th&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">41,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">19th&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr">41,600,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">According to his computations the eight Colombian departments,
+omitting Panama, had produced during this period in gold and
+silver:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Antioquia</td> <td class="tcr">£50,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cauca</td> <td class="tcr">49,800,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tolima</td> <td class="tcr">10,800,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Santander</td> <td class="tcr">3,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bolívar</td> <td class="tcr">1,400,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cundinamarca</td> <td class="tcr">360,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Magdalena</td> <td class="tcr">200,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Boyacá</td> <td class="tcr">40,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">£115,600,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Three-fourths of the gold production, he estimates, was derived
+from alluvial deposits. Large as these aggregates are, it will be
+seen that the annual production was comparatively small, the
+highest average, that for the 19th century, being less than £500,000
+a year. Toward the end of the 19th century, after a decline in
+production due to the abolition of slavery and to civil wars, increased
+interest was shown abroad in Colombian mining operations.
+Medellin, the capital of Antioquia, is provided with an electrolytic
+refining establishment, several assaying laboratories, and a mint.
+The department of Cauca is considered to be the richest of the
+republic in mineral deposits, but it is less conveniently situated
+for carrying on mining operations. Besides this, the extreme
+unhealthiness of its most productive regions, the Chocó and Barbacoas
+districts on the Pacific slope, has been a serious obstacle to
+foreign enterprise. Tolima is also considered to be rich in gold and
+(especially) silver deposits. East of the Magdalena the production
+of these two metals has been comparatively small. In compensation
+the famous emerald mines of Muzo and Coscuez are situated in an
+extremely mountainous region north of Bogotá and near the town of
+Chiquinaquirá, in the department of Boyacá. The gems are found
+in a matrix of black slate in what appears to be the crater of a
+volcano, and are mined in a very crude manner. The mines are
+owned by the government. The revenue was estimated at £96,000
+for 1904. Platinum is said to have been discovered in Colombia in
+1720, and has been exported regularly since the last years of the 18th
+century. It is found in many parts of the country, but chiefly in the
+Chocó and Barbacoas districts, the annual export from the former
+being about 10,000 in value. Of the bulkier and less valuable minerals
+Colombia has copper, iron, manganese, lead, zinc and mercury. Coal
+is also found at several widely-separated places, but is not mined.
+There are also indications of petroleum in Tolima and Bolívar.
+These minerals, however, are of little value to the country because
+of their distance from the seaboards and the costs of transportation.
+Salt is mined at Zipaquirá, near Bogotá, and being a government
+monopoly, is a source of revenue to the national treasury.</p>
+
+<p><i>Manufactures.</i>&mdash;The Pradera iron works, near Bogotá, carry on
+some manufacturing (sugar boilers, agricultural implements, &amp;c.)
+in connexion with their mining and reducing operations. Pottery
+and coarse earthenware are made at Espinal, in Tolima, where
+the natives are said to have had a similar industry before the Spanish
+conquest. There are woollen mills at Popayan and Pasto, and small
+cigar-making industries at Ambalema and Palmira. Hat-making
+from the &ldquo;jipijapa&rdquo; fibre taken from the <i>Carludovica</i> palm is a
+domestic industry in many localities, and furnishes an article of
+export. Friction matches are made from the vegetable wax extracted
+from the <i>Ceroxylon</i> palm, and are generally used throughout the
+interior. Rum and sugar are products of a crude manufacturing
+industry dating from colonial times. A modern sugar-mill and
+refinery at Sincerin, 28 m. from Cartagena, was the first of its kind
+erected in the republic. It is partially supported by the government,
+and the concession provides that the production of sugar shall not
+be less than 2,600,000 &#8468; per annum.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;In the Barranquilla customs returns for 1906 the
+imports were valued at $6,787,055 (U.S. gold), on which the import
+duties were $4,333,028, or an average rate of 64%. According to a
+statistical summary issued in 1906 by the U.S. Bureau of Statistics,
+entitled &ldquo;Commercial America in 1905,&rdquo; the latest official return
+to the foreign trade of Colombia was said to be that of 1898, which
+was: imports 11,083,000 <i>pesos</i>, exports 19,158,000 <i>pesos</i>. Uncertainty
+in regard to the value of the <i>peso</i> led the compiler to omit
+the equivalents in U.S. gold, but according to foreign trade returns
+these totals represent gold values, which at 4s. per peso are:
+imports £2,216,600, exports £3,831,600. In his annual message to
+congress on the 1st of April 1907, President Reyes stated that the
+imports for 1904 were $14,453,000, and the exports $12,658,000,
+presumably U.S. gold, as the figures are taken from the <i>Monthly
+Bulletin</i> of the Bureau cf American Republics (July 1907). An
+approximate equivalent would be: imports £3,011,000, exports
+£2,637,000; which shows a small increase in the first and a very
+large decrease in the second. The imports include wheat flour, rice,
+barley, prepared foods, sugar, coal, kerosene, beer, wines and liquors,
+railway equipment, machinery and general hardware, fence wire,
+cotton and other textiles, drugs, lumber, cement, paper, &amp;c., while
+the exports comprise coffee, bananas, hides and skins, tobacco,
+precious metals, rubber, cabinet woods, divi-divi, dye-woods,
+vegetable ivory, Panama hats, orchids, vanilla, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Government.</i>&mdash;The government of Colombia is that of a
+centralized republic composed of 15 departments, 1 federal
+district, and 4 intendencias (territories). It is divided into
+three co-ordinate branches, legislative, executive and judicial,
+and is carried on under the provisions of the constitution of 1886,
+profoundly modified by the amendments of 1905. Previous to
+1886, the departments were practically independent, but under
+the constitution of that year the powers of the national government
+were enlarged and strengthened, while those of the departments
+were restricted to purely local affairs. The departments
+are provided with biennial departmental assemblies, but their
+governors are appointees of the national executive.</p>
+
+<p>The legislative branch consists of a senate and chamber of
+deputies, which meets at Bogotá biennially (after 1908) on
+February 1st for an ordinary session of ninety days. The Senate
+is composed of 48 members&mdash;3 from each department chosen by
+the governor and his departmental council, and 3 from the
+federal district chosen by the president himself and two of his
+cabinet ministers. Under this arrangement the president
+practically controls the choice of senators. Their term of office
+is four years, and is renewed at the same time and for the same
+period as those of the lower house. The chamber is composed
+of 67 members, elected by popular suffrage in the departments,
+on the basis of one representative for each 50,000 of population.
+The intendencias are represented by one member each, who is
+chosen by the intendant, his secretary, and 3 citizens elected
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page709" id="page709"></a>709</span>
+by the municipal council of the territorial capital. As the
+constituent assembly which amended the constitution, according
+to the president&rsquo;s wishes in 1905, was to continue in office until
+1908 and to provide laws for the regulation of elections and other
+public affairs, it appeared that the president would permit no
+expression of popular dissent to interfere with his purpose to
+establish a dictatorial régime in Colombia similar to the one
+in Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>The executive power is vested in a president chosen by Congress
+for a period of four years. The first presidential period,
+dating from the 1st of January 1905, was for ten years, and no
+restriction was placed upon the choice of President Rafael Reyes
+to succeed himself. The constituent assembly gave the president
+exceptional powers to deal with all administrative matters.
+He is assisted by a cabinet of six ministers, interior, foreign
+affairs, finance, war, public instruction and public works, who
+are chosen and may be removed by himself. The office of vice-president
+is abolished, and the president is authorized to choose
+a temporary substitute from his cabinet, and in case of his death
+or resignation his successor is chosen by the cabinet or the
+governor of a department who happens to be nearest Bogotá at
+the time. The president is authorized to appoint the governors
+of departments, the intendants of territories, the judges of the
+supreme and superior courts, and the diplomatic representatives
+of the republic. His salary, as fixed by the 1905 budget, is
+£3600 a year, and his cabinet ministers receive £1200 each.
+The council of state is abolished and the senate is charged with
+the duty of confirming executive appointments.</p>
+
+<p>The judicial branch of the government, like the others, has
+been in great measure reorganized. It consists of a supreme
+court of seven members at Bogotá, and a superior court in each
+judicial district. There are various inferior courts also, including
+magistrates or <i>jueces de paz</i>, but their organization and
+functions are loosely defined and not generally understood
+outside the republic. The supreme court has appellate jurisdiction
+in judicial matters, and original jurisdiction in impeachment
+trials and in matters involving constitutional interpretation.
+Under the constitution of 1886 the judges of the higher courts
+were appointed for life, but the reforms of 1905 changed their
+tenure to five years for the supreme court and four years for the
+superior courts, the judges being eligible for re-appointment.</p>
+
+<p>The departments, which are administered by governors representing
+the national executive, are permitted to exercise
+restricted legislative functions relating to purely local affairs.
+Municipal councils are also to be found in the larger towns. The
+governor is assisted by a departmental council consisting of his
+secretaries and the president of the Corte de Cuentas, which
+places the political administration of the department under the
+direct control of the president at Bogotá.</p>
+
+<p>The strength of the army is determined annually by congress,
+but every able-bodied citizen is nominally liable to military
+service. Its peace footing in 1898 was 1000 men. After the war
+of 1899-1903 its strength was successively reduced to 10,000
+and 5000, a part of this force being employed in the useful
+occupation of making and repairing public roads. The navy
+in 1906 consisted of only three small cruisers on the Caribbean
+coast, and two cruisers, two gunboats, one troopship and two
+steam launches on the Pacific. There was also one small gunboat
+on the Magdalena.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;Although Bogotá was reputed to be an educational
+centre in colonial times, so slight an influence did this exert upon
+the country that Colombia ended the 19th century with no effective
+public school system, very few schools and colleges, and fully 90%
+of illiteracy in her population. This is due in great measure to the
+long reign of political disorder, but there are other causes as well.
+As in Chile, the indifference of the ruling class to the welfare of the
+common people is a primary cause of their ignorance and poverty,
+to which must be added the apathy, if not opposition, of the Church.
+Under such conditions primary schools in the villages and rural
+districts were practically unknown, and the parish priest was the
+only educated person in the community. Nominally there was a
+school system under the supervision of the national and departmental
+governments, but its activities were limited to the larger towns,
+where there were public and private schools of all grades. There were
+universities in Bogotá and Medellin, the former having faculties
+of letters and philosophy, jurisprudence and political science,
+medicine and natural sciences, and mathematics and engineering,
+with an attendance of 1200 to 1500 students. The war of 1899-1903
+so completely disorganized this institution that only one faculty,
+medicine and natural sciences, was open in 1907. There were also
+a number of private schools in the larger towns, usually maintained
+by religious organizations. The reform programme of President
+Reyes included a complete reorganization of public instruction, to
+which it is proposed to add normal schools for the training of teachers,
+and agricultural and technical schools for the better development
+of the country&rsquo;s material resources. The supreme direction of this
+branch of the public service is entrusted to the minister of public
+instruction, and state aid is to be extended to the secondary, as well
+as to the normal, technical and professional schools. The secondary
+schools receiving public aid, however, have been placed in charge of
+religious corporations of the Roman Catholic Church. The expenditure
+on account of public instruction, which includes schools of
+all grades and descriptions, is unavoidably small, the appropriation
+for the biennium 1905-1906 being only £167,583. The school and
+college attendance for 1906, according to the president&rsquo;s review of
+that year, aggregated 218,941, of whom 50,691 were in Antioquia,
+where the whites are more numerous than in any other department;
+4916 in Atlantico, which includes the city of Barranquilla, and in
+which the negro element preponderates; and only 12,793 in the
+federal district and city of Bogotá where the <i>mestizo</i> element is
+numerous. Although primary instruction is gratuitous it is not
+compulsory, and these figures clearly demonstrate that school
+privileges have not been extended much beyond the larger towns.
+The total attendance, however, compares well with that of 1897,
+which was 143,096, although it shows that only 5% of the population,
+approximately, is receiving instruction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;The religious profession of the Colombian people is
+Roman Catholic, and is recognized as such by the constitution,
+but the exercise is permitted of any other form of worship which is
+not contrary to Christian morals or to the law. There is one Protestant
+church in Bogotá, but the number of non-Catholics is small and
+composed of foreign residents. There has been a long struggle
+between liberals and churchmen in Colombia, and at one time the
+latter completely lost their political influence over the government,
+but the common people remained loyal to the Church, and the upper
+classes found it impossible to sever the ties which bound them to it.
+The constitution of 1861 disestablished the Church, confiscated a
+large part of its property, and disfranchised the clergy, but in 1886
+political rights were restored to the latter and the Roman Catholic
+religion was declared to be the faith of the nation. The rulers of the
+Church have learned by experience, however, that they can succeed
+best by avoiding partisan conflicts, and the archbishop of Bogotá
+gave effect to this in 1874 by issuing an edict instructing priests
+not to interfere in politics. The Church influence with all classes is
+practically supreme and unquestioned, and it still exercises complete
+control in matters of education. The Colombian hierarchy consists
+of an archbishop, residing at Bogotá, 10 bishops, 8 vicars-general,
+and 2170 priests. There were also in 1905 about 750 members of 10
+monastic and religious orders. There were 270 churches and 312
+chapels in the republic. Each diocese has its own seminary for the
+training of priests.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance.</i>&mdash;In financial matters Colombia is known abroad chiefly
+through repeated defaults in meeting her bonded indebtedness,
+and through the extraordinary depreciation of her paper currency.
+The public revenues are derived from import duties on foreign
+merchandise, from export duties on national produce, from internal
+taxes and royalties on liquors, cigarettes and tobacco, matches,
+hides and salt, from rentals of state emerald mines and pearl fisheries,
+from stamped paper, from port dues and from postal and telegraph
+charges. The receipts and expenditure are estimated for biennial
+periods, but it has not been customary to publish detailed results.
+Civil wars have of course been a serious obstacle, but it was announced
+by President Reyes in 1907 that the revenues were increasing.
+For the two years 1905 and 1906 the revenues were estimated
+to produce (at $5 to the £1 sterling) £4,203,823, the expenditures
+being fixed at the same amount. The expenditures, however, did
+not include a charge of £424,000, chiefly due on account of war claims
+and requisitions. During the first year of this period the actual
+receipts, according to the council of the corporation of foreign
+bondholders, were $9,149,591 gold (£1,829,918) and the payments
+$7,033,317 gold (£1,406,663). It was expected by the government
+that the 1906 revenues would largely exceed 1905, but the expectation
+was not fully realized, chiefly, it may be assumed, because of the
+inability of an impoverished people to meet an increase in taxation.
+An instance of this occurred in the promising export of live cattle to
+Cuba and Panama, which was completely suppressed in 1906 because
+of a new export tax of $3 gold per head. Of the expenditures about
+one-fourth is on account of the war department.</p>
+
+<p>The foreign debt, according to the 1896 arrangement with the
+bondholders which was renewed in 1905, is £2,700,000, together
+with unpaid interest since 1896 amounting to £351,000 more.
+Under the 1905 arrangement the government undertook to pay the
+first coupons at 2½% and succeeding ones at 3%, pledging 12 to
+15% of the customs receipts as security. The first payments were
+made according to agreement, and it was believed in 1907 that the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page710" id="page710"></a>710</span>
+succeeding ones, together with one-half of the unpaid interest since
+1896, would also be met. It is worthy of note that this debt, principal
+and accumulated interest, exceeded six and a half millions sterling
+in 1873, and that the bondholders surrendered about 60% of the
+claim in the hope of securing the payment of the balance. It is also
+worthy of note that Panama refused to assume any part of this debt
+without a formal recognition of her independence by Colombia,
+and even then only a sum proportionate to her population. The
+internal debt of Colombia in June 1906 was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Consolidated</td> <td class="tcl">5,476,887 dollars silver,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Floating </td> <td class="tcl">2,345,658 dollars gold.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Whether or not this included the unpaid war claims was not stated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Money.</i>&mdash;The monetary system, which has been greatly complicated
+by the use of two depreciated currencies, silver and paper, has
+been undergoing a radical reform since 1905, the government proposing
+to redeem the depreciated paper and establish a new uniform currency
+on a gold basis. The paper circulation in 1905 exceeded 700,000,000
+<i>pesos</i>. The issue began in 1881 through the Banco Nacional de
+Colombia, its value then being equal to that of the silver coinage.
+Political troubles in 1884-1885 led to a suspension of cash payments
+in 1885, and in 1886 Congress made the notes inconvertible and of
+forced circulation. In 1894 the Banco Nacional ceased to exist as a
+corporation, and thenceforward the currency was issued for account
+of the national treasury. On October 16, 1899&mdash;the outstanding
+circulation then amounting to 46,000,000 <i>pesos</i>,&mdash;the government
+decreed an unlimited issue to meet its expenditures in suppressing
+the revolution, and later on the departments of Antioquia, Bolívar,
+Cauca, and Santander were authorized to issue paper money for
+themselves. This suicidal policy continued until February 28, 1903,
+when, according to an official statement, the outstanding paper
+circulation was:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Pesos.&emsp;&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">National government issues</td> <td class="tcr">600,398,581&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Department of Antioquia</td> <td class="tcr">35,938,495.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;Bolívar</td> <td class="tcr">18,702,100&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;Cauca</td> <td class="tcr">44,719,688.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;Santander</td> <td class="tcr">750,000&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">700,598,865.30</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">So great was the depreciation of this currency that before the end
+of the war 100 American gold dollars were quoted at 22,500 <i>pesos</i>.
+The declaration of peace brought the exchange rate down to the
+neighbourhood of 10,000, where it remained, with the exception of a
+short period during the Panama Canal negotiations, when it fell to
+6000. This depreciation (10,000) was equivalent to a loss of 99%
+of the nominal value of the currency, a paper <i>peso</i> of 100 <i>centavos</i>
+being worth only one centavo gold. International commercial
+transactions were based on the American gold dollar, which was
+usually worth 100 <i>pesos</i> of this depreciated currency. Even at this
+valuation, the recognized outstanding circulation (for there had been
+fraudulent issues as well) amounted to more than £1,400,000. In
+1903 Congress adopted a gold dollar of 1.672 grammes weight .900
+fine (equal to the U.S. gold dollar) as the monetary standard created
+a redemption bureau for the withdrawal of the paper circulation,
+prohibited the further issue of such currency, and authorized free
+contracts in any currency. Previous to that time the law required
+all contracts to specify payments in paper currency. Certain rents
+and taxes were set aside for the use of the redemption bureau, and
+a nominally large sum has been withdrawn from circulation through
+this channel. On the 1st of January 1906, another monetary act
+came into operation, with additional provisions for currency redemption
+and improvement of the monetary system. A supplementary
+act of 1906 also created a new national banking institution,
+called the Banco Central, which is made a depository of the public
+revenues and is charged with a considerable part of their administration,
+including payments on account of the foreign debt and the
+conversion of the paper currency into coin. The new law likewise
+reaffirmed the adoption of a gold dollar of 1.672 grammes .900 fine
+as the unit of the new coinage, which is:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Gold</i>:&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Double condor</td> <td class="tcl">=  20 dollars.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Condor</td> <td class="tcl">=  10&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Half condor</td> <td class="tcl">=  &ensp;5&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Dollar (mon. unit)</td> <td class="tcl">= 100 cents.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Silver</i>:&mdash;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Half dollar</td> <td class="tcl">=&emsp;50 cents.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Peseta</td> <td class="tcl">=&emsp;20&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Real</td> <td class="tcl">=&emsp;10&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Nickel</i>:&mdash;5 cents.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><i>Bronze</i>:&mdash;2 cents and 1 cent.</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The silver coinage (.900 fine) is limited to 10%, and the nickel and
+bronze coins to 2% of the gold coinage. The new customs tariff,
+which came into force at the same time, was an increase of 70%
+on the rates of 1904, and provided that the duties should be paid in
+gold, or in paper at the current rate of exchange. This measure
+was designed to facilitate the general resumption of specie payments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weights and Measures.</i>&mdash;The metric system of weights and
+measures has been the legal standard in Colombia since 1857, but its
+use is confined almost exclusively to international trade. In the
+interior and in all domestic transactions the old Spanish weights
+and measures are still used&mdash;including the Spanish <i>libra</i> of 1.102 &#8468;
+avoirdupois, the <i>arroba</i> of 25 <i>libras</i> (12½ kilogrammes), the quintal of
+100 <i>libras</i> (50 kilog.), the <i>carga</i> of 250 <i>libras</i> (125 kilogs.), the <i>vara</i> of
+80 centimetres, and the <i>fanega</i>. The litre is the standard liquid
+measure.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><span class="sc">History</span></p>
+
+<p>The coast of Colombia was one of the first parts of the American
+continent visited by the Spanish navigators. Alonso de Ojeda
+touched at several points in 1499 and 1501; and Columbus
+himself visited Veragua, Portobello, and other places in his last
+voyage in 1502. In 1508 Ojeda obtained from the Spanish crown
+a grant of the district from Cape Vela westward to the Gulf of
+Darien, while the rest of the country from the Gulf of Darien to
+Cape Gracias-a-Dios was bestowed on his fellow-adventurer,
+Nicuessa. The two territories designated respectively Nueva
+Andalucia and Castella de Oro were united in 1514 into the
+province of Tierra-firma, and entrusted to Pedro Arias de
+Avila. In 1536-1537 an expedition under Gonzalo Jimenez
+de Quesada made their way from Santa Marta inland by the
+river Magdalena, and penetrated to Bogotá, the capital of the
+Muiscas or Chibchas. Quesada gave to the country the name
+of New Granada.</p>
+
+<p>By the middle of the century the Spanish power was fairly
+established, and flourishing communities arose along the coasts,
+and in the table-lands of Cundinamarca formerly occupied by the
+Muiscas. For the better government of the colony the Spanish
+monarch erected a presidency of New Granada in 1564, which
+continued till 1718, when it was raised to the rank of a viceroyalty.
+In the following year, however, the second viceroy,
+D. Jorge Villalonga, Count de la Cueva, expressing his opinion
+that the maintenance of this dignity was too great a burden on the
+settlers, the viceroyalty gave place to a simple presidency. In
+1740 it was restored, and it continued as long as the Spanish
+authority, including within its limits not only the present
+Colombia, but also Venezuela and Ecuador. An insurrection
+against the home government was formally commenced in 1811,
+and an incessant war against the Spanish forces was waged till
+1824.</p>
+
+<p>In 1819 the great national hero, Bolivar (<i>q.v.</i>), effected a union
+between the three divisions of the country, to which was given the
+title of the Republic of Colombia; but in 1829 Venezuela withdrew,
+and in 1830, the year of Bolivar&rsquo;s death, Quito or Ecuador
+followed her example. The Republic of New Granada was
+founded on the 21st of November 1831; and in 1832 a constitution
+was promulgated, and the territory divided into eighteen
+provinces, each of which was to have control of its local affairs.
+The president was to hold office for four years; and the first on
+whom the dignity was bestowed was General Francisco de
+Paula Santander. His position, however, was far from enviable;
+for the country was full of all the elements of unrest and contention.
+One of his measures, by which New Granada became
+responsible for the half of the debts of the defunct republic of
+Colombia, gave serious offence to a large party, and he was
+consequently succeeded not, as he desired, by José Maria Obando,
+but by a member of the opposition, José Ignacio de Marquez.
+This gave rise to a civil war, which lasted till 1841, and not only
+left the country weak and miserable, but afforded an evil precedent
+which has since been too frequently followed. The contest
+terminated in favour of Marquez, and he was succeeded in May
+1841 by Pedro Alcantara Herran, who had assisted to obtain the
+victory. In 1840 the province of Cartagena had seceded, and the
+new president had hardly taken office before Panama and
+Veragua also declared themselves independent, under the title
+of the State of the Isthmus of Panama. Their restoration was,
+however, soon effected; the constitution was reformed in 1843;
+education was fostered, and a treaty concluded with the English
+creditors of the republic. Further progress was made under
+General Tomas de Mosquera from 1845 to 1848; a large part of
+the domestic debt was cleared off, immigration was encouraged,
+and free trade permitted in gold and tobacco. The petty war
+with Ecuador, concluded by the peace of Santa Rosa de Carchi,
+is hardly worthy of mention. From 1849 to 1852 the reins were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page711" id="page711"></a>711</span>
+in the hands of General José Hilario Lopez, a member of the
+democratic party, and under him various changes were effected
+of a liberal tendency. In January 1852 slavery was entirely
+abolished. The next president was José Maria Obando, but his
+term of office had to be completed by vice-presidents Obaldia
+and Mallarino.</p>
+
+<p>In 1853 an important alteration of the constitution took place,
+by which the right was granted to every province to declare
+itself independent, and to enter into merely federal connexion
+with the central republic, which was now known as the Granadine
+Confederation. In 1856 and 1857 Antioquia and Panama took
+advantage of the permission. The Conservative party carried
+their candidate in 1857, Mariano Ospino, a lawyer by profession;
+but an insurrection broke out in 1859, which was fostered by the
+ex-president Mosquera, and finally took the form of a regular
+civil war. Bogotá was captured by the democrats in July 1861,
+and Mosquera assumed the chief power. A congress at Bogotá
+established a republic, with the name of the United States
+of Colombia, adopted a new federal constitution, and made
+Mosquera dictator. Meanwhile the opposite party was victorious
+in the west; and their leader, Julio Arboleda, formed an alliance
+with Don Garcia Moreno, the president of Ecuador. He was
+assassinated, however, in 1862; and his successor, Leonardo
+Canal, came to terms with Mosquera at Cali. The dictatorship
+was resigned into the hands of a convention (February 1863)
+at Rio Negro, in Antioquia; a provisional government was
+appointed, a constitution was drawn up, and Mosquera elected
+president till 1864. An unsuccessful attempt was also made to
+restore the union between the three republics of the former
+federation. The presidency of Manuel Murillo Toro (1864-1866)
+was disturbed by various rebellions, and even Mosquera, who
+next came to the helm, found matters in such a disorganized
+condition that he offered to retire. On the refusal of his
+resignation, he entered into a struggle with the majority in the
+congress, and ultimately resorted to an adjournment and the
+unconstitutional arrest of 68 of the senators and representatives.
+To the decree of impeachment published by the congress he
+replied by a notice of dissolution and a declaration of war; but
+he soon found that the real power was with his opponents, who
+effected his arrest, and condemned him first to two years&rsquo; imprisonment,
+but afterwards by commutation to two years&rsquo; exile.
+The presidency of Santos Gutierrez (1868-1870) was disturbed
+by insurrections in different parts of the republic, the most
+important of which was that in Panama, where the most absolute
+disorganization prevailed. Under his successor, General E.
+Salgar, a Liberal candidate elected in opposition to General
+Herran, a treaty was finally concluded with the United States
+in connexion with an interoceanic canal, a bank was established at
+Bogotá, and educational reforms instituted. Manuel Murillo Toro
+(1872-1874) and Santiago Perez (1874-1876) saw the country
+apparently acquiring constitutional equilibrium, and turning
+its energies to the development of its matchless resources.</p>
+
+<p>The election for the presidential term 1876-1878 resulted in
+favour of Aquiles Parra, who was succeeded in April 1878 by
+General Julian Trujillo. His administration was marked by a
+strong effort to place the financial position of the government
+on a more satisfactory footing, and the internal indebtedness
+was substantially reduced during his rule. In April 1880 Señor
+Rafael Nuñez acceded to the presidency. During his term of
+office revolutionary disturbances occurred in the provinces of
+Cauca and Antioquia, but were suppressed with no great difficulty.
+Provision was made in 1880 for a settlement of the
+boundary dispute with Costa Rica, and in July of that year the
+federal Congress authorized the formation of a naval squadron.
+A movement was now set afoot in favour of a confederation of
+the three republics of Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela on the
+basis of the original conditions existing after the expulsion of
+Spanish authority, and a resolution was passed by the chamber
+of deputies to that effect. The opposition shown by Venezuela
+and Ecuador to this project prevented any definite result from
+being achieved. In April 1882 Señor Francisco J. Laldua became
+president, but his death occurring a year later, General José
+Eusebio Otalora was nominated to exercise the executive power
+for the unexpired portion of the term. In 1883 the dispute in
+connexion with the boundary between Colombia and Venezuela
+was submitted by the two governments to the arbitration of
+Alphonso XII., king of Spain, and a commission of five members
+was appointed to investigate the merits of the respective claims.
+The decision in this dispute was finally given by the queen regent
+of Spain on the 16th of March 1891. In April 1884 Señor Rafael
+Nuñez was again proclaimed president of the republic in his
+absence abroad. Pending his return the administration was
+left in the hands of General Campo Serrano and General Eliseo
+Payan. The Liberal party had been instrumental in the re-election
+of Nuñez, and looked for a policy in conformity with
+their views and political convictions. President Nuñez had no
+sooner returned to Colombia than the Liberals discovered that
+his political opinions had changed and had become strongly
+Conservative. Discontent at this condition of affairs soon
+spread. Nuñez from motives of ill-health did not openly assume
+the presidential office, but from his house near Cartagena he
+practically directed the government of the republic. The Liberals
+now began to foment a series of revolutionary movements, and
+these led in 1885 to a civil war extending over the departments
+of Boyaca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena and Panama. General
+Reyes and General Velez were the two principal leaders of the
+revolt. In order to protect the passage of the traffic across the
+Isthmus of Panama during these disturbed times detachments of
+United States marines were landed at Panama and Colon, in
+accordance with the terms of the concession under which the
+railway had been constructed. After a number of defeats the
+leaders of the revolt surrendered in August 1885, and on the
+5th of September following peace was officially proclaimed.
+Nuñez, who had meanwhile assumed the presidential duties,
+now brought about a movement in favour of a fresh Act of
+Constitution for Colombia, and a new law to that effect was
+finally approved and promulgated on 4th August 1886. Under
+the terms of this act the federal system of government for
+Colombia was abolished, the states becoming departments, the
+governors of these political divisions being appointed by the
+president of the republic. Each department has a local legislative
+assembly elected by the people. The national congress is constituted
+of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The
+Senate is composed of twenty-seven members elected for six
+years, one-third retiring every two years, three of whom are
+nominated by each of the nine departments. The House of
+Representatives comprises members elected for four years by
+universal suffrage, each department forming a constituency and
+returning one member for every 50,000 inhabitants. Congress
+convenes every two years. The presidential term of office under
+the new act was fixed at six years in place of the two years
+formerly prevailing. The judiciary was irremovable, and trial
+by jury was allowed for criminal offences. Capital punishment
+was re-established, and the press was made responsible for
+matter published. The unlicensed trade in arms and ammunition
+thitherto existing was prohibited. Previous to 1886 the crime
+of murder was only punishable by 10 years&rsquo; imprisonment, a
+sentence which in practice was reduced to two-thirds of that
+term; slander and libel were formerly offences which the law
+had no power to restrain, and no responsibility attached to
+seditious publications.</p>
+
+<p>After the promulgation of this new Act of Constitution
+President Nuñez was proclaimed as president of the republic for
+the term ending in 1892. He was unable, however, in consequence
+of ill-health, to reside at Bogotá and discharge the
+presidential duties, and consequently in August 1888 Señor
+Cárlos Holguin was designated to act for him. In 1892 President
+Nuñez was again elected to the presidency for a term of six years,
+his continued ill-health, however, forcing him to place the active
+performance of his duties in the hands of the vice-president,
+Señor Miguel Caro. In 1895 the Liberals made another attempt
+to seize the government of the country, but the movement was
+suppressed without any very great difficulty. In this same year
+Nuñez died, and Vice-President Caro became the actual president,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page712" id="page712"></a>712</span>
+an office he had practically filled during the three previous years.
+In 1898 Señor M. A. Sanclemente, a strong Conservative, and
+supported by the Church party, was elected to the presidency
+for the period ending in 1904. In October 1899 the Liberals
+organized another revolutionary outbreak for the purpose of
+trying to wrest the power from Conservatives, but this attempt
+had no better success than the movements of 1885 and 1895.
+In January 1900, however, Vice-President José Marroquin seized
+upon the government, imprisoned President Sanclemente (who
+died in prison in March 1902), and another period of disturbance
+began. The rebels were defeated in May in a desperate battle
+at Cartagena; and continuous fighting went on about Panama,
+where British marines had to be landed to protect foreign
+interests. As the year 1900 advanced, the conflict went on with
+varying success, but the government troops were generally
+victorious, and in August Vice-President Marroquin was recognized
+as the acting head of the executive, with a cabinet under
+General Calderon. In 1901 the rebellion continued, and severe
+fighting took place about Colon. Further complications arose
+in August, when trouble occurred between Colombia and Venezuela.
+On the one hand, there were grounds for believing that
+the Clericals and Conservatives in both countries were acting
+together; and, on the other, it was expected that President
+Castro of Venezuela would not be sorry to unite his own countrymen,
+and to divert their attention from internal affairs, by a war
+against Colombia. The Colombian revolutionary leaders had
+made use of the Venezuelan frontier as a base of operations, and
+the result was an invasion of Venezuelan territory by Colombian
+government troops, an incident which at once caused a diplomatic
+quarrel. The United States government in September offered its
+good offices, but President Castro refused them, and the state
+of affairs became gradually more menacing. Meanwhile both
+Panama and Colon were seriously threatened by the rebel forces,
+who in November succeeded in capturing Colon by surprise.
+The situation was complicated by the fact that the railway traffic
+on the Isthmus was in danger of interruption, and on the capture
+of Colon it became necessary for the American, British and
+French naval authorities to land men for the protection of the
+railway and of foreign interests.</p>
+
+<p>On the 18th of September the Venezuelans, who had entered
+Colombia, were totally routed near La Hacha, and after fierce
+fighting the insurgents at Colon were compelled to surrender
+on the 29th of November. But the Civil War was not yet ended.
+For another eight months it was to continue, causing immense
+damage to property and trade, and the loss of tens of thousands
+of lives. In many towns and villages the male population was
+almost entirely destroyed. Not till June 1903 was internal peace
+finally restored. In the autumn of that same year Colombia,
+exhausted and half ruined, was to suffer a further severe loss
+in the secession of Panama.</p>
+
+<p>The abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty in 1901, and the
+failure of the second French company to construct a canal
+between Colon and Panama (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Panama Canal</a></span>) had, after many
+hesitations, induced the United States government to abandon
+the Nicaragua route and decide on adopting that of Panama.
+Negotiations were set on foot with Colombia, and an arrangement&mdash;under
+what was known as the Hay-Herran treaty&mdash;was made
+to the following effect. Colombia agreed (1) to the transfer of
+the rights, under the concession, of the French company to the
+United States; (2) to cede, on a hundred years&rsquo; lease, a right of
+way for the canal, and a strip of land 5m. broad on either side
+of the waterway, and the two ports of Colon and Panama. The
+United States agreed to pay Colombia (1) £2,000,000 down in
+cash, and, ten years later, an annual rental of £50,000, and further
+a share of the price paid to the French company, <i>i.e.</i> £8,000,000,
+in which Colombia held 50,000 shares. This treaty was signed
+by the plenipotentiaries and ratified by the United States Senate.
+The Colombian Congress, however, refused to ratify the treaty
+on the ground that when the negotiations had taken place the
+country was in a state of siege, really in the hope of securing a
+larger money payment. The adjournment took place on the 31st
+of October. On the 3rd of November a revolution broke out at
+Panama, and the state seceded from Colombia and declared itself
+to be an independent republic. This opportune revolution was
+no doubt fomented by persons interested in the carrying through
+of the United States scheme for piercing the isthmus, but their
+task was one that presented no difficulties, for the isthmian
+population had been in a state of perennial insurrection against
+the central government for many years. Whoever may have
+instigated the rising, this much is certain, that American warships
+prevented the Colombian troops from landing to suppress the
+revolt. On the 7th of November the United States government
+formally recognized the independence of the republic of Panama
+(<i>q.v.</i>). The other powers in succession likewise recognized the
+new state; the recognition of Great Britain was given on the
+26th of December. Colombia thus sacrificed a great opportunity
+of obtaining, by the ratification of the Hay-Herran treaty, such a
+pecuniary recompense for the interest in the territory through
+which the canal was to be constructed as would have gone far
+to re-establish her ruined financial credit.</p>
+
+<p>In 1904 the troubled term of President Marroquin came to an
+end, and by the narrowest of majorities General Rafael Reyes was
+elected in his place. He had been sent as a special envoy to
+Washington to protest against the recognition of Panama, and
+to attempt to revive the Hay-Herran treaty, and to secure
+favourable terms for Colombia in the matter of the canal. He
+failed to do so, but it was recognized that he had discharged
+his difficult task with great skill and ability. On his accession
+to office as president he found the country exhausted and
+disorganized, more especially in the department of finance, and
+the congress was on the whole hostile to him. Finding himself
+hampered in his efforts to reform abuses, the president dissolved
+the congress, and summoned a national constituent and legislative
+assembly to meet on the 15th of March 1905, and with its
+aid proceeded to modify the constitution.</p>
+
+<p>Having personal acquaintance with the success of the rule of
+President Porfirio Diaz in Mexico, General Reyes determined to
+set about the regeneration of Colombia by similar methods. His
+tenure of the presidency was extended to a term of ten years from
+the 1st of January 1905, and the restriction as to re-election
+at the end of that term was withdrawn, other alterations being
+made in the constitution with the effect of placing General Reyes
+really in the position of a dictator. He soon proved that he had
+the ability and the integrity of purpose to use his great opportunity
+for the benefit of his country. His firm and masterful
+government and wise measures did much to allay the spirit of
+unrest which had so long been the bane of Colombia, and though
+an attempt at assassination was made in the spring of 1906, the
+era of revolution appeared to be over.</p>
+
+<p>The chief foreign treaties entered into by Colombia in the last
+quarter of the 19th century were:&mdash;(1) A treaty with Great
+Britain, signed on the 27th of October 1888, for the extradition
+of criminals; (2) a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation
+with Italy, signed on the 27th of October 1892; (3) two protocols
+with Italy, signed respectively on the 24th of May and on the
+25th of August 1886, in connexion with the affair of the Italian
+subject Cerruti; (4) a consular convention with Holland,
+signed on the 20th of July 1881; (5) a treaty of peace and
+friendship with Spain, signed on the 30th of January 1881;
+(6) a convention with Spain for the reciprocal protection of
+intellectual property; (7) a concordat with the Vatican, signed
+on the 31st of December 1887; (8) an agreement with the
+Vatican, signed on the 20th of August 1892, in connexion with
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction; (9) an agreement with the republic
+of San Salvador, signed on the 24th of December 1880, in regard
+to the despatch of a delegate to an international congress; (10)
+a treaty of peace, friendship and commerce with Germany,
+signed on the 23rd of July 1892; (11) a treaty with the republic
+of Costa Rica, signed in 1880, for the delimitation of the
+boundary; (12) the postal convention, signed at Washington, on
+the 4th of July 1891; (13) a convention with Great Britain, signed
+on the 31st of July 1896, in connexion with the claim of Messrs
+Punchard, M&lsquo;Taggart, Lowther &amp; Co.; (14) a treaty of friendship,
+commerce and navigation with Peru, signed on the 6th of August
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page713" id="page713"></a>713</span>
+1898; (15) an extradition treaty with Peru, signed on the 6th
+of August 1898; (16) a treaty of peace, friendship and defensive
+alliance with Venezuela, signed on the 21st of November
+1896, and on the same date a treaty regulating the frontier
+commerce.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;C. E. Akers, <i>A History of South America, 1854-1904</i>
+(New York, 1905); J. J. Borda, <i>Compendio de historia de
+Colombia</i> (Bogotá, 1890); Salvador Roldan Camacho, <i>Notas de
+viaje</i> (Bogotá, 1890), and <i>Escritos varios</i> (Bogotá, 1892); Dr Alfred
+Hettner, <i>Reisen in den colombianischen Anden</i> (Leipzig, 1888);
+Angel Lemos, <i>Compendio de geografia de la Républica de Colombia</i>
+(Medellin, 1894); Albert Millican, <i>Travels and Adventures of an
+Orchid Hunter</i> (London, 1891); J. M. Cordovez Mauro, <i>Reminiscencias
+Santafé y Bogotá</i> (Bogotá, 1899); Norris and Laird (Bureau
+of Navigation), <i>Telegraphic Determination of Longitudes in Mexico,
+Central America, the West Indies, and on the North Coast of South
+America</i> (Washington, 1891); R. Nuñez and H. Jalhay, <i>La République
+de Colombia, géographie, histoire, &amp;c.</i> (Bruxelles, 1893);
+J. M. Q. Otero, <i>Historia Patria</i> (Bogotá, 1891); Lisimaco Palaü,
+<i>La Républica de Colombia</i> (1893); M. Paz and F. Perez, <i>Atlas
+geográfico e histórico de la República de Colombia</i> (1893); R. S.
+Pereira, <i>Les États Unis de Colombia</i> (Paris, 1883); Felipe Perez,
+<i>Geografia general, fisica y politica de los Estados Unidos de Colombia</i>
+(Bogotá, 1883); F. Loraine Petrie, <i>The Republic of Colombia</i> (London,
+1906); Elisée Réclus, <i>Geografia de Colombia</i> (Bogotá, 1893); W.
+Reiss and A. Stübel, <i>Reisen in Südamerika. Geologische Studien in der
+Republik Colombia</i> (Berlin, 1893); Ernesto Restrepo, <i>Ensayo
+etnografico y arqueologico de la provincia de los Quimbayas</i> (Bogotá,
+1892), and <i>Estudios sobre los aborigines de Colombia</i> (Bogotá, 1892);
+Vicente Restrepo, <i>Estudio sobre las minas de oro y plata de Colombia</i>
+(Bogotá, 1888, translated by C. W. Fisher, New York, 1886);
+W. L. Scruggs, <i>The Colombian and Venezuelan Republics</i> (London,
+1899; Boston, 1900); W. Sievers, <i>Reisen in der Sierra Nevada de
+Santa Marta</i> (Leipzig, 1887); F. J. Vergara y Velasco, <i>Nueva geografia
+de Colombia</i> (Bogotá, 1892); Frank Vincent, <i>Around and About South
+America</i> (New York, 1890); R. G. Watson, <i>Spanish and Portuguese
+South America during the Colonial Period</i> (2 vols., London, 1884).</p>
+
+<p>See also the diplomatic and consular reports of Great Britain
+and the United States; publications of the International Bureau of
+American Republics (Washington, D.C.); Bureau of Statistics, <i>Commercial
+America in 1905</i> (Washington, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1j" id="Footnote_1j" href="#FnAnchor_1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See A. Hettner and G. Linck, &ldquo;Beiträge zur Geologie und
+Petrographie der columbianischen Anden,&rdquo; <i>Zeits. deutsch. geol. Ges.</i>
+vol. xl. (1888), pp. 204-230; W. Sievers, &ldquo;Die Sierra Nevada de
+Santa Marta und die Sierra de Perijá,&rdquo; <i>Zeits. Ges. Erdk. Berlin</i>,
+vol. xxiii. (1888), pp. 1-158 and p. 442, Pls. i. and iii.; A. Hettner,
+&ldquo;Die Kordillere von Bogotá,&rdquo; <i>Peterm. Mitt.</i>, Ergänzungsheft 104
+(1892), and &ldquo;Die Anden des westlichen Columbiens,&rdquo; <i>Peterm. Mitt.</i>
+(1893), pp. 129-136; W. Reiss and A. Stübel, <i>Reisen in Süd America.
+Geologische Studien in der Republik Colombia</i> (Berlin, 1892-1899),&mdash;a
+good geological bibliography will be found in part ii. of this
+work.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOMBIER, PIERRE BERTRAND DE<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1299-1361), French
+cardinal and diplomatist, was born at Colombier in Ardèche.
+He was nephew and namesake of Cardinal Pierre Bertrand of
+Annonay. After a careful juristic education he was successively
+advocate at the parlement of Paris, intendant of the council
+of the count of Nevers (1321), and counsellor-clerk to the parlement
+(1329). Having taken holy orders, he became dean of
+St Quentin in 1330, and was employed to negotiate the marriage
+of the duke of Normandy, the future king John the Good of
+France, with the daughter of the king of Bohemia. In 1335 he
+became bishop of Nevers, in 1339 of Arras, and contributed
+to bring the county of Flanders into the kingdom of France.
+Created cardinal priest of St Susanna in 1344, he was employed
+by the pope on important missions, notably to negotiate peace or
+an armistice between France and England. Having become
+bishop of Ostia in 1353, he was sent next year to Charles IV.
+of Germany, and induced him to come to Italy to be crowned
+emperor at Rome, 1355. In 1356 he went to France to try to
+arrange a peace with England, and died in 1361 at the priory of
+Montaud near Avignon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Mazon, <i>Essai historique sur l&rsquo;état du Vivarais pendant la
+guerre de cent ans</i> (Paris, 1889), with references there.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOMBO<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span>, the capital and principal seaport of Ceylon, situated
+on the west coast of the island. Pop. (1901) 154,691.
+Colombo stands to the south of the mouth of the river Kelani.
+The coast-land is here generally low-lying, but broken by slight
+eminences. The great artificial harbour, enclosed by breakwaters,
+is bounded on the south by a slight promontory. This
+is occupied by the quarter of the city known as the Fort, from
+the former existence of a fort founded by the Portuguese and
+reconstructed by the Dutch. In 1869 the governor, Sir Hercules
+Robinson (afterwards Lord Rosmead), obtained authority to
+demolish the fortifications, which were obsolete for purposes of
+defence, and required 6000 men to man them properly. The
+levelling of the walls and filling up of the moat made the Fort
+much more accessible and healthy, and since then it has become
+the business centre of the city. Here are situated Queen&rsquo;s
+House, the governor&rsquo;s residence; the secretariat or government
+offices, and other government buildings, such as the fine general
+post office and the customs house. Here also are most of the
+principal hotels, which have a peculiarly high reputation among
+European hotels in the East. A lofty tower serves as the principal
+lighthouse of the port and also as a clock-tower. On
+the south side of the Fort are extensive barracks. The old
+banqueting-hall of the Dutch governors is used as the garrison
+church of St Peter.</p>
+
+<p>To the north-east of the Fort, skirting the harbour, are the
+Pettah, the principal native quarter, the districts of Kotahena
+and Mutwall, and suburbs beyond. In this direction the principal
+buildings are the Wolfendahl church, a massive Doric
+building of the Dutch (1749); the splendid Roman Catholic
+cathedral of St Lucia (completed in 1904); and St Thomas&rsquo;s
+College (1851), which follows the lines of an English public school.
+Close to this last is the Anglican cathedral of Christ Church.
+The Kotahena temple is the chief Buddhist temple in Colombo.</p>
+
+<p>To the north-east of the Fort is the Lake, a ramifying sheet of
+fresh water, which adds greatly to the beauty of the site of
+Colombo, its banks being clothed with luxuriant foliage and
+flowers. The narrow isthmus between this lake and the sea,
+south of the Fort, is called Galle Face, and is occupied chiefly by
+promenades and recreation grounds. The peninsula enclosed
+by two arms of the Lake is known as Slave Island, having been
+the site of a slave&rsquo;s prison under the Dutch. South-east of this
+is the principal residential quarter of Colombo, with the circular
+Victoria Park as its centre. To the east of the park a series of
+parallel roads, named after former British governors, are lined
+with beautiful bungalows embowered in trees. This locality
+is generally known as the Cinnamon Gardens, as it was formerly
+a Dutch reserve for the cultivation of the cinnamon bush, many
+of which are still growing here. In the park is the fine Colombo
+Museum, founded by Sir William Gregory; and near the neighbouring
+Campbell Park are the handsome buildings of a number
+of institutions, such as Wesley College, and the General, Victoria
+Memorial Eye and other hospitals. South of Victoria Park is
+the Havelock racecourse. Among educational establishments
+not hitherto mentioned are the Royal College, the principal
+government institution, the government technical college and
+St Joseph&rsquo;s Roman Catholic college. Most of the town is lighted
+by gas, and certain quarters with electric light, and electric
+tramways have been laid over several miles of the city roads.
+The water-supply is drawn from a hill region 30 m. distant.</p>
+
+<p>Under British rule Colombo has shared in the prosperity brought
+to the island by the successive industries of coffee and tea-planting.
+At the height of the coffee-growing enterprise 20,000
+men, women and children, chiefly Sinhalese and Tamils, found
+employment in the large factories and stores of the merchants
+scattered over the town, where the coffee was cleaned, prepared,
+sorted and packed for shipment. Tea, on the contrary, is prepared
+and packed on the estates; but there is a considerable
+amount of work still done in the Colombo stores in sorting,
+blending and repacking such teas as are sold at the local public
+sales; also in dealing with cacao, cardamoms, cinchona bark
+and the remnant still left of the coffee industry. But it is to its
+position as one of the great ports of call of the East that Colombo
+owes its great and increasing importance. A magnificent breakwater,
+4200 ft. long, the first stone of which was laid by the prince
+of Wales in 1875, was completed in 1884. This breakwater
+changed an open roadstead into a harbour completely sheltered
+on the most exposed or south-west side; but there was still
+liability in certain months to storms from the north-west and
+south-east. Two additional arms were therefore constructed,
+consisting of a north-east and north-west breakwater, leaving
+two openings, one 800 ft. and the other 700 ft. wide, between
+the various sections. The area enclosed is 660 acres. A first-class
+graving-dock, of which the Admiralty bore half the cost,
+has also been added. These improvements caused Galle to be
+abandoned as a port of call for steamers in favour of Colombo,
+while Trincomalee has been abandoned as a naval station. The
+port has assumed first-class importance, mail steamers calling
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page714" id="page714"></a>714</span>
+regularly as well as men-of-war and the mercantile marine of
+all nations; and it is now one of the finest artificial harbours
+in the world. The extension of railways also has concentrated
+the trade of the island upon the capital, and contributed to its
+rise in prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>Colombo was originally known as the Kalantotta or Kalany
+ferry. By the Arabs the name was changed to Kolambu, and
+the town was mentioned by Ibn Batuta in 1346 as the largest
+and finest in Serendib. In 1517 the Portuguese effected a settlement,
+and in 1520 they fortified their port and bade defiance
+to the native besiegers. In 1586 the town was invested by Raja
+Singh, but without success. On its capture by the Dutch in
+1656 it was a flourishing colony with convents of five religious
+orders, churches and public offices, inhabited by no fewer than
+900 noble families and 1500 families dependent on mercantile or
+political occupations. In 1796 it was surrendered to the British.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLON<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (formerly known as <span class="sc">Aspinwall</span>), a city of the
+Republic of Panama, on the Atlantic coast, in the Bay of Limon,
+and 47 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Panama. Pop. (1908)
+about 3000, consisting largely of Jamaica negroes and natives of
+mixed Spanish, Indian and African descent. It is served by the
+Panama railway, which crosses the Isthmus of Panama from
+ocean to ocean. Colon has a deep, though poorly sheltered
+harbour, and is either the terminus or a place of call for seven
+lines of steamships. It thus serves as an entrepôt for much of
+the commerce between Atlantic and Pacific ports, and between
+the interior towns of Central and South America and the cities
+of Europe and the United States. The city lies on the west side
+of the low island of Manzanillo, is bordered on the landward
+sides by swamp, and consists mainly of unimposing frame houses
+and small shops. The most attractive parts are the American
+quarter, where the employés of the Panama railway have their
+homes, and the old French quarter, where dwelt the French
+officers during their efforts to build the canal. In this last
+district, near the mouth of the old canal, stands a fine statue of
+Christopher Columbus, the gift of the empress Eugénie in 1870.
+Here also stands the mansion erected and occupied by Ferdinand
+de Lesseps during his residence on the isthmus. With the
+exception of railway shops, there are no important industrial
+establishments.</p>
+
+<p>Colon dates its origin from the year 1850, when the island of
+Manzanillo was selected as the Atlantic terminus of the Panama
+railway. The settlement was at first called Aspinwall, in honour
+of William H. Aspinwall (1807-1875), one of the builders of the
+railway; but some years afterwards its name was changed
+by legislative enactment to Colon, in honour of Christopher
+Columbus, who entered Limon Bay in 1502. The original name,
+however, survived among the English-speaking inhabitants for
+many years after this change. With the completion of the
+railway in 1855, the town supplanted Chagres (<i>q.v.</i>) as the
+principal Atlantic port of the isthmus. Later it acquired
+increased importance through its selection by de Lesseps as the
+site for the Atlantic entrance to his canal. During the revolution
+of 1885 it was partly burned and was rebuilt on a somewhat
+larger plan. As the city has always been notoriously unhealthful,
+the United States, on undertaking the construction of the
+Panama Canal (<i>q.v.</i>), became interested in preventing its becoming
+a centre of infection for the Canal Zone, and by the treaty
+of November 1903 secured complete jurisdiction in the city and
+harbour over all matters relating to sanitation and quarantine,
+and engaged to construct a system of waterworks and sewers
+in the municipality, which had been practically completed in
+1907. The United States government has also opened a port
+at Cristobal, within the Canal Zone.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLON<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span>, a town of Matanzas province, Cuba, on the railway
+between Matanzas and Santa Clara, and the centre of a rich
+sugar-planting country. Pop. (1907) 7124.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLON<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span>, (1) (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolon">&#954;&#972;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span>, miswritten and mispronounced as
+<span class="grk" title="kôlon">&#954;&#8182;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span>, the term being taken from <span class="grk" title="kolos">&#954;&#972;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, curtailed), in anatomy,
+that part of the greater intestine which extends from the caecum
+to the rectum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alimentary Canal</a></span>). (2.) (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kôlon">&#954;&#8182;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span>, a
+member or part), originally in Greek rhetoric a short clause
+longer than the &ldquo;comma,&rdquo; hence a mark (:), in punctuation,
+used to show a break in construction greater than that marked
+by the semicolon (;), and less than that marked by the period or
+full stop. The sign is also used in psalters and the like to mark
+off periods for chanting. The word is applied in palaeography
+to a unit of measure in MSS., amounting in length to a hexameter
+line.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLONEL<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (derived either from Lat. <i>columna</i>, Fr. <i>colonne</i>,
+column, or Lat. <i>corona</i>, a crown), the superior officer of a regiment
+of infantry or cavalry; also an officer of corresponding rank in
+the general army list. The colonelcy of a regiment formerly
+implied a proprietary right in it. Whether the colonel commanded
+it directly in the field or not, he always superintended
+its finance and interior economy, and the emoluments of the
+office, in the 18th century, were often the only form of pay
+drawn by general officers. The general officers of the 17th and
+18th centuries were invariably colonels of regiments, and in this
+case the active command was exercised by the lieutenant-colonels.
+At the present day, British general officers are often,
+though not always, given the colonelcy of a regiment, which
+has become almost purely an honorary office. The sovereign,
+foreign sovereigns, royal princes and others, hold honorary
+colonelcies, as colonels-in-chief or honorary colonels of many
+regiments. In other armies, the regiment being a fighting unit,
+the colonel is its active commander; in Great Britain the
+lieutenant-colonel commands in the field the battalion of infantry
+and the regiment of cavalry. Colonels are actively employed in
+the army at large in staff appointments, brigade commands, &amp;c.
+extra-regimentally. Colonel-general, a rank formerly used in
+many armies, still survives in the German service, a colonel-general
+(<i>General-Oberst</i>) ranking between a general of infantry,
+cavalry or artillery, and a general field marshal (<i>General-Feldmarschall</i>).
+Colonels-general are usually given the honorary
+rank of general field marshal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLONIAL OFFICE<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span>, the department of the administration
+of the United Kingdom which deals with questions affecting the
+various colonial possessions of the British crown. The department
+as it now exists is of comparatively modern creation, dating
+only from 1854. The affairs of the English colonies began to
+assume importance at the Restoration, and were at first entrusted
+to a committee of the privy council, but afterwards transferred
+to a commission created by letters patent. From 1672 to 1675
+the council for trade was combined with this commission, but
+in the latter year the colonies were again placed under the control
+of the privy council. This arrangement continued until 1695,
+when a Board of Trade and Plantations was created; its duty,
+however, was confined to collecting information and giving
+advice when required. The actual executive work was performed
+by the secretary of state for the southern department, who was
+assisted, from 1768 to 1782, by a secretary of state for the
+colonies. Both the Board of Trade and Plantations and the
+additional secretary were abolished in 1782, and the executive
+business wholly given over to the home office. In 1794 a third
+secretary of state was reappointed, and in 1801 this secretary
+was designated as secretary of state for war and the colonies.
+In 1854 the two offices were separated, and a distinct office of
+secretary of state for the colonies created.</p>
+
+<p>The secretary of state for the colonies is the official medium
+of communication with colonial governments; he has certain
+administrative duties respecting crown colonies, and has a right
+of advising the veto of an act of a colonial legislature&mdash;this veto,
+however, is never exercised in the case of purely local statutes.
+He is assisted by a permanent and a parliamentary under-secretary
+and a considerable clerical staff.</p>
+
+<p>As reorganized in 1907 the colonial office consists of three
+chief departments: (1) the Dominions Department, dealing
+with the affairs of the self-governing over-sea dominions of the
+British crown, and of certain other possessions geographically
+connected with those dominions; (2) the Colonial Department,
+dealing with the affairs of crown colonies and protectorates;
+(3) the General Department, dealing with legal, financial and
+other general business. In addition to these three departments,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page715" id="page715"></a>715</span>
+standing committees exist to take a collective view of such
+matters as contracts, concessions, mineral and other leases,
+and patronage.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLONNA<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span>, a noble Roman family, second only to the Gaetani
+di Sermoneta in antiquity, and first of all the Roman houses in
+importance. The popes Marcellinus, Sixtus III., Stephen IV.
+and Adrian III. are said to have been members of it, but the
+authentic pedigree of the family begins with Pietro, lord of
+Columna, Palestrina and Paliano (about 1100), probably a
+brother of Pope Benedict IX. His great grandson Giovanni had
+two sons, respectively the founders of the Colonna di Paliano
+and Colonna di Sciarra lines. The third, or Colonna-Romano
+line, is descended from Federigo Colonna (1223). In the 12th
+century we find the Colonna as counts of Tusculum, and the
+family was then famous as one of the most powerful and turbulent
+of the great Roman clans; its feuds with the Orsini and the
+Gaetani are a characteristic feature of medieval Rome and the
+Campagna; like the other great nobles of the Campagna the
+Colonna plundered travellers and cities, and did not even spare
+the pope himself if they felt themselves injured by him.
+Boniface VIII. attempted to break their power, excommunicated
+them in 1297, and confiscated their estates. He proclaimed a
+crusade against them and captured Palestrina, but they afterwards
+revenged themselves by besieging him at Anagni, and
+Sciarra Colonna laid violent hands on His Holiness, being with
+difficulty restrained from actually murdering him (1303). In
+1347 the Colonna, at that time almost an independent power,
+were defeated by Cola di Rienzi, but soon recovered. Pope
+Martin V. (1417-1431) was a Colonna, and conferred immense
+estates on his family, including Marino, Frascati, Rocca di Papa,
+Nettuno, Palinao, &amp;c., in the Campagna, and other fiefs in
+Romagna and Umbria. Their goods were frequently confiscated
+and frequently given back, and the house was subject to many
+changes of fortune; during the reign of Pope Alexander VI.
+they were again humbled, but they always remained powerful
+and important, and members of the family rose to eminence as
+generals, prelates and statesmen in the service of the Church
+or other powers. In the war of 1522 between France and Spain
+there were Colonna on both sides, and at the battle of Lepanto
+(1571) Marc Antonio Colonna, who commanded the papal
+contingent, greatly distinguished himself. A detailed record
+of the Colonna family would be a history of Rome. To-day
+there are three lines of Colonna: (1) Colonna di Paliano, with
+two branches, the princes and dukes of Paliano, and the princes
+of Stigliano; (2) Colonna di Sciarra, with two branches, Colonna
+di Sciarra, princes of Carbagnano, and Barberini-Colonna,
+princes of Palestrina; and (3) Colonna-Romano. The Colonna
+palace, one of the finest in Rome, was begun by Martin V. and
+contains a valuable picture and sculpture gallery.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i> (Berlin, 1868),
+containing an elaborate account of the family; F. Gregorovius,
+<i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i> (Stuttgart, 1872); <i>Almanack de Gotha</i>.      (L. V.*)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (<i>circa</i> 1637-1695), Italian
+musician, was born in Bologna about 1637 and died in the
+same city on the 28th of November 1695. He was a pupil of
+Filippuzzi in Bologna, and of Abbatini and Benevoli in Rome,
+where for a time he held the post of organist at S. Apollinare.
+A dated poem in praise of his music shows that he began to
+distinguish himself as a composer in 1659. In that year he was
+chosen organist at S. Petronio in Bologna, where on the 1st of
+November 1674 he was made chapel-master. He also became
+president of the Philharmonic Academy of Bologna. Most of
+Colonna&rsquo;s works are for the church, including settings of the
+psalms for three, four, five and eight voices, and several masses
+and motets. He also composed an opera, under the title <i>Amilcare</i>,
+and an oratorio, <i>La Profezia d&rsquo; Eliseo</i>. The emperor Leopold
+I. received a copy of every composition of Colonna, so that
+the imperial library in Vienna possesses upwards of 83
+church compositions by him. Colonna&rsquo;s style is for the most
+part dignified, but is not free from the inequalities of style
+and taste almost unavoidable at a period when church music
+was in a state of transition, and had hardly learnt to combine
+the gravity of the old style with the brilliance of the new.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLONNA, VITTORIA<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1490-1547), marchioness of Pescara,
+Italian poet, daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, grand constable of
+the kingdom of Naples, and of Anna da Montefeltro, was born at
+Marino, a fief of the Colonna family. Betrothed when four years
+old at the instance of Ferdinand, king of Naples, to Ferrante
+de Avalos, son of the marquis of Pescara, she received the
+highest education and gave early proof of a love of letters. Her
+hand was sought by many suitors, including the dukes of Savoy
+and Braganza, but at nineteen, by her own ardent desire, she
+was married to de Avalos on the island of Ischia. There the
+couple resided until 1511, when her husband offered his sword
+to the League against the French. He was taken prisoner at
+the battle of Ravenna (1512) and conveyed to France. During
+the months of detention and the long years of campaigning
+which followed, Vittoria and Ferrante corresponded in the most
+passionate terms both in prose and verse. They saw each other
+but seldom, for Ferrante was one of the most active and brilliant
+captains of Charles V.; but Vittoria&rsquo;s influence was sufficient
+to keep him from joining the projected league against the
+emperor after the battle of Pavia (1525), and to make him refuse
+the crown of Naples offered to him as the price of his treason.
+In the month of November of the same year he died of his
+wounds at Milan. Vittoria, who was hastening to tend him,
+received the news of his death at Viterbo; she halted and turned
+off to Rome, and after a brief stay departed for Ischia, where she
+remained for several years. She refused several suitors, and
+began to produce those <i>Rime spirituali</i> which form so distinct
+a feature in her works. In 1529 she returned to Rome, and spent
+the next few years between that city, Orvieto, Ischia and other
+places. In 1537 we find her at Ferrara, where she made many
+friends and helped to establish a Capuchin monastery at the
+instance of the reforming monk Bernardino Ochino, who afterwards
+became a Protestant. In 1539 she was back in Rome,
+where, besides winning the esteem of Cardinals Reginald Pole
+and Contarini, she became the object of a passionate friendship
+on the part of Michelangelo, then in his sixty-fourth year. The
+great artist addressed some of his finest sonnets to her, made
+drawings for her, and spent long hours in her society. Her
+removal to Orvieto and Viterbo in 1541, on the occasion of her
+brother Ascanio Colonna&rsquo;s revolt against Paul III., produced
+no change in their relations, and they continued to visit and
+correspond as before. She returned to Rome in 1544, staying
+as usual at the convent of San Silvestro, and died there on the
+25th of February 1547.</p>
+
+<p>Cardinal Bembo, Luigi Alamanni and Baldassare Castiglione
+were among her literary friends. She was also on intimate terms
+with many of the Italian Protestants, such as Pietro Carnesecchi,
+Juan de Valdes and Ochino, but she died before the
+church crisis in Italy became acute, and, although she was an
+advocate of religious reform, there is no reason to believe that
+she herself became a Protestant. Her life was a beautiful one,
+and goes far to counteract the impression of the universal corruption
+of the Italian Renaissance conveyed by such careers
+as those of the Borgia. Her amatory and elegiac poems, which
+are the fruits of a sympathetic and dainty imitative gift rather
+than of any strong original talent, were printed at Parma in
+1538; a third edition, containing sixteen of her <i>Rime Spirituali</i>,
+in which religious themes are treated in Italian, was published
+at Florence soon afterwards; and a fourth, including a still
+larger proportion of the pious element, was issued at Venice in
+1544.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A great deal has been written about Vittoria Colonna, but perhaps
+the best account of her life is A. Luzio&rsquo;s <i>Vittoria Colonna</i> (Modena,
+1885); A. von Reumont&rsquo;s <i>Vita di Vittoria Colonna</i> (Italian corrected
+edit., Turin, 1883) is also excellent; F. le Fèvre&rsquo;s <i>Vittoria Colonna</i>
+(Paris, 1856) is somewhat inaccurate, but T. Roscoe&rsquo;s <i>Vittoria
+Colonna</i> (London, 1868) may be recommended to English readers;
+P. E. Visconti&rsquo;s <i>Le Rime di Vittoria Colonna</i> (Rome, 1846) deals with
+her poems.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLONNADE<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span>, in architecture, a range of columns (Ital.
+<i>colonna</i>) in a row. When extended so as to enclose a temple,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page716" id="page716"></a>716</span>
+it is called a peristyle, and the same term applies when round
+an open court, as in the houses at Pompeii. When projecting
+in front of a building, it is called a portico, as in the Pantheon
+at Rome and the National Gallery in London. When enclosed
+between wings, as in Perrault&rsquo;s façade to the Louvre, it is
+correctly described as a colonnade. Colonnades lined the streets
+of the towns in Syria and Asia Minor, and they were largely
+employed in Rome.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLONSAY<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span>, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire,
+Scotland, 10 m. S. of the Ross of Mull. It is 7½ m. long by
+3 m. broad. The highest point is Carnan Eoin (470 ft.). Towards
+the middle of the island lies Loch Fada, nearly 2 m. long but
+very narrow, and there are two other small lakes and a few
+streams. The coast-line, with frequent beautiful sandy reaches,
+is much indented, the chief bays being Kiloran, Kilchattan and
+Staosunaig. On the north-western coast the cliffs are particularly
+fine. To the south, separated by a strait that is fordable at low
+water, lies the isle of <span class="sc">Oronsay</span>, 2¼ m. long by 2¾ m. wide. Both
+islands contain a number of ecclesiastical remains, standing
+stones, and some beautiful sculptured crosses. They are named
+after Columba and Oran, who are said to have stopped here after
+they left Ireland. There is regular communication between
+Scalasaig and Glasgow and the Clyde ports. The golf-course at
+Kilchattan lends a touch of modernity to these remote islands.
+Near Scalasaig a granite obelisk has been erected to the memory
+of Sir Duncan M&lsquo;Neill (1794-1874), a distinguished Scottish
+lawyer, who took the title of Lord Colonsay when he became
+a lord of appeal. The soil of both islands is fertile, potatoes
+and barley being raised and cattle pastured. Population:
+Colonsay (1901), 301; Oronsay (1901), 12.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLONY<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (Lat. <i>colonia</i>, from <i>colonus</i>, a cultivator), a term
+most commonly used to denote a settlement of the subjects of
+a sovereign state in lands beyond its boundaries, owning no
+allegiance to any foreign power, and retaining a greater or less
+degree of dependence on the mother country. The founding
+and the growth of such communities furnish matter for an interesting
+chapter in the history as well of ancient as of modern
+civilization; and the regulation of the relations between the
+parent state and its dependencies abroad gives rise to important
+problems alike in national policy and in international economics.</p>
+
+<p>It was mainly the spirit of commercial enterprise that led the
+Phoenicians to plant their colonies upon the islands and along
+the southern coast of the Mediterranean; and even beyond the
+Pillars of Hercules this earliest great colonizing race left enduring
+traces of its maritime supremacy. Carthage, indeed, chief of the
+Phoenician settlements, sent forth colonies to defend her conquests
+and strengthen her military power; and these sub-colonies
+naturally remained in strict subjection to her power,
+whereas the other young Phoenician states assumed and asserted
+entire independence.</p>
+
+<p>In this latter respect the Greek colonies resembled those of
+the Phoenicians. From a very early period the little civic communities
+of Greece had sent forth numerous colonizing streams.
+At points so far asunder as the Tauric Chersonese, Cyrene and
+Massilia were found prosperous centres of Greek commercial
+energy; but the regions most thickly peopled by settlers of Greek
+descent were the western seaboard of Asia Minor, Sicily and the
+southern parts of the Italian peninsula. Nor were the least
+prosperous communities those which were sprung from earlier
+colonies. The causes that led to the foundation of the Greek
+colonies were very various. As in Phoenicia, pressure created
+by the narrow limits of the home country coincided with an
+adventurous desire to seek new sources of wealth beyond seas;
+but very many Greek emigrations were caused by the expulsion
+of the inhabitants of conquered cities, or by the intolerable
+domination of a hated but triumphant faction within the native
+state. The polity of the new community, often founded in
+defiance of the home authorities, might either be a copy of that
+just left behind or be its direct political antithesis. But wherever
+they went, and whether, as apparently in Asia Minor, Greek
+blood was kept free from barbaric mixture, or whether, as in
+Magna Graecia and Sicily, it was mingled with that of the
+aboriginal races, the Greek emigrants carried with them the
+Hellenic spirit and the Hellenic tongue; and the colonies fostered,
+not infrequently more rapidly and more brilliantly than at home,
+Greek literature, Greek art and Greek speculation. The relation
+to be preserved towards the mother states was seldom or never
+definitely arranged. But filial feeling and established custom
+secured a measure of kindly sympathy, shown by precedence
+yielded at public games, and by the almost invariable abstinence
+of the colony from a hostile share in wars in which the mother
+city was engaged.</p>
+
+<p>The relation of Rome to her colonies was altogether different.
+No Roman colony started without the sanction and direction of
+the public authority; and while the <i>Colonia Romano</i> differed
+from the <i>Colonia Latina</i> in that the former permitted its members
+to retain their political rights intact, the colony, whether planted
+within the bounds of Italy or in provinces such as Gaul or
+Britain, remained an integral part of the Roman state. In the
+earlier colonies, the state allotted to proposing emigrants from
+amongst the needy or discontented class of citizens portions of
+such lands as, on the subjection of a hostile people, the state
+took into its possession as public property. At a later time,
+especially after the days of Sulla, the distribution of the territories
+of a vanquished Roman party was employed by the
+victorious generals as an easy means of satisfying the claims of
+the soldiery by whose help they had triumphed. The Roman
+colonies were thus not merely valuable as <i>propugnacula</i> of the
+state, as permanent supports to Roman garrisons and armies, but
+they proved a most effective means of extending over wide
+bounds the language and the laws of Rome, and of inoculating
+the inhabitants of the provinces with more than the rudiments
+of Roman civilization.</p>
+
+<p>The occupation of the fairest provinces of the Roman empire
+by the northern barbarians had little in common with colonization.
+The Germanic invaders came from no settled state; they
+maintained loosely, and but for a short while, any form of
+brotherhood with the allied tribes. A nearer parallel to Greek
+colonization may be found in Iceland, whither the adherents of
+the old Norse polity fled from the usurpation of Harold Haarfager;
+and the early history of the English pale in Ireland
+shows, though not in orderliness and prosperity, several points of
+resemblance to the Roman colonial system.</p>
+
+<p>Though both Genoese and Venetians in their day of power
+planted numerous trading posts on various portions of the
+Mediterranean shores, of which some almost deserve the name
+of colonies, the history of modern colonization on a great scale
+opens with the Spanish conquests in America. The first Spanish
+adventurers came, not to colonize, but to satisfy as rapidly as
+possible and by the labour of the enslaved aborigines, their
+thirst for silver and gold. Their conquests were rapid, but the
+extension of their permanent settlements was gradual and slow.
+The terrible cruelty at first exercised on the natives was restrained,
+not merely by the zeal of the missionaries, but by effective
+official measures; and ultimately home-born Spaniards and
+Creoles lived on terms of comparative fairness with the Indians
+and with the half-breed population. Till the general and successful
+revolt of her American colonies, Spain maintained and employed
+the latter directly and solely for what she conceived to
+be her own advantage. Her commercial policy was one of most
+irrational and intolerable restriction and repression; and till the
+end of Spanish rule on the American continent, the whole
+political power was retained by the court at Madrid, and
+administered in the colonies by an oligarchy of home-bred
+Spaniards.</p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese colonization in America, in most respects
+resembling that of Spain, is remarkable for the development
+there given to an institution sadly prominent in the history
+of the European colonies. The nearness of Brazil to the coast of
+Africa made it easy for the Portuguese to supply the growing
+lack of native labour by the wholesale importation of purchased
+or kidnapped Africans.</p>
+
+<p>Of the French it is admitted that in their colonial possessions
+they displayed an unusual faculty for conciliating the prejudices
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page717" id="page717"></a>717</span>
+of native races, and even for assimilating themselves to the
+latter. But neither this nor the genius of successive governors
+and commanders succeeded in preserving for France her once
+extensive colonies in Canada or her great influence in India.
+In Algeria and West Africa the French government has not
+merely found practical training schools for her own soldiers,
+but by opening a recruiting field amongst the native tribes it
+has added an available contingent to the French army.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch took early a leading share in the carrying trade
+of the various European colonies. They have still extensive
+colonies in the East Indian Archipelago, as well as possessions
+in the West Indies. The Danish dependencies in the Antilles
+are but trifling in extent or importance.</p>
+
+<p>It is the English-speaking race, however, that has shown the
+most remarkable energy and capacity for colonization. The
+English settlements in Virginia, New England, New York, New
+Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina,
+North Carolina, and Georgia had, between the first decade of
+the 17th and the seventh decade of the 18th century, developed
+into a new nation, the United States of America. It is unnecessary
+here to deal with the development of what have since been the
+two great independent branches of the English-speaking people&mdash;those
+of the United States (<i>q.v.</i>) and of the British Empire (<i>q.v.</i>),
+as their history is given elsewhere. But the colonizing genius
+which, with the British Isles as centre, has taken up the &ldquo;white
+man&rsquo;s burden&rdquo; in all quarters of the globe, is universally recognized.
+In the problems of government raised by the organization
+of the British dominions beyond the seas the system of colonization
+has been developed to an extent unknown under any other
+national flag.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOPHON<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span>, an ancient city of Ionia, situated inland about
+15 m. N. of Ephesus. Its port was at Notium or New Colophon.
+The site, now called <i>Tracha</i> (only recognized towards the end of
+the 19th century), lies near Diermendere, 5 m. S. of Develikeui
+station on the Smyrna-Aidin railway, and about 2 m. from the
+farms and hamlet of Malkajik. It is almost entirely under
+cultivation, and there is little to be seen but remains of the walls
+and certain tumuli. Rich tombs, however, have been found
+beside the old roads leading to it, and the site is usually regarded
+as a particularly promising one for excavation, since Colophon
+was a very flourishing city in the great period of Ionia and had
+declined and been largely superseded by Notium before the
+Roman age. The common belief, however, that it had no
+existence after the time of Lysimachus is not borne out by the
+remains on the site. Founded by Andracmon of Pylos, it was
+at the acme of its prosperity in the 8th and 7th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+up to the epoch of its sack by Gyges of Lydia in 665. It claimed
+to have produced Homer, but its greatest genuine literary name
+was Mimnermus. It seems to have been ruled by a rich aristocracy
+which provided a famous troop of horse; and, from the
+Greek saying, usually supposed to refer to the decisive effect
+of the final charge of this troop in battle, the word <i>colophon</i> has
+come to be used for the final note appended to old printed books,
+containing date, &amp;c. In 287 Lysimachus transferred a part of
+the population to his new city at Ephesus. Though an Ionian
+colony Colophon did not share in the common festival of the
+<i>Apaturia</i> and seems to have been isolated for some reason among
+its neighbours, with one of whom, Ephesus, it was constantly
+at enmity. The forts by which Ephesus protected itself against
+Colophonian invasion are still to be seen on the hills north of
+the Caystrus.</p>
+
+<p>Notium or New Colophon contained the important shrine of
+the Clarian Apollo, whose site has recently been identified with
+probability by Th. Makridy Bey during excavations conducted
+for the Ottoman museum.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Schuchardt in <i>Athen. Mitteil.</i> (1886); W. M. Ramsay,
+<i>Hist. Geog. of Asia Minor</i> (addenda) (1890).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOPHON<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span>, a final paragraph in some manuscripts and
+many early printed books (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Book</a></span>), giving particulars as to
+authorship, date and place of production, &amp;c. Before the invention
+of printing, a scribe when he had finished copying a book
+occasionally added a final paragraph at the end of the text in
+which he recorded the fact, and (if he were so minded) expressed
+his thankfulness to God, or asked for the prayers of readers. In
+the famous Bodleian MS. 264 of the <i>Roman d&rsquo;Alexandre</i> there is
+an unusually full note of this kind recording the completion of the
+copy on the 18th of December 1338 and ending&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>&ldquo;Explicit iste liber, scriptor sit crimine liber,</p>
+<p class="i05">Christus scriptorem custodiat ac det honorem.&rdquo;</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Both in manuscripts and also in early printed books authors
+made use of such a final paragraph for expressing similar feelings.
+Thus the Guillermus who made a famous collection of sermons
+on the gospels for Sundays and saints&rsquo; days records its completion
+in 1437 and submits it to the correction of charitable readers, and
+Sir Thomas Malory notes that his <i>Morte d&rsquo;Arthur</i> &ldquo;was ended
+the ix yere of the reygne of Kyng Edward the fourth,&rdquo; and bids
+his readers &ldquo;praye for me whyle I am on lyue that God sende
+me good delyuerance, and whan I am deed I praye you all praye
+for my soule.&rdquo; So again Jacobus Bergomensis records that his
+<i>Supplementum Chronicarum</i> was finished &ldquo;anno salutis nostre
+1483. 3º Kalendas Julii in ciuitate Bergomi: mihi vero a
+natiuitate quadragesimo nono,&rdquo; and in the subsequent editions
+which he revised brings both the year and his own age up to
+date. Before printing was invented, however, such paragraphs
+were exceptional, and many of the early printers, notably
+Gutenberg himself, were content to allow their books to go out
+without any mention of their own names. Fust and Schoeffer,
+on the other hand, printed at the end of their famous psalter of
+1457 the following paragraph in red ink:&mdash;<i>Presens spalmorum (sic
+for psalmorum) codex venustate capitalium decoratus Rubricationibusque
+sufficienter distinctus, Adinuentione artificiosa imprimendi
+ac caracterizandi absque calami vlla exaracione sic effigiatus,
+Et ad eusebiam dei industrie est consummatus, Per Iohannem
+fust ciuem maguntinum, Et Petrum Schoffer de Gernszheim Anno
+domini Millesimo. cccc. lvii In vigilia Assumpcionis</i>. Similar
+paragraphs in praise of printing and of Mainz as the city where
+the art was brought to perfection appear in most of the books
+issued by the partners and after Fust&rsquo;s death by Schoeffer alone,
+and were widely imitated by other printers. In their Latin Bible
+of 1462 Fust and Schoeffer added a device of two shields at the
+end of the paragraph, and this addition was also widely copied.
+Many of these final paragraphs give information of great value
+for the history of printing; many also, especially those to the
+early editions of the classics printed in Italy, are written in
+verse. As the practice grew up of devoting a separate leaf or
+page to the title of a book at its beginning, the importance of
+these final paragraphs slowly diminished, and the information
+they gave was gradually transferred to the title-page. Complete
+title-pages bearing the date and name of the publishers are found
+in most books printed after 1520, and the final paragraph, if
+retained at all, was gradually reduced to a bare statement of the
+name of the printer. From the use of the word in the sense
+of a &ldquo;finishing stroke,&rdquo; such a final paragraph as has been described
+is called by bibliographers a &ldquo;colophon&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kolophôn">&#954;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#966;&#974;&#957;</span>),
+but at what period this name for it was first used has not been
+ascertained. It is quite possibly not earlier than the 18th
+century. (For origin see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar184">Colophon</a></span> [city].)</p>
+<div class="author">(A. W. Po.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLORADO<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span>, a state of the American union, situated between
+41° and 37° N. lat. and 102° and 109° W. long., bounded N. by
+Wyoming and Nebraska, E. by Nebraska and Kansas, S. by
+Oklahoma and New Mexico, and W. by Utah. Its area is
+103,948 sq. m. (of which 290 are water surface). It is the seventh
+largest state of the Union.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physiography.</i>&mdash;Colorado embraces in its area a great variety
+of plains, mountains and plateaus. It lies at the junction of the
+Great Plains&mdash;which in their upward slant to the westward attain
+an average elevation of about 4000 ft. along the east boundary
+of the state&mdash;with the Rocky Mountains, to the west of which is
+a portion of the Colorado Plateau. These are the three physiographic
+provinces of the state (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>, section
+<i>Geology</i>, ad fin., for details of structure). The last-named
+includes a number of lofty plateaus&mdash;the Roan or Book, Uncompahgre,
+&amp;c., which form the eastern continuation of the
+high plateaus of Utah&mdash;and covers the western quarter of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page718" id="page718"></a>718</span>
+state. Its eastern third consists of rich, unbroken plains. On
+their west edge lies an abrupt, massive, and strangely uniform
+chain of mountains, known in the neighbourhood of Colorado
+Springs as the Rampart Range, and in the extreme north as the
+Front Range, and often denominated as a whole by the latter
+name. The upturning of the rocks of the Great Plains at the
+foot of the Front Range develops an interesting type of topography,
+the harder layers weathering into grotesquely curious
+forms, as seen in the famous Garden of the Gods at the foot of
+Pike&rsquo;s Peak. Behind this barrier the whole country is elevated
+2000 ft. or so above the level of the plains region. In its lowest
+portions just behind the front ranges are the natural &ldquo;parks&rdquo;&mdash;great
+plateaus basined by superb enclosing ranges; and to
+the west of these, and between them, and covering the remainder
+of the state east of the plateau region, is an entanglement of
+mountains, tier above tier, running from north to south, buttressed
+laterally with splendid spurs, dominated by scores of magnificent
+peaks, cut by river valleys, and divided by mesas and plateaus.
+These various chains are known by a multitude of local names.
+Among the finest of the chains are the Rampart, Sangre de
+Cristo, San Juan, Sawatch (Saguache) and Elk ranges. The
+first, like the other ranges abutting from north to south upon
+the region of the prairie, rises abruptly from the plain and has
+a fine, bold outline. It contains a number of fine summits
+dominated by Pike&rsquo;s Peak (14,108 ft.). Much more beautiful
+as a whole is the Sangre de Cristo range. At its southern end
+are Blanca Peak (14,390) and Old Baldy (14,176, Hayden), both
+in Costilla county; to the northward are Rito Alto Peak (12,989,
+Wheeler), in Custer county, and many others of almost equal
+height and equal beauty. The mountains of the south-west
+are particularly abrupt and jagged. Sultan Mountain (13,366,
+Hayden), in San Juan county, and Mt. Eolus (14,079), in La Plata
+county, dominate the fine masses of the San Juan ranges; and
+Mt. Sneffels (14,158, Hayden), Ouray county, and Uncompahgre
+Peak (14,289), Hinsdale county, the San Miguel and Uncompahgre
+ranges, which are actually parts of the San Juan. Most
+magnificent of all the mountains of Colorado, however, are the
+Sawatch and adjoining ranges in the centre of the state. The
+former (the name is used a little loosely) consists of almost
+a solid mass of granite, has an average elevation of probably
+13,000 ft., presents a broad and massive outline, and has a
+mean breadth of 15 to 20 m. Mt. Ouray (13,956 ft.), in Chaffee
+county, may be taken as the southern end, and in Eagle county,
+the splendid Mount of the Holy Cross (14,170)&mdash;so named from
+the figure of its snow-filled ravines&mdash;as the northern. Between
+them lie: in Chaffee county, Mt. Shavano (14,239, Hayden),
+Mt. Princeton (14,196, Hayden), Mt. Yale (14,187, Hayden),
+Mt. Harvard (14,375, Hayden), and La Plata Peak (14,342);
+in Pitkin county, Grizzly Peak (13,956, Hayden); in Lake
+county, Elbert Peak (14,421), and Massive mountain (14,424),
+the highest peak in the state; on the boundary between Summit
+and Park counties, Mt. Lincoln (14,297, Hayden); and, in
+Summit county, Mt. Fletcher (14,265). The Elk range is geologically
+interesting for the almost unexampled displacement of
+the strata of which it is composed, and the apparent confusion
+which has thence arisen. Among the most remarkable of its
+separate summits, which rise superbly in a crescent about Aspen,
+are North Italian Peak (13,225), displaying the red, white and
+green of Italy&rsquo;s national colours, White Rock Mountain (13,532),
+Mt. Owen (13,102), Teocalli Mountain (13,220), Snow Mass
+(13,970, Hayden) and Maroon (14,003, Hayden) mountains,
+Castle Peak (14,259), Capitol Mountain (13,997, Hayden),
+Pyramid Peak (13,885, Hayden), Taylor Peak (13,419), and
+about a dozen other summits above 12,000 ft. A few miles
+to the north and north-east of the Mount of the Holy Cross are
+Red Mountain (13,333, Wheeler), in Eagle county, Torrey Peak
+(14,336, Hayden) and Gray&rsquo;s Peak (14,341, Hayden), in Summit
+county, Mt. Evans (14,330, Hayden), in Clear Creek county, and
+Rosalie Peak (13,575), in Park county; a little farther north,
+in Gilpin, Grand and Clear Creek counties, James Peak (13,283,
+Hayden), and, in Boulder county, Long&rsquo;s Peak (14,271, Hayden).
+Many fine mountains are scattered in the lesser ranges of the
+state. Altogether there are at least 180 summits exceeding
+12,000 ft. in altitude, more than 110 above 13,000 and about
+40 above 14,000.</p>
+
+<p>Cirques, valley troughs, numberless beautiful cascades, sharpened
+alpine peaks and ridges, glacial lakes, and valley moraines
+offer everywhere abundant evidence of glacial action, which has
+modified profoundly practically all the ranges. The Park Range
+east of Leadville, and the Sawatch Range, are particularly fine
+examples. Much of the grandest scenery is due to glaciation.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most remarkable orographical features of the state
+are the great mountain &ldquo;parks&rdquo;&mdash;North, Estes, Middle, South
+and San Luis&mdash;extending from the northern to the southern
+border of the state, and lying (with the exception of Middle Park)
+just east of the continental divide. These &ldquo;parks&rdquo; are great
+plateaus, not all of them level, lying below the barriers of surrounding
+mountain chains. North Park, the highest of all, is a
+lovely country of meadow and forest. Middle Park is not level,
+but is traversed thickly by low ranges like the Alleghanies; in
+the bordering mountain rim are several of the grandest mountain
+peaks and some of the most magnificent scenery of the state.
+Estes Park is small, only 20 m. long and never more than 2 m.
+broad; it is in fact the valley of Thompson Creek. Its surface
+is one of charming slopes, and by many it is accounted among
+the loveliest of Colorado valleys. Seven ranges lie between it
+and the plains. South Park is similarly quiet and charming in
+character. Much greater than any of these is San Luis Park.
+The surface is nearly as flat as a lake, and it was probably at one
+time the bed of an inland sea. In the centre there is a long
+narrow lake fed by many streams. It has no visible outlet, but
+is fresh. The San Luis Park, which runs into New Mexico, is
+traversed by the Rio Grande del Norte and more than a dozen
+of its mountain tributaries. These parks are frequented by
+great quantities of large game, and&mdash;especially the North and
+Middle&mdash;are famous hunting-grounds. They are fertile, too, and
+as their combined area is something like 13,000 sq. m. they are
+certain to be of great importance in Colorado&rsquo;s agricultural
+development.</p>
+
+<p>The drainage system of the state is naturally very complicated.
+Eleven topographical and climatic divisions are recognized by
+the United States Weather Bureau within its borders, including
+the several parks, the continental divide, and various river
+valleys. Of the rivers, the North Platte has its sources in North
+Park, the Colorado (the Gunnison and Grand branches) in Middle
+Park, the Arkansas and South Platte in South Park&mdash;where
+their waters drain in opposite directions from Palmer&rsquo;s Lake&mdash;the
+Rio Grande in San Luis Park. Three of these flow east and
+south-east to the Missouri, Mississippi and the Gulf; but
+the waters of the Colorado system flow to the south-west into
+the Gulf of California. Among the other streams, almost countless
+in number among the mountains, the systems of the Dolores,
+White and Yampa, all in the west, are of primary importance.
+The scenery on the head-waters of the White and Bear, the upper
+tributaries of the Gunnison, and on many of the minor rivers of
+the south-west is wonderfully beautiful. The South Platte falls
+4830 ft. in the 139 m. above Denver; the Grand 3600 ft. in the
+224 m. between the mouth of the Gunnison and the Forks; the
+Gunnison 6477 ft. in 200 m. to its mouth (and save for 16 m.
+never with a gradient of less than 10 ft.); the Arkansas 7000 ft.
+in its 338 m. west of the Kansas line. Of the smaller streams
+the Uncompahgre falls 2700 ft. in 134 m., the Las Animas 7190
+ft. in 113 m., the Los Pinos 4920 ft. in 75 m., the Roaring Fork
+5923 ft. in 64 m., the Mancos 5000 ft. in 62 m., the La Plata
+3103 ft. in 43 m., the Eagle 4293 ft. in 62 m., the San Juan 3785
+in 303, the Lake Fork of the Gunnison 6047 in 59. The canyons
+formed in the mountains by these streams are among the glories
+of Colorado and of America. The grandest are the Toltec Gorge
+near the Southern boundary line, traversed by the railway
+1500 ft. above the bottom; the Red Gorge and Rouge Canyon
+of the Upper Grand, and a splendid gorge 16 m. long below the
+mouth of the Eagle, with walls 2000-2500 ft. in height; the
+Grand Canyon of the Arkansas (8 m.) above Canyon City, with
+granite walls towering 2600 ft. above the boiling river at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page719" id="page719"></a>719</span>
+Royal Gorge; and the superb Black Canyon (15 m.) of the
+Gunnison and the Cimarron. But there are scores of others
+which, though less grand, are hardly less beautiful. The exquisite
+colour contrasts of the Cheyenne canyons near Colorado
+Springs, Boulder Canyon near the city of the same name, Red
+Cliff and Eagle River Canyons near Red Cliff, Clear Creek Canyon
+near Denver&mdash;with walls at places 1000 ft. in height&mdash;the
+Granite Canyon (11 m.) of the South Platte west of Florissant,
+and the fine gorge of the Rio de las Animas (1500 ft.), would be
+considered wonderful in any state less rich in still more marvellous
+scenery. One peculiar feature of the mountain landscapes
+are the mines. In districts like that of Cripple Creek their
+enormous ore &ldquo;dumps&rdquo; dot the mountain flanks like scores
+of vast ant-hills; and in Eagle River canyon their mouths, like
+dormer windows into the granite mountain roof, may be seen
+2000 ft. above the railway.</p>
+
+<p>Many parts of the railways among the mountains are remarkable
+for altitude, construction or scenery. More than a dozen
+mountain passes lie above 10,000 ft. Argentine Pass (13,000
+ft.), near Gray&rsquo;s Peak, is one of the highest wagon roads of the
+world; just east of Silverton is Rio Grande Pass, about 12,400
+ft. above sea-level, and in the Elk Mountains between Gunnison
+and Pitkin counties is Pearl Pass (12,715 ft.). Many passes
+are traversed by the railways, especially the splendid scenic
+route of the Denver and Rio Grande. Among the higher passes
+are Hoosier Pass (10,309 ft.) in the Park Range, and Hayden
+Divide (10,780) and Veta Pass (9390); both of these across the
+Sangre de Cristo range; the crossing of the San Miguel chain
+at Lizard Head Pass (10,250) near Rico; of the Uncompahgre
+at Dallas Divide (8977) near Ouray; of the Elk and Sawatch
+ranges at Fremont (11,320), Tennessee (10,229), and Breckenridge
+(11,470) passes, and the Busk Tunnel, all near Leadville;
+and Marshall Pass (10,846) above Salida. Perhaps finer than
+these for their wide-horizoned outlooks and grand surroundings
+are the Alpine Tunnel under the continental divide of the Lower
+Sawatch chain, the scenery of the tortuous line along the
+southern boundary in the Conejos and San Juan mountains,
+which are crossed at Cumbres (10,003 ft.), and the magnificent
+scenery about Ouray and on the Silverton railway over the
+shoulder of Red Mountain (attaining 11,235 ft.). Notable, too,
+is the road in Clear Creek Canyon&mdash;where the railway track coils
+six times upon itself above Georgetown at an altitude of
+10,000 ft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate of Colorado is exceptional for regularity
+and salubrity. The mean annual temperature for the state is
+about 46°. The mean yearly isothermals crossing the state are
+ordinarily 35° to 50° or 55° F. Their course, owing to the complex
+orography of the state, is necessarily extremely irregular,
+and few climatic generalizations can be made. It can be said,
+however, that the south-east is the warmest portion of the state,
+lying as it does without the mountains; that the north-central
+region is usually coldest; that the normal yearly rainfall for the
+entire state is about 15.5 in., with great local variations (rarely
+above 27 in.). Winds are constant and rather high (5 to 10 m.),
+and for many persons are the most trying feature of the climate.
+Very intense cold prevails of course in winter in the mountains,
+and intense heat (110° F. or more in the shade) is often experienced
+in summer, temperatures above 90° being very
+common. The locality of least annual thermometric range is
+Lake Moraine (10,268 ft. above the sea)&mdash;normally 91° F.; at
+other localities the range may be as great as 140°, and for the
+whole state of course even greater (155° or slightly more). The
+lowest monthly mean in 16 years (1887-1903) was 17.30. Nevertheless,
+the climate of Colorado is not to be judged severe, and
+that of the plains region is in many ways ideal. In the lowlands
+the snow is always slight and it disappears almost immediately,
+even in the very foothills of the mountains, as at Denver or
+Colorado Springs. However hot the summer day, its night is
+always cool and dewless. Between July and October there is
+little rain, day after day bringing a bright and cloudless sky.
+Humidity is moderate (annual averages for Grand Junction,
+Pueblo, Denver and Cheyenne, Wyo., for 6 <span class="sc">A.M.</span> about 50 to 66;
+for 6 <span class="sc">P.M.</span> 33 to 50); it is supposed to be increasing with the
+increasing settlement of the country. Sunshine is almost
+continuous, and splendidly intense. The maximum number of
+&ldquo;rainy&rdquo; days (with a rainfall of more than 0.01 in.) rarely
+approaches 100 at the most unfortunate locality; for the whole
+state the average of perfectly &ldquo;clear&rdquo; days is normally above
+50%, of &ldquo;partly cloudy&rdquo; above 30, of &ldquo;cloudy&rdquo; under 20,
+of &ldquo;rainy&rdquo; still less. At Denver, through 11 years, the actual
+sunlight was 70% of the possible; many other points are even
+more favoured; very many enjoy on a third to a half of the days
+of the year above 90% of possible sunshine. All through the
+year the atmosphere is so dry and light that meat can be preserved
+by the simplest process of desiccation. &ldquo;An air more
+delicious to breathe,&rdquo; wrote Bayard Taylor, &ldquo;cannot anywhere
+be found; it is neither too sedative nor too exciting, but has that
+pure, sweet, flexible quality which seems to support all one&rsquo;s
+happiest and healthiest moods.&rdquo; For asthmatic and consumptive
+troubles its restorative influence is indisputable.
+Along with New Mexico and Arizona, Colorado has become
+more and more a sanitarium for the other portions of the Union.
+Among the secondary hygienic advantages are the numerous
+mineral wells.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>&mdash;The life zones of Colorado are simple in
+arrangement. The boreal embraces the highest mountain
+altitudes; the transition belts it on both sides of the continental
+divide; the upper Sonoran takes in about the eastern
+half of the plains region east of the mountains, and is represented
+further by two small valley penetrations from Utah. Timber is
+confined almost wholly to the high mountain sides, the mountain
+valleys and the parks being for the most part bare. Nowhere
+is the timber large or dense. The timber-line on the mountains
+is at about 10,000 ft., and the snow line at about 11,000. It is
+supposed that the forests were much richer before the settlement
+of the state, which was followed by reckless consumption and
+waste, and the more terrible ravages of fire. In 1872-1876 the
+wooded area was estimated at 32% of the state&rsquo;s area. It is
+certainly much less now. The principal trees, after the yellow
+and lodgepole pines, are the red-fir, so-called hemlock and cedar,
+the Engelmann spruce, the cottonwood and the aspen (<i>Populus
+tremuloides</i>). In 1899 Federal forest reserves had been created,
+aggregating 4849 sq. m. in extent, and by 1910 this had been
+increased to 24,528 sq. m. The reserves cover altitudes of 7000
+to 14,000 ft. The rainfall is ample for their needs, but no other
+reserves in the country showed in 1900 such waste by fire and
+pillage. The minor flora of the country is exceedingly rich.
+In the plains the abundance of flowers, from spring to autumn,
+is amazing.</p>
+
+<p>Large game is still very abundant west of the continental
+divide. The great parks are a favourite range and shelter.
+Deer and elk frequent especially the mountains of the north-west,
+in Routt and Rio Blanco counties, adjoining the reservations
+of the Uncompahgre (White River Ute) and Uintah-Ute
+Indians&mdash;from whose depredations, owing to the negligence
+of Federal officials, the game of the state has suffered enormous
+losses. The bison have been exterminated. Considerable bands
+of antelope live in the parks and even descend to the eastern
+plains, and the mule-deer, the most common of large game, is
+abundant all through the mountains of the west. Grizzly or
+silver-tip, brown and black bears are also abundant in the same
+region. Rarest of all is the magnificent mountain sheep. Game
+is protected zealously, if not successfully, by the state, and it was
+officially estimated in 1898 that there were then probably 7000
+elk, as many mountain sheep, 25,000 antelope and 100,000 deer
+within its borders (by far the greatest part in Routt and Rio
+Blanco counties). Fish are not naturally very abundant, but
+the mountain brooks are the finest home for trout, and these
+as well as bass, cat-fish and some other varieties have been
+used to stock the streams.</p>
+
+<p><i>Soil.</i>&mdash;The soils of the lowlands are prevailing sandy loams,
+with a covering of rich mould. The acreage of improved lands
+in 1900 was returned by the federal census as 2,273,968, three
+times as much being unimproved; the land improved constituted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page720" id="page720"></a>720</span>
+3.4% of the state&rsquo;s area. The lands available for agriculture
+are the lowlands and the mountain parks and valleys.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking generally, irrigation is essential to successful cultivation,
+but wherever irrigation is practicable the soil proves
+richly productive. Irrigation ditches having been exempted
+from taxation in 1872, extensive systems of canals were soon
+developed, especially after 1880. The Constitution of Colorado
+declares the waters of its streams the property of the state,
+and a great body of irrigation law and practice has grown up
+about this provision. The riparian doctrine does not obtain in
+Colorado. In no part of the semi-arid region of the country are
+the irrigation problems so diverse and difficult. In 1903 there
+were, according to the governor, 10 canals more than 50 m. in
+length, 51 longer than 20 m., and hundreds of reservoirs. In
+1899 there were 7374 m. of main ditches. The average annual
+cost of water per acre was then estimated at about 79 cents.
+The acres under ditch in 1902 were greater (1,754,761) than in
+any other state; and the construction cost of the system was
+then $14,769,561 (an increase of 25.6% from 1899 to 1902).
+There are irrigated lands in every county. Their area increased
+8.9% in 1899-1902, and 80.9% from 1890 to 1900; in the
+latter year they constituted 70.9% of the improved farm-land
+of the state, as against 48.8 in 1890. The land added to the
+irrigated area in the decade was in 1890 largely worthless public
+domain; its value in 1900 was about $29,000,000. As a result
+of irrigation the Platte is often dry in eastern Colorado in the
+summer, and the Arkansas shrinks so below Pueblo that little
+water reaches Kansas. The water is almost wholly taken from
+the rivers, but underflow is also utilized, especially in San Luis
+Park. The South Platte is much the most important irrigating
+stream. Its valley included 660,495 acres of irrigated land in
+1902, no other valley having half so great an area. The diversion
+of the waters of the Arkansas led to the bringing of a suit against
+Colorado by Kansas in the United States Supreme Court in 1902,
+on the ground that such diversion seriously and illegally lessened
+the waters of the Arkansas in Kansas. In 1907 the Supreme
+Court of the United States declared that Colorado had diverted
+waters of the Arkansas, but, since it had not been shown that
+Kansas had suffered, the case was dismissed, without prejudice
+to Kansas, should it be injured in future by diversion of water
+from the river. The exhaustion, or alleged exhaustion, by
+irrigation in Colorado of the waters of the Rio Grande has raised
+international questions of much interest between Mexico and
+the United States, which were settled in 1907 by a convention
+pledging the United States to deliver 60,000 acre-feet of water
+annually in the bed of the Rio Grande at the Acequia Madre, just
+above Juarez, in case of drought this supply being diminished
+proportionately to the diminution in the United States. As a
+part of the plans of the national government for reclamation of
+land in the arid states, imposing schemes have been formulated
+for such work in Colorado, including a great reservoir on the
+Gunnison. One of the greatest undertakings of the national
+reclamation service is the construction of 77 m. of canal and of
+a six-mile tunnel, beneath a mountain, between the canyon of
+the Gunnison and the valley of the Uncompahgre, designed to
+make productive some 140,000 acres in the latter valley.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from mere watering, cultivation is in no way intensive.
+One of the finest farming regions is the lowland valley of the
+Arkansas. It is a broad, level plain, almost untimbered, given
+over to alfalfa, grains, vegetables and fruits. Sugar-beet culture
+has been found to be exceptionally remunerative in this valley
+as well as in those of the South Platte and Grand rivers. The
+growth of this interest has been since 1899 a marked feature in
+the agricultural development of the state; and in 1905, 1906
+and 1907 the state&rsquo;s product of beets and of sugar was far greater
+than that of any other state; in 1907, 1,523,303 tons of beets
+were worked&mdash;more than two-fifths of the total for the United
+States. There are various large sugar factories (in 1903, 9, and
+in 1907, 16), mainly in the north; also at Grand Junction and in
+the Arkansas valley. The total value of all farm property increased
+between 1880 and 1900 from $42,000,000 to $161,045,101
+and 45.9% from 1890 to 1900. In the latter year $49,954,311
+of this was in live-stock (increase 1890-1900, 121.1%), the
+remaining value in land with improvements and machinery.
+The total value of farm products in 1899 was $33,048,576; of
+this sum 97% was almost equally divided between crop products
+and animal products, the forests contributing the remainder.
+Of the various elements in the value of all farm produce as shown
+by the federal census of 1900, live-stock, hay and grains, and
+dairying represented 87.2%. The value of cereals ($4,700,271)&mdash;of
+which wheat and oats represent four-fifths&mdash;is much
+exceeded by that of hay and forage ($8,159,279 in 1899). Wheat
+culture increased greatly from 1890 to 1900. Flour made from
+Colorado wheat ranks very high in the market. As a cereal-producing
+state Colorado is, however, relatively unimportant;
+nor in value of product is its hay and forage crop notable, except
+that of alfalfa, which greatly surpasses that of any other state.
+In 1906 the state produced 3,157,136 bushels of Indian corn,
+valued at $1,578,568; 8,266,538 bushels of wheat, valued at
+$5,373,250; 5,962,394 bushels of oats, valued at $2,683,077;
+759,771 bushels of barley, valued at $410,276; 43,580 bushels
+of rye, valued at $24,405; and 1,596,542 tons of hay, valued at
+$15,167,149. The value of vegetable products, of fruits, and of
+dairy products was, relatively, equally small (only $7,346,415
+in 1899). Natural fruits are rare and practically worthless.
+Apples, peaches, plums, apricots, pears, cherries and melons
+have been introduced. The best fruit sections are the Arkansas
+valley, and in the western and south-western parts of the state.
+Melons are to some extent exported, and peaches also; the
+musk-melons of the Arkansas valley (Rocky Ford <span class="correction" title="amended from canteloups">Canteloupes</span>)
+being in demand all over the United States. The fruit industry
+dates practically from 1890. The dairy industry is rapidly
+increasing. In the holdings of neat cattle (1,453,971) and
+sheep (2,045,577) it ranked in 1900 respectively seventeenth and
+tenth among the states of the Union; in 1907, according to the
+<i>Yearbook</i> of the Department of Agriculture, there were in the
+state 1,561,712 neat cattle and 1,677,561 sheep. Stock-raising
+has always been important. The parks and mountain valleys are
+largely given over to ranges. The native grasses are especially
+adapted for fodder. The grama, buffalo and bunch varieties
+cure on the stem, and furnish throughout the winter an excellent
+ranging food. These native grasses, even the thin bunch varieties
+of dry hills, are surprisingly nutritious, comparing very favourably
+with cultivated grasses. Large areas temporarily devoted
+to cultivation with poor success, and later allowed to revert to
+ranges, have become prosperous and even noted as stock country.
+This is true of the sandhill region of eastern Colorado. The grass
+flora of the lowlands is not so rich in variety nor so abundant
+in quality as that of high altitudes. Before the plains were
+fenced large herds drifted to the south in the winter, but now
+sufficient hay and alfalfa are cut to feed the cattle during the
+storms, which at longest are brief. An account of Colorado
+agriculture would not be complete without mentioning the
+depredations of the grasshopper, which are at times extraordinarily
+destructive, as also of the &ldquo;Colorado Beetle&rdquo; (<i>Doryphora
+decemlineata</i>), or common potato-bug, which has extended
+its fatal activities eastward throughout the prairie states.</p>
+
+<p><i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;Colorado is pre-eminently a mineral region, and
+to this fact it owes its colonization. It possesses unlimited
+supplies, as yet not greatly exploited, of fine building stones,
+some oil and asphalt, and related bituminous products, a few
+precious and semi-precious stones (especially tourmalines,
+beryls and aquamarines found near Canyon near the Royal
+Gorge of the Arkansas river), rare opalized and jasperized
+wood (in the eastern part of the El Paso county), considerable
+wealth of lead and copper, enormous fields of bituminous coal,
+and enormous wealth of the precious metals. In the exploitation
+of the last there have been three periods: that before the discovery
+of the lead-carbonate silver ores of Leadville in 1879, in
+which period gold-mining was predominant; the succeeding years
+until 1894, in which silver-mining was predominant; and the
+period since 1894, in which gold has attained an overwhelming
+primacy. The two metals are found in more than 50 counties,
+San Miguel, Gilpin, Boulder, Clear Creek, Lake, El Paso and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page721" id="page721"></a>721</span>
+Teller being the leading producers. The Cripple Creek field in
+the last-named county is one of the most wonderful mining
+districts, past or present, of America. Leadville, in Lake county,
+is another. The district about Silverton (product 1870-1900
+about $35,000,000, principally silver and lead, and mostly after
+1881) has also had a remarkable development; and Creede, in
+the years of its brief prosperity, was a phenomenal silver-field.
+From 1858 up to and including 1904 the state produced, according
+to the State Bureau of Mines (whose statistics have since
+about 1890 been brought into practical agreement with those
+of the national government) a value of no less than $889,203,323
+in gold, silver, lead, copper and zinc at market prices.
+(If the value of silver be taken at coinage value this total
+becomes vastly greater.) The yield of gold was $353,913,695-$229,236,997
+from 1895 to 1904; of silver, $386,455,463-$115,698,366
+from 1889 to 1893; of lead, $120,742,674&mdash;its
+importance beginning in 1879; of copper, $17,879,446-$8,441,783
+from 1898 to 1904; and of zinc, $10,212,045&mdash;all
+this from 1902 to 1904. Silver-mining ceased to be highly
+remunerative beginning with the closing of the India mints and
+repeal of the Sherman Law in 1893; since 1900 the yield has
+shown an extraordinary decrease&mdash;in 1905 it was $6,945,581,
+and in 1907 $7,411,652&mdash;and it is said that as a result of the
+great fall in the market value of the metal the mines can now
+be operated only under the most favourable conditions and by
+exercise of extreme economy. In Lake county, for example,
+very much of the argentiferous ore that is too low for remunerative
+extraction (limit 1903 about $12.00 per ton) is used for
+fluxes.<a name="FnAnchor_1k" id="FnAnchor_1k" href="#Footnote_1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The copper output was of slight importance until 1889&mdash;$1,457,749
+in 1905, and $1,544,918 in 1907; and that of
+zinc was nil until 1902, when discoveries made it possible to
+rework for this metal enormous dumps of waste material about
+the mines, and in 1906 the zinc output was valued at $5,304,884.
+Lead products declined with silver, but a large output of low
+ores has continued at Leadville, and in 1905 the product was
+valued at $5,111,570, and in 1906 at $5,933,829. Up to 1895
+the gold output was below ten million dollars yearly; from
+1898 to 1904 it ran from 21.6 to 28.7 millions. In 1897 the
+product first exceeded that of California. In 1907 the value
+was $20,826,194. Silver values ran, in the years 1880-1902, from
+11.3 to 23.1 million dollars; and the quantities in the same years
+from 11.6 to 26.3 million ounces. In 1907 it was 11,229,776 oz.,
+valued at $7,411,652. Regarding again the total combined
+product of the above five metals, its growth is shown by these
+figures for its value in the successive periods indicated: 1858-1879,
+$77,380,140; 1879-1888, $220,815,709; 1889-1898,
+$322,878,362; 1899-1904, $268,229,112. From 1900 to 1903
+Colorado produced almost exactly a third of the total gold and
+silver (market value) product of the entire country.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, iron ores (almost all brown hematite) occur
+abundantly, and all material for making steel of excellent
+quality. But very little iron is mined, in 1907 only 11,714 long
+tons, valued at $21,085. Of much more importance are the
+manganiferous and the silver manganiferous ores, which are
+much the richest of the country. Their product trebled from
+1889 to 1903; and in 1907 the output of manganiferous ores
+amounted to 99,711 tons, valued at $251,207. A small amount
+is used for spiegeleisen, and the rest as a flux.</p>
+
+<p>The stratified rocks of the Great Plains, the Parks, and the
+Plateaus contain enormous quantities of coal. The coal-bearing
+rocks are confined to the Upper Cretaceous, and almost wholly
+to the Laramie formation. The main areas are on the two
+flanks of the Rockies, with two smaller fields in the Parks. The
+east group includes the fields of Canyon City (whose product is
+the ideal domestic coal of the western states), Raton and the
+South Platte; the Park group includes the Cones field and the
+Middle Park; the west group includes the Yampa, La Plata
+and Grand River fields&mdash;the last prospectively (not yet actually)
+the most valuable of all as to area and quality. About three-fifths
+of all the coal produced in the state comes from Las Animas
+and Huerfano counties. In 1901 about a third and in 1907 nearly
+two-fifths of the state&rsquo;s output came from Las Animas county.
+The Colorado fields are superior to those of all the other Rocky
+Mountain states in area, and in quality of product. In 1907
+Colorado ranked seventh among the coal-producing states of the
+Union, yielding 10,790,236 short tons (2.2% of the total for the
+United States). The total includes every variety from typical
+lignite to typical anthracite. The aggregate area of beds is
+estimated by the United States Geological Survey at 18,100
+sq. m. (seventh in rank of the states of the Union); and the accessible
+coal, on other authority, at 33,897,800,000 tons. The
+industry began in 1864, in which year 500 tons were produced.
+The product first exceeded one million tons in 1882, two in 1888,
+three in 1890, four in 1893, five in 1900. From 1897 to 1902
+the yield almost doubled, averaging 5,267,783 tons (lignite, semi-bituminous,
+bituminous, and a steady average production of
+60,038 tons of anthracite). About one-fifth of the total product
+is made into coke, the output of which increased from 245,746
+tons in 1890 to 1,421,579 tons (including a slight amount from
+Utah) in 1907; in 1907 the coke manufactured in Colorado
+(and Utah) was valued at $4,747,436. Colorado holds the same
+supremacy for coal and coke west of the Mississippi that Pennsylvania
+holds for the country as a whole. The true bituminous
+coal produced, which in 1897 was only equal to that of the
+lignitic and semi-bituminous varieties (1.75 million tons), had
+come by 1902 to constitute three-fourths (5.46 million tons)
+of the entire coal output. Much of the bituminous coal, especially
+that of the Canyon City field, is so hard and clean as to be
+little less desirable than anthracite; it is the favoured coal for
+domestic uses in all the surrounding states.</p>
+
+<p>Petroleum occurs in Fremont and Boulder counties. There
+have been very few flowing wells. The product increased from
+76,295 barrels in 1887 to above 800,000 in the early &rsquo;nineties;
+it fell thereafter, averaging about 493,269 barrels from 1899
+to 1903; in 1905 the yield was 376,238 barrels; and in 1907,
+331,851 barrels. In 1905 the state ranked eleventh, in 1907
+twelfth, in production of petroleum. It is mostly refined at
+Florence, the centre of the older field. The Boulder district
+developed very rapidly after 1902; its product is a high-grade
+illuminant with paraffin base. Asphalt occurs in the high north
+rim of Middle Park (c. 10,000 ft.). Tungsten is found in wolframite
+in Boulder county. In 1903 about 37,000 men were
+employed in the mines of Colorado. Labour troubles have
+been notable in state history since 1890.</p>
+
+<p>Mineral springs have already been mentioned. They are
+numerous and occur in various parts of the state. The most
+important are at Buena Vista, Ouray, Wagon Wheel Gap,
+Poncha or Poncho Springs (90°-185° F.), Canyon City, Manitou,
+Idaho Springs and Glenwood Springs (120°-140° F., highly
+mineralized). The last three places, all beautifully situated&mdash;the
+first at the base of Pike&rsquo;s Peak, the second in the Clear Creek
+Canyon, and the third at the junction of the Roaring Fork with
+the Grand river&mdash;have an especially high repute. In 1904 it was
+competently estimated that the mineral yield and agricultural
+yield of the state were almost equal&mdash;somewhat above
+$47,000,000 each.<a name="FnAnchor_2k" id="FnAnchor_2k" href="#Footnote_2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In 1900 only 4.6% of the population were engaged in manufactures.
+They are mainly dependent on the mining industry.
+There are many large smelters and reduction plants in the state,
+most of them at Denver, Leadville, Durango and Pueblo; at
+the latter place there are also blast-furnaces, a steel plant and
+rolling mills. Use is made of the most improved methods of
+treating the ore. The cyanide process, introduced about 1890,
+is now one of the most important factors in the utilization of
+low-grade and refractory gold and silver ores. The improved
+dioxide cyanide process was adopted about 1895. The iron
+and steel product&mdash;mainly at Pueblo&mdash;is of great importance,
+though relatively small as compared with that of some other
+states. Nevertheless, the very high rank in coal and iron
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page722" id="page722"></a>722</span>
+interests of the state among the states west of the Mississippi,
+the presence of excellent manganiferous ores, a central position
+for distribution, and much the best railway system of any mountain
+state, indicate that Colorado will almost certainly eventually
+entirely or at least largely control the trans-Mississippi
+market in iron and steel. The Federal census of 1900 credited
+the manufacturing establishments of the state with a capital
+of $62,825,472 and a product of $102,830,137 (increase 1890-1900,
+142.1%); of which output the gold, silver, lead and
+copper smelted amounted to $44,625,305. Of the other products,
+iron and steel ($6,108,295), flouring and grist-mill
+products ($4,528,062), foundry and machine-shop products
+($3,986,985), steam railway repair and construction work
+($3,141,602), printing and publishing, wholesale slaughtering
+and meat packing, malt liquors, lumber and timber, and coke
+were the most important. The production of beet sugar is
+relatively important, as more of it was produced in Colorado in
+1905 than in any other state; in 1906 334,386,000 &#8468; (out of
+a grand total for the United States of 967,224,000 &#8468;) were
+manufactured here; the value of the product in 1905 was
+$7,198,982, being 29.2% of the value of all the beet sugar
+produced in the United States in that year.<a name="FnAnchor_3k" id="FnAnchor_3k" href="#Footnote_3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Railways.</i>&mdash;On the 1st of January 1909 there were 5403.05 m.
+of railway in operation. The Denver Pacific, built from Cheyenne,
+Wyoming, reached Denver in June 1870, and the Kansas Pacific,
+from Kansas City, in August of the same year. Then followed
+the building of the Denver &amp; Rio Grande (1871), to which the
+earlier development of the state is largely due. The great Santa
+Fé (1873), Burlington (1882), Missouri Pacific (1887) and Rock
+Island (1888) systems reached Pueblo, Denver and Colorado
+Springs successively from the east. In 1888 the Colorado Midland
+started from Colorado Springs westward, up the Ute Pass,
+through the South Park to Leadville, and thence over the continental
+divide to Aspen and Glenwood Springs. The Colorado &amp;
+Southern, a consolidation of roads connecting Colorado with the
+south, has also become an important system.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The population of the state in 1870 was 39,864;
+in 1880, 194,327<a name="FnAnchor_4k" id="FnAnchor_4k" href="#Footnote_4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a>; in 1890, 413,249; in 1900, 539,700;
+and in 1910, 799,024. Of the 1900 total, males constituted
+54.7%, native born 83.1%. The 10,654 persons of coloured
+race included 1437 Indians and 647 Chinese and Japanese, the
+rest being negroes. Of 185,708 males twenty-one or more years
+of age 7689 (4.1%) were illiterate (unable to write), including
+a fourth of the Asiatics, a sixth of the Indians, one-nineteenth
+of the negroes, one in twenty-four of the foreign born, and one
+in 147.4 of the native born. Of 165 incorporated cities, towns
+and villages, 27 had a population exceeding 2000, and 7 a
+population of above 5000. The latter were Denver (133,859),
+Pueblo (28,137), Colorado Springs (21,085), Leadville (12,455),
+Cripple Creek (10,147), Boulder (6150) and Trinidad (5345).
+Creede, county-seat of Mineral county, was a phenomenal silver
+camp from its discovery in 1891 until 1893; in 1892 it numbered
+already 7000 inhabitants, but the rapid depreciation of silver
+soon thereafter caused most of its mines to be closed, and in 1910
+the population was only 741. Grand Junction (pop. in 1910,
+7754) derives importance from its railway connexions, and from
+the distribution of the fruit and other products of the irrigated
+valley of the Grand river. Roman Catholics are in the majority
+among church adherents, and Methodists and Presbyterians most
+numerous of the Protestant denominations. The South Ute
+Indian Reservation in the south of the state is the home of the
+Moache, Capote and Wiminuche Utes, of Shoshonean stock.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration.</i>&mdash;The first and only state constitution was
+adopted in 1876. It requires a separate popular vote on any
+amendment&mdash;though as many as six may be (since 1900) voted
+on at one election. Amendments have been rather freely
+adopted. The General Assemblies are biennial, sessions limited
+to 90 days (45 before 1884); state and county elections are held
+at the same time (since 1902). A declared intention to become
+a United States citizen ceased in 1902 to be sufficient qualification
+for voters, full citizenship (with residence qualifications)
+being made requisite. An act of 1909 provides that election
+campaign expenses shall be borne &ldquo;only by the state and by
+the candidates,&rdquo; and authorized appropriations for this purpose.
+Full woman suffrage was adopted in 1893 (by a majority of
+about 6000 votes). Women have served in the legislature and
+in many minor offices; they are not eligible as jurors. The
+governor may veto any separate item in an appropriation
+bill. The state treasurer and auditor may not hold office during
+two consecutive terms. Convicts are deprived of the privilege
+of citizenship only during imprisonment. County government is
+of the commissioner type. There is a State Voter&rsquo;s League
+similar to that of Illinois.</p>
+
+<p>In 1907 the total bonded debt of the state was $393,500; the
+General Assembly in 1906 authorized the issue of $900,000 worth
+of bonds to fund outstanding military certificates of indebtedness
+incurred in suppressing insurrections at Cripple Creek and
+elsewhere in 1903-1904. The question of issuing bonds for all
+outstanding warrants was decided to be voted on by the people
+in November 1908. Taxation has been very erratic. From
+1877 to 1893 the total assessment rose steadily from $3,453,946
+to $238,722,417; it then fell at least partly owing to the depreciation
+in and uncertain values of mining property, and from
+1894 to 1900 fluctuated between 192.2 and 216.8 million dollars;
+in 1901 it was raised to $465,874,288, and fluctuated in the
+years following; the estimated total assessment for 1907 was
+$365,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>Of charitable and reformatory institutions a soldiers&rsquo; and
+sailors&rsquo; home (1889) is maintained at Monte Vista, a school for
+the deaf and blind (1874) at Colorado Springs, an insane asylum
+(1879) at Pueblo, a home for dependent and neglected children
+(1895) at Denver, an industrial school for girls (1887) near
+Morrison, and for boys (1881) at Golden, a reformatory (1889)
+at Buena Vista, and a penitentiary (1868) at Canyon City.
+Denver was one of the earliest cities in the country to institute
+special courts for juvenile offenders; a reform that is widening
+in influence and promise. The parole system is in force in the
+state reformatory; and in the industrial school at Golden (for
+youthful offenders) no locks, bars or cells are used, the theory
+being to treat the inmates as &ldquo;students.&rdquo; The state has a
+parole law and an indeterminate-sentence law for convicts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img style="border:0; width:680px; height:505px"
+     src="images/img722.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+<p class="noind f90"><a href="images/img722a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p>The public school system of Colorado dates from 1861, when
+a school law was passed by the Territorial legislation; this law
+was superseded by that of 1876, which with subsequent amendments
+is still in force. In expenditure for the public schools
+per capita of total population from 1890 to 1903 Colorado was
+one of a small group of leading states. In 1906 there were
+187,836 persons of school age (from 6 to 21) in the state, and of
+these 144,007 were enrolled in the schools; the annual cost of
+education was $4.34 per pupil. In 1902-1903, 92.5% of persons
+from 5 to 18 years of age were enrolled in the schools. The
+institutions of the state are: the University of Colorado, at
+Boulder, opened 1877; the School of Mines, at Golden (1873);
+the Agricultural College, at Fort Collins (1870); the Normal
+School (1891) at Greeley; and the above-mentioned industrial
+schools. All are supported by special taxes and appropriations&mdash;the
+Agricultural College receiving also the usual aid from the
+federal government. Experiment stations in connexion with the
+college are maintained at different points. Colorado College
+(1874) at Colorado Springs, Christian but not denominational,
+and the University of Denver, Methodist, are on independent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page723" id="page723"></a>723</span>
+foundations. The United States maintains an Indian School at
+Grand Junction.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;According as one regards the Louisiana purchase
+as including or not including Texas to the Rio Grande (in the
+territorial meaning of the state of Texas of 1845), one may say
+that all of Colorado east of the meridian of the head of the Rio
+Grande, or only that north of the Arkansas and east of the
+meridian of its head, passed to the United States in 1803. At
+all events the corner between the Rio Grande and the Arkansas
+was Spanish from 1819 to 1845, when it became American
+territory as a part of the state of Texas; and in 1850, by a
+boundary arrangement between that state and the federal
+government, was incorporated in the public domain. The
+territory west of the divide was included in the Mexican cession
+of 1848. Within Colorado there are pueblos and cave dwellings
+commemorative of the Indian period and culture of the south-west.
+Coronado may have entered Colorado in 1540; there
+are also meagre records of indisputable Spanish explorations
+in the south in the latter half of the 18th century (friars Escallante
+and Dominguez in 1776). In 1806 Zebulon M. Pike,
+mapping the Arkansas and Red rivers of the Louisiana Territory
+for the government of the United States, followed the Arkansas
+into Colorado, incidentally discovering the famous peak that
+bears his name. In 1819 Major S. H. Long explored the valleys
+of the South Platte and Arkansas, pronouncing them uninhabited
+and uncultivable (as he also did the valley of the Missouri,
+whence the idea of the &ldquo;Great American Desert&rdquo;). His
+work also is commemorated by a famous summit of the Rockies.
+There is nothing more of importance in Colorado annals until
+1858. From 1804 to 1854 the whole or parts of Colorado were
+included, nominally, under some half-dozen territories carved
+successively out of the Trans-Mississippi country; but not one of
+these had any practical significance for an uninhabited land. In
+1828 (to 1832) a fortified trading post was established near La
+Junta in the Arkansas valley on the Santa Fé trail; in 1834-1836
+several private forts were erected on the Platte; in 1841 the
+first overland emigrants to the Pacific coast crossed the state,
+and in 1846-1847 the Mormons settled temporarily at the old
+Mexican town of Pueblo. John C. Frémont had explored the
+region in 1842-1843 (and unofficially in later years for railway
+routes), and gave juster reports of the country to the world than
+his predecessors. Commerce was tributary in these years to the
+(New) Mexican town of Taos.</p>
+
+<p>Colorado was practically an unknown country when in 1858
+gold was discovered in the plains, on the tributaries of the South
+Platte, near Denver. In 1859 various discoveries were made
+in the mountains. The history of Denver goes back to this time.
+Julesburg, in the extreme north-east corner, at the intersection
+of the Platte valley and the overland wagon route, became
+transiently important during the rush of settlers that followed.
+Emigration from the East was stimulated by the panic and hard
+times following 1857. During 1860, 1861 and 1862 there was
+a continuous stream of immigration. Denver (under its present
+name), Black Hawk, Golden, Central City, Mount Vernon and
+Nevada City were all founded in 1859; Breckenridge, Empire,
+Gold Hill, Georgetown and Mill City date from 1860 and 1861.
+The political development of the next few years was very complicated.
+&ldquo;Arapahoe County,&rdquo; including all Colorado, was
+organized as a part of Kansas Territory in 1858; but a delegate
+was also sent to Congress to work for the admission of an independent
+territory (called &ldquo;Jefferson&rdquo;). At the same time,
+early in 1860, a movement for statehood was inaugurated, a
+constitution being framed and submitted to the people, who
+rejected it, adopting later in the year a constitution of territorial
+government. Accordingly the Territory of Jefferson arose,
+assuming to rule over six degrees of latitude (37°-43°) and eight
+of longitude (102°-110°). Then there was the Kansas territorial
+government also, and under this a full county organization was
+maintained. Finally, peoples&rsquo; court, acting wholly without
+reference to Kansas, and with no more than suited them (some
+districts refusing taxes) to the local &ldquo;provisional&rdquo; legislature,
+secured justice in the mining country. The provisional legislature
+of the Territory of Jefferson maintained a wholly illegal
+but rather creditable existence somewhat precariously and
+ineffectively until 1861. Its acts, owing to the indifference of
+the settlers, had slight importance. Some, such as the first
+charter of Denver, were later re-enacted under the legal territorial
+government, organized by the United States in February 1861.
+Colorado City was the first capital, but was soon replaced by
+Golden, which was the capital from 1862 until 1868, when Denver
+was made the seat of government (in 1881 permanently, by vote
+of the people). In 1862 some Texas forces were defeated by
+Colorado forces in an attempt to occupy the territory for the
+Confederacy. From 1864 to 1870 there was trouble with the
+Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians. A sanguinary attack on an
+Indian camp in Kiowa county in 1864 is known as the Sand
+Creek Massacre. In 1867 the Republican party had prepared
+for the admission of Colorado as a state, but the enabling act was
+vetoed by President Johnson, and statehood was not gained
+until 1876. Finally, under a congressional enabling act of the
+3rd of March 1875, a constitution was framed by a convention
+at Denver (20th of December 1875 to 14th of March 1876) and
+adopted by the people on the 1st of July 1876. The admission
+of Colorado to the Union was thereupon proclaimed on the 1st
+of August 1876.</p>
+
+<p>From this time on the history of the state was long largely
+that of her great mining camps. After 1890 industrial conditions
+were confused and temporarily set greatly backward
+by strikes and lockouts in the mines, particularly in 1894, 1896-1897
+and 1903-1904, several times threatening civil war and
+necessitating the establishment of martial law. Questions of
+railways, of franchises, union scales and the recognition of the
+union in contracts, questions of sheep and cattle interests,
+politics, civic, legal and industrial questions, all entered into
+the economic troubles of these years. The Colorado &ldquo;labour
+wars&rdquo; were among the most important struggles between labour
+and capital, and afforded probably the most sensational episodes
+in the story of all labour troubles in the United States in these
+years. A state board of arbitration was created in 1896, but
+its usefulness was impaired by an opinion of the state attorney-general
+(in 1901) that it could not enforce subpoenas, compel
+testimony or enforce decisions. A law establishing an eight-hour
+day for underground miners and smelter employees (1899)
+was unanimously voided by the state supreme court, but in 1902
+the people amended the constitution and ordered the general
+assembly to re-enact the law for labourers in mines, smelters and
+dangerous employments. Following the repeal of the Sherman
+Law and other acts and tendencies unfavourable to silver coinage
+in 1893 and thereafter, the silver question became the dominant
+issue in politics, resulting in the success of the Populist-Democratic
+fusion party in three successive elections, and permanently
+and greatly altering prior party organizations.</p>
+
+<p>The governors of Colorado have been as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Territorial.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">W. Gilpin</td> <td class="tcc rb">1861</td> <td class="tcl">E. M. McCook</td> <td class="tcc">1869</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">J. Evans</td> <td class="tcc rb">1862</td> <td class="tcl">S. H. Elbert</td> <td class="tcc">1873</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A. Cummings</td> <td class="tcc rb">1865</td> <td class="tcl">E. M. McCook</td> <td class="tcc">1874</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A. C. Hunt</td> <td class="tcc rb">1867</td> <td class="tcl">J. L. Routt</td> <td class="tcc">1875</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>State.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">J. L. Routt</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1876</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">F. W. Pitkin</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">1879</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">J. B. Grant</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td> <td class="tcl">1883</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">B. H. Eaton</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1885</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A. Adams</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td> <td class="tcl">1887</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">J. A. Cooper</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1890</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">J. L. Routt</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">1891</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">D. H. Waite</td> <td class="tcl">Populist</td> <td class="tcl">1893</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A. W. M&rsquo;Intire</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1895</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A. Adams</td> <td class="tcl">Dem.-Populist</td> <td class="tcl">1897</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">C. S. Thomas</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">1899</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">J. B. Orman</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">1901</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">J. H. Peabody</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1903</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A. Adams</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td> <td class="tcl">1905<a name="FnAnchor_5k" id="FnAnchor_5k" href="#Footnote_5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Jesse F. M&rsquo;Donald</td> <td class="tcl">Republican</td> <td class="tcl">1905<a name="FnAnchor_5ka" id="FnAnchor_5ka" href="#Footnote_5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Henry A. Buchtel</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">1907</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">John H. Shafroth</td> <td class="tcl">Democrat</td> <td class="tcl">1909</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page724" id="page724"></a>724</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;For <i>topography and general description</i>: Hayden
+and assistants, reports on <i>Colorado</i>, U.S. Department of the Interior,
+Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (13 vols.,
+1867-1878), various reports, especially annual report for 1874;
+Captain J. C. Frémont, <i>Report of the Exploring Expedition to the
+Rocky Mountains in 1842</i>, published 1845 as Congressional document
+28th Congress, 2nd Session, House Executive Document No. 166,
+and various other editions. Other early exploring reports are:
+<i>The Expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike ... Through Louisiana
+Territory and in New Spain in the Years 1805-6-7</i>, edited by E. Coues
+(3 vols., New York, 1895); <i>Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh
+to the Rocky Mountains, 1819-20, under the Command of Major S. H.
+Long; compiled ... by Edwin James</i> (3 vols., London; 2 vols.,
+Philadelphia, 1823); Captain H. Stansbury, <i>Exploration of the
+Valley of the Great Salt Lake</i> (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1852; also as
+Senate Executive Document No. 3, 32nd Congress Special Session);
+Francis Parkman, <i>The California and Oregon Trail</i> (New York,
+1849; revised ed., Boston, 1892),&mdash;a narrative of personal experience,
+as are the two following books: Bayard Taylor, <i>Colorado;
+A Summer Trip</i> (New York, 1867); Samuel Bowles, <i>The Switzerland
+of America, A Summer Vacation in Colorado</i> (Springfield, Mass.,
+1869); F. Fossett, <i>Colorado; A Historical, Descriptive and Statistical
+Work on the Rocky Mountain Gold and Silver Region</i> (Denver, 1878;
+New York, 1879, 2nd ed., 1880).</p>
+
+<p>On <i>fauna and flora</i>: United States Biological Survey, <i>Bulletins</i>
+(especially No. 10), &amp;c.; the <i>Biennial Report</i> of the State Game and
+Fish Commissioner; United States Geological Survey, <i>10th Annual
+Report</i>, pt. v., and 20th A.R., pt. 5, and various publications of the
+United States Forestry Division for forest and forest reserves;
+Porter and Coulter, <i>Synopsis of the Flora of Colorado</i> (1879); and
+scattered papers in scientific periodicals. On <i>climate</i>: United States
+Department of Agriculture, <i>Colorado Climate and Crop Service</i>
+(monthly). On <i>soil and agriculture</i>: <i>Annual Report</i> of the State
+Board of Agriculture (since 1878), of the State Agricultural College,
+Agricultural Experiment Station (since 1887), and of the State
+Board of Horticulture; <i>Biennial Report</i> of the State Board of Land
+Commissioners (since 1879); publications of the United States
+Department of Agriculture, various bulletins on agrostology, water
+supply and irrigation, &amp;c. (See Department bibliographies);
+United States Census, 1900 (States), <i>Bulletin</i> 177, &ldquo;Agriculture in
+Colorado&rdquo; (Special), <i>Bulletin</i> 16, &ldquo;Irrigation in the United States&rdquo;
+(1902), &amp;c.; United States Geological Survey, various materials,
+consult bibliographies in its Bulletins 100, 177, 215, 301, &amp;c. On
+<i>manufactures</i>: publications of United States Census, 1900, and the
+special census of manufactures, 1905. On <i>mineral industries</i>:
+United States Geological Survey, <i>Annual Report</i>, annual volume
+on &ldquo;Mineral Resources&rdquo;; also the annual <i>Mineral Industry</i> (Rothwell&rsquo;s
+New York-London); Colorado State Bureau of Mines,
+<i>Biennial Report</i>, Inspector of Coal Mines, <i>Biennial Report</i> (since
+1883-1884); and an enormous quantity of information in the
+publications of the United States Geological Survey. For labour
+troubles see below. On <i>railways</i>, see annual <i>Statistics of Railways</i>
+of the United States Interstate Commerce Commission, and Poor&rsquo;s
+Manual (Annual, New York). <i>Rivers</i>, see <i>Index to Reports of the
+Chief of Engineers</i>, United States Army (3 vols., 1900, covering
+1866-1900); publications United States Geological Survey. On
+<i>population</i>: United States Census, 1900. <i>Administration</i>: J. W.
+Mills&rsquo; <i>Annotated Statutes of the State of Colorado ...</i> (2 vols.,
+Denver, 1891; vol. iii. 1896); Helen L. Sumner, <i>Equal Suffrage in
+Colorado</i> (New York, 1909,); J. E. Snook, <i>Colorado History and
+Government</i> (Denver, 1904), is a reliable school epitome.</p>
+
+<p>On <i>history</i>: F. L. Paxson, &ldquo;A Preliminary Bibliography of
+Colorado History,&rdquo; being vol. iii., No. 3, of <i>University of Colorado
+Studies</i> (June 1906); H. H. Bancroft, <i>History of ... Nevada,
+Colorado and Wyoming, 1540-1888</i> (San Francisco, 1890); on
+<i>labour conditions and troubles</i> consult: <i>Reports</i> of the State Bureau
+of Labour Statistics (since 1892); <i>Annual Reports</i> of the State Board
+of Arbitration (since 1898); publications of United States Bureau
+of Labour (bibliographies); also especially Senate Document 122,
+58th Congress, 3rd Session, covering the years 1880-1904. See also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cripple Creek</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leadville</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1k" id="Footnote_1k" href="#FnAnchor_1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The market value of silver varied in the years 1870-1885 from
+$1.32 to $1.065 an ounce; 1886-1893, $0.995 to $0.782; 1894-1904,
+$0.630 to $0.5722.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2k" id="Footnote_2k" href="#FnAnchor_2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The mineral yield for 1907, according to <i>The Mineral Resources
+of the United States</i>, 1907, amounted to $71,105,128.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3k" id="Footnote_3k" href="#FnAnchor_3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The special census of manufactures of 1905 was concerned only
+with the manufacturing establishments of the state conducted under
+the so-called factory system. The capital invested in such establishments
+was $107,663,500, and the product was valued at $100,143,999.
+The corresponding figures for 1900 reduced to the same standard
+for purposes of comparison were $58,172,865 and $89,067,879.
+Thus during the five years the capital invested in factories increased
+85.1%, and the factory product 12.4%. The increase in product
+would undoubtedly have been much greater but for the labour
+disturbances (described later in the article), which occurred during
+this interval. Of the total product in 1905 more than four-fifths
+were represented by the smelting of lead, copper and zinc ores,
+the manufacture of iron and steel, the production of coke, and the
+refining of petroleum. The value of the flour and grist-mill product
+was $5,783,421.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4k" id="Footnote_4k" href="#FnAnchor_4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Census figures before 1890 do not include Indians on reservations.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5k" id="Footnote_5k" href="#FnAnchor_5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Adams was inaugurated on the 10th of January, having been
+elected on the return of the vote, which had been notoriously corrupted
+in Denver and elsewhere. The Republican legislature, after
+investigating the election and upon receiving from Peabody a written
+promise that he would resign in twenty-four hours, declared on the
+16th of March that Peabody was elected. His resignation on the
+17th of March made Lieutenant-Governor M&rsquo;Donald governor of the
+state.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLORADO RIVER<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span>, a stream in the south of the Argentine
+Republic. It has its sources on the eastern slopes of the Andes
+in the lat. of the Chilean volcano Tinguiririca (about 34° 48&prime; S.),
+and pursues a general E.S.E. course to the Atlantic, where
+it discharges through several channels of a delta extending
+from lat. 39° 30&prime; to 39° 30&prime; S. Its total length is about 620 m.,
+of which about 200 m. from the coast up to Pichemahuida is
+navigable for vessels of 7 ft. draft. It has been usually described
+as being formed by the confluence of the Grande and Barrancas,
+but as the latter is only a small stream compared with the
+Grande it is better described as a tributary, and the Grande as
+a part of the main river under another name. After leaving the
+vicinity of the Andes the Colorado flows through a barren, arid
+territory and receives no tributary of note except the Curaco,
+which has its sources in the Pampa territory and is considered
+to be part of the ancient outlet of the now closed lacustrine basin
+of southern Mendoza. The bottom lands of the Colorado in its
+course across Patagonia are fertile and wooded, but their area
+is too limited to support more than a small, scattered population.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLORADO RIVER<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span>, a stream in the south-west of the United
+States of America, draining a part of the high and arid plateau
+between the Rocky mountains and the Sierra Nevada in California.
+The light rainfall scarcely suffices over much of the
+river&rsquo;s course to make good the loss by evaporation from the
+waters drained from mountain snows at its source. Its headwaters
+are known as the Green river, which rises in north-west
+Wyoming and after a course of some 700 m. due south unites
+in south-east Utah with the Grand river, flowing down from
+Colorado, to form the main trunk of the Colorado proper. The
+Green cuts its way through the Uinta mountains of Wyoming;
+then flowing intermittently in the open, it crosses successive
+uplifts in a series of deep gorges, and flows finally at the foot of
+canyon walls 1500 ft. high near its junction with the Grand.</p>
+
+<p>The Colorado in its course below the junction has formed
+a region that is one of the most wonderful of the world, not only
+for its unique and magnificent scenery, but also because it affords
+the most remarkable example known of the work of differential
+weathering and erosion by wind and water and the exposure
+of geologic strata on an enormous scale. Above the Paria the
+river flows through scenery comparatively tame until it reaches
+the plateau of the Marble Canyon, some 60 m. in length. The
+walls here are at first only a few score of feet in height, but
+increase rapidly to almost 5000 ft. At its southern end is the
+Little Colorado. Above this point eleven rivers with steep
+mountain gradients have joined either the Green or the Grand
+or their united system. The Little Colorado has cut a trench
+1800 ft. deep into the plateau in the last 27 m. as it approaches
+the Colorado, and empties into it 2625 ft. above the sea. Here
+the Colorado turns abruptly west directly athwart the folds
+and fault line of the plateau, through the Grand Canyon (<i>q.v.</i>)
+of the Colorado, which is 217 m. long and from 4 to 20 m. wide
+between the upper cliffs. The walls, 4000 to 6000 ft. high, drop
+in successive escarpments of 500 to 1600 ft., banded in splendid
+colours, toward the gloomy narrow gorge of the present river.
+Below the confluence of the Virgin river of Nevada the Colorado
+abruptly turns again, this time southward, and flows as the
+boundary between Arizona and California and in part between
+Arizona and Nevada, and then through Mexican territory, some
+450 m. farther to the Gulf of California. Below the Black
+Canyon the river lessens in gradient, and in its lower course flows
+in a broad sedimentary valley&mdash;a distinct estuarine plain extending
+northward beyond Yuma&mdash;and the channel through much
+of this region is bedded in a dyke-like embankment lying above
+the flood-plain over which the escaping water spills in time of
+flood. This dyke cuts off the flow of the river to the remarkable
+low area in southern California known as the Salton Sink, or
+Coahuila Valley, the descent to which from the river near Yuma
+is very much greater than the fall in the actual river-bed from
+Yuma to the gulf. In the autumn of 1904, the diversion flow
+from the river into a canal heading in Mexican territory a few
+miles below Yuma, and intended for irrigation of California
+south of the Sink, escaped control, and the river, taking the canal
+as a new channel, recreated in California a great inland sea&mdash;to
+the bed of which it had frequently been turned formerly, for
+example, in 1884 and 1891&mdash;and for a time practically abandoned
+its former course through Mexican territory to the Gulf
+of California. But it was effectively dammed in the early part
+of 1907 and returned to its normal course, from which, however,
+there was still much leakage to Salton Sea; in July 1907 the
+permanent dam was completed. From the Black Canyon to the
+sea the Colorado normally flows through a desert-like basin,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page725" id="page725"></a>725</span>
+to the west of which, in Mexico, is Laguna Maquata (or Salada),
+lying in the so-called Pattie Basin, which was formerly a part
+of the Gulf of California, and which is frequently partially
+flooded (like Coahuila Valley) by the delta waters of the Colorado.
+Of the total length of the Colorado, about 2200 m., 500 m. or
+more from the mouth are navigable by light steamers, but
+channel obstacles make all navigation difficult at low water,
+and impossible about half the year above Mojave. The whole
+area drained by the river and its tributaries is about 225,000
+sq. m.; and it has been estimated by Major J. W. Powell that
+in its drainage basin there are fully 200,000 sq. m. that have
+been degraded on an average 6000 ft. It is still a powerful
+eroding stream in the canyon portion, and its course below the
+canyons has a shifting bed much obstructed by bars built of
+sediment carried from the upper course. The desert country
+toward the mouth is largely a sandy or gravelly aggradation
+plain of the river. The regular floods are in May and June.
+Others, due to rains, are rare. The rise of the water at such
+times is extraordinarily rapid. Enormous drift is left in the
+canyons 30 or 40 ft. above the normal level. The valley near
+Yuma is many miles wide, frequently inundated, and remarkably
+fertile; it is often called the &ldquo;Nile of America&rdquo; from its
+resemblance in climate, fertility, overflows and crops. These
+alluvial plains are covered with a dense growth of mesquite,
+cottonwood, willow, arrowwood, quelite and wild hemp. Irrigation
+is essential to regular agriculture. There is a fine delta
+in the gulf. The Colorado is remarkable for exceedingly high
+tides at its mouth and for destructive bores.</p>
+
+<p>In 1540, the second year that Spaniards entered Arizona,
+they discovered the Colorado. Hernando de Alarcon co-operating
+with F. V. de Coronado, explored with ships the Gulf of
+California and sailed up the lower river; Melchior Diaz, marching
+along the shores of the gulf, likewise reached the river; and
+Captain Gárcia López de Cárdenas, marching from Zuñi, reached
+the Grand Canyon, but could not descend its walls. In 1604
+Juan de Oñate crossed Arizona from New Mexico and descended
+the Santa Maria, Bill Williams and Colorado to the gulf. The
+name Colorado was first applied to the present Colorado Chiquito,
+and probably about 1630 to the Colorado of to-day. But up
+to 1869 great portions of the river were still unknown. James
+White, a miner, in 1867, told a picturesque story (not generally
+accepted as true) of making the passage of the Grand Canyon
+on the river. In 1869, and in later expeditions, the feat was
+accomplished by Major J. W. Powell. There have been since
+then repeated explorations and scientific studies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. E. Dutton, &ldquo;Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon,&rdquo; <i>U.S.
+Geological Survey, Monograph II</i>. (1882); J. W. Powell, <i>Exploration
+of the Colorado River</i> (Washington, 1875), and <i>Canyons of the Colorado</i>
+(Meadville, Pa. 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, <i>Romance of the Colorado
+River</i> (New York, 1902), and <i>Canyon Voyage</i> (1908); G. W. James,
+<i>Wonders of the Colorado Desert</i> (2 vols., Boston, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLORADO SPRINGS<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of El Paso
+county, Colorado, U.S.A., about 75 m. S. of Denver. Pop.
+(1890) 11,140; (1900) 21,085, of whom 2300 were foreign-born;
+(1910) 29,078. The city is served by the Atchison, Topeka
+&amp; Santa Fè, the Denver &amp; Rio Grande, the Chicago, Rock Island
+&amp; Pacific (of which the city is a terminus), the Colorado &amp;
+Southern, the Colorado Springs &amp; Cripple Creek District (controlled
+by the Colorado &amp; Southern), and the Colorado Midland
+railways, of which the first three are continental systems.
+Continuous on the west with Colorado Springs is Colorado City
+(pop. in 1900, 2914), one of the oldest settlements of Colorado,
+and the first capital (1861). Colorado Springs is superbly
+situated where the Rocky Mountains rise from the great plains
+of the prairie states, surrounded on all sides by foothills save
+in the south-east, where it is open to the prairie. To the south
+of the mesa (tableland) on which it lies is the valley of Fountain
+Creek. To the west is the grand background of the canyon-riven
+Rampart range, with Pike&rsquo;s Peak (<i>q.v.</i>) dominating a half-dozen
+other peaks (among them Cameron Cone, Mt. Rosa, Cheyenne
+Mt.) 9000 to 12,000 ft. in height. Monument Creek traverses
+the city. The streets are of generous width (100-140 ft.), and are
+well shaded by trees. There are several fine parks. The city is
+the seat of a state asylum for the deaf, dumb and blind, of a
+printers&rsquo; home for union men, which was endowed in 1892 by
+Anthony J. Drexel and George W. Childs, and of Colorado
+College (1874), one of the leading educational institutions of
+the Rocky Mountain states, and the oldest institution for higher
+education in the state. The college is coeducational and non-sectarian.
+In 1908 it had a permanent endowment of about
+$425,000, a faculty of 46 and 607 students; the library contained
+40,000 bound volumes and as many pamphlets. The
+departments of the institution are a college of arts; schools of
+engineering (1903), music, and (1906) forestry; and the Cutler
+Academy, a preparatory school under the control of the college.
+In 1905 Gen. W. J. Palmer (1836-1909) and W. A. Bell gave to
+the college Manitou Park, a tract of forest land covering about
+13,000 acres and situated about 20 m. from Colorado Springs.</p>
+
+<p>Bright sunshine and a pleasant climate (mean annual temperature
+about 48° F., rainfall 14 in., falling almost wholly from
+April to September, relative humidity 59), combined with
+beautiful scenery, have made the city a favourite health resort
+and place of residence. Land deeds for city property have
+always excluded saloons. The municipality owns and operates
+the water system, water being drawn from lakes near Pike&rsquo;s
+Peak. The scenery about the city is remarkable. Manitou
+(6100-6300 ft.) a popular summer resort, lies about 6 m. (by
+rail) north-west of Colorado Springs, in a glen at the opening
+of Ute Pass (so-named because it was formerly used by the Ute
+Indians), with the mountains rising from its edge. Its springs
+of soda and iron belong to the class of weak compound carbonated
+soda waters. In the neighbourhood are the Cave of the
+Winds, the Grand Caverns, charming glens, mountain lakes and
+picturesque canyons; and the Garden of the Gods (owned by
+the city)&mdash;approached between two tremendous masses of red
+rock 330 ft. high, and strewn (about 500 acres) with great rocks
+and ridges of brightly coloured sandstone, whose grotesque shapes
+and fantastic arrangement have suggested a playground of
+superhuman beings. At the southern end of the Rampart
+range is Cheyenne Mt. (9407 ft.), on whose slope was buried
+Helen Hunt Jackson (&ldquo;H.H.&rdquo;), who has left many pictures of
+this country in her stories. The two Cheyenne Canyons, with
+walls as high as 1000 ft. and beautiful falls, and the road
+over the mountain side toward Cripple Creek, afford exquisite
+views. Monument Park (10 m. N.) is a tract of fantastically
+eroded sandstone rocks, similar to those in the Garden of the
+Gods.</p>
+
+<p>In 1859 a winter mining party coming upon the sunny valley
+near the present Manitou, near the old Fontaine-qui-Bouille,
+settled &ldquo;El Dorado.&rdquo; Colorado City is practically on the same
+site. In 1870, as part of the town development work of the
+Denver &amp; Rio Grande railway, of which General W. J. Palmer
+was the president, a land company founded Colorado Springs.
+In 1872 Manitou (first La Fontaine) was founded. Colorado
+Springs was laid out in 1871, was incorporated in 1872, and was
+first chartered as a city in 1878. A new charter (May 1909)
+provided for the recall of elective officials. A road over the Ute
+Pass to South Park and Leadville was built, and at one time
+about 12,000 horses and mules were employed in freighting to
+the Leadville camps. The Chicago, Rock Island &amp; Pacific railway
+reached the city in 1888. The greatest part of the Cripple
+Creek mining properties is owned in Colorado Springs, where the
+exchange is one of the greatest in the world.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOSSAE<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span>, once the great city of south-west Phrygia, was
+situated on rising ground (1150 ft.) on the left bank of the
+Lycus (<i>Churuk Su</i>), a tributary of the Maeander, at the upper
+end of a narrow gorge 2½ m. long, where the river runs between
+cliffs from 50 to 60 ft. high. It stood on the great trade route
+from Sardis to Celaenae and Iconium, and was a large, prosperous
+city (Herod, vii. 30; Xenophon, <i>Anab.</i> i. 2, § 6), until it was
+ruined by the foundation of Laodicea in a more advantageous
+position. The town was celebrated for its wool, which was
+dyed a purple colour called <i>colossinus</i>. Colossae was the seat
+of an early Christian church, the result of St Paul&rsquo;s activity
+at Ephesus, though perhaps actually founded by Epaphras.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page726" id="page726"></a>726</span>
+The church, to which St Paul wrote a letter, was mainly composed
+of mingled Greek and Phrygian elements deeply imbued
+with fantastic and fanatical mysticism. Colossae lasted until
+the 7th and 8th centuries, when it was gradually deserted under
+pressure of the Arab invasions. Its place was taken by Khonae
+(<i>Khonas</i>)&mdash;a strong fortress on a rugged spur of Mt. Kadmus,
+3 m. to the south, which became a place of importance during
+the wars between the Byzantines and Turks, and was the
+birthplace of the historian, Nicetas Khoniates. The worship of
+angels alluded to by St Paul (Col. ii. 18), and condemned in the
+4th century by a council at Laodicea, reappears in the later
+worship of St Michael, in whose honour a celebrated church,
+destroyed by the Seljuks in the 12th century, was built on the
+right bank of the Lycus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir W. M. Ramsay, <i>Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia</i>, vol. i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOSSAL CAVERN<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span>, a cave in Kentucky, U.S.A., the main
+entrance of which is at the foot of a steep hill beyond Eden
+Valley, and 1½ m. from Mammoth Cave. It is connected with
+what has long been known as the Bed Quilt Cave. Several
+entrances found by local explorers were rough and difficult.
+They were closed when the property was bought in 1896 by the
+Louisville &amp; Nashville railway and a new approach made as
+indicated on the accompanying map. From the surface to the
+floor is 240 ft.; under Chester Sandstone and in the St Louis
+Limestone. Fossil corals fix the geological age of the rock.
+The temperature is uniformly 54° Fahr., and the atmosphere
+is optically and chemically pure. Lovely incrustations alternate
+with queer and grotesque figures. There are exquisite gypsum
+rosettes and intricately involved helictites.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:520px; height:650px"
+     src="images/img726.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Tremendous forces have been at work, suggesting earthquakes
+and eruptions; but really all is due to the chemical and mechanical
+action of water. The so-called &ldquo;Ruins of Carthage&rdquo; fill a
+hall 400 ft. long by 100 ft. wide and 30 ft. high, whose flat roof
+is a vast homogeneous limestone block. Isolated detached
+blocks measure from 50 to 100 ft. in length. Edgar Vaughan
+and W. L. Marshall, civil engineers, surveyed every part of the
+cave. Vaughan&rsquo;s Dome is 40 ft. wide, 300 ft. long, and 79 ft.
+high. Numerous other domes exist, and many deep pits. The
+grandest place of all is the Colossal Dome, which used to be
+entered only from the apex by windlass and a rope reaching
+135 ft. to the floor. This is now used only for illumination by
+raising and lowering a fire-basket. The present entrance is by a
+gateway buttressed by alabaster shafts, one of which, 75 ft.
+high, is named Henry Clay&rsquo;s Monument. The dome walls arise
+in a series of richly tinted rings, each 8 or 10 ft. thick, and each
+fringed by stalactites. The symmetry is remarkable, and the
+reverberations are strangely musical. The Pearly Pool, in a
+chamber near a pit 86 ft. deep, glistens with countless cave
+pearls. The route beyond is between rows of stately shafts,
+and ends in a copious chalybeate spring. Blind flies, spiders,
+beetles and crickets abound; and now and then a blind crawfish
+darts through the waters; but as compared with many caverns
+the fauna and flora are not abundant. It is conjectured, not
+without some reason, that there is a connexion, as yet undiscovered,
+between the Colossal and the Mammoth caves. It
+seems certain that Eden Valley, which now lies between them,
+is a vast &ldquo;tumble-down&rdquo; of an immense cavern that formerly
+united them into one.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. C. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span>, the twelfth book of the
+New Testament, the authorship of which is ascribed to the
+Apostle Paul. Colossae, like the other Phrygian cities of
+Laodicea and Hierapolis, had not been visited by Paul, but owed
+its belief in Jesus Christ to Epaphras, a Colossian, who had been
+converted by Paul, perhaps in Ephesus, and had laboured not
+only in his native city but also in the adjacent portions of the
+Lycus valley,&mdash;a Christian in whom Paul reposed the greatest
+confidence as one competent to interpret the gospel of whose
+truth Paul was convinced (i. 7; iv. 12, 13). This Epaphras,
+like the majority of the Colossians, was a Gentile. It is probable,
+however, both from the letter itself and from the fact that
+Colossae was a trade centre, that Jews were there with their
+synagogues (cf. also Josephus, <i>Ant.</i> xii. 149). And it is further
+probable that some of the Gentiles, who afterwards became
+Christians, were either Jewish proselytes or adherents who paid
+reverence to the God of the Jews. At all events, the letter
+indicates a sensitiveness on the part of the Christians not only
+to oriental mysticism and theosophy (cf. Sir W. M. Ramsay,
+<i>Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia</i>, and <i>Church in the Roman
+Empire</i>), but also to the Judaism of the Diaspora.</p>
+
+<p>Our first definite knowledge of the Colossian Church dates
+from the presence of Epaphras in Rome in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 62-64 (or <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+56-58), when Paul was a prisoner. He arrived with news,
+perhaps with a letter (J. R. Harris, <i>Expositor</i>, Dec. 1898, pp.
+404 ff.), touching the state of religion in Colossae. Paul learns,
+to his joy, of their faith, hope and love; of the order and stability
+of their faith; and of their reception of Christ Jesus the Lord
+(i. 4, 8; ii. 5-7). He sees no sign of an attack upon him or his
+gospel. On the contrary, loyalty to him and sympathy with
+him in his sufferings are everywhere manifest (i. 9, 24; ii. 2;
+iv. 8); and the gospel of Christ is advancing here as elsewhere
+(i. 6). At the same time he detects a lack of cheerfulness and a
+lack of spiritual understanding in the Church. The joy of the
+gospel, expressing itself in songs and thanksgivings, is damped
+(iii. 15, 16), and, above all, the message of Christ does not
+dwell richly enough in them. Though the believers know the
+grace of God they are not filled with a knowledge of his will,
+so that their conduct is lacking in that strength and joy and
+perfection, that richness of the fulness of knowledge expected
+of those who had been made full in Christ (i. 6, 9-11, 28; ii.
+2, 7, 10). The reason for this, Paul sees, is the influence of the
+claim made by certain teachers in Colossae that the Christians,
+in order to attain unto and be assured of <i>full</i> salvation, must
+supplement Paul&rsquo;s message with their own fuller and more
+perfect wisdom, and must observe certain rites and practices
+(ii. 16, 21, 23) connected with the worship of angels (ii. 18, 23)
+and elementary spirits (ii. 8, 20).</p>
+
+<p>The origin and the exact nature of this religious movement
+are alike uncertain. (1) If it represents a type of syncretism as
+definite as that known to have existed in the developed gnostic
+systems of the 2nd century, it is inconceivable that Paul should
+have passed it by as easily as he did. (2) As there is no reference
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page727" id="page727"></a>727</span>
+to celibacy, communism and the worship of the sun, it is improbable
+that the movement is identical with that of the Essenes.
+(3) The phenomena might be explained solely on the basis of
+Judaism (von Soden, Peake). Certainly the asceticism and
+ritualism might so be interpreted, for there was among the Jews
+of the Dispersion an increasing tendency to asceticism, by way
+of protest against the excesses of the Gentiles. The reference
+in ii. 23 to severity of the body may have to do with fasting
+preparatory to seeing visions (cf. <i>Apoc. Baruch</i>, xxi. 1, ix. 2,
+v. 7). Even the worship of angels, not only as mediators of
+revelation and visions, but also as cosmical beings, is a well-known
+fact in late Judaism (<i>Apoc. Bar.</i> lv. 3; <i>Ethiopic Enoch</i>,
+lx. 11, lxi. 10; Col. ii. 8, 20; Gal. iv. 3). As for the word
+&ldquo;philosophy&rdquo; (ii. 8), it is not necessary to take it in the technical
+Greek sense when the usage of Philo and Josephus permits a
+looser meaning. Finally the references to circumcision, <i>paradosis</i>
+(ii. 8) and <i>dogmata</i> (ii. 20), directly suggest a Jewish origin.
+If we resort solely to Judaism for explanation, it must be a
+Judaism of the Diaspora type. (4) The difficulty with the last-mentioned
+position is that it under-estimates the speculative
+tendencies of the errorists and ignores the direct influence of
+oriental theosophy. It is quite true that Paul does not directly
+attack the speculative position, but rather indicates the practical
+dangers inherent therein (the denial of the supremacy of Christ
+and of full salvation through Him); he does not say that the
+errorists hold Christ to be a mere angel or an aeon, or that words
+like <i>pleroma</i> (borrowed perhaps from their own vocabulary)
+involve a rigorous dualism. Yet his characterization of the
+movement as an arbitrary religion (ii. 23), a philosophy which
+is empty deceit (ii. 8), according to elemental spirits and not
+according to Christ, and a higher knowledge due to a mind
+controlled by the flesh (ii. 18); his repeated emphasis on Christ,
+as supreme over all things, over men and angels, agent in creation
+as well as in redemption, in whom dwelt bodily the fulness of the
+Godhead; and his constant stress upon knowledge,&mdash;all these
+combine to reveal a speculation real and dangerous, even if
+naïve and regardless of consequences, and to suggest (with
+Jülicher and McGiffert) that in addition to Jewish influence there
+is also the direct influence of Oriental mysticism.</p>
+
+<p>To meet the pressing need in Colossae, Paul writes a letter
+and entrusts it to Tychichus, who is on his way to Colossae with
+Onesimus, Philemon&rsquo;s slave (iv. 7, 9). (On the relation of this
+letter to Ephesians and to the letter to be sent from Laodicea
+to Colossae, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ephesians, Epistle to the</a></span>.) His attitude is
+prophylactic, rather than polemic, for the &ldquo;philosophy&rdquo; has
+not as yet taken deep root. His purpose is to restore in the
+hearts of the readers the joy of the Spirit, by making them see
+that Christ fulfils every need, and that through faith in Him
+and love from faith, the advance is made unimpeded unto the
+perfect man. He will eliminate foreign accretions, that the
+gospel of Christ may stand forth in its native purity, and that
+Christ Himself may in all things have the pre-eminence.</p>
+
+<p>The letter begins with a thanksgiving to God for the spiritual
+growth of the Colossians, and continues with a prayer for their
+fuller knowledge of the divine will, for a more perfect Christian
+life, and for a spirit of thanksgiving, seeing that it is God who
+guarantees their salvation in Christ (i. 1-14). It is Christ who
+is supreme, not angels, for He is the agent in creation; and it
+is solely on the basis of faith in Him, a faith expressing itself in
+love, that redemption is appropriated, and not on the basis of
+any further requirements such as ascetic practices and the
+worship of angels (i. 15-23). It is with a full message that Paul
+has been entrusted, the message of Christ, who alone can lead
+to all the riches of fulness of knowledge. And for this adequate
+knowledge the readers should be thankful (i. 23&mdash;ii. 7). Again
+he urges, that since redemption is in Christ alone, and that, too,
+full redemption and on the basis of faith alone, the demand for
+asceticism and meaningless ceremonies is folly, and moreover
+robs Christ, in whom dwells the divine fulness, of His rightful
+supremacy (ii. 8-23). And he exhorts them as members of the
+Body of Christ to manifest their faith in Christian love, particularly
+in their domestic relations and in their contact with non-Christians
+(iii. i-iv. 6). He closes by saying that Tychichus
+will give them the news. Greetings from all to all (iv. 7-18).</p>
+
+<p>A letter like this, clear cut in its thought, teeming with ideas
+emanating from an unique religious experience, and admirably
+adjusted to known situations, bears on the face of it the marks
+of genuineness even without recourse to the unusually excellent
+external attestation. It is not strange that there is a growing
+consensus of opinion that Paul is the author. With the critical
+renaissance of the early part of the 19th century, doubts were
+raised as to the genuineness of the letter (<i>e.g.</i> by E. T. Mayerhoff,
+1838). Quite apart from the difficulties created by the Tübingen
+theory, legitimate difficulties were found in the style of the letter,
+in the speculation of the errorists, and in the theology of the
+author. (1) As to style, it is replied that if there are peculiarities
+in <i>Colossians</i>, so also in the admittedly genuine letters, <i>Romans</i>,
+<i>Corinthians</i>, <i>Galatians</i>. Moreover, if <i>Philippians</i> is Pauline, so
+also the stylistically similar <i>Colossians</i> (cf. von Soden). (2) As
+to the speculation of the errorists, it is replied that it is explicable
+in the lifetime of Paul, that some of the elements of it may have
+their source in pre-Christian Jewish theories, and that recourse
+to the developed gnosticism of the 2nd century is unnecessary.
+(3) As to the Christology of the author, it is replied that it does
+not go beyond what we have already in Paul except in emphasis,
+which itself is occasioned by the circumstances. What is implicit
+in <i>Corinthians</i> is explicit in <i>Colossians</i>. H. J. Holtzmann
+(1872) subjected both <i>Colossians</i> and <i>Ephesians</i> to a rigorous
+examination, and found in <i>Colossians</i> at least a nucleus of
+Pauline material. H. von Soden (1885), with well-considered
+principles of criticism, made a similar examination and found a
+much larger nucleus, and later still, (1893), in his commentary,
+reduced the non-Pauline material to a negligible minimum.
+Harnack, Jülicher and McGiffert, however, agree with Lightfoot,
+Weiss, Zahn (and early tradition) in holding that the letter is
+wholly Pauline&mdash;a position which is proving more and more
+acceptable to contemporary scholarship.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;In addition to the literature already mentioned,
+see the articles of Sanday on &ldquo;Colossians&rdquo; and Robertson on
+&ldquo;Ephesians&rdquo; in Smith&rsquo;s <i>Bible Dictionary</i> (2nd ed., 1893), and the
+article of A. Jülicher on &ldquo;Colossians and Ephesians&rdquo; in the
+<i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i> (1899); the Introductions of H. J. Holtzmann
+(1892), B. Weiss (1897), Th. Zahn (1900) and Jülicher (1906);
+the histories of the apostolic age by C. von Weizsäcker (1892),
+A. C. M&rsquo;Giffert (1897) and O. Pfleiderer (<i>Urchristentum</i>, 1902);
+and the commentaries of J. B. Lightfoot (1875), H. von Soden (1893)
+T. K. Abbott (1897), E. Haupt (1902), Peake (1903) and P. Ewald
+(1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. E. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOSSUS<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span>, in antiquity a term applied generally to statues of
+great size (hence the adjective &ldquo;colossal&rdquo;), and in particular to
+the bronze statue of the sun-god Helios in Rhodes, one of the
+wonders of the world, made from the spoils left by Demetrius
+Poliorcetes when he raised the siege of the city. The sculptor was
+Chares, a native of Lindus, and of the school of Lysippus, under
+whose influence the art of sculpture was led to the production of
+colossal figures by preference. The work occupied him twelve
+years, it is said, and the finished statue stood 70 cubits high. It
+stood near the harbour (<span class="grk" title="epi limeni">&#7952;&#960;&#8054; &#955;&#953;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#953;</span>), but at what point is not
+certain. When, and from what grounds, the belief arose that
+it had stood across the entrance to the harbour, with a beacon
+light in its hand and ships passing between its legs, is not known,
+but the belief was current as early as the 16th century. The
+statue was thrown down by an earthquake about the year
+224 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; then, after lying broken for nearly 1000 years, the
+pieces were bought by a Jew from the Saracens, and probably
+reconverted into instruments of war.</p>
+
+<p>Other Greek colossi were the Apollo of Calamis; the Zeus
+and Heracles of Lysippus; the Zeus at Olympia, the Athena
+in the Parthenon, and the Athena Promachos on the Acropolis&mdash;all
+the work of Pheidias.</p>
+
+<p>The best-known Roman colossi are: a statue of Jupiter on
+the Capitol; a bronze statue of Apollo in the Palatine library;
+and the colossus of Nero in the vestibule of his Golden House,
+afterwards removed by Hadrian to the north of the Colosseum,
+where the basement upon which it stood is still visible (Pliny,
+<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxxiv. 18).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page728" id="page728"></a>728</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOUR<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (Lat. <i>color</i>, connected with <i>celare</i>, to hide, the root
+meaning, therefore, being that of a covering). The visual apparatus
+of the eye enables us to distinguish not only differences of
+form, size and brilliancy in the objects looked upon, but also
+differences in the character of the light received from them.
+These latter differences, familiar to us as differences in <i>colour</i>,
+have their physical origin in the variations in wave-length (or
+frequency) which may exist in light which is capable of exciting
+the sensation of vision. From the physical point of view, light
+of a <i>pure colour</i>, or homogeneous light, means light whose
+undulations are mathematically of a simple character and which
+cannot be resolved by a prism into component parts. All the
+visible pure colours, as thus defined, are to be found in the
+spectrum, and there is an infinite number of them, corresponding
+to all the possible variations of wave-length within the limits
+of the visible spectrum (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spectroscopy</a></span>). On this view, there
+is a strict analogy between variations of <i>colour</i> in light and
+variations of <i>pitch</i> in sound, but the visible spectrum contains
+a range of frequency extending over about one octave only,
+whereas the range of audibility embraces about eleven octaves.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the known colours it might naturally be thought that
+white is the simplest and purest, and, till Sir Isaac Newton&rsquo;s
+time, this was the prevailing opinion. Newton, however, showed
+that white light could be decomposed by a prism into the spectral
+colours red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet; the
+colours appearing in this order and passing gradually into each
+other without abrupt transitions. White is therefore not a
+simple colour, but is merely the colour of sunlight, and probably
+owes its apparently homogeneous character to the fact that it is
+the average colour of the light which fills the eye when at rest.
+The colours of the various objects which we see around us are
+not due (with the exception of self-luminous and fluorescent
+bodies) to any power possessed by these objects of creating the
+colours which they exhibit, but merely to the exercise of a
+selective action on the light of the sun, some of the constituent
+rays of the white light with which they are illuminated being
+absorbed, while the rest are reflected or scattered in all directions,
+or, in the case of transparent bodies, transmitted. White light
+is thus the basis of all other colours, which are derived from it
+by the suppression of some one or more of its parts. A red
+flower, for instance, absorbs the blue and green rays and most
+of the yellow, while the red rays and usually some yellow are
+scattered. If a red poppy is illuminated successively by red,
+yellow, green and blue light it will appear a brilliant red in the
+red light, yellow in the yellow light, but less brilliant if the red
+colour is pure; and black in the other colours, the blackness being
+due to the almost complete absorption of the corresponding
+colour.</p>
+
+<p>Bodies may be classified as regards colour according to the
+nature of the action they exert on white light. In the case
+of ordinary opaque bodies a certain proportion of the incident
+light is irregularly reflected or scattered from their surfaces. A
+white object is one which reflects nearly all the light of all colours;
+a black object absorbs nearly all. A body which reflects only
+a portion of the light, but which exhibits no predominance in
+any particular hue, is called <i>grey</i>. A white surface looks grey
+beside a similar surface more brilliantly illuminated.</p>
+
+<p>The next class is that of most transparent bodies, which owe
+their colour to the light which is transmitted, either directly
+through, or reflected back again at the farther surface. A body
+which transmits all the visible rays equally well is said to be
+colourless; pure water, for example, is nearly quite colourless,
+though in large masses it appears bluish-green. A translucent
+substance is one which partially transmits light. Translucency
+is due to the light being scattered by minute embedded particles
+or minute irregularities of structure. Some fibrous specimens
+of tremolite and gypsum are translucent in the direction of the
+fibres, and practically opaque in a transverse direction. Coloured
+transparent objects vary in shade and hue according to their
+size; thus, a conical glass filled with a red liquid commonly
+appears yellow at the bottom, varying through orange up to
+red at the upper part. A coloured powder is usually of a much
+lighter tint than the substance in bulk, as the light is reflected
+back after transmission through only a few thin layers. For
+the same reason the powders of transparent substances are
+opaque.</p>
+
+<p>Polished bodies, whether opaque or transparent, when illuminated
+with white light and viewed at the proper angle, reflect
+the incident light regularly and appear white, without showing
+much of their distinctive colours.</p>
+
+<p>Some bodies reflect light of one colour and transmit that of
+another; such bodies nearly always possess the properties of
+<i>selective</i> or <i>metallic reflection</i> and <i>anomalous dispersion</i>. Most
+of the coal-tar dyes belong to this category. Solid eosin, for
+example, reflects a yellowish-green and transmits a red light.
+Gold appears yellow under ordinary circumstances, but if the
+light is reflected many times from the surface it appears a ruby
+colour. On the other hand, a powerful beam of light transmitted
+through a thin gold-leaf appears green.</p>
+
+<p>Some solutions exhibit the curious phenomenon of <i>dichromatism</i>
+(from <span class="grk" title="di-">&#948;&#953;-</span>, double, and <span class="grk" title="chrôma">&#967;&#961;&#8182;&#956;&#945;</span>, colour), that is, they
+appear of one colour when viewed in strata of moderate thickness,
+but of a different colour in greater thicknesses (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Absorption
+of Light</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The blue colour of the sky (<i>q.v.</i>) has been explained by Lord
+Rayleigh as due to the scattering of light by small suspended
+particles and air molecules, which is most effective in the case
+of the shorter waves (blue). J. Tyndall produced similar effects
+in the laboratory. The green colour of sea-water near the shore
+is also due to a scattering of light.</p>
+
+<p>The colours of bodies which are gradually heated to white
+incandescence occur in the order&mdash;red, orange, yellow, white.
+This is because the longer waves of red light are first emitted,
+then the yellow as well, so that orange results, then so much
+green that the total effect is yellow, and lastly all the colours,
+compounding to produce white. Fluorescent bodies have the
+power of converting light of one colour into that of another
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fluorescence</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Besides the foregoing kinds of colorization, a body may
+exhibit, under certain circumstances, a colouring due to some
+special physical conditions rather than to the specific properties
+of the material; such as the colour of a white object when
+illuminated by light of some particular colour; the colours
+seen in a film of oil on water or in mother-of-pearl, or soap-bubbles,
+due to interference (<i>q.v.</i>); the colours seen through
+the eyelashes or through a thin handkerchief held up to the
+light, due to diffraction (<i>q.v.</i>); and the colours caused by ordinary
+refraction, as in the rainbow, double refraction and polarization
+(<i>qq.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Composition of Colours.</i>&mdash;It has been already pointed out
+that white light is a combination of all the colours in the spectrum.
+This was shown by Newton, who recombined the spectral
+colours and produced white. Newton also remarks that if a
+froth be made on the surface of water thickened a little with
+soap, and examined closely, it will be seen to be coloured with
+all the colours of the spectrum, but at a little distance it looks
+white owing to the combined effect on the eye of all the colours.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the composition of colours is largely a physiological
+one, since it is possible, by mixing colours, say red and
+yellow, to produce a new colour, orange, which appears identical
+with the pure orange of the spectrum, but is physically quite
+different, since it can be resolved by a prism into red and yellow
+again. There is no doubt that the sensation of colour-vision
+is threefold, in the sense that any colour can be produced by
+the combination, in proper proportions, of three standard
+colours. The question then arises, what are the three primary
+colours? Sir David Brewster considered that they were red,
+yellow and blue; and this view has been commonly held by
+painters and others, since all the known brilliant hues can be
+derived from the admixture of red, yellow and blue pigments.
+For instance, vermilion and chrome yellow will give an orange,
+chrome yellow and ultramarine a green, and vermilion and
+ultramarine a purple mixture. But if we superpose the pure
+spectral colours on a screen, the resulting colours are quite
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page729" id="page729"></a>729</span>
+different. This is especially the case with yellow and blue,
+which on the screen combine to produce white, generally with
+a pink tint, but cannot be made to give green. The reason of
+this difference in the two results is that in the former case we do
+not get a true combination of the colours at all. When the
+mixed pigments are illuminated by white light, the yellow
+particles absorb the red and blue rays, but reflect the yellow
+along with a good deal of the neighbouring green and orange.
+The blue particles, on the other hand, absorb the red, orange
+and yellow, but reflect the blue and a good deal of green and
+violet. As much of the light is affected by several particles,
+most of the rays are absorbed except green, which is reflected
+by both pigments. Thus, the colour of the mixture is not a
+mixture of the colours yellow and blue, but the remainder of
+white light after the yellow and blue pigments have absorbed
+all they can. The effect can also be seen in coloured solutions.
+If two equal beams of white light are transmitted respectively
+through a yellow solution of potassium bichromate and a blue
+solution of copper sulphate in proper thicknesses, they can be
+compounded on a screen to an approximately white colour;
+but a single beam transmitted through both solutions appears
+green. Blue and yellow pigments would produce the effect
+of white only if very sparsely distributed. This fact is made use
+of in laundries, where cobalt blue is used to correct the yellow
+colour of linen after washing.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Young suggested red, green and violet as the primary
+colours, but the subsequent experiments of J. Clerk Maxwell
+appear to show that they should be red, green and blue. Sir
+William Abney, however, assigns somewhat different places in
+the spectrum to the primary colours, and, like Young, considers
+that they should be red, green and violet. All other hues can
+be obtained by combining the three primaries in proper proportions.
+Yellow is derived from red and green. This can be done
+by superposition on a screen or by making a solution which
+will transmit only red and green rays. For this purpose Lord
+Rayleigh recommends a mixture of solutions of blue litmus
+and yellow potassium chromate. The litmus stops the yellow
+and orange light, while the potassium chromate stops the blue
+and violet. Thus only red and green are transmitted, and the
+result is a full compound yellow which resembles the simple
+yellow of the spectrum in appearance, but is resolved into red
+and green by a prism. The brightest yellow pigments are those
+which give both the pure and compound yellow. Since red and
+green produce yellow, and yellow and blue produce white, it
+follows that red, green and blue can be compounded into
+white. H. von Helmholtz has shown that the only pair of
+simple spectral colours capable of compounding to white are
+a greenish-yellow and blue.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:154px; height:149px" src="images/img729a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Just as musical sounds differ in pitch, loudness and quality,
+so may colours differ in three respects, which Maxwell calls
+<i>hue</i>, <i>shade</i> and <i>tint</i>. All hues can be produced by combining
+every pair of primaries in every proportion. The addition of
+white alters the tint without affecting the hue. If the colour
+be darkened by adding black or by diminishing the illumination,
+a variation in shade is produced. Thus the
+hue red includes every variation in tint from
+red to white, and every variation in shade
+from red to black, and similarly for other
+hues. We can represent every hue and tint
+on a diagram in a manner proposed by
+Young, following a very similar suggestion
+of Newton&rsquo;s. Let RGB (fig. 1) be an
+equilateral triangle, and let the angular
+points be coloured red, green and blue of such intensities
+as to produce white if equally combined; and let the colour
+of every point of the triangle be determined by combining
+such proportions of the three primaries, that three weights
+in the same proportion would have their centre of gravity
+at the point. Then the centre of the triangle will be a neutral
+tint, white or grey; and the middle points of the sides Y, S, P
+will be yellow, greenish-blue and purple. The hue varies all
+round the perimeter. The tint varies along any straight line
+through W.  To vary the shade, the whole triangle must be
+uniformly darkened.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:103px; height:102px" src="images/img729b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The simplest way of compounding colours is by means of
+Maxwell&rsquo;s colour top, which is a broad spinning-top over the
+spindle of which coloured disks can be slipped (fig. 2). The disks
+are slit radially so that they can be slipped partially over each
+other and the surfaces exposed in any desired ratio. Three
+disks are used together, and a match is obtained between these
+and a pair of smaller ones mounted on the same spindle. If
+any five colours are taken, two of which may be
+black and white, a match can be got between them
+by suitable adjustment. This shows that a relation
+exists between any four colours (the black being
+only needed to obtain the proper intensity) and
+that consequently the number of independent
+colours is three. A still better instrument for
+combining colours is Maxwell&rsquo;s colour box, in which the colours
+of the spectrum are combined by means of prisms. Sir W.
+Abney has also invented an apparatus for the same purpose,
+which is much the same in principle as Maxwell&rsquo;s colour box.
+Several methods of colour photography depend on the fact that
+all varieties of colour can be compounded from red, green and
+blue in proper proportions.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:262px; height:214px" src="images/img729c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">(After Müller-Pouillet&rsquo;s <i>Lehrbuch der
+Physik</i>, 1897.)</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Any two colours which together give white are called <i>complementary</i>
+colours. Greenish-yellow and blue are a pair of complementaries,
+as already mentioned.
+Any number of pairs
+may be obtained by a simple
+device due to Helmholtz and
+represented in fig. 3. A beam
+of white light, decomposed by
+the prism P, is recompounded
+into white light by the lens l
+and focussed on a screen at f.
+If the thin prism p is inserted
+near the lens, any set of
+colours may be deflected to
+another point n, thus producing
+two coloured and complementary
+images of the source of light.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nature of White Light.</i>&mdash;The question as to whether white light
+actually consists of trains of waves of regular frequency has been
+discussed in recent years by A. Schuster, Lord Rayleigh and
+others, and it has been shown that even if it consisted of a succession
+of somewhat irregular impulses, it would still be resolved,
+by the dispersive property of a prism or grating, into trains of
+regular frequency. We may still, however, speak of white light
+as compounded of the rays of the spectrum, provided we mean
+only that the two systems are mathematically equivalent, and
+not that the homogeneous trains exist as such in the original
+light.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Newton&rsquo;s <i>Opticks</i>, bk. i. pt. ii.; Maxwell&rsquo;s <i>Scientific
+Papers</i>; Helmholtz&rsquo;s papers in <i>Poggendorf&rsquo;s Annalen</i>; Sir G. G.
+Stokes, <i>Burnett Lectures for 1884-5-6</i>; Abney&rsquo;s <i>Colour Vision</i>
+(1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. R. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOURS, MILITARY<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span>, the flags carried by infantry regiments
+and battalions, sometimes also by troops of other arms. Cavalry
+regiments and other units have as a rule standards and guidons
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flag</a></span>). Colours are generally embroidered with mottoes,
+symbols, and above all with the names of battles.</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest time at which men fought in organized
+bodies of troops, the latter have possessed some sort of insignia
+visible over all the field of battle, and serving as a rallying-point
+for the men of the corps and an indication of position for the
+higher leaders and the men of other formed bodies. In the
+Roman army the eagle, the <i>vexillum</i>, &amp;c. had all the moral and
+sentimental importance of the colours of to-day. During the
+dark and the middle ages, however, the basis of military force
+being the individual knight or lord, the banner, or other flag
+bearing his arms, replaced the regimental colour which had
+signified the corporate body and claimed the devotion of each
+individual soldier in the ranks, though the original meaning of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page730" id="page730"></a>730</span>
+colour as a corps, not a personal distinction, was sometimes
+maintained by corporate bodies (such as trade-gilds) which took
+the field as such. An example is the famous <i>carroccio</i> or standard
+on wheels, which was frequently brought into the field of battle
+by the citizen militia of the Italian cities, and was fought for with
+the same ardour as the royal standard in other medieval battles.</p>
+
+<p>The application of the word &ldquo;colour&rdquo; to such insignia, however,
+dates only from the 16th century. It has been suggested
+that, as the professional captain gradually ousted the nobleman
+from the command of the drilled and organized companies of
+foot&mdash;the man of gentle birth, of course, maintained his ascendancy
+in the cavalry far longer&mdash;the leaders of such bodies, no
+longer possessing coat-armour and individual banners, had
+recourse to small flags of distinctive colour instead. &ldquo;Colour&rdquo;
+is in the 16th century a common name in England and middle
+Europe for the unit of infantry; in German the <i>Fähnlein</i> (colour)
+of landsknechts was a strong company of more than 300 foot.
+The ceremonial observances and honours paid nowadays to the
+colours of infantry were in fact founded for the most part by the
+landsknechts, for whom the flag (carried by their &ldquo;ensign&rdquo;)
+was symbolical of their intense regimental life and feeling. The
+now universal customs of constituting the colour guard of picked
+men and of saluting the colours were in equal honour then;
+before that indeed, the appearance of the personal banner of a
+nobleman implied his actual presence with it, and the due
+honours were paid, but the colour of the 16th century was not
+the distinction of one man, but the symbol of the corporate life
+and unity of the regiment, and thus the new colour ceremonial
+implied the same allegiance to an impersonal regimental spirit,
+which it has (with the difference that the national spirit has been
+blended with the regimental) retained ever since. The old
+soldier rallied to the colours as a matter of habit in the confusion
+of battle, and the capture or the loss of a colour has always been
+considered a special event, glorious or the reverse, in the history
+of a regiment, the importance of this being chiefly sentimental,
+but having as a very real background the fact that, if its colour
+was lost, a regiment was to all intents and purposes dissolved
+and dispersed. Frederick the Great and Napoleon always
+attached the highest importance to the maintenance at all costs
+of the regimental colours. Even over young troops the influence
+of the colour has been extraordinary, and many generals have
+steadied their men in the heat of battle by taking a regimental
+colour themselves to lead the advance or to form up the troops.
+Thus in the first battle of Bull Run (1861) the raw Confederate
+troops were rallied under a heavy fire by General Joseph Johnston,
+their commander-in-chief, who stood with a colour in his
+hand until the men gathered quickly in rank and file. The archduke
+Charles at Aspern (1809) led his young troops to the last
+assault with a colour in his hand. Marshal Schwerin was killed
+at the battle of Prague while carrying a regimental colour.</p>
+
+<p>In the British army colours are carried by guards and line
+(except rifle) battalions, each battalion having two colours, the
+king&rsquo;s and the regimental. The size of the colour is 3 ft. 9 in.
+by 3 ft., and the length of the stave 8 ft. 7 in. The colour has
+a gold fringe and gold and crimson tassels, and bears various
+devices and &ldquo;battle honours.&rdquo; Both colours are carried by
+subaltern officers, and an escort of selected non-commissioned
+officers forms the rest of the colour party. The ceremony of
+presenting new colours is most impressive. The old colours
+are &ldquo;trooped&rdquo; (see below) before being cased and taken to the
+rear. The new colours are then placed against a pile of drums
+and then uncased by the senior majors and the senior subalterns.
+The consecration follows, after which the colours are presented
+to the senior subalterns. The battalion gives a general salute
+when the colours are unfurled, and the ceremony concludes with
+a march past. &ldquo;Trooping the colour&rdquo; is a more elaborate
+ceremonial peculiar to the British service, and is said to have
+been invented by the duke of Cumberland. In this, the colour
+is posted near the left of the line, the right company or guard
+moves up to it, and an officer receives it, after which the guard
+with the colour files between the ranks of the remainder from
+left to right until the right of the line is reached.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States army the infantry regiment has two
+colours, the national and the regimental. They are carried in
+action.</p>
+
+<p>In the French army one colour (<i>drapeau</i>) is carried by each
+infantry regiment. It is carried by an officer, usually a <i>sous-lieutenant</i>,
+and the guard is composed of a non-commissioned
+officer and a party of &ldquo;first class&rdquo; soldiers. Regiments which have
+taken an enemy&rsquo;s colour or standard in battle have their own
+colours &ldquo;decorated,&rdquo; that is, the cross of the Legion of Honour
+is affixed to the stave near the point. Battle honours are embroidered
+on the white of the tricolour. The <i>eagle</i> was, in the
+First and Third Empires, the infantry colour, and was so called
+from the gilt eagle which surmounted the stave. The <i>chasseurs
+à pied</i>, like the rifles of the British army, carry no colours, but
+the battalion quartered for the time being at Vincennes carries
+a colour for the whole arm in memory of the first <i>chasseurs de
+Vincennes</i>. As in other countries, colours are saluted by all
+armed bodies and by individual officers and men. When the
+<i>drapeau</i> is not present with the regiment its place is taken by
+an ordinary flag.</p>
+
+<p>The colours of the German infantry, foot artillery and engineers
+vary in design with the states to which the corps belong
+in the first instance; thus, black and white predominate in
+Prussian colours, red in those of Württemberg regiments, blue
+in Bavarian, and so on. The point of the colour stave is decorated
+in some cases with the iron cross, in memory of the War of
+Liberation and of the war of 1870. Each battalion of an infantry
+regiment has its own colour, which is carried by a non-commissioned
+officer, and guarded as usual by a colour party. The
+colour is fastened to the stave by silver nails, and the ceremony
+of driving the first nail into the stake of a new colour is one of
+great solemnity. Rings of silver on the stave are engraved with
+battle honours, the names of those who have fallen in action
+when carrying the colour, and other commemorative names
+and dates. The oath taken by each recruit on joining is sworn
+on the colour (<i>Fahneneid</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The practice in the British army of leaving the colours behind
+on taking the field dates from the battle of Isandhlwana (22nd
+January 1879), in which Lieutenants Melvill and Coghill lost
+their lives in endeavouring to save the colours of the 24th
+regiment. In savage warfare, in which the British regular
+army is more usually engaged, it is true that no particular reason
+can be adduced for imperilling the colours in the field. It is
+questionable, however, whether this holds good in civilized
+warfare. Colours were carried in action by both the Russians
+and the Japanese in the war of 1904-5, and they were supplemented
+on both sides by smaller flags or camp colours. The
+conception of the colour as the emblem of union, the rallying-point,
+of the regiment has been mentioned above. Many hold
+that such a rallying-point is more than ever required in the
+modern <i>guerre de masses</i>, when a national short-service army
+is collected in all possible strength on the decisive battle-field,
+and that scarcely any risks or loss of life would be disproportionate
+to the advantages gained by the presence of the colours.
+There is further a most important factor in the problem, which
+has only arisen in recent years through modern perfection in
+armament. In the first stages of an attack, the colours could
+remain, as in the past, with the closed reserves or line of battle,
+and they would not be uncased and sent into the thick of the
+fight at all hazards until the decisive assault was being delivered.
+Then, it is absolutely essential, as a matter of tactics, that the
+artillery (<i>q.v.</i>), which covers the assault with all the power given
+it by modern science and training, should be well informed as
+to the progress of the infantry. This covering fire was maintained
+by the Japanese until the infantry was actually in the
+smoke of their own shrapnel. With uniforms of neutral tint
+the need of some means whereby the artillery officers can, at
+4000 yds. range, distinguish their own infantry from that of the
+enemy, is more pronounced than ever. The best troops are apt
+to be unsteadied by being fired into by their own guns (<i>e.g.</i> at
+Elandslaagte), and the more powerful the shell, and the more
+rapid and far-ranging the fire of the guns, the more necessary it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page731" id="page731"></a>731</span>
+becomes to prevent such accidents. A practicable solution of
+the difficulty would be to display the colours as of old, and this
+course would not only have to an enhanced degree the advantages
+it formerly possessed, but would also provide the simplest
+means for ensuring the vitally necessary co-operation of infantry
+and artillery in the decisive assault. The duty of carrying the
+colours was always one of special danger, and sometimes, in the
+old short-range battles, every officer who carried a flag was
+shot. That this fate would necessarily overtake the bearer under
+modern conditions is far from certain, and in any case the few
+men on the enemy&rsquo;s side who would be brave enough to shoot
+accurately under heavy shell fire would, however destructive
+to the colour party, scarcely inflict as much damage on the
+battalion as a whole, as a dozen or more accidental shells from
+the massed artillery of its own side.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOUR-SERGEANT<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span>, a non-commissioned officer of infantry,
+ranking, in the British army, as the senior non-commissioned
+officer of each company. He is charged with many administrative
+duties, and usually acts as pay sergeant. A special duty of
+the colour-sergeants of a battalion is that of attending and guarding
+the colours and the officers carrying them. In some foreign
+armies the colours are actually carried by colour-sergeants.
+The rank was created in the British army in 1813.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLOURS OF ANIMALS.<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> Much interest attaches in modern
+biology to the questions involved in the colours of animals.
+The subject may best be considered in two divisions: (1) as
+regards the uses of colour in the struggle for existence and in
+sexual relationships; (2) as regards the chemical causation.</p>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">1. Bionomics</p>
+
+<p><i>Use of Colour for Concealment.</i>&mdash;<i>Cryptic colouring</i> is by far the
+commonest use of colour in the struggle for existence. It is
+employed for the purpose of attack (<i>aggressive resemblance</i> or
+<i>anticryptic colouring</i>) as well as of defence (<i>protective resemblance</i>
+or <i>procryptic colouring</i>). The fact that the same method, concealment,
+may be used both for attack and defence has been
+well explained by T. Belt (<i>The Naturalist in Nicaragua</i>, London,
+1888), who suggests as an illustration the rapidity of movement
+which is also made use of by both pursuer and pursued, which is
+similarly raised to a maximum in both by the gradual dying
+out of the slowest through a series of generations. Cryptic
+colouring is commonly associated with other aids in the struggle
+for life. Thus well-concealed mammals and birds, when discovered,
+will generally endeavour to escape by speed, and will
+often attempt to defend themselves actively. On the other hand,
+small animals which have no means of active defence, such as
+large numbers of insects, frequently depend upon concealment
+alone. Protective resemblance is far commoner among animals
+than aggressive resemblance, in correspondence with the fact
+that predaceous forms are as a rule much larger and much less
+numerous than their prey. In the case of insectivorous Vertebrata
+and their prey such differences exist in an exaggerated
+form. Cryptic colouring, whether used for defence or attack,
+may be either <i>general</i> or <i>special</i>. In <i>general resemblance</i> the
+animal, in consequence of its colouring, produces the same effect
+as its environment, but the conditions do not require any special
+adaptation of shape and outline. General resemblance is
+especially common among the animals inhabiting some uniformly
+coloured expanse of the earth&rsquo;s surface, such as an ocean
+or a desert. In the former, animals of all shapes are frequently
+protected by their transparent blue colour; on the latter, equally
+diverse forms are defended by their sandy appearance. The
+effect of a uniform appearance may be produced by a combination
+of tints in startling contrast. Thus the black and white
+stripes of the zebra blend together at a little distance, and &ldquo;their
+proportion is such as exactly to match the pale tint which arid
+ground possesses when seen by moonlight&rdquo; (F. Galton, <i>South
+Africa</i>, London, 1889). <i>Special resemblance</i> is far commoner
+than general, and is the form which is usually met with on the
+diversified surface of the earth, on the shores, and in shallow
+water, as well as on the floating masses of Algae on the surface
+of the ocean, such as the Sargasso Sea. In these environments
+the cryptic colouring of animals is usually aided by special
+modifications of shape, and by the instinct which leads them to
+assume particular attitudes. Complete stillness and the assumption
+of a certain attitude play an essential part in general resemblance
+on land; but in special resemblance the attitude is often
+highly specialized, and perhaps more important than any other
+element in the complex method by which concealment is effected.
+In special resemblance the combination of colouring, shape and
+attitude is such as to produce a more or less exact resemblance
+to some one of the objects in the environment, such as a leaf or
+twig, a patch of lichen, or flake of bark. In all cases the resemblance
+is to some object which is of no interest to the enemy
+or prey respectively. The animal is not hidden from view by
+becoming indistinguishable from its background, as in the cases
+of general resemblance, but it is mistaken for some well-known
+object.</p>
+
+<p>In seeking the interpretation of these most interesting and
+elaborate adaptations, attempts have been made along two
+lines. First, it is sought to explain the effect as a result of the
+direct influence of the environment upon the individual (G. L. L.
+Buffon), or by the inherited effects of effort and the use and
+disuse of parts (J. B. P. Lamarck). Second, natural selection
+is believed to have produced the result, and afterwards maintained
+it by the survival of the best concealed in each generation.
+The former suggestions break down when the complex nature
+of numerous special resemblances is appreciated. Thus the
+arrangement of colours of many kinds into an appropriate
+pattern requires the co-operation of a suitable shape and the
+rigidly exact adoption of a certain elaborate attitude. The latter
+is instinctive, and thus depends on the central nervous system.
+The cryptic effect is due to the exact co-operation of all these
+factors; and in the present state of science the only possible
+hope of an interpretation lies in the theory of natural selection,
+which can accumulate any and every variation which tends
+towards survival. A few of the chief types of methods by which
+concealment is effected may be briefly described. The colours
+of large numbers of Vertebrate animals are darkest on the back,
+and become gradually lighter on the sides, passing into white
+on the belly. Abbott H. Thayer (<i>The Auk</i>, vol. xiii., 1896) has
+suggested that this gradation obliterates the appearance of
+solidity, which is due to shadow. The colour-harmony, which
+is also essential to concealment, is produced because the back
+is of the same tint as the environment (<i>e.g.</i> earth) bathed in the
+cold blue-white of the sky, while the belly, being cold blue-white
+bathed in shadow and yellow earth reflections, produces the
+same effect. Thayer has made models (in the natural history
+museums at London, Oxford and Cambridge) which support
+his interpretation in a very convincing manner. This method
+of neutralizing shadow for the purpose of concealment by
+increased lightness of tint was first suggested by E. B. Poulton
+in the case of a larva (<i>Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1887, p. 294) and
+a pupa (<i>Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1888, pp. 596, 597), but he did
+not appreciate the great importance of the principle. In an
+analogous method an animal in front of a background of dark
+shadow may have part of its body obliterated by the existence
+of a dark tint, the remainder resembling, <i>e.g.</i>, a part of a leaf
+(W. Müller, <i>Zool. Jahr. J. W. Spengel</i>, Jena, 1886). This method
+of rendering invisible any part which would interfere with the
+resemblance is well known in mimicry. A common aid to
+concealment is the adoption by different individuals of two or
+more different appearances, each of which resembles some
+special object to which an enemy is indifferent. Thus the
+leaf-like butterflies (<i>Kallima</i>) present various types of colour and
+pattern on the under side of the wings, each of which closely
+resembles some well-known appearance presented by a dead leaf;
+and the common British yellow under-wing moth (<i>Tryphaena
+pronuba</i>) is similarly polymorphic on the upper side of its upper
+wings, which are exposed as it suddenly drops among dead
+leaves. Caterpillars and pupae are also commonly <i>dimorphic</i>,
+green and brown. Such differences as these extend the area
+which an enemy is compelled to search in order to make a living.
+In many cases the cryptic colouring changes appropriately
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page732" id="page732"></a>732</span>
+during the course of an individual life, either seasonally, as in the
+ptarmigan or Alpine hare, or according as the individual enters
+a new environment in the course of its growth (such as larva,
+pupa, imago, &amp;c.). In insects with more than one brood in the
+year, <i>seasonal dimorphism</i> is often seen, and the differences are
+sometimes appropriate to the altered condition of the environment
+as the seasons change. The causes of change in these and
+Arctic animals are insufficiently worked out: in both sets there
+are observations or experiments which indicate changes from
+within the organism, merely following the seasons and not
+caused by them, and other observations or experiments which
+prove that certain species are susceptible to the changing
+external influences. In certain species concealment is effected
+by the use of adventitious objects, which are employed as a
+covering. Examples of this <i>allocryptic</i> defence are found in the
+tubes of the caddis worms (<i>Phryganea</i>), or the objects made use
+of by crabs of the genera <i>Hyas</i>, <i>Stenorhynchus</i>, &amp;c. Such
+animals are concealed in any environment. If sedentary, like
+the former example, they are covered up with local materials;
+if wandering, like the latter, they have the instinct to reclothe.
+Allocryptic methods may also be used for aggressive purposes,
+as the ant-lion larva, almost buried in sand, or the large frog
+<i>Ceratophrys</i>, which covers its back with earth when waiting for
+its prey. Another form of allocryptic defence is found in the
+use of the colour of the food in the digestive organs showing
+through the transparent body, and in certain cases the adventitious
+colour may be dissolved in the blood or secreted in superficial
+cells of the body: thus certain insects make use of the
+chlorophyll of their food (Poulton, <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> liv. 417).
+The most perfect cryptic powers are possessed by those animals
+in which the individuals can change their colours into any tint
+which would be appropriate to a normal environment. This
+power is widely prevalent in fish, and also occurs in Amphibia
+and Reptilia (the chameleon affording a well-known example).
+Analogous powers exist in certain Crustacea and Cephalopoda.
+All these rapid changes of colour are due to changes in shape
+or position of superficial pigment cells controlled by the nervous
+system. That the latter is itself stimulated by light through
+the medium of the eye and optic nerve has been proved in many
+cases. Animals with a short life-history passed in a single
+environment, which, however, may be very different in the
+case of different individuals, may have a different form of
+<i>variable cryptic colouring</i>, namely, the power of adapting their
+colour once for all (many pupae), or once or twice (many larvae).
+In these cases the effect appears to be produced through the
+nervous system, although the stimulus of light probably acts on
+the skin and not through the eyes. Particoloured surfaces do not
+produce particoloured pupae, probably because the antagonistic
+stimuli neutralize each other in the central nervous system,
+which then disposes the superficial colours so that a neutral or
+intermediate effect is produced over the whole surface (Poulton,
+<i>Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1892, p. 293). Cryptic colouring may
+incidentally produce superficial resemblances between animals;
+thus desert forms concealed in the same way may gain a likeness
+to each other, and in the same way special resemblances, <i>e.g.</i>
+to lichen, bark, grasses, pine-needles, &amp;c., may sometimes lead
+to a tolerably close similarity between the animals which are
+thus concealed. Such likeness may be called <i>syncryptic</i> or
+<i>common protective</i> (or <i>aggressive</i>) <i>resemblance</i>, and it is to be
+distinguished from mimicry and common warning colours, in
+which the likeness is not incidental, but an end in itself. Syncryptic
+resemblances have much in common with those incidentally
+caused by functional adaptation, such as the mole-like
+forms produced in the burrowing Insectivora, Rodentia and
+Marsupialia. Such likeness may be called <i>syntechnic resemblance</i>,
+incidentally produced by dynamic similarity, just as syncryptic
+resemblance is produced by static similarity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Use of Colour for Warning and Signalling, or Sematic Coloration.</i>&mdash;The
+use of colour for the purpose of warning is the exact
+opposite of the one which has been just described, its object
+being to render the animal conspicuous to its enemies, so that it
+can be easily seen, well remembered, and avoided in future.
+Warning colours are associated with some quality or weapon
+which renders the possessor unpleasant or dangerous, such as
+unpalatability, an evil odour, a sting, the poison-fang, &amp;c. The
+object being to warn an enemy off, these colours are also called
+<i>aposematic</i>. Recognition markings, on the other hand, are
+<i>episematic</i>, assisting the individuals of the same species to keep
+together when their safety depends upon numbers, or easily to
+follow each other to a place of safety, the young and inexperienced
+benefiting by the example of the older. Episematic characters
+are far less common than aposematic, and these than cryptic;
+although, as regards the latter comparison, the opposite impression
+is generally produced from the very fact that concealment
+is so successfully attained. Warning or aposematic
+colours, together with the qualities they indicate, depend, as
+a rule, for their very existence upon the abundance of palatable
+food supplied by the animals with cryptic colouring. Unpalatability,
+or even the possession of a sting, is not sufficient defence
+unless there is enough food of another kind to be obtained at the
+same time and place (Poulton, <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1887, p. 191).
+Hence insects with warning colours are not seen in temperate
+countries except at the time when insect life as a whole is most
+abundant; and in warmer countries, with well-marked wet and
+dry seasons, it will probably be found that warning colours are
+proportionately less developed in the latter. In many species
+of African butterflies belonging to the genus <i>Junonia</i> (including
+<i>Precis</i>) the wet-season broods are distinguished by the more or
+less conspicuous under sides of the wings, those of the dry season
+being highly cryptic. Warning colours are, like cryptic, assisted
+by special adaptations of the body-form, and especially by movements
+which assist to render the colour as conspicuous as possible.
+On this account animals with warning colours generally move
+or fly slowly, and it is the rule in butterflies that the warning
+patterns are similar on both upper and under sides of the wings.
+Many animals, when attacked or disturbed, &ldquo;sham death&rdquo; (as
+it is commonly but wrongly described), falling motionless to the
+ground. In the case of well-concealed animals this instinct gives
+them a second chance of escape in the earth or among the leaves,
+&amp;c., when they have been once detected; animals with warning
+colours are, on the other hand, enabled to assume a position in
+which their characters are displayed to the full (J. Portschinsky,
+<i>Lepidopterorum Rossiae Biologia</i>, St Petersburg, 1890, plate i.
+figs. 16, 17). In both cases a definite attitude is assumed, which
+is not that of death. Other warning characters exist in addition
+to colouring: thus sound is made use of by the disturbed rattlesnake
+and the Indian <i>Echis</i>, &amp;c. Large birds, when attacked,
+often adopt a threatening attitude, accompanied by a terrifying
+sound. The cobra warns an intruder chiefly by attitude and the
+dilation of the flattened neck, the effect being heightened in some
+species by the &ldquo;spectacles.&rdquo; In such cases we often see the
+combination of cryptic and sematic methods, the animal being
+concealed until disturbed, when it instantly assumes an aposematic
+attitude. The advantage to the animal itself is clear: a
+poisonous snake gains nothing by killing an animal it cannot eat;
+while the poison does not cause immediate death, and the enemy
+would have time to injure or destroy the snake. In the case of
+small unpalatable animals with warning colours the enemies
+would only first become aware of the unpleasant quality by
+tasting and often destroying their prey; but the species would
+gain by the experience thus conveyed, even though the individual
+might suffer. An insect-eating animal does not come into the
+world with knowledge: it has to be educated by experience, and
+warning colours enable this education as to what to avoid to
+be gained by a small instead of a large waste of life. Furthermore,
+great tenacity of life is usually possessed by animals with
+warning colours. The tissues of aposematic insects generally
+possess great elasticity and power of resistance, so that large
+numbers of individuals can recover after very severe treatment.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliant warning colours of many caterpillars attracted
+the attention of Darwin when he was thinking over his hypothesis
+of sexual selection, and he wrote to A. R. Wallace on the
+subject (C. Darwin, <i>Life and Letters</i>, London, 1887, iii. 93).
+Wallace, in reply, suggested their interpretation as warning
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page733" id="page733"></a>733</span>
+colours, a suggestion since verified by experiment (<i>Proc. Ent. Soc.
+Lond.</i>, 1867, p. lxxx; <i>Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond.</i>, 1869, pp. 21 and
+27). Although animals with warning colours are probably but
+little attacked by the ordinary enemies of their class, they have
+special enemies which keep the numbers down to the average.
+Thus the cuckoo appears to be an insectivorous bird which will
+freely devour conspicuously coloured unpalatable larvae. The
+effect of the warning colours of caterpillars is often intensified
+by gregarious habits. Another aposematic use of colours and
+structures is to divert attention from the vital parts, and thus
+give the animal attacked an extra chance of escape. The large,
+conspicuous, easily torn wings of butterflies and moths act in
+this way, as is found by the abundance of individuals which may
+be captured with notches bitten symmetrically out of both wings
+when they were in contact. The eye-spots and &ldquo;tails&rdquo; so
+common on the hinder part of the hind wing, and the conspicuous
+apex so frequently seen on the fore wing, probably have this
+meaning. Their position corresponds to the parts which are most
+offen found to be notched. In some cases (<i>e.g.</i> many <i>Lycaenidae</i>)
+the &ldquo;tail&rdquo; and eye-spot combine to suggest the appearance of
+a head with antennae at the posterior end of the butterfly, the
+deception being aided by movements of the hind wings. The
+flat-topped &ldquo;tussocks&rdquo; of hair on many caterpillars look like
+conspicuous fleshy projections of the body, and they are held
+prominently when the larva is attacked. If seized, the &ldquo;tussock&rdquo;
+comes out, and the enemy is greatly inconvenienced by the
+fine branched hairs. The tails of lizards, which easily break off,
+are to be similarly explained, the attention of the pursuer being
+probably still further diverted by the extremely active movements
+of the amputated member. Certain crabs similarly throw
+off their claws when attacked, and the claws continue to snap
+most actively. The tail of the dormouse, which easily comes off,
+and the extremely bushy tail of the squirrel, are probably of use
+in the same manner. Animals with warning colours often tend
+to resemble each other superficially. This fact was first pointed
+out by H. W. Bates in his paper on the theory of mimicry (<i>Trans.
+Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xxiii., 1862, p. 495). He showed that the conspicuous,
+presumably unpalatable, tropical American butterflies,
+belonging to very different groups, which are mimicked by others,
+also tend to resemble each other, the likeness being often remarkably
+exact. These resemblances were not explained by his theory
+of mimicry, and he could only suppose that they had been
+produced by the direct influence of a common environment.
+The problem was solved in 1879 by Fritz Müller (see <i>Proc. Ent.
+Soc. Lond.</i>, 1879, p. xx.), who suggested that life is saved by this
+resemblance between warning colours, inasmuch as the education
+of young inexperienced enemies is facilitated. Each species
+which falls into a group with common warning (<i>synaposematic</i>)
+colours contributes to save the lives of the other members. It
+is sufficiently obvious that the amount of learning and remembering,
+and consequently of injury and loss of life involved in the
+process, are reduced when many species in one place possess the
+same aposematic colouring, instead of each exhibiting a different
+&ldquo;danger-signal.&rdquo; These resemblances are often described as
+&ldquo;Müllerian mimicry,&rdquo; as distinguished from true or &ldquo;Batesian
+mimicry&rdquo; described in the next section. Similar synaposematic
+resemblances between the specially protected groups of
+butterflies were afterwards shown to exist in tropical Asia, the
+East Indian Islands and Polynesia by F. Moore (<i>Proc. Zool.
+Soc.</i>, 1883, p. 201), and in Africa by E. B. Poulton (<i>Report Brit.
+Assoc.</i>, 1897, p. 688). R. Meldola (<i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i>
+x., 1882, p. 417) first pointed out and explained in the same
+manner the remarkable general uniformity of colour and pattern
+which runs through so many species of each of the distasteful
+groups of butterflies; while, still later, Poulton (<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>,
+1887, p. 191) similarly extended the interpretation to the synaposematic
+resemblances between animals of all kinds in the
+same country. Thus, for example, longitudinal or circular
+bands of the same strongly contrasted colours are found in
+species of many groups with distant affinities.</p>
+
+<p>Certain animals, especially the Crustacea, make use of the
+special defence and warning colours of other animals. Thus
+the English hermit-crab, <i>Pagurus Bernhardus</i>, commonly carries
+the sea-anemone, <i>Sagartia parasitica</i>, on its shell; while another
+English species, <i>Pagurus Prideauxii</i>, inhabits a shell which is
+invariably clothed by the flattened <i>Adamsia palliata</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The white patch near the tail which is frequently seen in the
+gregarious Ungulates, and is often rendered conspicuous by
+adjacent black markings, probably assists the individuals in
+keeping together; and appearances with probably the same
+interpretation are found in many birds. The white upturned
+tail of the rabbit is probably of use in enabling the individuals
+to follow each other readily. The difference between a typical
+aposematic character appealing to enemies, and episematic
+intended for other individuals of the same species, is well seen
+when we compare such examples as (1) the huge banner-like
+white tail, conspicuously contrasted with the black or black and
+white body, by which the slow-moving skunk warns enemies of its
+power of emitting an intolerably offensive odour; (2) the small
+upturned white tail of the rabbit, only seen when it is likely
+to be of use and when the owner is moving, and, if pursued, very
+rapidly moving, towards safety.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mimicry</i> (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mimicry</a></span>) or <i>Pseudo-sematic Colours</i>.&mdash;The
+fact that animals with distant affinities may more or less closely
+resemble each other was observed long before the existing explanation
+was possible. Its recognition is implied in a number
+of insect names with the termination -<i>formis</i>, usually given to
+species of various orders which more or less closely resemble the
+stinging Hymenoptera. The usefulness of the resemblance was
+suggested in Kirby and Spence&rsquo;s <i>Introduction to Entomology</i>,
+London, 1817, ii. 223. H. W. Bates (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol.
+xxiii., 1862, p. 495) first proposed an explanation of mimicry
+based on the theory of natural selection. He supposed that
+every step in the formation and gradual improvement of the
+likeness occurred in consequence of its usefulness in the struggle
+for life. The subject is of additional interest, inasmuch as it
+was one of the first attempts to apply the theory of natural
+selection to a large class of phenomena up to that time well known
+but unexplained. Numerous examples of mimicry among
+tropical American butterflies were discussed by Bates in his
+paper; and in 1866 A. R. Wallace extended the hypothesis to
+the butterflies of the tropical East (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xxv.,
+1866, p. 19); Roland Trimen (<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> vol. xxvi., 1870,
+p. 497) to those of Africa in 1870. The term mimicry is used in
+various senses. It is often extended, as indeed it was by Bates,
+to include all the superficial resemblances between animals and
+any part of their environment. Wallace, however, separated the
+cryptic resemblances already described, and the majority of
+naturalists have followed this convenient arrangement. In
+cryptic resemblance an animal resembles some object of no
+interest to its enemy (or prey), and in so doing is concealed; in
+mimicry an animal resembles some other animal which is
+specially disliked by its enemy, or some object which is specially
+attractive to its prey, and in so doing becomes conspicuous.
+Some naturalists have considered mimicry to include all superficial
+likenesses between animals, but such a classification would
+group together resemblances which have widely different uses.
+(1) The resemblance of a mollusc to the coral on which it lives,
+or an external parasite to the hair or skin of its host, would be
+<i>procryptic</i>; (2) that between moths which resemble lichen,
+<i>syncryptic</i>; (3) between distasteful insects, <i>synaposematic</i>; (4)
+between the Insectivor mole and the Rodent mole-rat, <i>syntechnic</i>;
+(5) the essential element in mimicry is that it is a
+false warning (pseud-aposematic) or false recognition (pseud-episematic)
+character. Some have considered that mimicry
+indicates resemblance to a moving object; but apart from the
+non-mimetic likenesses between animals classified above, there are
+ordinary cryptic resemblances to drifting leaves, swaying bits
+of twig, &amp;c., while truly mimetic resemblances are often specially
+adapted for the attitude of rest. Many use the term mimicry
+to include synaposematic as well as pseudo-sematic resemblances,
+calling the former &ldquo;Müllerian,&rdquo; the latter &ldquo;Batesian,&rdquo; mimicry.
+The objection to this grouping is that it takes little account
+of the deceptive element which is essential in mimicry. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page734" id="page734"></a>734</span>
+synaposematic colouring the warning is genuine, in pseud-aposematic
+it is a sham. The term mimicry has led to much misunderstanding
+from the fact that in ordinary speech it implies
+deliberate imitation. The production of mimicry in an individual
+animal has no more to do with consciousness or &ldquo;taking thought&rdquo;
+than any of the other processes of growth. Protective mimicry
+is here defined as an advantageous and superficial resemblance
+of one animal to another, which latter is specially defended so
+as to be disliked or feared by the majority of enemies of the
+groups to which both belong&mdash;a resemblance which appeals to
+the sense of sight, sometimes to that of hearing, and rarely to
+smell, but does not extend to deep-seated characters except
+when the superficial likeness is affected by them. <i>Mutatis
+mutandis</i> this definition will apply to aggressive (pseud-episematic)
+resemblance. The conditions under which mimicry
+occurs have been stated by Wallace:&mdash;&ldquo;(1) that the imitative
+species occur in the same area and occupy the same station as
+the imitated; (2) that the imitators are always the more defenceless;
+(3) that the imitators are always less numerous in individuals;
+(4) that the imitators differ from the bulk of their
+allies; (5) that the imitation, however minute, is <i>external</i> and
+<i>visible</i> only, never extending to internal characters or to such
+as do not affect the external appearance.&rdquo; It is obvious that
+conditions 2 and 3 do not hold in the case of Müllerian mimicry.
+Mimicry has been explained, independently of natural selection,
+by the supposition that it is the common expression of the direct
+action of common causes, such as climate, food, &amp;c.; also by
+the supposition of independent lines of evolution leading to the
+same result without any selective action in consequence of
+advantage in the struggle; also by the operation of sexual
+selection.</p>
+
+<p>It is proposed, in conclusion, to give an account of the broad
+aspects of mimicry, and attempt a brief discussion of the theories
+of origin of each class of facts (see Poulton, <i>Linn. Soc. Journ.
+Zool.</i>, 1898, p. 558). It will be found that in many cases the
+argument here made use of applies equally to the origin of
+cryptic and sematic colours. The relationship between these
+classes has been explained: mimicry is, as Wallace has stated
+(<i>Darwinism</i>, London, 1889), merely &ldquo;an exceptional form of
+protective resemblance. &ldquo;Now, protective (cryptic) resemblance
+cannot be explained on any of the lines suggested above, except
+natural selection; even sexual selection fails, because cryptic
+resemblance is especially common in the immature stages of
+insect life. But it would be unreasonable to explain mimetic
+resemblance by one set of principles and cryptic by another and
+totally different set. Again, it may be plausible to explain the
+mimicry of one butterfly for another on one of the suggested
+lines, but the resemblance of a fly or moth to a wasp is by no
+means so easy, and here selection would be generally conceded;
+yet the appeal to antagonistic principles to explain such closely
+related cases would only be justified by much direct evidence.
+Furthermore, the mimetic resemblances between butterflies are
+not haphazard, but the models almost invariably belong only to
+certain sub-families, the <i>Danainae</i> and <i>Acraeinae</i> in all the
+warmer parts of the world, and, in tropical America, the <i>Ithomiinae</i>
+and <i>Heliconinae</i> as well. These groups have the characteristics
+of aposematic species, and no theory but natural
+selection explains their invariable occurrence as models wherever
+they exist. It is impossible to suggest, except by natural
+selection, any explanation of the fact that mimetic resemblances
+are confined to changes which produce or strengthen a superficial
+likeness. Very deep-seated changes are generally involved,
+inasmuch as the appropriate instincts as to attitude, &amp;c., are as
+important as colour and marking. The same conclusion is
+reached when we analyse the nature of mimetic resemblance
+and realize how complex it really is, being made up of <i>colours</i>,
+both pigmentary and structural, <i>pattern</i>, <i>form</i>, <i>attitude</i> and
+<i>movement</i>. A plausible interpretation of colour may be wildly
+improbable when applied to some other element, and there is
+<i>no</i> explanation except natural selection which can explain all
+these elements. The appeal to the direct action of local conditions
+in common often breaks down upon the slightest investigation,
+the difference in habits between mimic and model in the
+same locality causing the most complete divergence in their
+conditions of life. Thus many insects produced from burrowing
+larvae mimic those whose larvae live in the open. Mimetic
+resemblance is far commoner in the female than in the male, a
+fact readily explicable by selection, as suggested by Wallace, for
+the female is compelled to fly more slowly and to expose itself
+while laying eggs, and hence a resemblance to the slow-flying
+freely exposed models is especially advantageous. The facts that
+mimetic species occur in the same locality, fly at the same time
+of the year as their models, and are day-flying species even
+though they may belong to nocturnal groups, are also more or
+less difficult to explain except on the theory of natural selection,
+and so also is the fact that mimetic resemblance is produced
+in the most varied manner. A spider resembles its model, an
+ant, by a modification of its body-form into a superficial resemblance,
+and by holding one pair of legs to represent antennae;
+certain bugs (Hemiptera) and beetles have also gained a shape
+unusual in their respective groups, a shape which superficially
+resembles an ant; a Locustid (<i>Myrmecophana</i>) has the shape
+of an ant painted, as it were, on its body, all other parts resembling
+the background and invisible; a Membracid (Homoptera)
+is entirely unlike an ant, but is concealed by an ant-like shield.
+When we further realize that in this and other examples of
+mimicry &ldquo;the likeness is almost always detailed and remarkable,
+however it is attained, while the methods differ absolutely,&rdquo; we
+recognize that natural selection is the only possible explanation
+hitherto suggested. In the cases of aggressive mimicry an animal
+resembles some object which is attractive to its prey. Examples
+are found in the flower-like species of <i>Mantis</i>, which attract the
+insects on which they feed. Such cases are generally described
+as possessing &ldquo;alluring colours,&rdquo; and are regarded as examples
+of aggressive (anticryptic) resemblance, but their logical position
+is here.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colours displayed in Courtship, Secondary Sexual Characters,
+Epigamic Colours.</i>&mdash;Darwin suggested the explanation of these
+appearances in his theory of <i>sexual selection</i> (<i>The Descent of Man</i>,
+London, 1874). The rivalry of the males for the possession of
+the females he believed to be decided by the preference of the
+latter for those individuals with especially bright colours, highly
+developed plumes, beautiful song, &amp;c. Wallace does not accept
+the theory, but believes that natural selection, either directly
+or indirectly, accounts for all the facts. Probably the majority
+of naturalists follow Darwin in this respect. The subject is most
+difficult, and the interpretation of a great proportion of the
+examples in a high degree uncertain, so that a very brief account
+is here expedient. That selection of some kind has been operative
+is indicated by the diversity of the elements into which the
+effects can be analysed. The most complete set of observations
+on epigamic display was made by George W. and Elizabeth
+G. Peckham upon spiders of the family <i>Attidae</i> (<i>Nat. Hist. Soc.
+of Wisconsin</i>, vol. i., 1889). These observations afforded the
+authors &ldquo;conclusive evidence that the females pay close attention
+to the love-dances of the males, and also that they have
+not only the power, but the will, to exercise a choice among the
+suitors for their favour.&rdquo; Epigamic characters are often concealed
+except during courtship; they are found almost exclusively
+in species which are diurnal or semi-diurnal in their habits,
+and are excluded from those parts of the body which move too
+rapidly to be seen. They are very commonly directly associated
+with the nervous system; and in certain fish, and probably
+in other animals, an analogous heightening of effect accompanies
+nervous excitement other than sexual, such as that due to fighting
+or feeding. Although there is epigamic display in species with
+sexes alike, it is usually most marked in those with secondary
+sexual characters specially developed in the male. These are
+an exception to the rule in heredity, in that their appearance is
+normally restricted to a single sex, although in many of the
+higher animals they have been proved to be latent in the other,
+and may appear after the essential organs of sex have been
+removed or become functionless. This is also the case in the
+Aculeate Hymenoptera when the reproductive organs have been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page735" id="page735"></a>735</span>
+destroyed by the parasite <i>Stylops</i>. J. T. Cunningham has argued
+(<i>Sexual Dimorphism in the Animal Kingdom</i>, London, 1900) that
+secondary sexual characters have been produced by direct
+stimulation due to contests, &amp;c., in the breeding period, and have
+gradually become hereditary, a hypothesis involving the assumption
+that acquired characters are transmitted. Wallace suggests
+that they are in part to be explained as &ldquo;recognition characters,&rdquo;
+in part as an indication of surplus vital activity in the male.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The following works may also be consulted:&mdash;T.
+Eimer, <i>Orthogenesis der Schmetterlinge</i> (Leipzig, 1898); E. B.
+Poulton, <i>The Colours of Animals</i> (London, 1890); F. E. Beddard,
+<i>Animal Coloration</i> (London, 1892); E. Haase, <i>Researches on Mimicry</i>
+(translation, London, 1896); A. R. Wallace, <i>Natural Selection and
+Tropical Nature</i> (London, 1895); <i>Darwinism</i> (London, 1897); A. H.
+Thayer and G. H. Thayer, <i>Concealing-Coloration in the Animal
+Kingdom</i> (New York, 1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. B. P.)</div>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">2. Chemistry</p>
+
+<p>The coloration of the <i>surface</i> of animals is caused either by
+<i>pigments</i>, or by a certain <i>structure</i> of the surface by means of which
+the light falling on it, or reflected through its superficial transparent
+layers, undergoes diffraction or other optical change.
+Or it may be the result of a combination of these two causes.
+It plays an important part in the relationship of the animal to
+its environment, in concealment, in mimicry, and so on; the
+presence of a pigment in the integument may also serve a more
+direct physiological purpose, such as a respiratory function. The
+coloration of birds&rsquo; feathers, of the skin of many fishes, of many
+insects, is partially at least due to structure and the action of the
+peculiar pigmented cells known as &ldquo;chromatophores&rdquo; (which
+W. Garstang defines as pigmented cells specialized for the
+discharge of the chromatic function), and is much better marked
+when these have for their background a &ldquo;reflecting layer&rdquo; such
+as is provided by guanin, a substance closely related to uric acid.
+Such a mechanism is seen to greatest advantage in fishes. Among
+these, guanin may be present in a finely granular form, causing
+the light falling on it to be scattered, thus producing a white
+effect; or it may be present in a peculiar crystalline form, the
+crystals being known as &ldquo;iridocytes&rdquo;; or in a layer of closely
+apposed needles forming a silvery sheet or mirror. In the iris of
+some fishes the golden red colour is produced by the light
+reflected from such a layer of guanin needles having to pass
+through a thin layer of a reddish pigment, known as a &ldquo;lipochrome.&rdquo;
+Again, in some lepidopterous insects a white or a
+yellow appearance is produced by the deposition of uric acid or
+a nearly allied substance on the surface of the wings. In many
+animals, but especially among invertebrates, colouring matters
+or pigments play an important rôle in surface coloration; in some
+cases such coloration may be of benefit to the animal, but in
+others the integument simply serves as an organ for the excretion
+of waste pigmentary substances. Pigments (1) may be of direct
+physiological importance; (2) they may be excretory; or (3)
+they may be introduced into the body of the animal with the
+food.</p>
+
+<p>Of the many pigments which have been described up to the
+present time, very few have been subjected to elementary
+chemical analysis, owing to the great difficulties attending their
+isolation. An extremely small amount of pigment will give rise
+to a great amount of coloration, and the pigments are generally
+accompanied by impurities of various kinds which cling to them
+with great tenacity, so that when one has been thoroughly
+cleansed very little of it remains for ultimate analysis. Most of
+these substances have been detected by means of the spectroscope,
+their absorption bands serving for their recognition, but mere
+identity of spectrum does not necessarily mean chemical identity,
+and a few chemical tests have also to be applied before a conclusion
+can be drawn. The absorption bands are referred to
+certain definite parts of the spectrum, such as the Fraunhofer
+lines, or they may be given in wave-lengths. For this purpose
+the readings of the spectroscope are reduced to wave-lengths by
+means of interpolation curves; or if Zeiss&rsquo;s microspectroscope
+be used, the position of bands in wave-lengths (denoted by the
+Greek letter &lambda;) may be read directly.</p>
+
+<p>Haemoglobin, the red colouring matter of vertebrate
+blood, C<span class="su">758</span>H<span class="su">1203</span>N<span class="su">195</span>S<span class="su">3</span>FeO<span class="su">218</span>, and its derivatives haematin,
+C<span class="su">32</span>H<span class="su">30</span>N<span class="su">4</span>FeO<span class="su">3</span>, and haematoporphyrin, C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">18</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, are colouring
+matters about which we possess definite chemical knowledge, as
+they have been isolated, purified and analysed. Most of the
+bile pigments of mammals have likewise been isolated and
+studied chemically, and all of these are fully described in the
+text-books of physiology and physiological chemistry. Haemoglobin,
+though physiologically of great importance in the respiratory
+process of vertebrate animals, is yet seldom used for
+surface pigmentation, except in the face of white races of man or
+in other parts in monkeys, &amp;c. In some worms the transparent
+skin allows the haemoglobin of the blood to be seen through the
+integument, and in certain fishes also the haemoglobin is visible
+through the integument. It is a curious and noteworthy fact
+that in some invertebrate animals in which no haemoglobin
+occurs, we meet with its derivatives. Thus haematin is found in
+the so-called bile of slugs, snails, the limpet and the crayfish.
+In sea-anemones there is a pigment which yields some of the
+decomposition-products of haemoglobin, and associated with
+this is a green pigment apparently identical with biliverdin
+(C<span class="su">16</span>H<span class="su">18</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>), a green bile pigment. Again, haematoporphyrin
+is found in the integuments of star-fishes and slugs, and occurs
+in the &ldquo;dorsal streak&rdquo; of the earth-worm <i>Lumbricus terrestris</i>, and
+perhaps in other species. Haematoporphyrin and biliverdin also
+occur in the egg-shells of certain birds, but in this case they are
+derived from haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is said to be found as
+low down in the animal kingdom as the Echinoderms, <i>e.g.</i> in
+<i>Ophiactis virens</i> and <i>Thyonella gemmata</i>. It also occurs in the
+blood of <i>Planorbis corneus</i> and in the pharyngeal muscles of
+other mollusca.</p>
+
+<p>A great number of other pigments have been described; for
+example, in the muscles and tissues of animals, both vertebrate
+and invertebrate, are the histohaematins, of which a special
+muscle pigment, myohaematin, is one. In vertebrates the latter
+is generally accompanied by haemoglobin, but in invertebrates&mdash;with
+the exception of the pharyngeal muscles of the mollusca&mdash;it
+occurs alone. Although closely related to haemoglobin or its
+derivative haemochromogen, the histohaematins are yet totally
+distinct, and they are found in animals where not a trace of
+haemoglobin can be detected. Another interesting pigment is
+turacin, which contains about 7% of nitrogen, found by Professor
+A. H. Church in the feathers of the Cape lory and other
+plantain-eaters, from which it can be extracted by water
+containing a trace of ammonia. It has been isolated, purified
+and analysed by Professor Church. From it may be obtained
+turacoporphyrin, which is identical with haematoporphyrin, and
+gives the band in the ultra-violet which J. L. Soret and subsequently
+A. Gamgee have found to be characteristic of haemoglobin
+and its compounds. Turacin itself gives a peculiar two-banded
+spectrum, and contains about 7% of copper in its molecule.
+Another copper-containing pigment is haemocyanin, which in the
+oxidized state gives a blue colour to the blood of various Mollusca
+and Arthropoda. Like haemoglobin, it acts as an oxygen-carrier
+in respiration, but it takes no part in surface coloration.</p>
+
+<p>A class of pigments widely distributed among plants and
+animals are the lipochromes. As their name denotes, they are
+allied to fat and generally accompany it, being soluble in fat
+solvents. They play an important part in surface coloration,
+and may be greenish, yellow or red in colour. They contain
+no nitrogen. As an example of a lipochrome which has been
+isolated, crystallized and purified, we may mention carotin,
+which has recently been found in green leaves. Chlorophyll,
+which is so often associated with a lipochrome, has been found
+in some Infusoria, and in <i>Hydra</i> and <i>Spongilla</i>, &amp;c. In some
+cases it is probably formed by the animal; in other cases it may
+be due to symbiotic algae, while in the gastric gland of many
+Mollusca, Crustacea and Echinodermata it is derived from
+food-chlorophyll. Here it is known as entero-chlorophyll.
+The black pigments which occur among both vertebrate and
+invertebrate animals often have only one attribute in common,
+viz. blackness, for among the discordant results of analysis one
+thing is certain, viz. that the melanins from vertebrate animals
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page736" id="page736"></a>736</span>
+are not identical with those from invertebrate animals. The
+melanosis or blackening of insect blood, for instance, is due to
+the oxidation of a chromogen, the pigment produced being
+known as a uranidine. In some sponges a somewhat similar
+pigment has been noticed. Other pigments have been described,
+such as actiniochrome, echinochrome, pentacrinin, antedonin,
+polyperythrin (which appears to be a haematoporphyrin), the
+floridines, spongioporphyrin, &amp;c., which need no mention here;
+all these pigments can only be distinguished by means of the
+spectroscope.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the pigments are preceded by colourless substances
+known as &ldquo;chromogens,&rdquo; which by the action of the oxygen
+of the air and by other agencies become changed into the corresponding
+pigments. In some cases the pigments are built up
+in the tissues of an animal, in others they appear to be derived
+more or less directly from the food. Derivatives of chlorophyll
+and lipochromes especially, seem to be taken up from the intestine,
+probably by the agency of leucocytes, in which they may
+occur in combination with, or dissolved by, fatty matters and
+excreted by the integument. In worms especially, the skin
+seems to excrete many effete substances, pigments included.
+No direct connexion has been traced between the chlorophyll
+eaten with the food and the haemoglobin of blood and muscle.
+Attention may, however, be drawn to the work of Dr E. Schunck,
+who has shown that a substance closely resembling haematoporphyrin
+can be prepared from chlorophyll; this is known as
+phylloporphyrin. Not only does the <i>visible</i> spectrum of this
+substance resemble that of haematoporphyrin, but the <i>invisible</i>
+ultra-violet also, as shown by C. A. Schunck.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The reader may refer to E. A. Schäfer&rsquo;s <i>Text-Book of Physiology</i>
+(1898) for A. Gamgee&rsquo;s article &ldquo;On Haemoglobin, and its Compounds&rdquo;;
+to the writer&rsquo;s papers in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i> and <i>Proc. Roy.
+Soc.</i> from 1881 onwards, and also <i>Quart. Journ. Micros. Science</i> and
+<i>Journ. of Physiol.</i>; to C. F. W. Krukenberg&rsquo;s <i>Vergleichende physiologische
+Studien</i> from 1879 onwards, and to his <i>Vorträge</i>. Miss M. I.
+Newbigin collected in <i>Colour in Nature</i> (1898) most of the recent
+literature of this subject. Dr E. Schunck&rsquo;s papers will be found
+under the heading &ldquo;Contribution to the Chemistry of Chlorophyll&rdquo;
+in <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> from 1885 onwards; and Mr C. A. Schunck&rsquo;s
+paper in <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. lxiii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. A. MacM.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLSTON, EDWARD<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1636-1721), English philanthropist,
+the son of William Colston, a Bristol merchant of good position,
+was born at Bristol on the 2nd of November 1636. He is generally
+understood to have spent some years of his youth and manhood
+as a factor in Spain, with which country his family was long
+connected commercially, and whence, by means of a trade in
+wines and oil, great part of his own vast fortune was to come.
+On his return he seems to have settled in London, and to have
+bent himself resolutely to the task of making money. In 1681,
+the date of his father&rsquo;s decease, he appears as a governor of
+Christ&rsquo;s hospital, to which noble foundation he afterwards gave
+frequently and largely. In the same year he probably began to
+take an active interest in the affairs of Bristol, where he is found
+about this time embarked in a sugar refinery; and during the
+remainder of his life he seems to have divided his attention pretty
+equally between the city of his birth and that of his adoption. In
+1682 he appears in the records of the great western port as advancing
+a sum of £1800 to its needy corporation; in 1683 as
+&ldquo;a free burgess and <i>meire</i> (St Kitts) merchant&rdquo; he was made a
+member of the Merchant&rsquo;s Hall; and in 1684 he was appointed
+one of a committee for managing the affairs of Clifton. In 1685
+he again appears as the city&rsquo;s creditor for about £2000, repayment
+of which he is found insisting on in 1686. In 1689 he was chosen
+auditor by the vestry at Mortlake, where he was residing in an
+old house once the abode of Ireton and Cromwell. In 1691, on
+St Michael&rsquo;s Hill, Bristol, at a cost of £8000, he founded an almshouse
+for the reception of 24 poor men and women, and endowed
+with accommodation for &ldquo;Six Saylors,&rdquo; at a cost of £600, the
+merchant&rsquo;s almshouses in King Street. In 1696, at a cost of
+£8000, he endowed a foundation for clothing and teaching 40
+boys (the books employed were to have in them &ldquo;no tincture
+of Whiggism&rdquo;); and six years afterwards he expended a further
+sum of £1500 in rebuilding the school-house. In 1708; at a cost
+of £41,200, he built and endowed his great foundation on Saint
+Augustine&rsquo;s Back, for the instruction, clothing, maintaining
+and apprenticing of 100 boys; and in time of scarcity, during
+this and next year, he transmitted &ldquo;by a private hand&rdquo; some
+£20,000 to the London committee. In 1710, after a poll of four
+days, he was sent to parliament, to represent, on strictest Tory
+principles, his native city of Bristol; and in 1713, after three
+years of silent political life, he resigned this charge. He died
+at Mortlake in 1721, having nearly completed his eighty-fifth
+year; and was buried in All Saints&rsquo; church, Bristol.</p>
+
+<p>Colston, who was in the habit of bestowing large sums yearly
+for the release of poor debtors and the relief of indigent age and
+sickness, and who gave (1711) no less than £6000 to increase
+Queen Anne&rsquo;s Bounty Fund for the augmentation of small livings,
+was always keenly interested in the organization and management
+of his foundations; the rules and regulations were all
+drawn up by his hand, and the minutest details of their constitution
+and economy were dictated by him. A high churchman
+and Tory, with a genuine intolerance of dissent and dissenters,
+his name and example have served as excuses for the formation
+of two political benevolent societies&mdash;the &ldquo;Anchor&rdquo; (founded
+1769) and the &ldquo;Dolphin&rdquo; (founded 1749),&mdash;and also the
+&ldquo;Grateful&rdquo; (founded 1758), whose rivalry has been perhaps
+as instrumental in keeping their patron&rsquo;s memory green as have
+the splendid charities with which he enriched his native city
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bristol</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Garrard, <i>Edward Colston, the Philanthropist</i> (4to, Bristol,
+1852); Pryce, <i>A Popular History of Bristol</i> (1861); Manchee,
+<i>Bristol Charities</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLT, SAMUEL<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (1814-1862), American inventor, was born on
+the 19th of July 1814 at Hartford, Connecticut, where his
+father had a manufactory of silks and woollens. At the age of
+ten he left school for the factory, and at fourteen, then being
+in a boarding school at Amherst, Massachusetts, he made a
+runaway voyage to India, during which (in 1829) he constructed
+a wooden model, still existing, of what was afterwards to be the
+revolver (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pistol</a></span>). On his return he learned chemistry
+from his father&rsquo;s bleaching and dyeing manager, and under the
+assumed name &ldquo;Dr Coult&rdquo; travelled over the United States
+and Canada lecturing on that science. The profits of two years
+of this work enabled him to continue his researches and experiments.
+In 1835, having perfected a six-barrelled rotating
+breech, he visited Europe, and patented his inventions in London
+and Paris, securing the American right on his return; and the
+same year he founded at Paterson, New Jersey, the Patent
+Arms Company, for the manufacture of his revolvers only.
+As early as 1837 revolvers were successfully used by United
+States troops, under Lieut.-Colonel William S. Harney, in
+fighting against the Seminole Indians in Florida. Colt&rsquo;s scheme,
+however, did not succeed; the arms were not generally appreciated;
+and in 1842 the company became insolvent. No revolvers
+were made for five years, and none were to be had when General
+Zachary Taylor wrote for a supply from the seat of war in
+Mexico. In 1847 the United States government ordered 1000
+from the inventor; but before these could be produced he had
+to construct a new model, for a pistol of the company&rsquo;s make
+could nowhere be found. This commission was the beginning
+of an immense business. The little armoury at Whitneyville
+(New Haven, Connecticut), where the order for Mexico was
+executed, was soon exchanged for larger workshops at Hartford.
+These in their turn gave place (1852) to the enormous factory
+of the Colt&rsquo;s Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing Company, doubled
+in 1861, on the banks of the Connecticut river, within the city
+limits of Hartford, where so many millions of revolvers with
+all their appendages have been manufactured. Thence was
+sent, for the Russian and English governments, to Tula and
+Enfield, the whole of the elaborate machinery devised by Colt
+for the manufacture of his pistols. Colt introduced and patented
+a number of improvements in his revolver, and also invented
+a submarine battery for harbour defence. He died at Hartford
+on the 10th of January 1862.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLT&rsquo;S-FOOT<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span>, the popular name of a small herb, <i>Tussilago
+Farfara</i>, a member of the natural order Compositae, which is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page737" id="page737"></a>737</span>
+common in Britain in damp, heavy soils. It has a stout branching
+underground stem, which sends up in March and April scapes
+about 6 in. high, each bearing a head of bright yellow flowers,
+the male in the centre surrounded by a much larger number of
+female. The flowers are succeeded by the fruits, which bear a
+soft snow-white woolly pappus. The leaves, which appear
+later, are broadly cordate with an angular or lobed outline, and
+are covered on the under-face with a dense white felt. The
+botanical name, <i>Tussilago</i>, recalls its use as a medicine for
+cough (<i>tussis</i>). The leaves are smoked in cases of asthma.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUGO,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Cobego</span>, either of two species of the zoological
+genus <i>Galeopithecus</i>. These animals live in the forests of the
+Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippine Islands,
+where they feed chiefly on leaves, and probably also on insects.
+In size they may be compared with cats; the long slender
+limbs are connected by a broad fold of skin extending outwards
+from the sides of the neck and body, the fingers and toes are
+webbed, and the hind-limbs joined by an outer membrane as in
+bats. Their habits are nocturnal, and during the daytime they
+cling to the trunks or limbs of trees head downwards in a state
+of repose. With the approach of night their season of activity
+commences, when they may be occasionally seen gliding from
+tree to tree supported on their cutaneous parachute, and they
+have been noticed as capable of traversing in this way a space
+of 70 yds. with a descent of only about one in five. Europeans
+in the East know these animals as &ldquo;flying lemurs.&rdquo; (See
+<span class="sc">Galeopithecus</span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBA, SAINT<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (Irish, <i>Colum</i>), Irish saint, was born on the
+7th of December 521, in all probability at Gartan in Co. Donegal.
+His father Feidlimid was a member of the reigning family in
+Ireland and was closely allied to that of Dalriada (Argyll). His
+mother Eithne was of Leinster extraction and was descended
+from an illustrious provincial king. To these powerful connexions
+as much as to his piety and ability, he owed the immense influence
+he possessed. Later lives state that the saint was also called
+Crimthann (fox), and Reeves suggests that he may have had
+two names, the one baptismal, the other secular. He was
+afterwards known as Columkille, or Columba of the Church,
+to distinguish him from others of the same name. During his
+early years the Irish Church was reformed by Gildas and Finian
+of Clonard, and numerous monasteries were founded which
+made Ireland renowned as a centre of learning. Columba
+himself studied under two of the most distinguished Irishmen
+of his day, Finian of Moville (at the head of Strangford Lough)
+and Finian of Clonard. Almost as a matter of course, under
+such circumstances, he embraced the monastic life. He was
+ordained deacon while at Moville, and afterwards, when about
+thirty years of age, was raised to the priesthood. During his
+residence in Ireland he founded, in addition to a number of
+churches, two famous monasteries, one named Daire Calgaich
+(Derry) on the banks of Lough Foyle, the other Dair-magh
+(Durrow) in King&rsquo;s county.</p>
+
+<p>In 563 he left his native land, accompanied by twelve disciples,
+and went on a mission to northern Britain, perhaps on the
+invitation of his kinsman Conall, king of Dalriada. Irish
+accounts represent Columba as undertaking this mission in
+consequence of the censure expressed against him by the clergy
+after the battle of Cooldrevny; but this is probably a fabrication.
+The saint&rsquo;s labours in Scotland must be regarded as a manifestation
+of the same spirit of missionary enterprise with which so
+many of his countrymen were imbued. Columba established
+himself on the island of Hy or Iona, where he erected a church
+and a monastery. About the year 565 he applied himself to
+the task of converting the heathen kingdom of the northern
+Picts. Crossing over to the mainland he proceeded to the
+residence, on the banks of the Ness, of Brude, king of the Picts.
+By his preaching, his holy life, and, as his earliest biographers
+assert, by the performance of miracles, he converted the king
+and many of his subjects. The precise details, except in a few
+cases, are unknown, or obscured by exaggeration and fiction;
+but it is certain that the whole of northern Scotland was converted
+by the labours of Columba, and his disciples and the
+religious instruction of the people provided for by the erection
+of numerous monasteries. The monastery of Iona was reverenced
+as the mother house of all these foundations, and its abbots were
+obeyed as the chief ecclesiastical rulers of the whole nation of
+the northern Picts. There were then neither dioceses nor parishes
+in Ireland and Celtic Scotland; and by the Columbite rule the
+bishops themselves, although they ordained the clergy, were
+subject to the jurisdiction of the abbots of Iona, who, like the
+founder of the order, were only presbyters. In matters of
+ritual they agreed with the Western Church on the continent,
+save in a few particulars such as the precise time of keeping
+Easter and manner of tonsure.</p>
+
+<p>Columba was honoured by his countrymen, the Scots of
+Britain and Ireland, as much as by his Pictish converts, and
+in his character of chief ecclesiastical ruler he gave formal
+benediction and inauguration to Aidan, the successor of Conall,
+as king of the Scots. He accompanied that prince to Ireland
+in 575, and took a leading part in a council held at Drumceat
+in Ulster, which determined once and for all the position of the
+ruler of Dalriada with regard to the king of Ireland. The last
+years of Columba&rsquo;s life appear to have been mainly spent at
+Iona. There he was already revered as a saint, and whatever
+credit may be given to some portions of the narratives of his
+biographers, there can be no doubt as to the wonderful influence
+which he exercised, as to the holiness of his life, and as to the
+love which he uniformly manifested to God and to his neighbour.</p>
+
+<p>In the summer of 597 he knew that his end was approaching.
+On Saturday the 8th of June he was able, with the help of one
+of his monks, to ascend a little hill above the monastery and
+to give it his farewell blessing. Returning to his cell he continued
+a labour in which he had been engaged, the transcription of the
+Psalter. Having finished the verse of the 34th Psalm where it
+is written, &ldquo;They who seek the Lord shall want no manner of
+thing that is good,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;Here I must stop:&mdash;what follows
+let Baithen write&rdquo;; indicating, as was believed, his wish that
+his cousin Baithen should succeed him as abbot. He was
+present at evening in the church, and when the midnight bell
+sounded for the nocturnal office early on Sunday morning he
+again went thither unsupported, but sank down before the altar
+and passed away as in a gentle sleep.</p>
+
+<p>Several Irish poems are ascribed to Columba, but they are
+manifestly compositions of a later age. Three Latin hymns may,
+however, be attributed to the saint with some degree of certainty.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The original materials for a life of St Columba are unusually full.
+The earliest biography was written by one of his successors, Cuminius,
+who became abbot of Iona in 657. Much more important is the
+enlargement of that work by Adamnan, who became abbot of Iona
+in 679. These narratives are supplemented by the brief but most
+valuable notices given by the Venerable Bede. See W. Reeves,
+<i>Life of St Columba, written by Adamnan</i> (Dublin, 1857); W. F.
+Skene, <i>Celtic Scotland</i>, vol. ii. &ldquo;Church and Culture&rdquo; (Edinburgh,
+1877).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. Q.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBAN<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (543-615), Irish saint and writer, was born in
+Leinster in 543, and was educated in the monastery of Bangor,
+Co. Down. About the year 585 he left Ireland together with
+twelve other monks, and established himself in the Vosges, among
+the ruins of an ancient fortification called Anagrates, the present
+Anegray in the department of Haute-Saône. His enemies accused
+him before a synod of French bishops (602) for keeping Easter
+according to the old British and now unorthodox way, and a more
+powerful conspiracy was organized against him at the court
+of Burgundy for boldly rebuking the crimes of King Theuderich
+II. and the queen-mother Brunhilda. He was banished and
+forcibly removed from his monastery, and with St Gall and
+others of the monks he withdrew into Switzerland, where he
+preached with no great success to the Suebi and Alamanni.
+Being again compelled to flee, he retired to Italy, and founded
+the monastery of Bobbio in the Apennines, where he remained
+till his death, which took place on the 21st of November 615.
+His writings, which include some Latin poems, prove him a man
+of learning, and he appears to have been acquainted not only
+with the Latin classics, but also with Greek, and even Hebrew.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The collected edition of St Columban&rsquo;s writings was published by
+Patrick Fleming in his <i>Collectanea sacra Hiberni</i> (Louvain, 1667),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page738" id="page738"></a>738</span>
+and reproduced by Migne, p. 4, vol. lxxxvi. (Paris, 1844). See
+further, Wright&rsquo;s <i>Biographia Literaria</i>. Columban&rsquo;s <i>Regula Coenobitalis
+cum Poenitenliali</i> is to be found in the <i>Codex Regularum</i>
+(Paris, 1638). A complete bibliography is given in U. Chevallier,
+<i>Répertoire des sources hist</i>. (Bio. Bibliogr.), vol. i. 990 (Paris, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBANI, PLACIDO,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> Italian architectural designer, who
+worked chiefly in England in the latter part of the 18th century.
+He belonged to the school of the Adams and Pergolesi, and like
+them frequently designed the enrichments of furniture. He
+was a prolific producer of chimney-pieces, which are often
+mistaken for Adam work, of moulded friezes, and painted plaques
+for cabinets and the like. There can be no question that the
+English furniture designers of the end of the 18th century, and
+especially the Adams, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, owed much
+to his graceful, flowing and classical conceptions, although they
+are often inferior to those of Pergolesi. His books are still a
+valuable store-house of sketches for internal architectural
+decoration. His principal works are:&mdash;<i>Vases and Tripods</i>
+(1770); <i>A New Book of Ornaments, containing a variety of elegant
+designs for Modern Panels, commonly executed in Stucco, Wood
+or Painting, and used in decorating Principal Rooms</i> (1775);
+<i>A variety of Capitals, Friezes and Corniches, and how to increase
+and decrease them, still retaining their proportions</i> (1776). He
+also assisted John Crunden in the production of <i>The Chimneypiece
+Makers&rsquo; Daily Assistant</i> (1776).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBARIUM<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (Lat. <i>columba</i>, a dove), a pigeon-house.
+The term is applied in architecture to those sepulchral chambers
+in and near Rome, the walls of which were sunk with small niches
+(<i>columbaria</i>) to receive the cinerary urns. Vitruvius (iv. 2)
+employs the term to signify the holes made in a wall to receive
+the ends of the timbers of a floor or roof.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA,<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Boone county,
+Missouri, U.S.A., situated in the central part of the state, about
+145 m. (by rail) W.N.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4000; (1900)
+5651 (1916 negroes); (1910) 9662. Columbia is served by the
+Wabash and the Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas railways. It is
+primarily an educational centre, is a market for grain and farm
+products, and has grain elevators, a packing house, a shoe
+factory and brick works. Columbia is the seat of the University
+of Missouri, a coeducational state institution, established in
+1839 and opened in 1841; it received no direct financial support
+from the state until 1867, and its founding was due to the self-sacrifice
+of the people of the county. It is now liberally supported
+by the state; in 1908 its annual income was about $650,000.
+In 1908 the university had (at Columbia) 200 instructors and
+2419 students, including 680 women; included in its library is
+the collection of the State Historical Society. The School of
+Mines of the university is at Rolla, Mo.; all other departments
+are at Columbia. A normal department was established in 1867
+and opened in 1868; and women were admitted to it in 1869.
+The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts became a department
+of the university in 1870. The law department was opened
+in 1872, the medical in 1873, and the engineering in 1877. The
+graduate department was established in 1896, and in 1908 a
+department of journalism was organized. On the university
+campus in the quadrangle is the monument of grey granite
+erected over the grave of Thomas Jefferson, designed after his
+own plans, and bearing the famous inscription written by him.
+It was given to the university by descendants of Jefferson when
+Congress appropriated money for the monument now standing
+over his grave. Near the city is the farm of the agricultural
+college and the experiment station. At Columbia, also, are the
+Parker Memorial hospital, the Teachers College high school,
+the University Military Academy, the Columbia Business
+College, Christian College (Disciples) for women, established in
+1851, its charter being the first granted by Missouri for the
+collegiate education of Protestant women; the Bible College
+of the Disciples of Christ in Missouri; and Stephens College
+(under Baptist control) for women, established in 1856. The
+municipality owns the water-works and the electric lighting
+plant. Columbia was first settled about 1821.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> a borough of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Susquehanna river (here crossed
+by a long steel bridge), opposite Wrightsville and about 81 m.
+W. by N. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 10,599; (1900) 12,316,
+of whom 772 were foreign-born; (1910) 11,454. It is served
+by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia, Baltimore &amp; Washington,
+the Philadelphia &amp; Reading, and the Northern Central railways,
+and by interurban electric railways. The river here is about
+a mile wide, and a considerable portion of the borough is built
+on the slope of a hill which rises gently from the river-bank and
+overlooks beautiful scenery. The Pennsylvania railway has
+repair shops here, and among Columbia&rsquo;s manufactures are silk
+goods, embroidery and laces, iron and steel pipe, engines,
+laundry machinery, brushes, stoves, iron toys, umbrellas, flour,
+lumber and wagons; the city is also a busy shipping and trading
+centre. Columbia was first settled, by Quakers, in 1726; it
+was laid out as a town in 1787; and in 1814 it was incorporated.
+In 1790 it was one of several places considered in Congress for
+a permanent site of the national capital.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> the capital city of South Carolina, U.S.A., and
+the county-seat of Richland county, on the E. bank of the
+Congaree river, a short distance below the confluence of the
+Saluda and the Broad rivers, about 130 m. N.W. of Charleston.
+Pop. (1890) 15,353; (19O0) 21,108, of whom 9858 were negroes;
+and (1910) 26,319. It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the
+Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Columbia, Newberry
+&amp; Laurens railways. Columbia is picturesquely situated on the
+level top of a bluff overlooking the Congaree, which falls about
+36 ft. in passing by, but is navigable for the remainder of its
+course. The surrounding country is devoted chiefly to cotton
+culture. The state house, United States government building and
+city hall are fine structures. Some of the new business houses
+are ten or more storeys in height. The state penitentiary and
+the state insane asylum are located here, and Columbia is an
+important educational centre, being the seat of the university
+of South Carolina, the Columbia College for women (Methodist
+Episcopal South, 1854), the College for women (Presbyterian,
+1890), and the Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1828); and
+the Allen University (African Methodist Episcopal; coeducational,
+1880), and the Benedict College (Baptist) for negroes.
+The University of South Carolina, organized in 1801 and opened
+in 1805, was known as South Carolina College in 1805-1863,
+1878-1887 and 1891-1906, and as the university of South
+Carolina in 1866-1877, 1888-1891 and after 1906; in 1907-1908
+it had departments of arts, science, pedagogy and law, an enrolment
+of 285 students, and a faculty of 25 instructors. By
+means of a canal abundant water power is furnished by the
+Congaree, and the city has some of the largest cotton mills in the
+world; it has, besides, foundries and machine shops and manufactories
+of fertilizers and hosiery. The manufactures under
+the factory system were valued at $3,133,903 in 1900 and at
+$4,676,944 in 1905&mdash;a gain, greater than that of any other city
+in the state, of 49.2% in five years. In the neighbourhood are
+several valuable granite quarries. The municipality owns and
+operates its water-works.</p>
+
+<p>While much of the site was still a forest the legislature, in
+1786, chose it for the new capital. It was laid out in the same
+year, and in 1790 the legislature first met here. Until 1805,
+when it was incorporated as a village, Columbia was under the
+direct government of the legislature; in 1854 it was chartered
+as a city. On the morning of the 17th of February 1865 General
+W. T. Sherman, on his march through the Carolinas, entered
+Columbia, and on the ensuing night a fire broke out which was
+not extinguished until most of the city was destroyed. The
+responsibility for this fire was charged by the Confederates upon
+the Federals and by the Federals upon the Confederates.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Maury county,
+Tennessee, U.S.A., situated on the Duck river, in the central part
+of the state, 46 m. S. of Nashville. Pop. (1890) 5370; (1900)
+6052 (2716 negroes); (1910) 5754. Columbia is served by the
+Louisville &amp; Nashville, and the Nashville, Chattanooga &amp; St
+Louis railways. It is the seat of the Columbia Institute for girls
+(under Protestant Episcopal control), founded in 1836, and of
+the Columbia Military Academy. Columbia is in a fine farming
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page739" id="page739"></a>739</span>
+region; is engaged extensively in the mining and shipping
+of phosphates; has an important trade in live-stock, especially
+mules; manufactures cotton, lumber, flour, bricks, pumps and
+woollen goods; and has marble and stone works. Columbia
+was settled about 1807 and was incorporated in 1822. During
+the Civil War it was the base from which General N. B. Forrest
+operated in 1862-1863, and was alternately occupied by Confederate
+and Federal forces during General Hood&rsquo;s Nashville
+campaign (November-December 1864).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA RIVER,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> a stream of the north-west United States
+and south-west Canada, about 939 m. in length, draining a basin
+of about 250,000 sq. m., of which 38,395 are in British Columbia;
+some 105,000 sq. m. belong to the valley of the Snake and
+11,700 to that of the Willamette. The source of the river is
+partly in the Yellowstone country, partly near the Titon peaks,
+and partly in the pine-clad mountains of British Columbia.
+Some American geographers regard the head as that of the Clark
+Fork, but it is most generally taken to be in British Columbia
+about 80 m. north of the United States line. From this point
+it runs some 150 m. to the north-west to the &ldquo;Big Bend,&rdquo; and
+then in a great curve southward, enclosing the superb ranges of
+the Selkirks, crossing the international line near the boundary
+of Washington and Idaho, where it is joined by the Pend Oreille
+river, or Clark Fork, already referred to. This latter river rises
+in the Rocky Mountains west of Helena, Montana, falls with
+a heavy slope (1323 ft. in 167 m.) to its confluence with the Flathead,
+flows through Lake Pend Oreille (27 m.) in northern Idaho,
+and runs in deep canyons (falling 900 ft. in 200 m.) to its junction
+with the Columbia, which from this point continues almost due
+south for more than 106 m. Here the Columbia is joined by the
+Spokane, a large river with heavy fall, and enters the &ldquo;Great
+Plain of the Columbia,&rdquo; an area of some 22,000 sq. m., resembling
+the &ldquo;parks&rdquo; of Colorado, shut in on all sides by mountains:
+the Moses range to the north, the Bitter Root and C&oelig;ur d&rsquo;Alène
+on the east, the Blue on the south, and the Cascades on the west.
+The soil is rich, yielding great harvests of grain, and the mountains
+rich in minerals as yet only slightly prospected. After
+breaking into this basin the river turns sharply to the west and
+skirts the northern mountain barrier for about 105 m. Where
+it strikes the confines of the Cascades, it is joined by the
+Okanogan, turns due south in the second Big Bend, and flows
+about 200 m. to its junction with the Snake near Wallula.</p>
+
+<p>After the confluence of the Snake with the Columbia the
+greater river turns west toward the Pacific. Throughout its
+course to this point it may be said that the Columbia has no
+flood plain; everywhere it is cutting its bed; almost everywhere
+it is characterized by canyons, although above the Spokane
+the valley is much broken down and there is considerable
+timbered and fertile bench land. Below the Spokane the
+canyon becomes more steep and rugged. From the mouth of
+the Okanogan to Priests Rapids extends a superb canyon, with
+precipitous walls of black columnar basalt 1000 to 3000 ft. in
+height. The finest portion is below the Rock Island Rapids.
+In this part of its course, along the Cascade range in the Great
+Plain and at its passage of the range westward, rapids and
+cascades particularly obstruct the imperfectly opened bed.
+In the lower Columbia, navigation is first interrupted 160 m.
+from the mouth at the Cascades, a narrow gorge across the
+Cascade range 4.5 m. long, where the river falls 24 ft. in 2500;
+the rapids are evaded by a canal constructed (1878-1896) by the
+Federal government, and by a portage railway (1890-1891).
+Fifty-three miles above this are the Dalles, a series of falls,
+rapids and rock obstructions extending some 12 m. and ending
+at Celilo, 115m. below Wallula, with a fall of 20 ft. There are
+also impediments just below the mouth of the Snake; others
+in the lower course of this river below Riparia; and almost
+continuous obstructions in the Columbia above Priests Rapids.
+The commerce of the Columbia is very important, especially
+that from Portland, Vancouver, Astoria, and other outlets of
+the Willamette valley and the lower Columbia. The grain
+region of the Great Plain, the bottom-land orchards and grain
+field on the plateaus of the Snake, have not since 1880 been
+dependent upon the water navigation for freighting, but in their
+interest costly attempts have been made to open the river below
+the Snake uninterruptedly to commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The Columbia is one of the greatest salmon streams of the
+world (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oregon</a></span>). The tonnage of deep-sea vessels in and out
+over the bar at the river&rsquo;s mouth from 1890-1899 was 9,423,637
+tons. From 1872-1899 the United States government expended
+for improvement of the Snake and Columbia $6,925,649. The
+mouth of the latter is the only deep-water harbour between
+San Francisco and Cape Flattery (700 m.), and the only fresh
+water harbour of the Pacific coast. To facilitate its entrance,
+which, owing to bars, tides, winds, and the great discharge of
+the river, has always been difficult, a great jetty has been constructed
+(1885-1895, later enlarged) to scour the bars. It was
+about 4.5 miles long, and in 1903 work was begun to make it 2.5
+miles longer. The tides are perceptible 150 m. above the mouth
+(mean tide at Astoria <i>c.</i> 6.2 ft.), the average tidal flow at the
+mouth being about 1,000,000 cub. ft. per second; while the
+fresh water outflow is from 90,000 to 300,000 cub. ft. according
+to the stage of water, and as high as 1,000,000 cub. ft. in time
+of flood. Improvements were undertaken by the Federal government
+and a state commission in 1902 in order to secure a 25-ft.
+channel from Portland to the sea.</p>
+
+<p>In 1792, and possibly also in 1788, the river mouth was entered
+by Captain Robert Gray (1755-1806) of Boston, Mass., who
+named the river after his own vessel, &ldquo;Columbia,&rdquo; which name
+has wholly supplanted the earlier name, &ldquo;Oregon.&rdquo; In 1804-1805
+the river was explored by Meriwether Lewis and William
+Clark. Upon these discoveries the United States primarily
+based its claim to the territory now embraced in the states of
+Oregon and Washington.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> one of the oldest and most important
+of the higher institutions of learning in the United
+States, located for the most part on Morningside Heights,
+New York city. It embraces Columbia College, founded as
+King&rsquo;s College in 1754; a school of medicine (the College of
+Physicians and Surgeons) founded in 1767, in West 59th Street;
+a school of law, founded in 1858; schools of applied science,
+including a school of mines and schools of chemistry and engineering,
+separately organized in 1896; a school of architecture,
+organized in 1881; graduate schools of political science, organized
+in 1880, philosophy, organized in 1890, and pure science,
+organized in 1892; and a school of journalism; closely affiliated
+with it are the College of Pharmacy, founded in 1829, in West
+68th Street; Teachers&rsquo; College, founded in 1886, as the New
+York College for the Training of Teachers, and essentially a
+part of the university since 1899; and Barnard College (for
+women) founded in 1889, and essentially a part of the university
+since 1900. Reciprocal relations also exist between the university
+and both the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant
+Episcopal Church and the Union Theological Seminary, thus
+practically adding to the university a theological department.
+Columbia also nominates the American professors who lecture at
+German universities by the reciprocal arrangement made in 1905,
+the German professors lecturing in America being nominated by
+the Prussian ministry of education. Women are now admitted to
+all the university courses except those in law, medicine, technology
+and architecture. Since 1900 a summer session has been
+held for six weeks and attended largely by teachers. Teachers
+and others, under the direction of the Teachers&rsquo; College, are
+afforded an opportunity to pursue courses <i>in absentia</i> and so meet
+some of the requirements for an academic degree or a teacher&rsquo;s
+diploma. All students of good ability are enabled to complete
+the requirements for the bachelor&rsquo;s degree together with any one
+of the professional degrees by six years of study at the university.
+Several courses of lectures designed especially for the public&mdash;notably
+the Hewitt Lectures, in co-operation with Cooper Union&mdash;are
+delivered at different places in the city and at the university.</p>
+
+<p>In 1908 there were in Columbia University in all departments
+609 instructors and 4096 students; of these 420 were in Barnard
+College, 850 were in the Teachers&rsquo; College, and 229 were in the
+College of Pharmacy. The numerous University publications
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page740" id="page740"></a>740</span>
+include works embodying the results of original research published
+by the University Press; &ldquo;Studies&rdquo; published in the
+form of a series by each of several departments, various periodicals
+edited by some members of the faculty, such as the
+<i>Columbia University Quarterly</i>, the <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>,
+and the <i>School of Mines Quarterly</i>; and several papers or
+periodicals published by the students, among which are the
+<i>Columbia Spectator</i>, a daily paper, the <i>Columbia Law Review</i>,
+the <i>Columbia Monthly</i> and the <i>Columbia Jester</i>.</p>
+
+<p>With two or three unimportant exceptions the buildings of
+the university on Morningside Heights have been erected since
+1896. They include, besides the several department buildings,
+a library building, a university hall (with gymnasium), Earl
+Hall (for social purposes), St Paul&rsquo;s chapel (dedicated in 1907),
+two residence halls for men, and one for women. The library
+contains about 450,000 volumes exclusive of duplicates and
+unbound pamphlets. The highest authority in the government
+of the institution is vested in a board of twenty-four trustees,
+vacancies in which are filled by co-optation; but the immediate
+educational interests are directed largely by the members of the
+university council, which is composed of the president of the
+university, the dean and one other representative from the
+faculty of each school. The institution is maintained by the
+proceeds from an endowment fund exceeding $15,000,000, by
+tuition fees ranging, according to the school, from $150 to $250
+for each student, and by occasional gifts for particular objects.</p>
+
+<p>The charter (1754) providing for the establishment of King&rsquo;s
+College was so free from narrow sectarianism as to name ministers
+of five different denominations for ex-officio governors, and the
+purpose of the institution as set forth by its first president,
+Dr Samuel Johnson (1696-1772) was about as broad as that
+now realised. In 1756 the erection of the first building was
+begun at the lower end of Manhattan Island, near the Hudson,
+and the institution prospered from the beginning. From 1776
+to 1784, during the War of Independence, the exercises of the
+college were suspended and the library and apparatus were
+stored in the New York city hall. In 1784 the name was changed
+to Columbia College, and an act of the legislature was passed for
+creating a state university, of which Columbia was to be the
+basis. But the plan was not a success, and three years later, in
+1787, the act was repealed and the administration of Columbia
+was entrusted to a board of trustees of which the present board
+is a successor. In 1857 there was an extensive re-organization
+by which the scope of the institution was much enlarged, and at
+the same time it was removed to a new site on Madison Avenue
+between 49th and 50th Streets. From 1890 to 1895 much
+centralization in its administration was effected, in 1896 the
+name of Columbia University was adopted, and in the autumn
+of 1897 the old site and buildings were again abandoned for new,
+this time on Morningside Heights.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>A History of Columbia University</i>, by members of the faculty
+(New York, 1904); and J. B. Pine, &ldquo;King&rsquo;s College, now Columbia
+University,&rdquo; in <i>Historic New York</i> (New York, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBINE<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (Ital. <i>columbina</i>, from <i>columba</i>, a dove), in
+pantomime (<i>q.v.</i>) the fairy-like dancer who is courted by
+Harlequin. In the medieval Italian popular comedy she was
+Harlequin&rsquo;s daughter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBINE,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> an erect perennial herbaceous plant known
+botanically as <i>Aquilegia vulgaris</i> (natural order Ranunculaceae).
+In Med. Latin it was known as <i>Columbina sc. herba</i>, the dove&rsquo;s
+plant. The slender stem bears delicate, long-stalked, deeply
+divided leaves with blunt segments, and a loose panicle of
+handsome drooping blue or white flowers, which are characterized
+by having all the five petals spurred. The plant occurs wild
+in woods and thickets in England and Ireland, and flowers in
+early summer. It is well known in cultivation as a favourite
+spring flower, in many varieties, some of which have red
+flowers.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:117px; height:209px" src="images/img740.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Crystal of Columbite.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBITE,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> a rare mineral consisting of iron niobate,
+FeNb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>, in which the iron and niobium are replaced by varying
+amounts of manganese and tantalum respectively, the general
+formula being (Fe, Mn) (Nb, Ta)<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>. It was in this mineral that
+Charles Hatchett discovered, in 1801, the element niobium,
+which he himself called columbium after the country (Columbia
+or America) whence came the specimen in the British Museum
+collection which he examined. The species has also been
+called niobite. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system,
+and the black, opaque crystals are often very
+brilliant with a sub-metallic lustre. Twinned
+crystals are not uncommon, and there is a distinct
+cleavage parallel to the face marked <i>b</i> in the
+figure. Hardness 6; specific gravity 5.3. With
+increasing amount of tantalum the specific
+gravity increases up to 7.3, and members at this
+end of the series are known as tantalite (FeTa<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>).
+Specimens in which the iron is largely replaced
+by manganese are known as manganocolumbite
+or manganotantalite, according as they contain
+more niobium or more tantalum. Columbite
+occurs as crystals and compact masses in granite
+and pegmatite at Rabenstein in Lower Bavaria,
+the Ilmen Mountains in the Urals, Haddam in Connecticut, and
+several other localities in the United States; also in the cryolite
+of Greenland. Tantalite is from Finland, and it has recently
+been found in some abundance in the deposits of cassiterite in
+the tin-field of Greenbushes in the Blackwood district, Western
+Australia.</p>
+
+<p>Dimorphous with columbite and tantalite are the tetragonal
+minerals tapiolite (= skogbölite) and mossite, so that the four
+form an isodimorphous group with the general formula
+(Fe, Mn) (Nb, Ta)<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">6</span>. Mossite is from a pegmatite vein near
+Moss in Norway, and tapiolite is from Finland. All these
+minerals contain tin in small amount.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBIUM,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Niobium</span> (symbol Cb or Nb, atomic weight
+94), one of the metallic elements of the nitrogen group, first
+detected in 1801 by C. Hatchett in a specimen of columbite
+(niobite) from Massachusetts (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> 1802, 49). It is
+usually found associated with tantalum, the chief minerals
+containing these two elements being tantalite, columbite,
+fergusonite and yttrotantalite; it is also a constituent of
+pyrochlor, euxenite and samarskite. Columbium compounds are
+usually prepared by fusing columbite with an excess of acid
+potassium sulphate, boiling out the fused mass with much water,
+and removing tin and tungsten from the residue by digestion
+with ammonium sulphide, any iron present being simultaneously
+converted into ferrous sulphide. The residue is washed, extracted
+by dilute hydrochloric acid, and again well washed with
+boiling water. It is then dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and
+heated in order to expel silicon fluoride; finally the columbium,
+tantalum and titanium fluorides are separated by the different
+solubilities of their double fluorides (C. Marignac, <i>Ann. chim.
+et phys.</i> 1866 [4], 8, p. 63; 1868, 13, p. 28; see also W. Gibbs,
+<i>Jahresb.</i> 1864, p. 685; R. D. Hall and E. F. Smith, <i>Proc. Amer.
+Philos. Soc.</i> 1905, 44, p. 177).</p>
+
+<p>The metal was first obtained by C. W. Blomstrand (<i>Journ.
+prak. Chem.</i> 1866, 97, p. 37) by reducing the chloride with hydrogen;
+it has more recently been prepared by H. Moissan by reducing
+the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace (the product
+obtained always contains from 2-3% of combined carbon), and
+by H. Goldschmidt and C. Vautin (<i>Journ. Soc. Chem. Industry</i>,
+1898, 19, p. 543) by reducing the oxide with aluminium powder.
+As obtained by the reduction of the chloride, it is a steel grey
+powder of specific gravity 7.06. It burns on heating in air; and
+is scarcely attacked by hydrochloric or nitric acids, or by <i>aqua
+regia</i>; it is soluble in warm concentrated sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Columbium hydride</i>, CbH, is obtained as a greyish metallic
+powder, when the double fluoride, CbF<span class="su">5</span>, 2KF, is reduced with sodium.
+It burns when heated in air, and is soluble in warm concentrated
+sulphuric acid. Three oxides of columbium are certainly known,
+namely the <i>dioxide</i>, Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, the <i>tetroxide</i>, Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, and the <i>pentoxide</i>,
+Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>, whilst a fourth oxide, <i>columbium trioxide</i>, Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, has been
+described by E. F. Smith and P. Maas (<i>Zeit. f. anorg. Chem.</i> 1894,
+7, p. 97). <i>Columbium dioxide</i>, Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, is formed when dry potassium
+columbium oxyfluoride is reduced by sodium (H. Rose, <i>Pogg. Ann.</i>
+1858, 104, p. 312). It burns readily in air, and is converted into the
+pentoxide when fused with acid potassium sulphate. <i>Columbium</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page741" id="page741"></a>741</span>
+<i>tetroxide</i>, Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span> is obtained as a black powder when the pentoxide
+is heated to a high temperature in a current of hydrogen. It is unattacked
+by acids. <i>Columbium pentoxide</i> (columbic acid), Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span>,
+is obtained from columbite, after the removal of tantalum (see
+above). The mother liquors are concentrated, and the double salt
+of composition 2KF·CbOF<span class="su">3</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, which separates, is decomposed
+by sulphuric acid, or by continued boiling with water (C. Marignac;
+see also G. Krüss and L. F. Nilson, <i>Ber.</i> 1887, 20, p. 1676). It is a
+white amorphous infusible powder, which when strongly heated in
+sulphuretted hydrogen, yields an oxysulphide. Several hydrated
+forms are known, yielding salts known as <i>columbates</i>. A <i>percolumbic
+acid</i>, HCbO<span class="su">4</span>·nH<span class="su">2</span>O, has been prepared by P. Melikoff and L. Pissarjewsky
+(<i>Zeit. f. anorg. Chem.</i> 1899, 20, p. 341), as a yellow amorphous
+powder by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on the potassium salt,
+which is formed when columbic acid is fused in a silver crucible with
+eight times its weight of caustic potash (<i>loc. cit.</i>). Salts of the acid
+H<span class="su">3</span>CbO<span class="su">8</span> have been described by C. W. Balke and E. F. Smith (<i>Jour.
+Amer. Chem. Soc.</i> 1908, 30, p. 1637).</p>
+
+<p><i>Columbium trichloride</i>, CbCl<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained in needles or crystalline
+crusts, when the vapour of the pentachloride is slowly passed
+through a red-hot tube. When heated in a current of carbon dioxide
+it forms the oxychloride CbOCl<span class="su">3</span>, and carbon monoxide. <i>Columbium
+pentachloride</i>, CbCl<span class="su">5</span>, is obtained in yellow needles when a mixture
+of the pentoxide and sugar charcoal is heated in a current of air-free
+chlorine. It melts at 194° C. (H. Deville) and boils at 240.5° C.
+It is decomposed by water, and dissolves in hydrochloric acid.
+<i>Columbium oxychloride</i>, CbOCl<span class="su">3</span>, is formed when carbon tetrachloride,
+and columbic acid are heated together at 440° C.: 3CCl<span class="su">4</span> + Cb<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">5</span> =
+2CbOCl<span class="su">3</span> + 3COCl<span class="su">2</span>, and also by distilling the pentachloride, in a current
+of carbon dioxide, over ignited columbic acid. It forms a white silky
+mass which volatilizes at about 400° C. It deliquesces in moist air, and
+is decomposed violently by water. <i>Columbium pentafluoride</i>, CbF<span class="su">5</span>,
+is obtained when the pentoxide is dissolved in hydrofluoric acid.
+It is only known in solution; evaporation of the solution yields the
+pentoxide. The <i>oxyfluoride</i>, CbOF<span class="su">3</span>, results when a mixture of the
+pentoxide and fluorspar is heated in a current of hydrochloric acid.
+It forms many double salts with other metallic fluorides.</p>
+
+<p><i>Columbium oxysulphide</i>, CbOS<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained as a dark bronze
+coloured powder when the pentoxide is heated to a white heat in a
+current of carbon bisulphide vapour; or by gently heating the
+oxychloride in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It burns when
+heated in air, forming the pentoxide and sulphur dioxide.</p>
+
+<p><i>Columbium nitride</i>, Cb<span class="su">3</span>N<span class="su">5</span> (?), is formed when dry ammonia gas is
+passed into an ethereal solution of the chloride. A heavy white
+precipitate, consisting of ammonium chloride and columbium
+nitride, is thrown down, and the ammonium chloride is removed by
+washing it out with hot water, when the columbium nitride remains
+as an amorphous residue (Hall and Smith, <i>loc. cit.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Potassium fluoxy percolumbate</i>, K<span class="su">2</span>CbO<span class="su">2</span>F<span class="su">5</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, is prepared by
+dissolving potassium columbium oxyfluoride in a 3% solution of
+hydrogen peroxide. The solution turns yellow in colour, and, when
+saturated, deposits a pasty mass of crystals. The salt separates
+from solutions containing hydrofluoric acid in large plates, which
+are greenish yellow in colour.</p>
+
+<p>The atomic weight was determined by C. Marignac (<i>Ann. chim. et
+phys.</i> 1866 (4), 8, p. 16) to be 94 from the analysis of potassium
+columbium oxyfluoride, and the same value has been obtained by
+T. W. Richards (<i>Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.</i> 1898, 20, p. 543).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> [in Spanish <span class="sc">Cristobal Colón</span>]
+(c. 1446, or perhaps rather 1451,-1506) was the eldest son of
+Domenico Colombo and Suzanna Fontanarossa, and was born at
+Genoa either about 1446 or in 1451, the exact date being uncertain.
+His father was a wool-comber, of some small means,
+who lived till 1498. According to the life of Columbus by his
+son Ferdinand (a statement supported by Las Casas), young
+Christopher was sent to the university of Pavia, where he
+devoted himself to astronomy, geometry and cosmography.
+Yet, according to the admiral&rsquo;s own statement, he became a
+sailor at fourteen. Evidently this statement, however, cannot
+mean the abandonment of all other employment, for in 1470,
+1472, and 1473 we find him engaged in trade at Genoa, following
+the family business of weaving, and (in 1473) residing at the
+neighbouring Savona. In 1474-1475 he appears to have visited
+Chios, where he may have resided some time, returning to
+Genoa perhaps early in 1476. Thence he seems to have again
+set out on a voyage in the summer of 1476, perhaps bound for
+England; on the 13th of August 1476, the four Genoese vessels
+he accompanied were attacked off Cape St Vincent by a privateer,
+one Guillaume de Casenove, surnamed Coullon or Colombo
+(&ldquo;Columbus&rdquo;); two of the four ships escaped, with Christopher,
+to Lisbon. In December 1476, the latter resumed their voyage
+to England, probably carrying with them Columbus, who, after
+a short stay in England, claims to have made a voyage in the
+northern seas, and even to have visited Iceland about February
+1477. This last pretension is gravely disputed, but it is perhaps
+not to be rejected, and we may also trace the Genoese about this
+time at Bristol, at Galway, and probably among the islands west
+and north of Scotland. Soon after this he returned to Portugal,
+where (probably in 1478) he married a lady of some rank, Felipa
+Moñiz de Perestrello, daughter of Bartholomew Perestrello, a
+captain in the service of Prince Henry the Navigator, and one of
+the early colonists and first governor of Porto Santo. Felipa was
+also a cousin of the archbishop of Lisbon at this time (1478).</p>
+
+<p>About 1479 Columbus visited Porto Santo, here as in Portugal
+probably employing his time in making maps and charts for a
+livelihood, while he pored over the logs and papers of his deceased
+father-in-law, and talked with old seamen of their voyages, and
+of the mystery of the western seas. About this time, too, if
+not earlier, he seems to have arrived at the conclusion that much
+of the world remained undiscovered, and step by step conceived
+that design of reaching Asia by sailing west which was to result
+<span class="sidenote">Idea of western passage to Asia.</span>
+in the discovery of America. In 1474 he is said to
+have corresponded with Paolo Toscanelli, the Florentine
+physician and cosmographer, and to have received
+from him valuable suggestions, both by map and
+letter, for such a Western enterprise. (The whole of this incident
+has been disputed by some recent critics.) He had perhaps
+already begun his studies in a number of works, especially the
+<i>Book</i> of Marco Polo and the <i>Imago Mundi</i> of Pierre d&rsquo;Ailly, by
+which his cosmographical and geographical conceptions were
+largely moulded. His views, as finally developed and presented
+to the courts of Portugal and Spain, were supported by three
+principal lines of argument, derived from natural reasons, from
+the theories of geographers, and from the reports and traditions
+of mariners. He believed the world to be a sphere; he underestimated
+its size; he overestimated the size of the Asiatic
+continent. And the farther that continent extended towards
+the east, the nearer it came towards Spain. Nor were these
+theories the only supports of his idea. Martin Vicente, a Portuguese
+pilot, was said to have found, 400 leagues to the westward
+of Cape St Vincent, and after a westerly gale of many days&rsquo;
+duration, a piece of strange wood, wrought, but not with iron;
+Pedro Correa, Columbus&rsquo;s own brother-in-law, was said to have
+seen another such waif at Porto Santo, with great canes capable
+of holding four quarts of wine between joint and joint, and to
+have heard of two men being washed up at Flores &ldquo;very broad-faced,
+and differing in aspect from Christians.&rdquo; West of Europe,
+now and then, men fancied there hove in sight the mysterious
+islands of St Brandan, of Brazil, of Antillia or of the Seven
+Cities. In his northern journey, too, some vague and formless
+traditions may have reached the explorer&rsquo;s ear of the voyages
+of Leif Ericson and Thorfinn Karlsefne, and of the coasts of
+Markland and Vinland. All were hints and rumours to bid the
+bold mariner sail towards the setting sun, and this he at length
+determined to do.</p>
+
+<p>The concurrence of some state or sovereign, however, was
+necessary for the success of this design. Columbus, on the
+accession of John II. of Portugal, seems to have
+entered the service of this country, to have accompanied
+<span class="sidenote">Quest of a patron.</span>
+Diego d&rsquo;Azambuja to the Gold Coast, and to
+have taken part in the construction of the famous fort of St
+George at El Mina (1481-1482). On his return from this expedition,
+he submitted to King John the scheme he had now
+matured for reaching Asia by a western route across the ocean.
+The king was deeply interested in the rival scheme (of an eastern
+or south-eastern route round Africa to India) which had so long
+held the field, which had been initiated by the Genoese in 1291,
+and which had been revived, for Portugal, by Prince Henry
+the Navigator; but he listened to the Genoese, and referred
+him to a committee of council for geographical affairs. The
+council&rsquo;s report was adverse; but the king, who was yet inclined
+to favour the theory of Columbus, assented to the suggestion
+of the bishop of Ceuta that the plan should be carried out in
+secret and without its author&rsquo;s knowledge. A caravel was
+despatched; but it returned after a brief absence, the sailors
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page742" id="page742"></a>742</span>
+having lost heart, and refused to venture farther. Upon discovering
+this treachery, Columbus left Lisbon for Spain (1484),
+taking with him his son Diego, the only issue of his marriage
+with Felipa Moñiz, who was by this time dead. He departed
+secretly;&mdash;according to some writers, to give the slip to King
+John; according to others, to escape his creditors.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus next betook himself to the south of Spain, and
+while meditating an appeal to the king of France, opened his
+plans to the count (from 1491, duke) of Medina Celi. The
+latter gave him great encouragement, entertained him for two
+years, and even determined to furnish him with three or four
+caravels, to carry out his great design. Finally, however,
+being deterred by the consideration that the enterprise was
+too vast for a subject, he turned his guest from the determination
+he had come to of making application at the court of France,
+by writing on his behalf to Queen Isabella; and Columbus
+repaired to the court at Cordova at her bidding (1486).</p>
+
+<p>It was an ill moment for the navigator&rsquo;s fortune. Castile
+and Leon were in the thick of that struggle which resulted in
+the final conquest of the Granada Moors; and neither Ferdinand
+nor Isabella had time as yet to give due consideration to Columbus&rsquo;
+proposals. The adventurer was indeed kindly received;
+he was handed over to the care of Alonso de Quintanilla, whom
+he speedily converted into an enthusiastic supporter of his
+theory. He made many other friends, and among them Beatriz
+Enriquez, the mother of his second son Fernando. But the
+committee, presided over by the queen&rsquo;s confessor, Fray Hernando
+de Talavera, which had been appointed to consider the
+new project, reported that it was vain and impracticable.</p>
+
+<p>From Cordova Columbus followed the court to Salamanca,
+having already been introduced by Quintanilla to the notice
+of the grand cardinal, Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, &ldquo;the third
+king of Spain&rdquo;; the latter had befriended and supported the
+Genoese, and apparently arranged the first interview between
+him and Queen Isabella. At Salamanca prolonged discussions
+took place upon the questions now raised; the Dominicans
+of San Esteban entertained Columbus during the conferences
+(1486-1487). In 1487 Columbus, who had been following the
+court from place to place (billeted in towns as an officer of the
+sovereigns, and gratified from time to time with sums of money
+towards his expenses), was present at the siege of Malaga. In
+1488 he was invited by the king of Portugal, his &ldquo;especial
+friend,&rdquo; to return to that country, and was assured of protection
+against arrest or proceedings of any kind (March 20): he had
+probably made fresh overtures to King John shortly before;
+and in the autumn of 1488 we find him in Lisbon, conferring
+with his brother Bartholomew and laying plans for the future.
+We have no record of the final negotiations of Columbus with
+the Portuguese government, but they clearly did not issue in
+anything definite, for Christopher now returned to Spain (though
+not till he had witnessed the return of Bartholomew Diaz from
+the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and his reception by
+King John), while Bartholomew proceeded to England with a
+mission to interest King Henry VII. in the Columbian schemes.
+If the London enterprise was unsuccessful (as indeed it proved),
+it was settled that Bartholomew should carry the same invitation
+to the French court. He did so; and here he remained till
+summoned to Spain in 1493. Meantime Christopher, unable
+throughout 1490 to get a hearing at the Spanish court, was in
+1491 again referred to a <i>junta</i>, presided over by Cardinal Mendoza;
+but this <i>junta</i>, to Columbus&rsquo; dismay, once more rejected his
+proposals; the Spanish sovereigns merely promised him that
+when the Granada war was over, they would reconsider what
+he had laid before them.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus was now in despair. He at once betook himself
+to Huelva, a little maritime town in Andalusia, north-west of
+Cadiz, with the intention of taking ship for France. He halted,
+however, at the monastery of La Rabida, near Huelva, and
+still nearer Palos, where he seems to have made lasting friendships
+on his first arrival in Spain in January 1485, where he
+especially enlisted the support of Juan Perez, the guardian, who
+invited him to take up his quarters in the monastery, and
+introduced him to Garcia Fernandez, a physician and student
+of geography. Juan Perez had been the queen&rsquo;s confessor;
+he now wrote to her in urgent terms, and was summoned to her
+presence; and money was sent to Columbus to bring him once
+more to court. He reached Granada in time to witness the
+surrender of the city (January 2, 1492), and negotiations were
+resumed. Columbus believed in his mission, and stood out
+for high terms; he asked for the rank of admiral at once
+(&ldquo;Admiral of the Ocean&rdquo; in all those islands, seas, and continents
+that he might discover), the vice-royalty of all he should discover,
+and a tenth of the precious metals discovered within his admiralty.
+These conditions were rejected, and the negotiations were again
+interrupted. An interview with Mendoza appears to have
+followed; but nothing came of it, and before the close of January
+1492, Columbus actually set out for France. At length, however,
+on the entreaty of the Queen&rsquo;s confidante, the Marquesa de
+Moya, of Luis de Santangel, receiver of the ecclesiastical revenues
+of the crown of Aragon, and of other courtiers, Isabella was
+induced to determine on the expedition. A messenger was sent
+after Columbus, and overtook him near a bridge called &ldquo;Pinos,&rdquo;
+6 m. from Granada. He returned to the camp at Santa Fé;
+and on the 17th of April 1492, the agreement between him and
+their Catholic majesties was signed and sealed.</p>
+
+<p>As his aims included not only the discovery of Cipangu or
+Japan, but also the opening up of intercourse with the grand
+khan of Cathay, he received a royal letter of introduction to
+the latter. The town of Palos was ordered to find him two ships,
+and these were soon placed at his disposal. But no crews could
+be got together, in spite of the indemnity offered to criminals
+and &ldquo;broken men&rdquo; who would serve on the expedition; and
+had not Juan Perez succeeded in interesting in the cause the
+Palos &ldquo;magnates&rdquo; Martin Alonso Pinzon and Vicente Yañez
+Pinzon, Columbus&rsquo; departure had been long delayed. At last,
+however, men, ships and stores were ready. The expedition
+consisted of the &ldquo;Santa Maria,&rdquo; a decked ship of 100 tons with
+a crew of 52 men, commanded by the admiral in person; and
+of two caravels; the &ldquo;Pinta&rdquo; of 50 tons, with 18 men, under
+Martin Pinzon; and the &ldquo;Nina,&rdquo; of 40 tons, with 18 men,
+under his brother Vicente Yañez, afterwards (1499) the first to
+cross the line in the American Atlantic.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p>The adventurers numbered 88-souls; and on Friday, the 3rd
+of August 1492, at eight in the morning, the little fleet weighed
+anchor, and stood for the Canary Islands. An abstract
+of the admiral&rsquo;s diary made by Las Casas is yet
+<span class="sidenote">First voyage.</span>
+extant; and from it many particulars may be gleaned
+concerning this first voyage. Three days after the ships had set
+sail the &ldquo;Pinta&rdquo; lost her rudder; the admiral was in some
+alarm, but comforted himself with the reflection that Martin
+Pinzon was energetic and ready-witted; they had, however,
+to put in at Teneriffe, to refit the caravel. On the 6th of
+September they weighed anchor once more with all haste,
+Columbus having been informed that three Portuguese caravels
+were on the look-out to intercept him. On the 13th of September
+the westerly variations of the magnetic needle were for the first
+time observed; on the 15th a meteor fell into the sea at four or
+five leagues distance; soon after they arrived at those vast
+plains of seaweed called the Sargasso Sea; while all the time,
+writes the admiral, they had most temperate breezes, the sweetness
+of the mornings being especially delightful, the weather
+like an Andalusian April, and only the song of the nightingale
+wanting. On the 17th the men began to murmur; they were
+frightened by the strange phenomena of the variation of the
+compass, but the explanation Columbus gave restored their
+tranquillity. On the 18th they saw many birds, and a great
+ridge of low-lying cloud; and they expected to see land. On
+the 20th they saw boobies and other birds, and were sure the
+land must be near. In this, however, they were disappointed;
+and thenceforth Columbus, who was keeping all the while a
+double reckoning, one for the crew and one for himself, had great
+difficulty in restraining the evil-disposed from the excesses
+they meditated. On the 25th Martin Alonso Pinzon raised the
+cry of land, but it proved false, as did the rumour to the same
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page743" id="page743"></a>743</span>
+effect on the 7th of October, from the &ldquo;Niña.&rdquo; But on the
+11th the &ldquo;Pinta&rdquo; fished up a cane, a pole, a stick which appeared
+to have been wrought with iron, and a board, while the &ldquo;Niña&rdquo;
+sighted a branch covered with berries; &ldquo;and with these signs
+all of them breathed and were glad.&rdquo; At ten o&rsquo;clock on that
+<span class="sidenote">America discovered.</span>
+night Columbus himself perceived and pointed out
+a light ahead, and at two in the morning of Friday,
+the 12th of October 1492, Rodrigo de Triana, a sailor
+aboard the &ldquo;Niña,&rdquo; announced the appearance of what proved
+to be the New World. The land sighted was an island, called by
+the Indians Guanahani, and named by Columbus San Salvador.
+It is generally identified with Watling Island.</p>
+
+<p>The same morning Columbus landed, richly clad, and bearing
+the royal banner of Spain. He was accompanied by the brothers
+Pinzon, bearing banners of the Green Cross (a device of the
+admiral&rsquo;s), and by great part of the crew. When they all had
+&ldquo;given thanks to God, kneeling upon the shore, and kissed the
+ground with tears of joy, for the great mercy received,&rdquo; the
+admiral named the island, and took solemn possession of it for
+their Catholic majesties of Castile and Leon. At the same time
+such of the crews as had shown themselves doubtful and mutinous
+sought his pardon weeping, and prostrated themselves at his feet.</p>
+
+<p>Into the remaining detail of this voyage, of highest interest
+as it is, it is impossible to go further. It will be enough to say
+that it resulted in the discovery of the islands of Santa Maria
+de la Concepcion (Rum Cay), Fernandina (Long Island), Isabella
+(Crooked Island), Cuba or <i>Juana</i> (named by Columbus in honour
+of the young prince of Spain), and Hispaniola, Haiti, or San
+Domingo. Off the last of these the &ldquo;Santa Maria&rdquo; went
+aground, owing to the carelessness of the steersman. No lives
+were lost, but the ship had to be unloaded and abandoned; and
+Columbus, who was anxious to return to Europe with the news
+of his achievement, resolved to plant a colony on the island, to
+build a fort out of the material of the stranded hulk, and to leave
+the crew. The fort was called La Navidad; 44 Europeans were
+placed in charge. On the 4th of January 1493 Columbus, who
+had lost sight of Martin Pinzon, set sail alone in the &ldquo;Niña&rdquo;
+for the east; and two days afterwards the &ldquo;Pinta&rdquo; joined her
+sister-ship. A storm, however, separated the vessels, and it
+was not until the 18th of February that Columbus reached the
+island of Santa Maria in the Azores. Here he was threatened
+with capture by the Portuguese governor, who could not for
+some time be brought to recognize his commission. On the
+24th of February, however, he was allowed to proceed, and
+on the 4th of March the &ldquo;Niña&rdquo; dropped anchor off Lisbon.
+The king of Portugal received the admiral with the highest
+honours. On the 13th of March the &ldquo;Niña&rdquo; put out from the
+Tagus, and two days afterwards, Friday, the 15th of March,
+she reached Palos.</p>
+
+<p>The court was at Barcelona; and thither, after despatching
+a letter announcing his arrival, Columbus proceeded in person.
+He entered the city in a sort of triumphal procession, was received
+by their majesties in full court, and, seated in their presence,
+related the story of his wanderings, exhibiting the &ldquo;rich and
+strange&rdquo; spoils of the new-found lands,&mdash;the gold, the cotton,
+the parrots, the curious arms, the mysterious plants, the unknown
+birds and beasts, and the Indians he had brought with
+him for baptism. All his honours and privileges were confirmed
+to him; the title of Don was conferred on himself and his
+brothers; he rode at the king&rsquo;s bridle; he was served and saluted
+as a grandee of Spain. A new and magnificent scutcheon was
+also blazoned for him (4th May 1493), whereon the royal castle
+and lion of Castile and Leon were combined with the five anchors
+of his own coat of arms. Nor were their Catholic highnesses
+less busy on their own account than on that of their servant.
+On the 3rd and 4th of May Alexander VI. granted bulls confirming
+to the crowns of Castile and Leon all the lands discovered,
+or to be discovered, west of a line of demarcation drawn 100
+leagues west of the Azores, on the same terms as those on which
+the Portuguese held their colonies along the African coast. A
+new expedition was got in readiness with all possible despatch,
+to secure and extend the discoveries already made.</p>
+
+<p>After several delays the fleet weighed anchor on the 24th of
+September 1493 and steered westwards. It consisted of three
+great carracks (galleons) and fourteen caravels (light
+frigates), having on board over 1500 men, besides the
+<span class="sidenote">Second voyage.</span>
+animals and materials necessary for colonization.
+Twelve missionaries accompanied the expedition, under the
+orders of Bernardo Buil or Boil, a Benedictine; Columbus had
+been already directed (29th May 1493) to endeavour by all means
+in his power to Christianize the inhabitants of the islands, to
+make them presents, and to &ldquo;honour them much&rdquo;, while all
+under him were commanded to treat them &ldquo;well and lovingly,&rdquo;
+under pain of severe punishment. On the 13th of October the
+ships, which had put in at the Canaries, left Ferro; and on
+Sunday, the 3rd of November, after a single storm, &ldquo;by the
+goodness of God and the wise management of the admiral&rdquo; an
+island was sighted to the west, which was named Dominica.
+Northwards from this the isles of Marigalante and Guadalupe
+were next discovered and named; while on the north-western
+course to La Navidad those of Montserrat, Antigua, San Martin,
+Santa Cruz and the Virgin Islands were sighted, and the island
+now called Porto Rico was touched at, hurriedly explored, and
+named San Juan Bautista. On the 22nd of November Columbus
+came in sight of Hispaniola, and sailing westward to La Navidad,
+found the fort burned and the colony dispersed. He decided
+on building a second fort, and coasting on 30 m. east of Monte
+Cristi, he pitched on a spot where he founded the city of Isabella.</p>
+
+<p>The climate proved unhealthy; the colonists were greedy of
+gold, impatient of control, proud, ignorant and mutinous; and
+Columbus, whose inclination drew him westward, was doubtless
+glad to escape the worry and anxiety of his post, and to avail
+himself of the instructions of his sovereigns as to further discoveries.
+On the 2nd of February 1494 he sent home, by
+Antonio de Torres, that despatch to their Catholic highnesses
+by which he may be said to have founded the West Indian slave
+trade. He established the mining camp of San Tomaso in the
+gold country of Central Hispaniola; and on the 24th of April
+1494, having nominated a council of regency under his brother
+Diego, and appointed Pedro Margarit his captain-general, he
+again put to sea. After following the southern shore of Cuba
+for some days, he steered southwards, and discovered (May 14th)
+the island of Jamaica, which he named Santiago. He then
+resumed his exploration of the Cuban coast, threaded his way
+through a labyrinth of islets which he named the Garden of the
+Queen (Jardin de la Reyna), and, after coasting westwards for
+many days, became convinced that he had discovered continental
+land. He therefore caused Perez de Luna, the notary, to draw
+up a document to this effect (12th of June 1494), which was
+afterwards taken round and signed (the admiral&rsquo;s steward
+witnessing) by the officers, men and boys of his three caravels,
+the &ldquo;Niña,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Cordera,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;San Juan.&rdquo; He then
+stood to the south-east, and sighted the island of Evangelista
+(now Isla de los Pinos), revisited Jamaica, coasted the south of
+Hispaniola, and on the 24th of September touched at and named
+the island of La Mona, in the channel between Hispaniola and
+Porto Rico. Thence he had intended to sail eastwards and
+complete the survey of the Caribbean Archipelago; but he
+was exhausted by the terrible tear and wear of mind and body
+he had undergone (he says himself that on this expedition he
+was three-and-thirty days almost without sleep), and on the day
+following his departure from La Mona he fell into a lethargy,
+that deprived him of sense and memory, and had well-nigh
+proved fatal to life. At last, on the 29th of September, the little
+fleet dropped anchor off Isabella, and in his new city the admiral
+lay sick for five months.</p>
+
+<p>The colony was in a sad plight. Every one was discontented,
+and many were sick, for the climate was unhealthy and there
+was nothing to eat. Margarit and Boil had deserted the settlement
+and fled to Spain, but ere his departure the former, in his
+capacity of captain-general, had done much to outrage and
+alienate the Indians. The strongest measures were necessary
+to undo this mischief, and, backed by his brother Bartholomew,
+Columbus proceeded to reduce the natives under Spanish sway.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page744" id="page744"></a>744</span>
+Alonso de Ojeda succeeded by a brilliant <i>coup de main</i> in capturing
+the cacique Caonabo, and the rest submitted. Five ship-loads
+of Indians were sent off to Seville (24th June 1495) to be sold as
+slaves; and a tribute was imposed upon their fellows, which
+must be looked upon as the origin of that system of <i>repartimientos</i>
+or <i>encomiendas</i> which was afterwards to work such
+mischief among the conquered. In October 1495 Juan Aguado
+arrived at Isabella, with a royal commission to report on the
+state of the colony; here he took up the position of a judge
+of Columbus&rsquo;s government; and much recrimination followed.
+Columbus decided to return home; he appointed his brother
+Bartholomew <i>adelantado</i> of the island; and on the 10th of March
+1496 he quitted Hispaniola in the &ldquo;Niña.&rdquo; The vessel, after
+a protracted and perilous voyage, reached Cadiz on the 11th of
+June 1496, where the admiral landed, wearing the habit of a
+Franciscan. He was cordially received by his sovereigns, and
+a new fleet of eight vessels was put at his disposal. By royal
+patent, moreover, a tract of land in Hispaniola, of 50 leagues by
+20, was offered to him, with the title of duke or marquis (which he
+declined); for three years he was to receive an eighth of the
+gross and a tenth of the net profits on each voyage; the right
+of creating a <i>mayorazgo</i> or perpetual entail of titles and estates
+was granted him; and his two sons were received into Isabella&rsquo;s
+service as pages.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, however, the preparing of the fleet proceeded
+slowly, and it was not till the 30th of May 1498 that he set
+sail with his main fleet of six ships&mdash;two caravels had
+already been sent on ahead. From San Lucar he
+<span class="sidenote">Third voyage.</span>
+steered for Porto Santo, Madeira, and Gomera,
+despatching three vessels direct from the Canaries to Hispaniola.
+He next proceeded to the Cape Verde Islands, which he quitted
+on the 5th of July. On the 31st of the same month, being
+greatly in need of water, and fearing that no land lay westwards
+as he had hoped, Columbus had turned his ship&rsquo;s head north,
+when Alonzo Perez of Huelva saw land about 15 leagues to the
+south-west. It was crowned with three hill-tops, from which
+circumstance, and in fulfilment of a vow made at starting (to
+name the first land discovered on this voyage in honour of the
+Trinity), the admiral named it Trinidad, which name it yet bears.
+On Wednesday, the 1st of August, he beheld for the first time
+the mainland of South America, the continent he had sought
+so long. It seemed to him but an insignificant island, and he
+called it Isla Santa. Sailing westwards, next day he saw the
+Gulf of Paria (named by him the Golfo de la Ballena), into which
+he was borne at immense risk on the ridge of waters formed by
+the meeting of the sea and the Orinoco estuaries. For several
+days he coasted the continent, esteeming as islands the various
+projections he saw, and naming them accordingly, nor was it
+until he had realized the volume poured out by the Orinoco
+that he began to perceive the truly continental character of his
+last discovery. He was now anxious to revisit the colony in
+Hispaniola; and after sighting Tobago, Grenada, and Margarita,
+made for San Domingo, the new capital of the settlement,
+where he arrived on the 31st of August. He found that affairs
+had not prospered well in his absence. By the vigour and
+activity of the <i>adelantado</i>, the whole island had been reduced
+under Spanish sway; but under the leadership of Francisco
+Roldan the malcontent settlers had risen in revolt, and Columbus
+had to compromise matters in order to restore peace. Roldan
+retained his office of chief justice; and such of his followers as
+chose to remain in the island were gratified with <i>repartimientos</i>
+of land and labour.</p>
+
+<p>At home, however, court favour had turned against Columbus.
+For one thing, the ex-colonists were often bitterly hostile to the
+admiral and his brothers. They were wont to parade their
+grievances in the very court-yards of the Alhambra, to surround
+the king when he came forth with complaints and reclamations,
+to insult the discoverer&rsquo;s young sons with shouts and jeers.
+Again, the queen began to criticize severely the shipment of
+Indians from the new-found lands to Spain. And once more,
+there was no doubt that the colony itself, whatever the cause,
+had not prospered so well as might have been desired. Ferdinand&rsquo;s
+support of Columbus had never been very hearty, and
+his inclination to supersede the Genoese now prevailed over the
+queen&rsquo;s friendliness. Accordingly, on the 21st of May 1499,
+Francisco Bobadilla was appointed governor and judge of
+Hispaniola during royal pleasure, with authority to examine
+into all complaints. Columbus was ordered to deliver up his
+charge to Bobadilla, and to accept whatever the latter should
+deliver him from the sovereigns. Bobadilla left Spain in June
+1500, and landed in Hispaniola on the 23rd of August.</p>
+
+<p>Columbus, meanwhile, had restored such tranquillity as was
+possible in his government. With Roldan&rsquo;s help he had beaten
+off an attempt on the island of the adventurer Ojeda, his old
+lieutenant; the Indians were being collected into villages and
+Christianized. Gold-mining was profitably pursued; in three
+years, he calculated, the royal revenues might be raised to an
+average of 60,000,000 reals. The arrival of Bobadilla, however,
+speedily changed this state of affairs. On landing, he took
+possession of the admiral&rsquo;s house and summoned him and his
+brothers before him. Accusations of severity, of injustice, of
+venality even, were poured down on their heads, and Columbus
+anticipated nothing less than a shameful death. Bobadilla put
+all three in irons, and shipped them off to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Alonso Vallejo, captain of the caravel in which the illustrious
+prisoners sailed, still retained a proper sense of the honour and
+respect due to Columbus, and would have removed the fetters;
+but to this Columbus would not consent. He would wear them,
+he said, until their highnesses, by whose order they had been
+affixed, should order their removal; and he would keep them
+afterwards &ldquo;as relics and as memorials of the reward of his
+service.&rdquo; He did so. His son Fernando &ldquo;saw them always
+hanging in his cabinet, and he requested that when he died they
+might be buried with him.&rdquo; Whether this last wish was complied
+with is not known.</p>
+
+<p>A heart-broken and indignant letter from Columbus to Doña
+Juana de Torres, formerly nurse of the infante Don Juan,
+arrived at court before the despatch of Bobadilla. It was read
+to the queen, and its tidings were confirmed by communications
+from Alonso Vallejo and the alcaide of Cadiz. There was a great
+movement of indignation; the tide of popular and royal feeling
+turned once more in the admiral&rsquo;s favour. He received a large
+sum to defray his expenses; and when he appeared at court, on
+the 17th of December 1500, he was no longer in irons and disgrace,
+but richly apparelled and surrounded with friends. He was
+received with all honour and distinction. The queen is said to
+have been moved to tears by the narration of his story. Their
+majesties not only repudiated Bobadilla&rsquo;s proceedings, but
+declined to inquire into the charges that he at the same time
+brought against his prisoners, and promised Columbus compensation
+for his losses and satisfaction for his wrongs. A new
+governor, Nicolas de Ovando, was appointed, and left San Lucar
+on the 13th of February 1502, with a fleet of thirty ships, to
+supersede Bobadilla. The latter was to be impeached and sent
+home; the admiral&rsquo;s property was to be restored; and a fresh
+start was to be made in the conduct of colonial affairs. Thus
+ended Columbus&rsquo;s history as viceroy and governor of the new
+Indies which he had presented to the country of his adoption.</p>
+
+<p>His hour of rest, however, was not yet come. Ever anxious
+to serve their Catholic highnesses, &ldquo;and particularly the queen,&rdquo;
+he had determined to find a strait through which he
+might penetrate westwards into Portuguese Asia.
+<span class="sidenote">Fourth voyage.</span>
+After the usual inevitable delays his prayers were
+granted, and on the 9th of May 1502, with four caravels and
+150 men, he weighed anchor from Cadiz, and sailed on his fourth
+and last great voyage. He first betook himself to the relief of
+the Portuguese fort of Arzilla, which had been besieged by the
+Moors, but the siege had been raised before he arrived. He put
+to sea westwards once more, and on the 15th of June discovered
+the island of Martinino (probably St Lucia). He had received
+positive instructions from his sovereigns on no account to touch
+at Hispaniola; but his largest caravel was greatly in need of
+repairs, and he had no choice but to abandon her or disobey
+orders. He preferred the latter alternative, and sent a boat
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page745" id="page745"></a>745</span>
+ashore to Ovando, asking for a new ship and for permission to
+enter the harbour to weather a hurricane which he saw was
+coming on. But his requests were refused, and he coasted the
+island, casting anchor under lee of the land. Here he weathered
+the storm, which drove the other caravels out to sea, and annihilated
+the homeward-bound fleet, the richest that had till then
+been sent from Hispaniola. Roldan and Bobadilla perished with
+others of the admiral&rsquo;s enemies; and Fernando Columbus, who
+accompanied his father on this voyage, wrote long afterwards,
+&ldquo;I am satisfied it was the hand of God, for had they arrived in
+Spain they had never been punished as their crimes deserved,
+but rather been favoured and preferred.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After recruiting his flotilla at Azua, Columbus put in at
+Jaquimo and refitted his four vessels; and on the 14th of July
+1502 he steered for Jamaica. For several days the ships
+wandered painfully among the keys and shoals he had named the
+Garden of the Queen, and only an opportune easterly wind
+prevented the crews from open mutiny. The first land sighted
+(July 30th) was the islet of Guanaja, about 40 m. east of the
+coast of Honduras. Here he got news from an old Indian of a
+rich and vast country lying to the eastward, which he at once
+concluded must be the long-sought-for empire of the grand khan.
+Steering along the coast of Honduras, great hardships were
+endured, but nothing approaching his ideal was discovered.
+On the 12th of September Cape Gracias-a-Dios was rounded.
+The men had become clamorous and insubordinate; not until
+the 5th of December, however, would he tack about and retrace
+his course. It now became his intention to plant a colony on the
+river Veragua, which was afterwards to give his descendants a
+title of nobility; but he had hardly put about when he was caught
+in a storm, which lasted eight days, wrenched and strained his
+crazy, worm-eaten ships severely, and finally, on Epiphany
+Sunday 1503, blew him into an embouchure which he named
+Belem or Bethlehem. Gold was very plentiful in this place,
+and here he determined to found his settlement. By the end of
+March 1503 a number of huts had been run up, and in these the
+<i>adelantado</i> (Bartholomew Columbus), with 80 men, was to
+remain, while Christopher returned to Spain for men and supplies.
+Quarrels, however, arose with the natives; the cacique was
+made prisoner, but escaped again; and before Columbus could
+leave the coast he had to abandon a caravel, to take the settlers
+on board, and to relinquish the enterprise of colonization.
+Steering eastwards, he left a second caravel at Puerto Bello; he
+thence bore northwards for Cuba, where he obtained supplies
+from the natives. From Cuba he bore up for Jamaica, and there,
+in the harbour of San Gloria, now St Ann&rsquo;s Bay, he ran his
+ships aground in a small inlet still called Don Christopher&rsquo;s
+Cove (June 23rd, 1503).</p>
+
+<p>The expedition was received with great kindness by the natives,
+and here Columbus remained upwards of a year, awaiting the
+return of his lieutenant Diego Mendez, whom he had despatched
+to Ovando for assistance. During his critical sojourn here, the
+admiral suffered much from disease and from the lawlessness of
+his followers, whose misconduct had alienated the natives, and
+provoked them to withhold their accustomed supplies, until he
+dexterously worked upon their superstitions by prognosticating
+an eclipse. Two vessels having at last arrived for his relief,
+Columbus left Jamaica on the 28th of June 1504, and, after
+calling at Hispaniola, set sail for Spain on the 12th of September.
+After a tempestuous voyage he landed once more at San Lucar
+on the 7th of November 1504.</p>
+
+<p>As he was too ill to go to court, his son Diego was sent thither
+in his place, to look after his interests and transact his business.
+Letter after letter followed the young man from Seville&mdash;one
+by the hands of Amerigo Vespucci. A licence to ride on muleback
+was granted him on the 23rd of February 1505; and in
+the following May he was removed to the court at Segovia, and
+thence again to Valladolid. On the landing of Philip and Juana
+at Coruña (25th of April 1506), although &ldquo;much oppressed with
+the gout and troubled to see himself put by his rights,&rdquo; he is
+known to have sent off the <i>adelantado</i> to pay them his duty and
+to assure them that he was yet able to do them extraordinary
+service. The last documentary note of him is contained in a final
+codicil to the will of 1498, made at Valladolid on the 19th of
+May 1506. By this the old will is confirmed; the <i>mayorazgo</i>
+is bequeathed to his son Diego and his heirs male, failing these
+to Fernando, his second son, and failing these to the heirs male
+of Bartholomew; only in case of the extinction of the male line,
+direct or collateral, is it to descend to the females of the family;
+and those into whose hands it may fall are never to diminish it,
+but always to increase and ennoble it by all means possible. The
+head of the house is to sign himself &ldquo;The Admiral.&rdquo; A tenth
+of the annual income is to be set aside yearly for distribution
+among the poor relations of the house. A chapel is founded and
+endowed for the saying of masses. Beatriz Enriquez is left to the
+care of the young admiral. Among other legacies is one of &ldquo;half
+a mark of silver to a Jew who used to live at the gate of the
+Jewry, in Lisbon.&rdquo; The codicil was written and signed with
+the admiral&rsquo;s own hand. Next day (20th of May 1506) he died.</p>
+
+<p>After the funeral ceremonies at Valladolid, Columbus&rsquo;s remains
+were transferred to the Carthusian monastery of Santa Maria de
+las Cuevas, Seville, where the bones of his son Diego, the second
+admiral, were also laid. Exhumed in 1542, the bodies of both
+father and son were taken over sea to Hispaniola and interred
+in the cathedral of San Domingo. In 1795-1796, on the cession
+of that island to the French, the relics were re-exhumed and
+transferred to the cathedral of Havana, whence, after the Spanish-American
+War of 1898 and the loss of Cuba, they were finally
+removed to Seville cathedral, where they remain. The present
+heir and representative of Columbus belongs to the Larreategui
+family, descendants of the discoverer through the female line,
+and retains the titles of admiral and duke of Veragua.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:338px; height:223px" src="images/img745.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Columbus Cipher.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The interpretation of the seven-lettered cipher, accepting the
+smaller letters of the second line as the final ones of the words, seems
+to be <i>Salve Christus, Maria, Yosephus</i>. The name <i>Christopher</i>
+(<i>Christoferens</i>) appears in the last line.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In person Columbus was tall and shapely. The only authentic
+portrait of him is that which once belonged to Paulus Jovius, and
+is still in the possession of the de Orchi family (related to Jovius
+by female descent) at Como. It shows us a venerable man with
+clean-shaven face, thin grey hair, high forehead, sad thoughtful
+eyes. It bears the inscription <i>Columbus Lygur. novi orbis repertor</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Fernando Columbus, <i>Historie del Signor Don
+Fernando Colombo ... e vera relatione della vita ... dell&rsquo; Ammiraglio
+D. Christoforo Colombo</i> (the Spanish original of this, written
+before 1539, is lost; only the Italian version remains, first published
+at Venice in 1571; a good edition appeared in London in 1867);
+Bartolomé de las Casas, <i>Historia de las Indias</i>, written 1527-1561,
+but first printed at Madrid in 1875, after remaining in manuscript
+more than three centuries; Andres Bernandez, <i>Historia de los Reyes
+Catolicos</i> (contemporary with Fernando Columbus&rsquo;s <i>Historie</i>, but first
+printed at Granada in 1856; best edition, Seville, 1870); Gonzalo
+Fernandez Oviedo y Valdes, <i>Historia general de las Indias</i> (Seville,
+1535; best edition, Madrid, 1851-1855); Peter Martyr d&rsquo;Anghiera,
+<i>Opus Epistolarum</i>, first published in 1530, and <i>De Orbe Novo</i> (<i>Decades</i>),
+printed in 1511 and 1530; Francisco Lopez de Gomara,
+<i>Historia general de las Indias</i> (Saragossa, 1552-1553, and Antwerp,
+1554); Antonio de Herrera, <i>Historia general de las Indias occidentales</i>
+(publication first completed in 1615, but best edition perhaps that of
+1730, Madrid); Juan Bautista Muñoz, <i>Historia del Nuevo Mundo</i>
+(Madrid, 1793); Martin Fernandez Navarrete, <i>Coleccion de los
+Viages y descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los Españoles</i> (Madrid,
+1825-1837); Washington Irving, <i>History of the Life and Voyages of
+Christopher Columbus</i> (London, 1827-1828); Alex. von Humboldt,
+<i>Examen critique</i> (Paris, 1836-1839); R. H. Major, <i>Select Letters of</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page746" id="page746"></a>746</span>
+<i>Columbus</i> (London, Hakluyt Society, 1847); Fernandez Duro,
+<i>Colon y Pinzon</i> (Madrid, 1883); Henry Harrisse, <i>Christophe Colomb</i>
+(Paris, 1884), and <i>Christophe Colomb devant l&rsquo;histoire</i> (Paris, 1892);
+Justin Winsor, <i>Christopher Columbus</i> (Cambridge, Mass., 1891);
+Josè Maria Asensio, <i>Cristoval Colon</i> (Barcelona, 1892); Clements
+R. Markham, <i>Life of Christopher Columbus</i> (London, 1892); John
+Fiske, <i>Discovery of America</i> (Boston and New York, 1892); E. J.
+Payne, <i>History of the New World called America</i>, vol. i. (Oxford,
+1892); Paul Gaffarel, <i>Histoire de la découverte de l&rsquo;Amérique</i> (Paris,
+1892); Charles I. Elton, <i>Career of Columbus</i> (London, 1892);
+<i>Raccolta Colombiana</i> (1892, &amp;c.); Sophus Ruge, <i>Columbus</i> (Berlin,
+1902); John Boyd Thatcher, <i>Christopher Columbus</i> (New York,
+1903-1904); Henry Vignaud, <i>La Lettre et la carte de Toscanelli</i>
+(Paris, 1901), and <i>Études critiques sur la vie de Colomb avant ses
+découvertes</i> (Paris, 1905); Filson Young, <i>Christopher Columbus and
+the New World of his discovery</i> (London, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 6, Slice 6, by Various
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,18411 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 6, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 6
+       "Cockaigne" to "Columbus, Christopher"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: April 1, 2010 [EBook #31855]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 6 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript.
+
+(2) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(3) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(4) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article COCKBURN, ALICIA: "Robert Chambers states that the ballad
+      was written on the occasion of a great commercial disaster which
+      ruined the fortunes of some Selkirkshire lairds." 'commercial'
+      amended from 'commerical'.
+
+    Article COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT: "From Westminster school Charles
+      Abbot passed to Christ Church, Oxford, at which he gained the
+      chancellor's medal for Latin verse as well as the Vinerian
+      scholarship." Superfluous round bracket after 'scholarship'.
+
+    Article COLOGNE: "The foundation of the present cathedral was then
+      laid by Conrad of Hochstaden (archbishop from 1238 to 1261)."
+      '1238' amended from '1288'.
+
+    Article COLOMBIA: "Sotara (15,420 ft.), Huila (over 18,000 ft.),
+      Tolima (18,432 ft.)" Missing round bracket before 'over 18,000'.
+
+    Article COLOMBIA: "Although it is found growing wild, cacao is
+      cultivated to a limited extent, and the product is insufficient for
+      home consumption." 'Although' amended from 'Athough'.
+
+    Article COLORADO: "Melons are to some extent exported, and peaches
+      also; the musk-melons of the Arkansas valley (Rocky Ford
+      Canteloupes) being in demand all over the United States."
+      'Canteloupes' amended from 'Canteloups'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME VI, SLICE VI
+
+     Cockaigne to Columbus, Christopher
+
+
+
+
+Articles in This Slice:
+
+
+  COCKAIGNE, LAND OF                  COLEPEPER, JOHN COLEPEPER
+  COCKATOO                            COLERAINE
+  COCKATRICE                          COLERIDGE, HARTLEY
+  COCKBURN, ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND    COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE
+  COCKBURN, ALICIA                    COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR
+  COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE                COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR
+  COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS              COLERIDGE, SARA
+  COCKER, EDWARD                      COLET, JOHN
+  COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT           COLET, LOUISE
+  COCKERILL, WILLIAM                  COLEUS
+  COCKERMOUTH                         COLFAX, SCHUYLER
+  COCK-FIGHTING                       COLIC
+  COCK LANE GHOST                     COLIGNY, GASPARD DE
+  COCKLE, SIR JAMES                   COLIMA (coast state of Mexico)
+  COCKLE                              COLIMA (city of Mexico)
+  COCKNEY                             COLIN, ALEXANDRE
+  COCK-OF-THE-ROCK (bird)             COLL
+  COCK-OF-THE-ROCK (enclosed place)   COLLAERT, HANS
+  COCKROACH                           COLLAR
+  COCK'S-COMB                         COLLATERAL
+  COCKTON, HENRY                      COLLATIA
+  COCKX                               COLLATION
+  COCOA                               COLLE, CHARLES
+  COCO DE MER                         COLLECTIVISM
+  COCOMA                              COLLECTOR
+  COCO-NUT PALM                       COLLE DI VAL D' ELSA
+  COCYTUS                             COLLEGE
+  COD                                 COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO
+  CODA                                COLLETER
+  CODE                                COLLETTA, PIETRO
+  CODE NAPOLEON                       COLLEY, SIR GEORGE POMEROY
+  CODIAEUM                            COLLIER, ARTHUR
+  CODICIL                             COLLIER, JEREMY
+  CODILLA                             COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE
+  CODINUS, GEORGE                     COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON
+  COD-LIVER OIL                       COLLIN D'HARLEVILLE, JEAN FRANCOIS
+  CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER             COLLING, ROBERT
+  CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD              COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD
+  CODRUS                              COLLINGWOOD (city of  Australia)
+  CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK             COLLINGWOOD (town of Canada)
+  CO-EDUCATION                        COLLINS, ANTHONY
+  COEFFETEAU, NICOLAS                 COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON
+  COEHOORN, MENNO                     COLLINS, MORTIMER
+  COELENTERA                          COLLINS, WILLIAM (English poet)
+  COELLO, ALONSO SANCHEZ              COLLINS, WILLIAM (English painter)
+  COELLO, ANTONIO                     COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE
+  COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES         COLLODION
+  COEN, JAN PIETERSZOON               COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE
+  COENACULUM                          COLLUSION
+  COENWULF                            COLLYER, ROBERT
+  COERCION                            COLMAN, SAINT
+  COEUR, JACQUES                      COLMAN, GEORGE
+  COEUR D'ALENE                       COLMAN, SAMUEL
+  COFFEE                              COLMAR
+  COFFER                              COLNE
+  COFFERDAM                           COLOCYNTH
+  COFFEYVILLE                         COLOGNE
+  COFFIN                              COLOMAN
+  COG                                 COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD
+  COGERS HALL                         COLOMBES
+  COGHLAN, CHARLES FRANCIS            COLOMBEY
+  COGNAC                              COLOMBIA
+  COGNITION                           COLOMBIER, PIERRE BERTRAND DE
+  COGNIZANCE                          COLOMBO
+  COHEN                               COLON (city of Panama)
+  COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS              COLON (town of Cuba)
+  COHN, GUSTAV                        COLON (intestine)
+  COHOES                              COLONEL
+  COHORT                              COLONIAL OFFICE
+  COIF                                COLONNA (Roman family)
+  COIMBATORE                          COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO
+  COIMBRA                             COLONNA, VITTORIA
+  COIN                                COLONNADE
+  COIN                                COLONSAY
+  COINAGE OFFENCES                    COLONY
+  COIR                                COLOPHON (ancient city of Ionia)
+  COIRE                               COLOPHON (paragraph in manuscripts)
+  COKE, SIR EDWARD                    COLORADO
+  COKE, SIR JOHN                      COLORADO RIVER (stream of Argentine)
+  COKE, THOMAS                        COLORADO RIVER (stream of U.S.A.)
+  COKE                                COLORADO SPRINGS
+  COL                                 COLOSSAE
+  COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE              COLOSSAL CAVERN
+  COLBERT DE CROISSY, CHARLES         COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE
+  COLBURN, HENRY                      COLOSSUS
+  COLBURN, ZERAH                      COLOUR
+  COLBY, THOMAS FREDERICK             COLOURS, MILITARY
+  COLCHAGUA                           COLOUR-SERGEANT
+  COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT           COLOURS OF ANIMALS
+  COLCHESTER (town of England)        COLSTON, EDWARD
+  COLCHESTER (township of Vermont)    COLT, SAMUEL
+  COLCHICUM                           COLT'S-FOOT
+  COLCHIS                             COLUGO
+  COLCOTHAR                           COLUMBA, SAINT
+  COLD                                COLUMBAN
+  COLDEN, CADWALLADER                 COLUMBANI, PLACIDO
+  COLD HARBOR                         COLUMBARIUM
+  COLDSTREAM                          COLUMBIA (city of Missouri)
+  COLDWATER                           COLUMBIA (borough of Pennsylvania)
+  COLE, SIR HENRY                     COLUMBIA (city of South Carolina)
+  COLE, THOMAS                        COLUMBIA (city of Tennessee)
+  COLE, TIMOTHY                       COLUMBIA RIVER
+  COLE, VICAT                         COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
+  COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS            COLUMBINE (dancer)
+  COLEMANITE                          COLUMBINE (plant)
+  COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM               COLUMBITE
+  COLENSO (village of Natal)          COLUMBIUM
+  COLEOPTERA                          COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER
+
+
+
+
+COCKAIGNE (COCKAYNE), LAND OF (O. Fr. _Coquaigne_, mod. Fr. _cocagne_,
+"abundance," from Ital. _Cocagna_; "as we say 'Lubberland,' the
+epicure's or glutton's home, the land of all delights, so taken in
+mockerie": Florio), an imaginary country, a medieval Utopia where life
+was a continual round of luxurious idleness. The origin of the Italian
+word has been much disputed. It seems safest to connect it, as do Grimm
+and Littre, ultimately with Lat. _coquere_, through a word meaning
+"cake," the literal sense thus being "The Land of Cakes." In Cockaigne
+the rivers were of wine, the houses were built of cake and barley-sugar,
+the streets were paved with pastry, and the shops supplied goods for
+nothing. Roast geese and fowls wandered about inviting folks to eat
+them, and buttered larks fell from the skies like manna. There is a
+13th-century French _fabliau_, _Cocaigne_, which was possibly intended
+to ridicule the fable of the mythical Avalon, "the island of the Blest."
+The 13th-century English poem, _The Land of Cockaygne_, is a satire on
+monastic life. The term has been humorously applied to London, and by
+Boileau to the Paris of the rich. The word has been frequently confused
+with Cockney (q.v.).
+
+  See D. M. Meon, _Fabliaux et contes_ (4 vols., 1808), and F. J.
+  Furnivall, _Early English Poems_ (Berlin, 1862).
+
+
+
+
+COCKATOO (_Cacatuidae_), a family of parrots characterized among Old
+World forms by their usually greater size, by the crest of feathers on
+the head, which can be raised or depressed at will, and by the absence
+of green in their coloration. They inhabit the Indian Archipelago, New
+Guinea and Australia, and are gregarious, frequenting woods and feeding
+on seeds, fruits and the larvae of insects. Their note is generally
+harsh and unmusical, and although they are readily tamed when taken
+young, becoming familiar, and in some species showing remarkable
+intelligence, their powers of vocal imitation are usually limited. Of
+the true cockatoos (_Cacatua_) the best known is the sulphur-crested
+cockatoo (_Cacatua galerita_), of a pure white plumage with the
+exception of the crest, which is deep sulphur yellow, and of the ear and
+tail coverts, which are slightly tinged with yellow. The crest when
+erect stands 5 in. high. These birds are found in Australia in flocks
+varying from 100 to 1000 in number, and do great damage to newly-sown
+grain, for which reason they are mercilessly destroyed by farmers. They
+deposit their eggs--two in number, and of a pure white colour--in the
+hollows of decayed trees or in the fissures of rocks, according to the
+nature of the locality in which they reside. This is one of the species
+most usually kept in Europe as a cage bird. Leadbeater's Cockatoo
+(_Cacatua Leadbeateri_), an inhabitant of South Australia, excels all
+others in the beauty of its plumage, which consists in great part of
+white, tinged with rose colour, becoming a deep salmon colour under the
+wings, while the crest is bright crimson at the base, with a yellow spot
+in the centre and white at the tip. It is exceedingly shy and difficult
+of approach, and its note is more plaintive while less harsh than that
+of the preceding species. In the cockatoos belonging to the genus
+_Calyptorhynchus_ the general plumage is black or dark brown, usually
+with a large spot or band of red or yellow on the tail. The largest of
+these is known as the funereal cockatoo (_Calyptorhynchus funereus_),
+from the lugubrious note or call which it utters, resembling the two
+syllables Wy--la--, the native name of the species. It deposits its eggs
+in the hollows of the large gum-trees of Australia, and feeds largely on
+the larvae of insects, in search of which it peels off the bark of
+trees, and when thus employed it may be approached closely. The
+cockateel (_Calopsittacus novaehollandiae_), the only species in the
+family smaller than a pigeon, and with a long pointed tail, is a common
+aviary bird, and breeds freely in captivity.
+
+
+
+
+COCKATRICE, a fabulous monster, the existence of which was firmly
+believed in throughout ancient and medieval times,--descriptions and
+figures of it appearing in the natural history works of such writers as
+Pliny and Aldrovandus, those of the latter published so late as the
+beginning of the 17th century. Produced from a cock's egg hatched by a
+serpent, it was believed to possess the most deadly powers, plants
+withering at its touch, and men and animals dying poisoned by its look.
+It stood in awe, however, of the cock, the sound of whose crowing
+killed it, and consequently travelers were wont to take this bird with
+them in travelling over regions supposed to abound in cockatrices. The
+weasel alone among mammals was unaffected by the glance of its evil eye,
+and attacked it at all times successfully; for when wounded by the
+monster's teeth it found a ready remedy in rue--the only plant which the
+cockatrice could not wither. This myth reminds one of the real contests
+between the weasel-like mungoos of India and the deadly cobra, in which
+the latter is generally killed. The term "cockatrice" is employed on
+four occasions in the English translation of the Bible, in all of which
+it denotes nothing more than an exceedingly venomous reptile; it seems
+also to be synonymous with "basilisk," the mythical king of serpents.
+
+
+
+
+COCKBURN, SIR ALEXANDER JAMES EDMUND, 10th Bart. (1802-1880), lord chief
+justice of England, was born on the 24th of December 1802, of ancient
+Scottish stock. He was the son of Alexander, fourth son of Sir James
+Cockburn, 6th baronet, his three uncles, who had successively held the
+title, dying without heirs. His father was British envoy extraordinary
+and minister plenipotentiary to the state of Columbia, and married
+Yolande, daughter of the vicomte de Vignier. Young Alexander was at one
+time intended for the diplomatic service, and frequently during the
+legal career which he ultimately adopted he was able to make
+considerable use of the knowledge of foreign languages, especially
+French, with which birth and early education had equipped him. He was
+educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, of which he was elected a fellow,
+and afterwards an honorary fellow. He entered at the Middle Temple in
+1825, and was called to the bar in 1829. He joined the western circuit,
+and for some time such practice as he was able to obtain lay at the
+Devon sessions, quarter sessions at that time affording an opening and a
+school of advocacy to young counsel not to be found anywhere fifty years
+later. In London he had so little to do that only the persuasion of
+friends induced him to keep his London chambers open. Three years after
+his call to the bar, however, the Reform Bill was passed, and the
+petitions which followed the ensuing general election gave rise to a
+large number of new questions for the decision of election committees,
+and afforded an opening of which he promptly availed himself. The
+decisions of the committees had not been reported since 1821, and with
+M. C. Rowe, another member of the western circuit, Cockburn undertook a
+new series of reports. They only published one volume, but the work was
+well done, and in 1833 Cockburn had his first parliamentary brief.
+
+In 1834 Cockburn was well enough thought of to be made a member of the
+commission to inquire into the state of the corporations of England and
+Wales. Other parliamentary work followed; but he had ambition to be more
+than a parliamentary counsel, and attended diligently on his circuit,
+besides appearing before committees. In 1841 he was made a Q.C., and in
+that year a charge of simony, brought against his uncle, William, dean
+of York, enabled him to appear conspicuously in a case which attracted
+considerable public attention, the proceedings taking the form of a
+motion for prohibition duly obtained against the ecclesiastical court,
+which had deprived Dr Cockburn of his office. Not long after this, Sir
+Robert Peel's secretary, Edward Drummond, was shot by the crazy
+Scotsman, Daniel M'Naughten, and Cockburn, briefed on behalf of the
+assassin, not only made a very brilliant speech, which established the
+defence of insanity, but also secured the full publicity of a long
+report in the _Morning Chronicle_ of the 6th of March 1843. Another
+well-known trial in which he appeared a year later was that of _Wood_ v.
+_Peel_ (_The Times_, 2nd and 3rd of July 1844), the issue being in form
+to determine the winner of a bet (the Gaming Act was passed in the
+following year) as to the age of the Derby winner Running Rein--in
+substance to determine, if possible, the vexed question whether Running
+Rein was a four-year-old or a three-year-old when he was racing as the
+latter. Running Rein could not be produced by Mr Wood, and Baron
+Alderson took a strong view of this circumstance, so that Cockburn found
+himself on the losing side, while his strenuous advocacy of his client's
+cause had led him into making, in his opening speech, strictures on
+Lord George Bentinck's conduct in the case which had better have been
+reserved to a later stage. He was, however, a hard fighter, but not an
+unfair one--a little irritable at times, but on the whole a courteous
+gentleman, and his practice went on increasing.
+
+In 1847 he decided to stand for parliament, and was elected without a
+contest Liberal M.P. for Southampton. His speech in the House of Commons
+on behalf of the government in the Don Pacifico dispute with Greece
+commended him to Lord John Russell, who appointed him solicitor-general
+in 1850 and attorney-general in 1851, a post which he held till the
+resignation of the ministry in February 1852. During the short
+administration of Lord Derby which followed, Sir Frederic Thesiger was
+attorney-general, and Cockburn was engaged against him in the case of
+_R._ v. _Newman_, on the prosecution of Achilli. This was the trial of a
+criminal information for libel filed against John Henry Newman, who had
+denounced a scandalous and profligate friar named Achilli, then
+lecturing on Roman Catholicism in England. Newman pleaded justification;
+but the jury who heard the case in the Queen's Bench, with Lord Campbell
+presiding, found that the justification was not proved except in one
+particular: a verdict which, together with the methods of the judge and
+the conduct of the audience, attracted considerable comment. The verdict
+was set aside, and a new trial ordered, but none ever took place. In
+December 1852, under Lord Aberdeen's ministry, Cockburn became again
+attorney-general, and so remained until 1856, taking part in many
+celebrated trials, such as the Hopwood Will Case in 1855, and the
+Swynfen Will Case, but notably leading for the crown in the trial of
+William Palmer of Rugeley in Staffordshire--an ex-medical man who had
+taken to the turf, and who had poisoned a friend of similar pursuits
+named Cook with strychnine, in order to obtain money from his estate by
+forgery and otherwise. Cockburn made an exhaustive study of the medical
+aspects of the case, and the prisoner's comment when convicted after a
+twelve days' trial was, alluding to the attorney-general's advocacy, "It
+was the riding that did it." In 1854 Cockburn was made recorder of
+Bristol. In 1856 he became chief justice of the common pleas. He
+inherited the baronetcy in 1858. In 1859 Lord Campbell became
+chancellor, and Cockburn became chief justice of the Queen's Bench,
+continuing as a judge for twenty-four years and dying in harness. On
+Friday, the 19th of November 1880, he tried causes with special juries
+at Westminster; on Saturday, the 20th, he presided over a court for the
+consideration of crown cases reserved; he walked home, and on that night
+he died of _angina pectoris_ at his house in Hertford Street.
+
+Sir Alexander Cockburn earned and deserved a high reputation as a judge.
+He was a man of brilliant cleverness and rapid intuition rather than of
+profound and laboriously cultivated intellect. He had been a great
+advocate at the bar, with a charm of voice and manner, fluent and
+persuasive rather than learned; but before he died he was considered a
+good lawyer, some assigning his unquestioned improvement in this respect
+to his frequent association on the bench with Blackburn. He had
+notoriously little sympathy with the Judicature Acts. Many were of
+opinion that he was inclined to take an advocate's view of the cases
+before him, making up his mind as to their merits prematurely and, in
+consequence, wrongly, as well as giving undue prominence to the views
+which he so formed; but he was beyond doubt always in intention, and
+generally in fact, scrupulously fair. It is not necessary to enumerate
+the many _causes celebres_ at which Sir Alexander Cockburn presided as a
+judge. It was thought that he went out of his way to arrange that they
+should come before him, and his successor, Lord Coleridge, writing in
+1881 to Lord Bramwell, to make the offer that he should try the murderer
+Lefroy as a last judicial act before retiring, added, "Poor dear
+Cockburn would hardly have given you such a chance." Be this as it may,
+Cockburn tried all cases which came before him, whether great or small,
+with the same thoroughness, courtesy and dignity, so that no counsel or
+suitor could complain that he had not been fully heard in a matter in
+which the issues were seemingly trivial; while he certainly gave great
+attention to the elaboration of his judgments and charges to juries. He
+presided at the Tichborne trial at Bar, lasting 188 days, of which his
+summing-up occupied eighteen.
+
+The greatest public occasion on which Sir Alexander Cockburn acted,
+outside his usual judicial functions, was that of the "Alabama"
+arbitration, held at Geneva in 1872, in which he represented the British
+government, and dissented from the view taken by the majority of the
+arbitrators, without being able to convince them. He prepared, with Mr
+C. F. Adams, the representative of the United States, the English
+translation of the award of the arbitrators, and published his reasons
+for dissenting in a vigorously worded document which did not meet with
+universal commendation. He admitted in substance the liability of
+England for the acts of the "Alabama," but not on the grounds on which
+the decision of the majority was based, and he held England not liable
+in respect of the "Florida" and the "Shenandoah."
+
+In personal appearance Sir Alexander Cockburn was of small stature, but
+great dignity of deportment. He was fond of yachting and of sport, and
+was engaged in writing a series of articles on the "History of the Chase
+in the Nineteenth Century" at the time of his death. He was fond, too,
+of society, and was also throughout his life addicted to frivolities not
+altogether consistent with advancement in a learned profession, or with
+the positions of dignity which he successively occupied. At the same
+time he had a high sense of what was due to and expected from his
+profession; and his utterance upon the limitations of advocacy, in his
+speech at the banquet given in the Middle Temple Hall to M. Berryer, the
+celebrated French advocate, may be called the classical authority on the
+subject. Lord Brougham, replying for the guests other than Berryer, had
+spoken of "the first great duty of an advocate to reckon everything
+subordinate to the interests of his client." The lord chief justice,
+replying to the toast of "the judges of England," dissented from this
+sweeping statement, saying, amid loud cheers from a distinguished
+assembly of lawyers, "The arms which an advocate wields he ought to use
+as a warrior, not as an assassin. He ought to uphold the interests of
+his clients _per fas_, not _per nefas_. He ought to know how to
+reconcile the interests of his clients with the eternal interests of
+truth and justice" (_The Times_, 9th of November 1864). Sir Alexander
+Cockburn was never married, and the baronetcy became extinct at his
+death.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_The Times_, 22nd of November 1880; _Law Journal_; _Law
+  Times_; _Solicitors' Journal_, 27th of November 1880; _Law Magazine_,
+  new series, vol. xv. p. 193, 1851; Ashley's _Life of Lord Palmerston_;
+  Nash's _Life of Lord Westbury_; "Reminiscences of Lord Chief Justice
+  Coleridge," by Lord Russell of Killowen, in the _North American
+  Review_, September 1894; _The Greville Memoirs_; Croker's
+  _Correspondence and Diaries_; Justin M'Carthy's _History of Our Own
+  Times_; Serjeant Ballantine's _Experiences; Bench and Bar_, by
+  Serjeant Robinson; Fairchild's _Life of Lord Bramwell_; Manson's
+  _Builders of Our Law_; Burke's _Peerage_, ed. 1879; Foster's
+  _Peerage_, 1880.
+
+
+
+
+COCKBURN, ALICIA, or ALISON (1713-1794), Scottish poet, authoress of one
+of the most exquisite of Scottish ballads, the "Flowers of the Forest,"
+was the daughter of Robert Rutherfurd of Fairnalee, Selkirkshire, and
+was born on the 8th of October 1713. There are two versions of this
+song,--the one by Mrs Cockburn, the other by Jean Elliot (1727-1805) of
+Minto. Both were founded on the remains of an ancient Border ballad. Mrs
+Cockburn's--that beginning "I've seen the smiling of Fortune
+beguiling"--is said to have been written before her marriage in 1731,
+though not published till 1765. Anyhow, it was composed many years
+before Jean Elliot's sister verses, written in 1756, beginning, "I've
+heard them liltin' at our ewe-milkin'." Robert Chambers states that the
+ballad was written on the occasion of a great commercial disaster which
+ruined the fortunes of some Selkirkshire lairds. Later biographers,
+however, think it probable that it was written on the departure to
+London of a certain John Aikman, between whom and Alison there appears
+to have been an early attachment. In 1731 Alison Rutherfurd was married
+to Patrick Cockburn of Ormiston. After her marriage she knew all the
+intellectual and aristocratic celebrities of her day. In the memorable
+year 1745 she vented her Whiggism in a squib upon Prince Charlie, and
+narrowly escaped being taken by the Highland guard as she was driving
+through Edinburgh in the family coach of the Keiths of Ravelston, with
+the parody in her pocket. Mrs Cockburn was an indefatigable
+letter-writer and a composer of parodies, squibs, toasts and
+"character-sketches"--then a favourite form of composition--like other
+wits of her day; but the "Flowers of the Forest" is the only thing she
+wrote that possesses great literary merit. At her house on Castle-hill,
+and afterwards in Crichton Street, she received many illustrious
+friends, among whom were Mackenzie, Robertson, Hume, Home, Monboddo, the
+Keiths of Ravelston, the Balcarres family and Lady Anne Barnard, the
+authoress of "Auld Robin Gray." As a Rutherfurd she was a connexion of
+Sir Walter Scott's mother, and was her intimate friend. Lockhart quotes
+a letter written by Mrs Cockburn in 1777, describing the conduct of
+little Walter Scott, then scarcely six years old, during a visit which
+she paid to his mother, when the child gave as a reason for his liking
+for Mrs Cockburn that she was a "virtuoso like himself." Mrs Cockburn
+died on the 22nd of November 1794.
+
+  See her _Letters and Memorials_..., with notes by T. Craig Brown
+  (1900).
+
+
+
+
+COCKBURN, SIR GEORGE, Bart. (1772-1853), British admiral, second son of
+Sir James Cockburn, Bart., and uncle of Lord Chief Justice Cockburn, was
+born in London. He entered the navy in his ninth year. After serving on
+the home station, and in the East Indies and the Mediterranean, he
+assisted, as captain of the "Minerve" (38) at the blockade of Leghorn in
+1796, and fought a gallant action with the Spanish frigate "Sabina" (40)
+which he took. He was present at the battle of Cape St Vincent. In 1809,
+in command of the naval force on shore, he contributed greatly to the
+reduction of Martinique, and signed the capitulation by which that
+island was handed over to the English; for his services on this occasion
+he received the thanks of the House of Commons. After service in the
+Scheldt and at the defence of Cadiz he was sent in 1811 on an
+unsuccessful mission for the reconciliation of Spain and her American
+colonies. He was made rear-admiral in 1812, and in 1813-14, as second in
+command to Warren, he took a prominent part in the American War,
+especially in the capture of Washington. Early in 1815 he received the
+order of the Bath, and in the autumn of the same year he carried out, in
+the "Northumberland" (74), the sentence of deportation to St Helena
+which had been passed upon Bonaparte. In 1818 he received the Grand
+Cross of his order, and was made a lord of the admiralty; and the same
+year he was returned to parliament for Portsmouth. He was promoted to
+the rank of vice-admiral in 1819, and to that of admiral in 1837; he
+became senior naval lord in 1841, and held office in that capacity till
+1846. From 1827 he was a privy councillor. In 1851 he was made admiral
+of the fleet, and in 1852, a year before his death, inherited the family
+baronetcy from his elder brother, being himself succeeded by his brother
+William, dean of York, who died in 1858.
+
+  See O'Byrne, _Naval Biography_; W. James, _Naval History_;
+  _Gentleman's Magazine_ for 1853.
+
+
+
+
+COCKBURN, HENRY THOMAS (1779-1854), Scottish judge, with the style of
+Lord Cockburn, was born in Edinburgh on the 26th of October 1779. His
+father, a keen Tory, was a baron of the Scottish court of exchequer, and
+his mother was connected by marriage with Lord Melville. He was educated
+at the high school and the university of Edinburgh; and he was a member
+of the famous Speculative Society, to which Sir Walter Scott, Brougham
+and Jeffrey belonged. He entered the faculty of advocates in 1800, and
+attached himself, not to the party of his relatives, who could have
+afforded him most valuable patronage, but to the Whig or Liberal party,
+and that at a time when it held out few inducements to men ambitious of
+success in life. On the accession of Earl Grey's ministry in 1830 he
+became solicitor-general for Scotland. In 1834 he was raised to the
+bench, and on taking his seat as a judge in the court of session he
+adopted the title of Lord Cockburn. Cockburn's forensic style was
+remarkable for its clearness, pathos and simplicity; and his
+conversational powers were unrivalled among his contemporaries. The
+extent of his literary ability only became known after he had passed his
+seventieth year, on the publication of his biography of Lord Jeffrey in
+1852, and from the _Memorials of his Time_, which appeared posthumously
+in 1856. He died on the 26th of April 1854, at his mansion of Bonaly,
+near Edinburgh.
+
+
+
+
+COCKER, EDWARD (1631-1675), the reputed author of the famous
+_Arithmetick_, the popularity of which has added a phrase ("according to
+Cocker") to the list of English proverbialisms, was an English engraver,
+who also taught writing and arithmetic. He is credited with the
+authorship and execution of some fourteen sets of copy slips, one of
+which, _Daniel's Copy-Book, ingraven by Edward Cocker, Philomath_
+(1664), is preserved in the British Museum. Pepys, in his _Diary_, makes
+very favourable mention of Cocker, who appears to have displayed great
+skill in his art. _Cocker's Arithmetick_, the fifty-second edition of
+which appeared in 1748, and which has passed through about 112 editions
+in all, was not published during the lifetime of its reputed author, the
+first impression bearing date of 1678. Augustus de Morgan in his
+_Arithmetical Books_ (1847) adduces proofs, which may be held to be
+conclusive, that the work was a forgery of the editor and publisher,
+John Hawkins; and there appears to be no doubt that the _Decimal
+Arithmetic_ (1684), and the _English Dictionary_ (second edition, 1715),
+issued by Hawkins under Cocker's name, are forgeries also. De Morgan
+condemns the _Arithmetick_ as a diffuse compilation from older and
+better works, and dates "a very great deterioration in elementary works
+on arithmetic" from the appearance of the book, which owed its celebrity
+far more to persistent puffing than to its merits. He pertinently
+adds,--"This same Edward Cocker must have had great reputation, since a
+bad book under his name pushed out the good ones."
+
+
+
+
+COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT (1788-1863), British architect, was born in
+London on the 28th of April 1788. After a preliminary training in his
+profession, he went abroad in 1810 and studied the great architectural
+remains of Greece, Italy and Asia Minor. At Aegina, Phigalia and other
+places of interest, he conducted excavations on a large scale, enriching
+the British Museum with many fine fragments, and adding several valuable
+monographs to the literature of archaeology. Elected in 1829 an
+associate of the Royal Academy, he became a full member in 1836, and in
+1839 he was appointed professor of architecture. On Sir John Soane's
+death in 1837 Cockerell was appointed architect of the Bank of England,
+and carried out the alterations that were judged to be necessary in that
+building. In addition to branch banks at Liverpool and Manchester he
+erected in 1840 the new library at Cambridge, and in 1845 the university
+galleries at Oxford, as well as the Sun and the Westminster Fire Offices
+in Bartholomew Lane and in the Strand; and he was joint architect of the
+London & Westminster Bank, Lothbury, with Sir W. Tite. On the death of
+Henry Lonsdale Elmes in 1847, Cockerell was selected to finish the St
+George's Hall, Liverpool. Cockerell's best conceptions were those
+inspired by classic models; his essays in the Gothic--the college at
+Lampeter, for instance, and the chapel at Harrow--are by no means so
+successful. His thorough knowledge of Gothic art, however, can be seen
+from his writings, _On the Iconography of Wells Cathedral_, and _On the
+Sculptures of Lincoln and Exeter Cathedrals_. In his _Tribute to the
+Memory of Sir Christopher Wren_ (1838) he published an interesting
+collection of the whole of Wren's works drawn to one scale.
+
+
+
+
+COCKERILL, WILLIAM (1759-1832), Anglo-French inventor and machinist, was
+born in England in 1759. He went to Belgium as a simple mechanic, and in
+1799 constructed at Verviers the first wool-carding and wool-spinning
+machines on the continent. In 1807 he established a large machine
+workshop at Liege. Orders soon poured in on him from all over Europe,
+and he amassed a large fortune. In 1810 he was granted the rights of
+naturalization by Napoleon I., and in 1812 handed over the management of
+his business to his youngest son, JOHN COCKERILL (1790-1840).
+
+Thanks to his own energy and ability, aided by the influence of King
+William I. of the Netherlands, John Cockerill largely extended his
+father's business. King William secured him a site at Seraing, where he
+built large works, including an iron-foundry and blast furnace. The
+construction of the Belgian railways in 1834 gave a great impetus to
+these works, branches of which had already been opened in France,
+Germany and Poland. In 1838 Cockerill met with a carriage accident which
+nearly proved fatal, and the prospect of his loss resulted in the credit
+of the firm being so badly shaken that in 1839 it was compelled to go
+into liquidation, the liabilities being estimated at 26 millions of
+francs, the assets at 18 millions. This reverse, however, was only
+temporary. John Cockerill had practically concluded negotiations to
+construct the Russian government railways, when his constitution,
+undermined by overwork, broke down. He died at Warsaw on the 19th of
+June 1840. The iron works, among the largest in Europe, are still
+carried on under the name of La Societe Cockerill at seraing (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+COCKERMOUTH, a market town in the Cockermouth parliamentary division of
+Cumberland, England, 27 m. S.W. of Carlisle, on the Cockermouth, Keswick
+& Penrith, the London & North Western, and the Maryport & Carlisle
+railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5355. It is pleasantly situated
+on the river Derwent, at the junction of the Cocker, outlying hills of
+the Lake District sheltering it on the north, east and south. The castle
+has remains of Norman work in the keep, and other ancient portions
+(including the gateway) of later date, but is in part modernized as a
+residence. The grammar school was founded in 1676. The county industrial
+school is established in the town. The industries include the
+manufacture of woollens and confectionery, tanning and engineering, and
+there is a considerable agricultural trade. There are coal mines in the
+neighbourhood. A statue was erected in 1875 to the sixth earl of Mayo,
+who represented the borough (abolished in 1885) from 1857 to 1868. There
+is a Roman fort a mile west of the town, at Papcastle.
+
+Cockermouth (_Cokermuth_, _Cokermue_) was made the head of the honour or
+barony of Allerdale when that barony was created and granted to Waltheof
+in the early part of the 12th century. At a later date the honour of
+Allerdale was frequently called the honour of Cockermouth. Waltheof
+probably built the castle, under the shelter of which the town grew up.
+Although it never received any royal charter, the earliest records
+relating to Cockermouth mention it as a borough. In 1295 it returned two
+members to parliament and then not again until 1640. By the
+Representation of the People Act of 1867 the representation was reduced
+to one member, and by the Redistribution Act of 1885 it was
+disfranchised. In 1221 William de Fortibus, earl of Albemarle, was
+granted a Saturday market, which later in the year was transferred to
+Monday, the day on which it has continued to be held ever since. The
+Michaelmas Fair existed in 1343, and an inquisition dated 1374 mentions
+two horse-fairs on Whit-Monday and at Michaelmas. In 1638 Algernon
+Percy, earl of Northumberland, obtained a grant of a fair every
+Wednesday from the first week in May till Michaelmas. The chief sources
+of revenue in Norman times were the valuable fisheries and numerous
+mills.
+
+
+
+
+COCK-FIGHTING, or COCKING, the sport of pitting game-cocks to fight, and
+breeding and training them for the purpose. The game-fowl is now
+probably the nearest to the Indian jungle-fowl (_Gallus ferrugineus_),
+from which all domestic fowls are believed to be descended. The sport
+was popular in ancient times in India, China, Persia and other eastern
+countries, and was introduced into Greece in the time of Themistocles.
+The latter, while moving with his army against the Persians, observed
+two cocks fighting desperately, and, stopping his troops, inspired them
+by calling their attention to the valour and obstinacy of the feathered
+warriors. In honour of the ensuing victory of the Greeks cock-fights
+were thenceforth held annually at Athens, at first in a patriotic and
+religious spirit, but afterwards purely for the love of the sport.
+Lucian makes Solon speak of quail-fighting and cocking, but he is
+evidently referring to a time later than that of Themistocles. From
+Athens the sport spread throughout Greece, Asia Minor and Sicily, the
+best cocks being bred in Alexandria, Delos, Rhodes and Tanagra. For a
+long time the Romans affected to despise this "Greek diversion," but
+ended by adopting it so enthusiastically that Columella (1st century
+A.D.) complained that its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in
+betting at the pit-side. The cocks were provided with iron spurs
+(_tela_), as in the East, and were often dosed with stimulants to make
+them fight more savagely.
+
+From Rome cocking spread northwards, and, although opposed by the
+Christian church, nevertheless became popular in Great Britain, the Low
+Countries, Italy, Germany, Spain and her colonies. On account of adverse
+legislation cocking has practically died out everywhere excepting in
+Spain, countries of Spanish origin and the Orient, where it is still
+legal and extremely popular. It was probably introduced into England by
+the Romans before Caesar's time. William Fitz-Stephen first speaks of it
+in the time of Henry II. as a sport for school-boys on holidays, and
+particularly on Shrove Tuesday, the masters themselves directing the
+fights, or mains, from which they derived a material advantage, as the
+dead birds fell to them. It became very popular throughout England and
+Wales, as well as in Scotland, where it was introduced in 1681.
+Occasionally the authorities tried to repress it, especially Cromwell,
+who put an almost complete stop to it for a brief period, but the
+Restoration re-established it among the national-pastimes. Contemporary
+apologists do not, in the 17th century, consider its cruelty at all, but
+concern themselves solely with its justification as a source of
+pleasure. "If Leviathan took his sport in the waters, how much more may
+Man take his sport upon the land?" From the time of Henry VIII., who
+added the famous Royal Cock-pit to his palace of Whitehall, cocking was
+called the "royal diversion," and the Stuarts, particularly James I. and
+Charles II., were among its most enthusiastic devotees, their example
+being followed by the gentry down to the 19th century. Gervase Markham
+in his _Pleasures of Princes_ (1614) wrote "Of the Choyce, Ordring,
+Breeding and Dyeting of the fighting-Cocke for Battell," his quaint
+directions being of the most explicit nature. When a cock is to be
+trained for the pit he must be fed "three or foure daies only with old
+Maunchet (fine white bread) and spring water." He is then set to spar
+with another cock, "putting a payre of hots upon each of their heeles,
+which Hots are soft, bumbasted roules of Leather, covering their spurs,
+so that they cannot hurt each other.... Let them fight and buffet one
+another a good space." After exercise the bird must be put into a
+basket, covered with hay and set near the fire. "Then let him sweate,
+for the nature of this scowring is to bring away his grease, and to
+breed breath, and strength." If not killed in the fight, "the first
+thing you doe, you shall search his wounds, and as many as you can find
+you shall with your mouth sucke the blood out of them, then wash them
+with warm salt water,... give him a roule or two, and so stove him up as
+hot as you can."
+
+Cocking-mains usually consisted of fights between an agreed number of
+pairs of birds, the majority of victories deciding the main; but there
+were two other varieties that aroused the particular ire of moralists.
+These were the "battle royal," in which a number of birds were "set,"
+i.e. placed in the pit, at the same time, and allowed to remain until
+all but one, the victor, were killed or disabled; and the "Welsh main,"
+in which eight pairs were matched, the eight victors being again paired,
+then four, and finally the last surviving pair. Among London cock-pits
+were those at Westminster, in Drury Lane, Jewin Street and Birdcage Walk
+(depicted by Hogarth). Over the royal pit at Whitehall presided the
+king's cockmaster. The pits were circular in shape with a matted stage
+about 20 ft. in diameter and surrounded by a barrier to keep the birds
+from falling off. Upon this barrier the first row of the audience
+leaned. Hardly a town in the kingdom was without its cockpit, which
+offered the sporting classes opportunities for betting not as yet
+sufficiently supplied by horse-racing. With the growth of the latter
+sport and the increased facilities for reaching the racing centres,
+cocking gradually declined, especially after parliament passed laws
+against it, so that gentlemen risked arrest by attending a main.
+
+Among the best-known devotees of the sport was a Colonel Mordaunt, who,
+about 1780, took a number of the best English game-cocks to India. There
+he found the sport in high favour with the native rulers and his birds
+were beaten. Perhaps the most famous main in England took place at
+Lincoln in 1830 between the birds of Joseph Gilliver, the most
+celebrated breeder, or "feeder," of his day, and those of the earl of
+Derby. The conditions called for seven birds a side, and the stakes were
+5000 guineas the main and 1000 guineas each match. The main was won by
+Gilliver by five matches to two. His grandson was also a breeder, and
+the blood of his cocks still runs in the best breeds of Great Britain
+and America. Another famous breeder was Dr Bellyse of Audlem, the
+principal figure in the great mains fought at Chester during race-week
+at the beginning of the 19th century. His favourite breed was the white
+pile, and "Cheshire piles" are still much-fancied birds. Others were
+Irish brown-reds, Lancashire black-reds and Staffordshire duns.
+
+In Wales, as well as some parts of England, cocking-mains took place
+regularly in churchyards, and in many instances even inside the churches
+themselves. Sundays, wakes and church festivals were favourite occasions
+for them. The habit of holding mains in schools was common from the 12th
+to about the middle of the 19th century. When cocking was at its height,
+the pupils of many schools were made a special allowance for purchasing
+fighting-cocks, and parents were expected to contribute to the expenses
+of the annual main on Shrove Tuesday, this money being called
+"cockpence." Cock-fighting was prohibited by law in Great Britain in
+1849.
+
+Cocking was early introduced into America, though it was always frowned
+upon in New England. Some of the older states, as Massachusetts, forbade
+it by passing laws against cruelty as early as 1836, and it is now
+expressly prohibited in Canada and in most states of the Union, or is
+repressed by general laws for the prevention of cruelty to animals.
+
+Cocks are fought at an age of from one to two years. "Heeling," or the
+proper fastening of the spurs, and "cutting out," trimming the wings at
+a slope, and cutting the tail down by one-third of its length and
+shortening the hackle and rump feathers, are arts acquired by
+experience. The comb is cut down close, so as to offer the least
+possible mark for the hostile bird's bill. The cock is then provided
+with either "short heels," spurs 1-1/2 in. or less in length, or with
+"long heels," from 2 to 2-1/2 in. in length. The training of a cock for
+the pit lasts from ten days to a month or more, during which time the
+bird is subjected to a rigid diet and exercise in running and sparring.
+The birds may not be touched after being set down in the pit, unless to
+extricate them from the matting. Whenever a bird refuses to fight longer
+he is set breast to breast with his adversary in the middle of the pit,
+and if he then still refuses to fight he is regarded as defeated. Among
+the favourite breeds may be mentioned the "Irish gilders," "Irish
+Grays," "Shawlnecks," "Gordons," "Eslin Red-Quills," "Baltimore
+Topknots," "Dominiques," "War-horses" and "Claibornes."
+
+  Cock-fighting possesses an extensive literature of its own. See
+  Gervase Markham, _Pleasures of Princes_ (London, 1614); Blain, _Rural
+  Sports_ (London, 1853); "Game Cocks and Cock-Fighting," _Outing_, vol.
+  39; "A Modest Commendation of Cock-Fighting," _Blackwood's Magazine_,
+  vol. 22; "Cock-Fighting in Schools," _Chambers' Magazine_, vol. 65.
+
+
+
+
+COCK LANE GHOST, a supposed apparition, the vagaries of which attracted
+extraordinary public attention in London during 1762. At a house in Cock
+Lane, Smithfield, tenanted by one Parsons, knockings and other noises
+were said to occur at night varied by the appearance of a luminous
+figure, alleged to be the ghost of a Mrs Kent who had died in the house
+some two years before. A thorough investigation revealed that Parsons'
+daughter, a child of eleven, was the source of the disturbance. The
+object of the Parsons family seems to have been to accuse the husband of
+the deceased woman of murdering her, with a view to blackmail. Parsons
+was prosecuted and condemned to the pillory. Among the crowds who
+visited the house was Dr Johnson, who was in consequence made the
+object of a scurrilous attack by the poet Charles Churchill in "The
+Ghost."
+
+  See A. Lang, _Cock Lane and Common Sense_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+COCKLE, SIR JAMES (1819-1895), English lawyer and mathematician, was
+born on the 14th of January 1819. He was the second son of James Cockle,
+a surgeon, of Great Oakley, Essex. Educated at Charterhouse and Trinity
+College, Cambridge, he entered the Middle Temple in 1838, practising as
+a special pleader in 1845 and being called in 1846. Joining the midland
+circuit, he acquired a good practice, and on the recommendation of Chief
+Justice Sir William Erle he was appointed chief justice of Queensland in
+1863. He received the honour of knighthood in 1869, retired from the
+bench, and returned to England in 1879.
+
+Cockle is more remembered for his mathematical and scientific
+investigations than as a lawyer. Like many young mathematicians he
+attacked the problem of resolving the higher algebraic equations,
+notwithstanding Abel's proof that a solution by radicles was impossible.
+In this field Cockle achieved some notable results, amongst which is his
+reproduction of Sir William R. Hamilton's modification of Abel's
+theorem. Algebraic forms were a favourite object of his studies, and he
+discovered and developed the theory of criticoids, or differential
+invariants; he also made contributions to the theory of differential
+equations. He displayed a keen interest in scientific societies. From
+1863 to 1879 he was president of the Queensland Philosophical Society
+(now incorporated in the Royal Society of Queensland); on his return to
+England he became associated with the London Mathematical Society, of
+which he was president from 1886 to 1888, and the Royal Astronomical
+Society, serving as a member of the council from 1888 to 1892. He died
+in London on the 27th of January 1895.
+
+  A volume containing his scientific and mathematical researches made
+  during the years 1864-1877 was presented to the British Museum in 1897
+  by his widow. See the obituary notice by the Rev. R. Harley in _Proc.
+  Roy. Soc._ vol. 59.
+
+
+
+
+COCKLE, in zoology, a mollusc (_Cardium_) of the class Lamellibranchia
+(q.v.). A very large number of species of _Cardium_ have been
+distinguished by conchologists. Besides the common species _Cardium
+edule_, two others occur in Britain, but are not sufficiently common to
+be of commercial importance. One of these is _C. echinatum_, which is
+larger than the common species, reaching 3 in. in diameter, and
+distinguished by the presence of spines along the ribs of the shell. The
+other is _C. norvegicum_, which is also somewhat larger than _C. edule_,
+is longer dorso-ventrally than broad, and is only faintly ribbed.
+
+The two valves of the shell of the common cockle are similar to each
+other, and somewhat circular in outline. The beak or umbo of each valve
+is prominent and rounded, and a number of sharp ridges and furrows
+radiate from the apex to the free edge of the shell, which is crenated.
+The ligament is external, and the hinge carries cardinal teeth in each
+valve. The interior of the shell is remarkable for the absence of pearly
+lustre on its interior surface. The colour externally is reddish or
+yellowish. The pallial line, which is the line of attachment of the
+mantle parallel to the edge of the shell, is not indented by a sinus at
+the posterior end. In the entire animal the posterior end projects
+slightly more than the anterior from the region of the umbones.
+
+The animal possesses two nearly equal adductor muscles. The edges of the
+mantle are united posteriorly except at the anal and branchial
+apertures, which are placed at the ends of two very short siphons or
+tubular prolongations of the mantle; the siphons bear a number of short
+tentacles, and many of these are furnished with eye-spots. The foot is
+very large and powerful; it can be protruded from the anterior aperture
+between the mantle edges, and its outer part is bent sharply forwards
+and terminates in a point. By means of this muscular foot the cockle
+burrows rapidly in the muddy sand of the sea-shore, and it can also when
+it is not buried perform considerable leaps by suddenly bending the
+foot. The foot has a byssus gland on its posterior surface.
+
+On either side of the body between the mantle and the foot are two flat
+gills each composed of two lamellae. _Cardium_ belongs to the order of
+Lamellibranchia in which the gills present the maximum of complexity,
+the original vertical filaments of which they are composed being united
+by interfilamentar and interlamellar junctions. In other respects the
+anatomy of the cockle presents no important differences from that of a
+typical Lamellibranch. The sexes are distinct, and the generative
+opening is on the side of the body above the edge of the inner lamella
+of the inner gill. The eggs are minute, and pass out into the sea-water
+through the dorsal or exhalent siphon. The breeding season is April, May
+and June. The larva for a time swims freely in the sea-water, having a
+circlet of cilia round the body in front of the mouth, forming the
+velum. The shell is developed on the dorsal surface behind the velum,
+the foot on the opposite or ventral surface behind the mouth. After a
+few days, when the mantle bearing the shell valves has developed so much
+as to enclose the whole body, the young cockle sinks to the bottom and
+commences to follow the habits of the adult. The usual size of the
+cockle in its shell is from 1 to 2 in. in breadth.
+
+The common cockle is regularly used as food by the poorer classes. It
+occurs in abundance on sandy shores in all estuaries. At the mouth of
+the Thames the gathering of cockles forms a considerable industry,
+especially at Leigh. On the coast of Lancashire also the fishery, if it
+may be so called, is of considerable importance. The cockles are
+gathered by the simple process of raking them from the sand, and they
+are usually boiled and extracted from their shells before being sent to
+market. The cockle is liable to the same suspicion as the oyster of
+conveying the contamination of typhoid fever where the shores are
+polluted, but as it is boiled before being eaten it is probably less
+dangerous.     (J. T. C.)
+
+
+
+
+COCKNEY, a colloquial name applied to Londoners generally, but more
+properly confined to those born in London, or more strictly still to
+those born within the sound of the bells of St Mary-le-Bow church. The
+origin of the word has been the subject of many guesses, from that in
+John Minsheu's lexicon, _Ductor in linguas_ (1617), which gives the tale
+of the town-bred child who, on hearing a horse neigh, asked whether a
+"cock neighed" too, to the confusion of the word with the name of the
+Utopia, the land of Cockaigne (q.v.). The historical examination of the
+various uses of "Cockney," by Sir James Murray (see _Academy_, 10th of
+May 1890, and the _New English Dictionary_, s.v.) clearly shows the true
+derivation. The earliest form of the word is _cokenay_ or _cokeney_,
+i.e. the _ey_ or egg, and _coken_, genitive plural of "cock," "cocks'
+eggs" being the name given to the small and malformed eggs sometimes
+laid by young hens, known in German as _Hahneneier_. An early quotation,
+in Langland's _Piers Plowman_, A. vii. 272, gives the combination of
+"cokeneyes" and bacon to make a "collop," or dish of eggs and bacon. The
+word then applied to a child overlong nursed by its mother, hence to a
+simpleton or milksop. Thus in Chaucer, _Reeve's Tale_, the word is used
+with _daf_, i.e. a fool. The particular application of the name as a
+term of contempt given by country folk to town-bred people, with their
+dandified airs and ignorance of country ways and country objects, is
+easy. Thus Robert Whittington or Whitinton (_fl._ 1520), speaks of the
+"cokneys" in such "great cytees as London, York, Perusy" (Perugia),
+showing the general use of the word. It was not till the beginning of
+the 17th century that "cockney" appears to be confined to the
+inhabitants of London.
+
+The so-called "Cockney" accent or pronunciation has varied in type. In
+the first part of the 19th century, it was chiefly characterized by the
+substitution of a _v_ for a _w_, or vice versa. This has almost entirely
+disappeared, and the chief consonantal variation which exists is perhaps
+the change of _th_ to _f_ or _v_, as in "fing" for thing, or "favver"
+for father. This and the vowel-sound change from _ou_ to _ah_, as in
+"abaht" for "about," are only heard among the uneducated classes, and,
+together with other characteristic pronunciations, phrases and words,
+have been well illustrated in the so-called "coster" songs of Albert
+Chevalier. The most marked and widely-prevalent change of vowel sound is
+that of _ei_ for _ai_, so that "daily" becomes "dyly" and "may" becomes
+"my." This is sometimes so marked that it almost amounts to incapacity
+to distinguish the vowels _a_ and _i_, and is almost universal in large
+classes of the population of London. The name of the "Cockney School of
+Poetry" was applied in 1817 to the literary circle of which Leigh Hunt
+was the principal representative, though Keats also was aimed at. The
+articles in _Blackwood's Magazine_, in which the name appeared, have
+generally, but probably wrongly, been attributed to John Gibson
+Lockhart.
+
+
+
+
+COCK-OF-THE-ROCK, the familiar name of the birds of the genus Rupicola
+(subfamily Rupicolinae) of the Cotingas (allied to the Manakins, q.v.),
+found in the Amazon valley. They are about the size of a pigeon, with
+orange-coloured plumage, a pronounced crest, and orange-red flesh, and
+build their nests on rock. The skins and feathers are highly valued for
+decoration.
+
+
+
+
+COCKPIT, the term originally for an enclosed place in which the sport of
+cock-fighting (q.v.) was carried on. On the site of an old cockpit
+opposite Whitehall in London was a block of buildings used from the 17th
+century as offices by the treasury and the privy council, for which the
+old name survived till the early 19th century. The name was given also
+to a theatre in London, built in the early part of the 17th century on
+the site of Drury Lane theatre. As the place where the wounded in battle
+were tended, or where the junior officers consorted, the term was also
+formerly applied to a cabin used for these purposes on the lower deck of
+a man-of-war.
+
+
+
+
+COCKROACH[1] (_Blattidae_), a family of orthopterous insects,
+distinguished by their flattened bodies, long thread-like antennae, and
+shining leathery integuments. Cockroaches are nocturnal creatures,
+secreting themselves in chinks and crevices about houses, issuing from
+their retreats when the lights are extinguished, and moving about with
+extraordinary rapidity in search of food. They are voracious and
+omnivorous, devouring, or at least damaging, whatever comes in their
+way, for all the species emit a disagreeable odour, which they
+communicate to whatever article of food or clothing they may touch.
+
+The common cockroach (_Stilopyga orientalis_) is not indigenous to
+Europe, but is believed to have been introduced from the Levant in the
+cargoes of trading vessels. The wings in the male are shorter than the
+body; in the female they are rudimentary. The eggs, which are 16 in
+number, are deposited in a leathery capsule fixed by a gum-like
+substance to the abdomen of the female, and thus carried about till the
+young are ready to escape, when the capsule becomes softened by the
+emission of a fluid substance. The larvae are perfectly white at first
+and wingless, although in other respects not unlike their parents, but
+they are not mature insects until after the sixth casting of the skin.
+
+The American cockroach (_Periplaneta americana_) is larger than the
+former, and is not uncommon in European seaports trading with America,
+being conveyed in cargoes of grain and other food produce. It is very
+abundant in the Zoological Gardens in London, where it occurs in
+conjunction with a much smaller imported species _Phyllodromia
+germanica_, which may also be seen in some of the cheaper restaurants.
+
+In both of these species the females, as well as the males, are winged.
+
+In addition to these noxious and obtrusive forms, England has a few
+indigenous species belonging to the genus _Ectobia_, which live under
+stones or fallen trees in fields and woods. The largest known species is
+the drummer of the West Indies (_Blabera gigantea_), so called from the
+tapping noise it makes on wood, sufficient, when joined in by several
+individuals, as usually happens, to break the slumbers of a household.
+It is about 2 in. long, with wings 3 in. in expanse, and forms one of
+the most noisome and injurious of insect pests. Wingless females of many
+tropical species present a close superficial resemblance to woodlice;
+and one interesting apterous form known as _Pseudoglomeris_, from the
+East Indies, is able to roll up like a millipede.
+
+The best mode of destroying cockroaches is, when the fire and lights
+are extinguished at night, to lay some treacle on a piece of wood afloat
+on a broad basin of water. This proves a temptation to the vermin too
+great to be resisted. The chinks and holes from which they issue should
+also be filled up with unslaked lime, or painted with a mixture of borax
+and heated turpentine.
+
+  See generally Miall and Denny, _The Structure and Life History of the
+  Cockroach_ (1887); G. H. Carpenter, _Insects: their Structure and
+  Life_ (1899); Charles Lester Marlatt, _Household Insects_ (U.S.
+  Department of Agriculture, revised edition, 1902); Leland Ossian
+  Howard, _The Insect Book_ (1902).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word is a corruption of Sp. _cucaracha_. In America it is
+    commonly abbreviated to "roach."
+
+
+
+
+COCK'S-COMB, in botany, a cultivated form of _Celosia cristata_ (natural
+order Amarantaceae), in which the inflorescence is monstrous, forming a
+flat "fasciated" axis bearing numerous small flowers. The plant is a
+low-growing herbaceous annual, bearing a large, comb-like, dark red,
+scarlet or purplish mass of flowers. Seeds are sown in March or April in
+pans of rich, well-drained sandy soil, which are placed in a hot-bed at
+65 deg. to 70 deg. in a moist atmosphere. The seedlings require plenty
+of light, and when large enough to handle are potted off and placed
+close to the glass in a frame under similar conditions. When the heads
+show they are shifted into 5-in. pots, which are plunged to their rims
+in ashes or coco-nut fibre refuse, in a hot-bed, as before, close to the
+glass; they are sparingly watered and more air admitted. The soil
+recommended is a half-rich sandy loam and half-rotten cow and stable
+manure mixed with a dash of silver sand. The other species of _Celosia_
+cultivated are _C. pyramidalis_, with a pyramidal inflorescence, varying
+in colour in the great number of varieties, and _C. argentea_, with a
+dense white inflorescence. They require a similar cultural treatment to
+that given for _C. cristata_.
+
+
+
+
+COCKTON, HENRY (1807-1853), English humorous novelist, was born in
+London on the 7th of December 1807. He published a number of volumes,
+but is best known as the author of _Valentine Vox, the Ventriloquist_
+(1840) and _Sylvester Sound, the Somnambulist_ (1844). He died at Bury
+St Edmunds on the 26th of June 1853.
+
+
+
+
+COCKX (or COCK), HIERONYMUS [JEROME] (1510-1570), Flemish painter and
+engraver, was born at Antwerp, and in 1545 was admitted to the Gild of
+St Luke as a painter. It is as an engraver, however, that he is famous,
+a number of portraits and subject-pictures by him, and reproductions of
+Flemish masters, being well known. His brother Matthys (1505-1552) was
+also a painter.
+
+
+
+
+COCOA,[1] more properly CACAO, a valuable dietary substance yielded by
+the seeds of several small trees belonging to the genus _Theobroma_, of
+the natural order Sterculiaceae. The whole genus, which comprises twelve
+species, belongs to the tropical parts of the American continent; and
+although the cocoa of commerce is probably the produce of more than one
+species, by far the greatest and most valuable portion is obtained from
+_Theobroma Cacao_. The generic name is derived from [Greek: theos] (god)
+and [Greek: broma] (food), and was bestowed by Linnaeus as an indication
+of the high appreciation in which he held the beverage prepared from the
+seeds, which he considered to be a food fit for the gods.
+
+The common cacao tree is of low stature, seldom exceeding 25 ft. in
+height, but it is taller in its native forests than it is in cultivated
+plantations. The leaves are large, smooth, and glossy, elliptic-oblong
+and tapering in form, growing principally at the ends of branches, but
+sometimes springing directly from the main trunk. The flowers are small,
+and occur in numerous clusters on the main branches and the trunk, a
+very marked peculiarity which gives the matured fruit the appearance of
+being artificially attached to the tree. Generally only a single fruit
+is matured from each cluster of flowers. When ripe the fruit or "pod" is
+elliptical-ovoid in form, from 7 to 10 in. in length and from 3 to 4-1/2
+in. in diameter. It has a hard, thick, leathery rind of a rich
+purplish-yellow colour, externally rough and marked with ten very
+distinct longitudinal ribs or elevations. The interior of the fruit has
+five cells, in each of which is a row of from 5 to 12 seeds embedded in
+a soft delicately pink acid pulp. Each fruit thus contains from 20 to 50
+or more seeds, which constitute the raw cacao or "cacao beans" of
+commerce.
+
+[Illustration: Branch of Cocoa Tree, with Fruit in section, much
+reduced.]
+
+The tree appears to have been originally a native of the coast lands of
+the Gulf of Mexico and tropical South America as far south as the basin
+of the Amazon; but it can be cultivated in suitable situations within
+the 25th parallels of latitude. It flourishes best within the 15th
+parallels, at elevations ranging from near the sea-level up to about
+2000 ft. in height. It is now cultivated in Mexico, Honduras, Guatemala,
+Nicaragua, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, New Granada, Venezuela, Surinam,
+Guiana, and in many of the West Indian islands, particularly in
+Trinidad, San Domingo, Grenada, Cuba, Porto Rico and Jamaica. Away from
+America it has been introduced, and is cultivated on a large scale in
+West Africa, Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies.
+
+_History._--The value of cacao was appreciated in its native country
+before the discovery of America by Europeans. The Spaniards found in use
+in Mexico a beverage known by the Aztec name of _chocolath_, from
+_choco_ (cacao) and _lath_ (water). W. H. Prescott records that the
+emperor Montezuma of Mexico was "exceedingly fond of it ... no less than
+50 jars or pitchers being prepared for his own daily consumption; 2000
+more were allowed for that of his household." Bags of cacao containing a
+specified number of beans were also a recognized form of currency in the
+country. The product was early introduced into Spain, and thence to
+other parts of Europe. The _Public Advertiser_ (London) of June 16,
+1657, contains an announcement that "In Bishopgate St., in Queen's Head
+Alley, at a Frenchman's house, is an excellent West India drink, called
+chocolate, to be sold, where you may have it ready at any time, and also
+unmade at reasonable rates." Chocolate was a very fashionable beverage
+in the early part of the 18th century.
+
+_Cultivated Varieties._--Numerous varieties of the cacao, i.e. of
+_Theobroma Cacao_, are recognized in cultivation. According to Dr P.
+Preuss, who has travelled extensively in the cacao producing countries
+of the world studying this crop, it is impossible to embody in a single
+table the characteristics of the world's varieties. A separate
+classification is needed for almost each country. In 1882 the Trinidad
+forms were classified by Sir D. Morris. This table was later revised by
+Mr J. H. Hart, and more recently Mr R. H. Lock studied the Ceylon
+varieties. As the Ceylon cacaos were obtained mainly from Trinidad, and
+as Mr Lock's results agree substantially with those of Sir D. Morris,
+they serve to illustrate the distinguishing characteristics of the West
+Indian and Ceylon forms. The main divisions are as follows:--
+
+  1. _Criollo._--Pods relatively thin-walled and soft, rough, pointed at
+  apex. The seeds or beans are plump and of pale colour. The ripe pods
+  may be either red (colorado) or yellow (amarillo).
+
+  2. _Forastero._--Pods relatively thick-walled and hard. The seeds vary
+  in colour from pale to deep purple. Various varieties are recognized,
+  such as cundeamor, amelonado, liso, calabacillo, differing in shape,
+  colour and character of beans, &c., and of each of these again there
+  may be a colorado and amarillo sub-variety. Of special interest is
+  calabacillo, a variety with a smooth, small pod, and deep purple
+  beans. It is considered by some to be sufficiently distinct to form a
+  third type equivalent to criollo or forastero. Others again would
+  raise amelonado to the rank of a distinct type. Of the above
+  calabacillo is the hardiest and yields the least valuable beans;
+  criollo is the most delicate and yields beans of the highest value,
+  whilst forastero is intermediate in both respects. In general pale
+  coloured beans are less bitter and more valuable than purple beans.
+  Both, however, may occur in the same pod.
+
+_Alligator_, or _lagarto cacao_, is the common name of a variety
+cultivated in Nicaragua, Guatemala, &c. Its pods are distinctly
+five-angled and beset with irregular, warty protuberances. Some regard
+it as a distinct species, _T. pentagona_, but others only as a variety
+of _T. Cacao_. Its produce is of high value.
+
+_T. bicolor_, indigenous to Central America, is another species of some
+interest. It bears small, hard woody pods about 6 in. long and 3 in. in
+diameter, with curious surface markings. The beans possess a fetid odour
+and a bitter flavour and are known as "tiger cacao." It is not likely to
+become of great commercial importance, although consumed locally where
+found. "_Cacao bianco_" and "_pataste_" are other names for this
+species.
+
+_Cultivation and Preparation._--Cacao requires for its successful
+cultivation a deep, well-watered and yet well-drained soil, shelter from
+strong winds, and a thoroughly tropical climate, with a mean annual
+temperature of about 80 deg. F., a rainfall of from 50 to 100 or more in.,
+and freedom from long droughts. Young plants are grown from seed, which
+may either be sown directly in the positions the future trees are to
+occupy, varying according to local circumstances from 6 to 25 ft. apart
+in all directions, or raised in nurseries and transplanted later. The
+latter course is desirable when it is necessary to water and otherwise
+tend the seedlings. However raised, the young plants require to be
+shaded, and this is usually done by planting bananas, cassava or other
+useful crops between the rows of cacao. In some countries, but not in
+all, permanent shade trees are planted amongst the cacao. Various
+leguminous trees are commonly used, e.g. the coral tree (_Erythrina_
+spp.) sometimes known as _bois immortel_ and _madre del cacao_ or mother
+of cocoa, _Albizzia Lebbek_, _Pithecolobium Saman_, &c. The various
+rubber trees have been employed with success. Wind belts are also
+necessary in exposed situations.
+
+Cacao comes into bearing when about five years old, the small pink
+flowers and the succeeding large pods being borne directly on the trunk
+and main branches. The pods are carefully picked when ripe, broken open,
+and the slimy mass of contained seeds and their enveloping mucilaginous
+pulp extracted. The "beans" are next fermented or "sweated," often in
+special houses constructed for the purpose, or by placing them in heaps
+and covering with leaves or earth, or in baskets, barrels, &c., lined
+with banana leaves. During fermentation the beans should be stirred once
+daily or oftener. The time of fermentation varies from one to twelve or
+even more days. Pale-coloured beans usually require less time than the
+deep purple and bitter kinds. The method adopted also considerably
+modifies the time required. The process of fermenting destroys the
+mucilage; the seeds lose to some degree their bitter flavour and their
+colour also changes: the pale criollo seeds, for example, developing a
+cinnamon-brown colour. The "fracture" of the beans also
+characteristically alters. Fermentation is not universally practised;
+the purple colour and bitter taste of unfermented cacao being wanted in
+some markets.
+
+After the fermentation is completed the beans may or may not be washed,
+opinion as to the desirability of this process varying in different
+countries. In any case, however, they have to be dried and cured. When
+climatic conditions are favourable this is commonly done by spreading
+the beans in thin layers on barbecues, or stone drying floors, or
+otherwise exposing them to the sun. Sliding roofs or other means of
+rapidly affording shelter are desirable in case of showers, excessive
+heat, and also for protection at night. Artificial drying is now often
+resorted to and various patterns of drying houses are in use.
+
+The appearance of the beans may often be improved by "claying," a very
+slight coating of red earth or clay being added. Polishing the beans
+also gives them a brighter appearance, removes mildew, and remnants of
+dried mucilage, &c. This may be done by "dancing the cacao," i.e.
+treading a heap with the bare feet, or by the use of special polishing
+machines. The cacao is now ready for shipment, and is usually packed in
+bags. Hamburg is the chief port in the world for cacao. Until quite
+recently, however, this position was held by Havre, which is now second
+in Europe. New York imports about the same amount as Havre. London
+follows next in importance.
+
+_Cacao-producing Countries._--In the following table the production in
+tons (of 1000 kilos = 2205 lb) of the principal producing countries,
+arranged under continents, is given for 1905 and 1901. During this
+period the total world's production has increased by about 40%, as
+indicated in the summary below. Study of the table will show where the
+increase has taken place, but attention is directed especially to the
+rapid development in West Africa.
+
+    _America._
+                                    1905 (tons).  1901 (tons).
+  Ecuador                              21,128      22,896
+  Brazil                               21,091      18,324
+  Trinidad                             20,018      11,943
+  San Domingo                          12,785       6,850
+  Venezuela                            11,700       7,860
+  Grenada                               5,456       4,865
+  Cuba and Porto Rico                   3,000       1,750
+  Haiti                                 2,343       1,950
+  Surinam                               1,612       3,163
+  Jamaica                               1,484       1,350
+  French West Indies                    1,200         825
+  St. Lucia                               700         765
+  Dominica                                597         ..
+                                      -------     -------
+  Total, America                      103,114      82,541
+
+
+    _Africa._
+                                    1905 (tons).  1901 (tons).
+  San Thome                            25,379      16,983
+  Gold Coast and Lagos                  5,666         997
+  Cameroons                             1,185         528
+  Congo Free State                        195         ..
+                                      -------     -------
+  Total, Africa                        32,425      18,508
+
+
+    _Asia._
+                                    1905 (tons).  1901 (tons).
+  Ceylon                                 3543        2697
+  Dutch East Indies                      1492        1277
+                                        -----       -----
+  Total, Asia                            5035        3974
+  Other countries                         800         700
+
+
+    _World's Production._
+                                    1905 (tons).  1901 (tons).
+  Tropical America and West Indies    103,114      82,541
+  West Africa                          32,425      18,508
+  Asia                                  5,035       3,974
+  Other countries                         800         700
+                                      -------     -------
+  Total                               141,374     105,723
+
+_Composition._--The relative weights of the various parts of a whole
+cacao pod are given thus by Prof. J. B. Harrison for British Guiana
+specimens:--
+
+                                    Calabacillo.  Forastero.
+  Husk                                  80.59       89.87
+  Pulp                                   7.61        4.23
+  Cuticles of the beans                  1.77        0.50
+  Kernels of the beans                  10.03        5.40
+                                      -------     -------
+                                       100.00      100.00
+
+The husk is composed mainly of water and cellulose woody tissue, with
+their usual mineral constituents, and has a low manurial value. The pulp
+contains sugars which become converted into alcohol during fermentation.
+Fibrous elements and water compose about six-tenths of the cuticles,
+which also contain approximately: albuminoids (6%), alkaloids (2%), fat
+(2%), sugars (6%), starch (7%), colouring matter (4%), tartaric acid
+(3%) and small quantities of various mineral constituents. The average
+composition of the kernels, according to Payen, is:--
+
+                                Per cent.
+  Fat (cacao butter)               50
+  Starch                           10
+  Albuminoids                      20
+  Water                            12
+  Cellulose                         2
+  Mineral matter                    4
+  Theobromine                       2
+  Colouring matter (cacao-red)   trace
+                                 -------
+                                  100.00
+
+_Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate._--The beans are cleaned and sorted
+to remove foreign bodies of all kinds and also graded into sizes to
+secure uniformity in roasting. The latter process is carried out in
+rotating iron drums in which the beans are heated to a temperature of
+about 260 deg. to 280 deg. F., and results in developing the aroma,
+partially converting the starch into dextrin, and eliminating bitter
+constituents. The beans also dry and their shells become crisp. In the
+next process the beans are gently crushed and winnowed, whereby the
+light shells are removed, and after removal by sifting of the "germs"
+the beans are left in the form of the irregular cocoa-nibs occasionally
+seen in shops. Cocoa-nibs may be infused with water and drunk, but for
+most people the beverage is too rich, containing the whole of the
+cacao-fat or cacao-butter. This fat is extracted from the carefully
+ground nibs by employing great hydraulic pressure in heated presses. The
+fat exudes and solidifies. When fresh it is yellowish-white, but becomes
+quite white on keeping. It is very valuable for pharmaceutical purposes
+and is a constituent of many pomades. With care it can be kept for a
+long time without going rancid.
+
+After the extraction of the fat the resulting mass is ground to a fine
+powder when it is ready for use in the ordinary way. Many preparations
+on the market are of course not pure cocoa but contain admixtures of
+various starchy and other bodies.
+
+The shells of the beans separated by the winnowing process contain
+theobromine, and their infusion with water is sometimes used as a
+substitute for coffee, under the name "miserabile." More recently they
+have been put to good account as a cattle food.
+
+In the preparation of chocolate the preliminary processes of cleaning,
+sorting, roasting and removing the shells, and grinding the nibs, are
+followed as for cocoa. The fat, however, is not extracted, but sugar,
+and sometimes other materials also, are added to the ground pasty mass,
+together with suitable flavouring materials, as for example vanilla. The
+greatest care is taken in the process and elaborate grinding and mixing
+machinery employed. The final result is a semi-liquid mass which is
+moulded into the familiar tablets or other forms in which chocolate
+comes on the market.
+
+Cocoa as a beverage has a similar action to tea and coffee, inasmuch as
+the physiological properties of all three are due to the alkaloids and
+volatile oils they contain. Tea and coffee both contain the alkaloid
+caffeine, whilst cocoa contains theobromine. In tea and coffee, however,
+we only drink an infusion of the leaves or seeds, whilst in cocoa the
+whole material is taken in a state of very fine suspension, and as the
+preceding analysis indicates, the cocoa bean, even with the fat
+extracted, is of high nutritive value.
+
+_Cacao-consuming Countries._--The principal cacao-consuming countries
+are indicated below, which gives the imports into the countries named
+for 1905. These figures, as also those on production, are taken from
+_Der Gordian_.
+
+                             Tons (1000 kilos).
+  United States of America       34,958
+  Germany                        29,663
+  France                         21,748
+  United Kingdom                 21,106
+  Holland                        19,295
+  Spain                           6,102
+  Switzerland                     5,218
+  Belgium                         3,019
+  Austria Hungary                 2,668
+  Russia                          2,230
+  Denmark                         1,125
+  Italy                             971
+  Sweden                            900
+  Canada                            700
+  Australia                         600
+  Norway, Portugal and Finland      692
+                                -------
+                         Total  150,995
+
+During recent years the use of cocoa has increased rapidly in some
+countries. The following table gives the increase per cent in
+consumption in 1905 over that in 1901 for the five chief consumers:--
+
+                            Per cent.
+  United States                70
+  Germany                      61
+  France                       21
+  United Kingdom               11
+  Holland                      34
+
+     (A. B. R.; W. G. F.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] As a matter of nomenclature it is unfortunate that the corrupt
+    form "cocoa," from a confusion with the coco-nut (q.v.), has become
+    stereotyped. When introduced early in the 18th century it was as a
+    trisyllable _co-co-a_, a mispronunciation of _cacao_ or _cocoa_, the
+    Spanish adaptation from the Mexican _cacauatl_.
+
+
+
+
+COCO DE MER, or DOUBLE COCO-NUT, a palm, _Lodoicea Sechellarum_, which
+is a native of the Seychelles Islands. The flowers are borne in enormous
+fleshy spadices, the male and female on distinct plants. The fruits,
+which are among the largest known, take ten years to ripen; they have a
+fleshy and fibrous envelope surrounding a hard nut-like portion which is
+generally two-lobed, suggesting a large double coco-nut. The contents of
+the nut are edible as in the coco-nut. The empty fruits (after
+germination of the seed) are found floating in the Indian Ocean, and
+were known long before the palm was discovered, giving rise to various
+stories as to their origin.
+
+
+
+
+COCOMA, or CUCAMAS, a tribe of South American Indians living on the
+Maranon and lower Huallaga rivers, Peru. In 1681, at the time of the
+Jesuit missionaries' first visit, they had the custom of eating their
+dead and grinding the bones to a powder, which was mixed with a
+fermented liquor and drunk. When expostulated with by the Jesuits they
+said "it was better to be inside a friend than to be swallowed up by the
+cold earth." They are a provident, hard-working people, partly
+Christianized, and bolder than most of the civilized Indians. Their
+languages show affinity to the Tupi-Guarani stock.
+
+
+
+
+COCO-NUT[1] PALM (_Cocos nucifera_), a very beautiful and lofty
+palm-tree, growing to a height of from 60 to 100 ft., with a cylindrical
+stem which attains a thickness of 2 ft. The tree terminates in a crown
+of graceful waving pinnate leaves. The leaf, which may attain to 20 ft.
+in length, consists of a strong mid-rib, whence numerous long acute
+leaflets spring, giving the whole the appearance of a gigantic feather.
+The flowers are arranged in branching spikes 5 or 6 ft. long, enclosed
+in a tough spathe, and the fruits mature in bunches of from 10 to 20.
+The fruits when mature are oblong, and triangular in cross section,
+measuring from 12 to 18 in. in length and 6 to 8 in. in diameter. The
+fruit consists of a thick external husk or rind of a fibrous structure,
+within which is the ordinary coco-nut of commerce. The nut has a very
+hard, woody shell, enclosing the nucleus or kernel, the true seed,
+within which again is a milky liquid called coco-nut milk. The palm is
+so widely disseminated throughout tropical countries that it is
+impossible to distinguish its original habitat. It flourishes with equal
+vigour on the coast of the East Indies, throughout the tropical islands
+of the Pacific, and in the West Indies and tropical America. It,
+however, attains its greatest luxuriance and vigour on the sea shore,
+and it is most at home in the innumerable small islands of the Pacific
+seas, of the vegetation of which it is eminently characteristic. Its
+wide distribution, and its existence in even the smallest coral islets
+of the Pacific, are due to the character of the fruit, which is
+eminently adapted for distribution by sea. The fibrous husk renders the
+fruit light and the leathery skin prevents water-logging. The seed will
+germinate readily on the sea-shore, the seedling growing out through the
+soft germ-pore on the upper end of the hard nut. The fruits dropping
+into the sea from trees growing on any shores would be carried by tides
+and currents to be cast up and to vegetate on distant coasts.
+
+The coco-nut palm, being the most useful of its entire tribe to the
+natives of the regions in which it grows, and furnishing many valuable
+and important commercial products, is the subject of careful cultivation
+in many countries. On the Malabar and Coromandel coasts of India the
+trees grow in vast numbers; and in Ceylon, which is peculiarly well
+suited for their cultivation, it is estimated that twenty millions of
+the trees flourish. The wealth of a native in Ceylon is estimated by his
+property in coco-nut trees, and Sir J. Emerson Tennent noted a law case
+in a district court in which the subject in dispute was a claim to the
+2520th part of ten of the precious palms. The cultivation of coco-nut
+plantations in Ceylon was thus described by Sir J. E. Tennent. "The
+first operation in coco-nut planting is the formation of a nursery, for
+which purpose the ripe nuts are placed in squares containing about 400
+each; these are covered an inch deep with sand and seaweed or soft mud
+from the beach, and watered daily till they germinate. The nuts put down
+in April are sufficiently grown to be planted out before the rains of
+September, and they are then set out in holes 3 ft. deep and 20 to 30
+ft. apart.... Before putting in the young plant it is customary to bed
+the roots with soft mud and seaweed, and for the first two years they
+must be watered and protected from the glare of the sun under shades
+made of the plaited fronds of the coco-nut palm, or the fan-like leaves
+of the palmyra." The palm begins to bear fruit from the fifth to the
+seventh year of its age, each stock carrying from 5 to 30 nuts, the tree
+maturing on an average 60 nuts yearly.
+
+The uses to which the various parts of the coco-nut palm are applied in
+the regions of their growth are almost endless. The nuts supply no
+inconsiderable proportion of the food of the natives, and the milky
+juice enclosed within them forms a pleasant and refreshing drink. The
+juice drawn from the unexpanded flower spathes forms "toddy," which may
+be boiled down to sugar, or it is allowed to ferment and is distilled,
+when it yields a spirit which, in common with a like product from other
+sources, is known as "arrack." As in other palms, the young bud cut out
+of the top of the tree forms an esculent vegetable, "palm cabbage." The
+trunk yields a timber (known in European commerce as porcupine wood)
+which is used for building, furniture, firewood, &c.; the leaves are
+plaited into cajan fans and baskets, and used for thatching the roofs of
+houses; the shell of the nut is employed as a water-vessel; and the
+external husk or rind yields the coir fibre, with which are fabricated
+ropes, cordage, brushes, &c. The coco-nut palm also furnishes very
+important articles of external commerce, of which the principal is
+coco-nut oil. It is obtained by pressure or boiling from the kernels,
+which are first broken up into small pieces and dried in the sun, when
+they are known as copperah or _copra_. It is estimated that 1000
+full-sized nuts will yield upwards of 500 lb. of copra, from which 25
+gallons of oil should be obtained. The oil is a white solid substance at
+ordinary temperatures, with a peculiar, rather disagreeable odour, from
+the volatile fatty acids it contains, and a mild taste. Under pressure
+it separates into a liquid and a solid portion, the latter,
+coco-stearin, being extensively used in the manufacture of candles.
+Coco-nut oil is also used in the manufacture of marine soap, which forms
+a lather with sea-water. Coir is also an important article of commerce,
+being in large demand for the manufacture of coarse brushes, door mats
+and woven coir-matting for lobbies and passages. A considerable quantity
+of fresh nuts is imported, chiefly from the West Indies, into Britain
+and other countries; they are familiar as the reward of the popular
+English amusement of "throwing at the coco-nuts"; and the contents are
+either eaten raw or used as material for cakes, &c., or sweetmeats
+("coker-nut").
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The spelling "cocoa-nut," which introduces a confusion with cocoa
+    (q.v.) or cacao, is a corruption of the original Portuguese form,
+    dating from (and largely due to) Johnson's _Dictionary_. The spelling
+    "coker-nut," introduced to avoid the same ambiguity, is common in
+    England.
+
+
+
+
+COCYTUS (mod. _Vuvo_), a tributary of the Acheron, a river of Thesprotia
+(mod. _pashalik_ of Iannina), which flows into the Ionian Sea about 20
+m. N. of the Gulf of Arta. The name is also applied in Greek mythology
+to a tributary of the Acheron or of the Styx, a river in Hades. The
+etymology suggested is from [Greek: kokuein], to wail, in allusion to
+the cries of the dead. Virgil describes it as the river which surrounds
+the underworld (_Aen._ vi. 132).
+
+
+
+
+COD, the name given to the typical fish of the family _Gadidae_, of the
+Teleostean suborder Anacanthini, the position of which has much varied
+in our classifications. Having no spines to their fins, the Gadids used,
+in Cuvierian days, to be associated with the herrings, Salmonids, pike,
+&c., in the artificially-conceived order of Malacopterygians, or
+soft-finned bony fishes. But, on the ground of their air-bladder being
+closed, or deprived of a pneumatic duct communicating with the digestive
+canal, such as is characteristic of the Malacopterygians, they were
+removed from them and placed with the flat-fishes, or _Pleuronectidae_,
+in a suborder Anacanthini, regarded as intermediate in position between
+the Acanthopterygians, or spiny-finned fishes, and the Malacopterygians.
+It has, however, been shown that the flat-fishes bear no relationship to
+the Gadids, but are most nearly akin to the John Dories (see DORY).
+
+The suborder Anacanthini is, nevertheless, maintained for the
+_Muraenolepididae_ Gadids and two related families, _Macruridae_ and
+_Muraenolepididae_, and may be thus defined:--Air-bladder without open
+duct. Parietal bones separated by the supra-occipital; prootic and
+exoccipital separated by the enlarged opisthotic. Pectoral arch
+suspended from the skull: no mesocoracoid arch. Ventral fins below or in
+front of the pectorals, the pelvic bones posterior to the clavicular
+symphysis and only loosely attached to it by ligament. Fins without
+spines; caudal fin, if present, without expanded hypural, perfectly
+symmetrical, and supported by the neural and haemal spines of the
+posterior vertebrae, and by basal bones similar to those supporting the
+dorsal and anal rays. This type of caudal fin must be regarded as
+secondary, the _Gadidae_ being, no doubt, derived from fishes in which
+the homocercal fin of the typical Teleostean had been lost.
+
+About 120 species of Gadids are distinguished, mostly marine, many being
+adapted to life at great depths; all are carnivorous. They inhabit
+chiefly the northern seas, but many abyssal forms occur between the
+tropics and in the southern parts of the Atlantic and Pacific. They are
+represented in British waters by eight genera, and about twenty species,
+only one of which, the burbot (_Lota vulgaris_), is an inhabitant of
+fresh waters. Several of the marine species are of first-rate economic
+importance. The genus _Gadus_ is characterized by having three dorsal
+and two anal fins, and a truncated or notched caudal fin. In the cod and
+haddock the base of the first anal fin is not, or but slightly, longer
+than that of the second dorsal fin; in the whiting, pout, coal-fish,
+pollack, hake, ling and burbot, the former is considerably longer than
+the latter.
+
+The cod, _Gadus morrhua_, possesses, in common with the other members of
+the genus, three dorsal and two anal fins, and a single barbel, at least
+half as long as the eye, at the chin. It is a widely-distributed
+species, being found throughout the northern and temperate seas of
+Europe, Asia and America, extending as far south as Gibraltar, but not
+entering the Mediterranean, and inhabits water from 25 to 50 fathoms
+deep, where it always feeds close to the bottom. It is exceedingly
+voracious, feeding on the smaller denizens of the ocean--fish,
+crustaceans, worms and molluscs, and greedily taking almost any bait the
+fisherman chooses to employ. The cod spawns in February, and is
+exceedingly prolific, the roe of a single female having been known to
+contain upwards of eight millions of ova, and to form more than half the
+weight of the entire fish. Only a small proportion of these get
+fertilized, and still fewer ever emerge from the egg. The number of cod
+is still further reduced by the trade carried on in roe, large
+quantities of which are used in France as ground-bait in the sardine
+fishery, while it also forms an article of human food. The young are
+about an inch in length by the end of spring, but are not fit for the
+market till the second year, and it has been stated that they do not
+reach maturity, as shown by the power of reproduction, till the end of
+their third year. They usually measure about 3 ft. in length, and weigh
+from 12 to 20 lb, but specimens have been taken from 50 to 70 lb in
+weight.
+
+As an article of food the cod-fish is in greatest perfection during the
+three months preceding Christmas. It is caught on all parts of the
+British and Irish coasts, but the Dogger Bank, and Rockall, off the
+Outer Hebrides, have been specially noted for their cod-fisheries. The
+fishery is also carried on along the coast of Norfolk and Suffolk, where
+great quantities of the fish are caught with hook and line, and conveyed
+to market alive in "well-boats" specially built for this traffic. Such
+boats have been in use since the beginning of the 18th century. The most
+important cod-fishery in the world is that which has been prosecuted for
+centuries on the Newfoundland banks, where it is not uncommon for a
+single fisherman to take over 500 of these fish in ten or eleven hours.
+These, salted and dried, are exported to all parts of the world, and
+form, when taken in connexion with the enormous quantity of fresh cod
+consumed, a valuable addition to the food resources of the human race.
+
+The air-bladder of this fish furnishes isinglass, little, if at all,
+inferior to that obtained from the sturgeon, while from the liver is
+obtained cod-liver oil, largely used in medicine as a remedy in
+scrofulous complaints and pulmonary consumption (see Cod-liver Oil).
+"The Norwegians," says Cuvier, "give cod-heads with marine plants to
+their cows for the purpose of producing a greater proportion of milk.
+The vertebrae, the ribs, and the bones in general, are given to their
+cattle by the Icelanders, and by the Kamtchatdales to their dogs. These
+same parts, properly dried, are also employed as fuel in the desolate
+steppes of the Icy Sea."
+
+At Port Logan in Wigtonshire cod-fish are kept in a large reservoir,
+scooped out of the solid rock by the action of the sea, egress from
+which is prevented by a barrier of stones, which does not prevent the
+free access of the water. These cod are fed chiefly on mussels, and when
+the keeper approaches to feed them they may be seen rising to the
+surface in hundreds and eagerly seeking the edge. They have become
+comparatively tame and familiar. Frank Buckland, who visited the place,
+states that after a little while they allowed him to take hold of them,
+scratch them on the back, and play with them in various ways. Their
+flavour is considered superior to that of the cod taken in the open sea.
+     (G. A. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CODA (Ital. for "tail"; from the Lat. _cauda_), in music, a term for a
+passage which brings a movement or a separate piece to a conclusion.
+This developed from the simple chords of a cadence into an elaborate and
+independent form. In a series of variations on a theme or in a
+composition with a fixed order of subjects, the "coda" is a passage
+sufficiently contrasted with the conclusions of the separate variations
+or subjects, added to form a complete conclusion to the whole. Beethoven
+raised the "coda" to a feature of the highest importance.
+
+
+
+
+CODE (Lat. _codex_), the term for a complete and systematic body of law,
+or a complete and exclusive statement of some portion of the law; and so
+by analogy for any system of rules or doctrine; also for an arrangement
+in telegraphy, signalling, &c., by which communications may be made
+according to rules adopted for brevity or secrecy.
+
+In jurisprudence the question of the reduction of laws to written codes,
+representing a complete and readily accessible system, is a matter of
+great historical and practical interest. Many collections of laws,
+however, which are commonly known as codes,[1] would not correspond to
+the definition given above. The Code of Justinian (see JUSTINIAN I.;
+ROMAN LAW), the most celebrated of all, is not in itself a complete and
+exclusive system of law. It is a collection of imperial constitutions,
+just as the Pandects are a collection of the opinions of jurisconsults.
+The Code and the Pandects together being, as Austin says, "digests of
+Roman law in force at the time of their conception," would, if properly
+arranged, constitute a code. Codification in this sense is merely a
+question of the _form_ of the laws, and has nothing to do with their
+goodness or badness from an ethical or political point of view.
+Sometimes codification only means the changing of unwritten into written
+law; in the stricter sense it means the changing of unwritten or
+badly-written law into law well written.
+
+The same causes which made collections of laws necessary in the time of
+Justinian have led to similar undertakings among modern peoples. The
+actual condition of laws until the period when they are consciously
+remodelled is one of confusion, contradiction, repetition and disorder;
+and to these evils the progress of society adds the burden of
+perpetually increasing legislation. Some attempt must be made to
+simplify the task of learning the laws by improving their expression and
+arrangement. This is by no means an easy task in any country, but in
+England it is surrounded with peculiar difficulties. The independent
+character of English law has prevented an attempt to do what has already
+been done for other systems which have the basis of the Roman law to
+fall back upon.
+
+The most celebrated modern code is the French. The necessity of a code
+in France was mainly caused by the immense number of separate systems of
+jurisprudence existing in that country before 1789, justifying
+Voltaire's sarcasm that a traveller in France had to change laws about
+as often as he changed horses. At first published under the title of
+_Code Civil des Francais_, it was afterwards entitled the _Code
+Napoleon_ (q.v.)--the emperor Napoleon wishing to attach his name to a
+work which he regarded as the greatest glory of his reign. The code, it
+has been said, is the product of Roman and customary law, together with
+the ordinances of the kings and the laws of the Revolution. In form it
+has passed through several changes caused by the political vicissitudes
+of the country, and it has of course suffered from time to time
+important alterations in substance, but it still remains virtually the
+same in principle as it left the hands of its framers. The code has
+produced a vast number of commentaries, among which may be named those
+of A. Duranton, R. T. Troplong and J. C. F. Demolombe. The remaining
+French codes are the _Code de procedure civile_, the _Code de commerce_,
+the _Code d'instruction criminelle_ and the _Code penal_. The merits of
+the French code have entered into the discussion on the general question
+of codification. Austin agrees with Savigny in condemning the ignorance
+and haste with which it was compiled. "It contains," says Austin, "no
+definitions of technical terms (even the most leading), no exposition of
+the _rationale_ of distinctions (even the most leading), no exposition
+of the broad principles and rules to which the narrower provisions
+expressed in the code are subordinate; hence its fallacious brevity."
+Codes modelled on the French code have, however, taken firm root in most
+of the countries of continental Europe and in other parts of the world
+as well, such as Latin America and several of the British colonies.
+
+The Prussian code (_Code Frederic_) was published by Frederick the Great
+in 1751. It was intended to take the place of "Roman, common Saxon and
+other foreign subsidiary laws and statutes," the provincial laws
+remaining in force as before. One of the objects of the king was to
+destroy the power of the advocates, whom he hoped to render useless.
+This, with other systems of law existing in Germany, has been replaced
+by the Civil Code of 1900 (see GERMANY).
+
+The object of all these codes has been to frame a common system to take
+the place of several systems of law, rather than to restate in an exact
+and exhaustive form the whole laws of a nation, which is the problem of
+English codification. The French and Prussian codes, although they have
+been of great service in simplifying the law, have failed to prevent
+outside themselves that accumulation of judiciary and statute law which
+in England has been the chief motive for codification. A more exact
+parallel to the English problem may be found in the _Code of the State
+of New York_. The revised constitution of the state, as adopted in 1846,
+"ordered the appointment of two commissions, one to reduce into a
+written and a systematic code the whole body of the law of the state,
+and the other to revise, reform, simplify and abridge the rules and
+practice, pleadings, &c., of the courts of record." By an act of 1847,
+the state legislature declared that the body of substantive law should
+be contained in three codes--the Political, the Civil and the Penal. The
+works of both commissions, completed in 1865, filled six volumes,
+containing the Code of Civil Procedure (including the law of evidence),
+the Book of Forms, the Code of Criminal Procedure, the Political Code,
+the Penal Code and the Civil Code. In the introduction to the Civil Code
+it was claimed that in many departments of the law the codes "provided
+for every possible case, so that when a new case arises it is better
+that it should be provided for by new legislation." The New York code
+was defective in the important points of definition and arrangement. It
+formed the basis, however, of the present codes of civil and criminal
+procedure in the state of New York. Much interest has attached to the
+Penal Code drawn up by Edward Livingston (q.v.) for the state of
+Louisiana. The system consists of a Code of Crime and Punishments, a
+Code of Procedure, a Code of Evidence, a Code of Reform and Prison
+Discipline, and a Book of Definitions. "Though the state for which the
+codes were prepared," said Chief Justice Chase, "neglected to avail
+itself of the labours assigned and solicited by itself, they have
+proved, together with their introductions, a treasure of suggestions to
+which many states are indebted for useful legislation." Most of the
+other states in the United States have codes stating the law of pleading
+in civil actions, and such states are often described as code states to
+distinguish them from those adhering to the older forms of action,
+divided between those at law and those at equity. A few states have
+general codes of political and civil rights. The general drift of
+legislation and of public sentiment in the United States is towards the
+extension of the principle of codification, but the contrary view has
+been ably maintained (see J. C. Carter, _Provinces of the Written and
+the Unwritten Law_, New York, 1889).
+
+Since the time of Bentham, the codification of the law of England has
+been the dream of the most enlightened jurists and statesmen. In the
+interval between Bentham and our own time there has been an immense
+advance in the scientific study of law, but it may be doubted whether
+the problem of codification is at all nearer solution. Interest has
+mainly been directed to the historical side of legal science, to the
+phenomena of the evolution of laws as part of the development of
+society, and from this point of view the question of remodelling the law
+is one of minor interest. To Bentham the problem presented itself in the
+simplest and most direct form possible. What he proposed to do was to
+set forth a body of laws, clearly expressed, arranged in the order of
+their logical connexion, exhibiting their own _rationale_ and excluding
+all other law. On the other hand the problem has in some respects become
+easier since the time of Bentham. With the Benthamite codification the
+conception of reform in the substantive law is more or less mixed up. If
+codification had been possible in his day, it would, unless it had been
+accompanied by the searching reforms which have been effected since, and
+mainly through his influence, perhaps have been more of an evil than a
+good. The mere dread that, under the guise of codification or
+improvement in form, some change in substance may secretly be effected
+has long been a practical obstacle in the way of legal reform. But the
+law has now been brought into a state of which it may be said that, if
+it is not the best in all respects that might be desired, it is at least
+in most respects as good as the conditions of legislation will permit it
+to be. Codification, in fact, may now be treated purely as a question of
+form. What is proposed is that the law, being, as we assume, in
+substance what the nation wishes it to be, should be made as accessible
+as possible, and as intelligible as possible. These two essential
+conditions of a sound system of law are, we need hardly say, far from
+being fulfilled in England. The law of the land is embodied in thousands
+of statutes and tens of thousands of reports. It is expressed in
+language which has never been fixed by a controlling authority, and
+which has swayed about with every change of time, place and
+circumstance. It has no definitions, no rational distinctions, no
+connexion of parts. Until the passing of the Judicature Act of 1873 it
+was pervaded throughout its entire sphere by the flagrant antinomy of
+law and equity, and that act has only ordered, not executed, its
+consolidation. No lawyer pretends to know more than a fragment of it.
+Few practical questions can be answered by a lawyer without a search
+into numberless acts of parliament and reported cases. To laymen, of
+course, the whole law is a sealed book. As there are no authoritative
+general principles, it happens that the few legal maxims known to the
+public, being apprehended out of relation to their authorities, are as
+often likely to be wrong as to be right. It is hopeless to think of
+making it possible for every man to be his own lawyer, but we can at
+least try to make it possible for a lawyer to know the whole law. The
+earlier advocates of codification founded their case mainly on the evils
+of judiciary law, _i.e._ the law contained in the reported decisions of
+the judges. Bentham's bitter antipathy to judicial legislation is well
+known. Austin's thirty-ninth lecture (_Lectures_, ed. 1869) contains an
+exhaustive criticism of the tenable objections to judiciary law. All
+such law is embedded in decisions on particular cases, from which it
+must be extracted by a tedious and difficult process of induction. Being
+created for particular cases it is necessarily uncomprehensive,
+imperfect, uncertain and bulky. These are evils which are incident to
+the nature of judiciary laws. The defective form of the existing statute
+law, moreover, has also given rise to loud complaints. Year by year the
+mass of legislation grows larger, and as long as the basis of a system
+is judiciary law, it is impossible that the new statutes can be
+completely integrated therewith. The mode of framing acts of parliament,
+and especially the practice of legislating by reference to previous
+acts, likewise produce much uncertainty and disorder. Some progress has,
+however, been made by the passing from time to time of various acts
+codifying branches of law, such as the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, the
+Partnership Act 1890, the Trusts Act 1893, and the Interpretation Act
+1889.
+
+The Statute Law Revision Committee also perform a useful work in
+excising dead law from the statute-book, partly by repeal of obsolete
+and spent acts and parts of acts, and partly by pruning redundant
+preambles and words. The construction of a section of an act may depend
+on the preamble and the context, and the repeal of the preamble and
+certain parts of the act may therefore affect the construction of what
+is left. This is provided for by a clause which is said to have been
+settled by Lord Westbury. It provides (in effect) that the repeal of any
+words or expressions of enactment shall not affect the construction of
+any statute or part of a statute. The lawyer, therefore, cannot rely on
+the revised edition of the statutes alone, and it is still necessary for
+him to consult the complete act as it was originally enacted.
+
+The process of gradual codification adopted in India has been
+recommended for imitation in England by those who have had some
+experience of its working. The first of the Indian codes was the Penal
+Code (see CRIMINAL LAW), and there are also codes of civil and criminal
+procedure.
+
+Whether any attempt will ever be made to supersede this vast and
+unarranged mass by a complete code seems very doubtful. Writers on
+codification have for the most part insisted that the work should be
+undertaken as a whole, and that the parts should have relation to some
+general scheme of the law which should be settled first. The practical
+difficulties in the way of an undertaking so stupendous as the
+codification _uno coetu_ of the whole mass of the law hardly require to
+be stated.
+
+In discussions on codification two difficulties are insisted on by its
+opponents, which have some practical interest--(1) What is to be done in
+those cases for which the code has not provided? and (2) How is new law
+to be incorporated with the code? The objection that a code will hamper
+the opinions of the court, destroy the flexibility and elasticity of the
+common law, &c., disappears when it is stated in the form of a
+proposition, that law codified will cover a smaller number of cases, or
+will be less easily adapted to new cases, than law uncodified. The
+French system ordered the judges, under a penalty, to give a decision on
+all cases, whether contemplated or not by the code, and referred them
+generally to the following sources:--(1) Equite naturelle, loi
+naturelle; (2) loi romain; (3) loi coutumier; (4) usages, exemples,
+jugements, jurisprudence; (5) droit commun; (6) principes generaux,
+maximes, doctrine, science. The Prussian code, on the other hand,
+required the judges to report new cases to the head of the judicial
+department, and they were decided by the legislative commission. No
+provision was made in either case for incorporating the new law with the
+code, an omission which Austin justly considers fatal to the usefulness
+of codification. It is absurd to suppose that any code can remain long
+without requiring substantial alteration. Cases will arise when its
+meaning must be extended and modified by judges, and every year will
+produce its quota of new legislation by the state. The courts should be
+left to interpret a code as they now interpret statutes, and provision
+should be made for the continual revision of the code, so that the new
+law created by judges or directly by the state may from time to time be
+worked into the code.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The most ancient code known, that of Khammurabi, is dealt with in
+    the article BABYLONIAN LAW.
+
+
+
+
+CODE NAPOLEON, the first code of the French civil law, known at first as
+the _Code civil des Francais_, was promulgated in its entirety by a law
+of the 30th Ventose in the year XII. (31st of March 1804). On the 3rd of
+September 1807 it received the official name of Code Napoleon, although
+the part that Napoleon took in framing it was not very important. A law
+of 1818 restored to it its former name, but a decree of the 27th of
+March 1852 re-established the title of Code Napoleon. Since the 4th of
+September 1870 the laws have quoted it only under the name of the Code
+Civil.
+
+Never has a work of legislation been more national in the exact sense of
+the word. Desired for centuries by the France of the _ancien regime_,
+and demanded by the _cahiers_ of 1789, this "code of civil laws common
+to the whole realm" was promised by the constitution of 1791. However,
+the two first assemblies of the Revolution were able to prepare only a
+few fragments of it. The preparation of a coherent plan began with the
+Convention. The _ancien regime_ had collected and adjusted some of the
+material. There was, on the one hand, a vast juridical literature which
+by eliminating differences of detail, had disengaged from the various
+French "customs" the essential part which they had in common, under the
+name of "common customary law"; on the other hand, the Roman law current
+in France had in like manner undergone a process of simplification in
+numerous works, the chief of which was that of Domat; while certain
+parts had already been codified in the _Grandes Ordonnances_, which were
+the work of d'Aguesseau. This legacy from the past, which it was desired
+to preserve within reason, had to be combined and blended with the laws
+of the Revolution, which had wrought radical reforms in the conditions
+affecting the individual, the tenure of real property, the order of
+inheritance and the system of mortgages. Cambaceres, as the
+representative of a commission of the Convention, brought forward two
+successive schemes for the Code Civil. As a member of one of the
+councils, he drew up a third under the Directory, and these projected
+forms came in turn nearer and nearer to what was to be the ultimate form
+of the code. So great was the interest centred in this work, that the
+law of the 19th Brumaire, year VIII., which, in ratification of the
+previous day's _coup d'etat_ nominated provisional consuls and two
+legislative commissions, gave injunctions to the latter to draw up a
+scheme for the Code Civil. This was done in part by one of the members,
+Jacqueminot, and finally under the constitution of the year VIII., the
+completion of the work was taken in hand. The legislative machinery
+established by this constitution, defective as it was in other respects,
+was eminently suited for this task. Indeed, all projected laws emanated
+from the government and were prepared by the newly established council
+of state, which was so well recruited that it easily furnished qualified
+men, mostly veterans of the revolution, to prepare the final scheme. The
+council of state naturally possessed in its legislative section and its
+general assembly bodies both competent and sufficiently limited to
+discuss the texts efficiently. The _corps legislatif_ had not the right
+of amendment, so could not disturb the harmony of the scheme. It was in
+the discussions of the general assembly of the council of state that
+Napoleon took part, in 97 cases out of 102 in the capacity of chairman,
+but, interesting as his observations occasionally are, he cannot be
+considered as a serious collaborator in this great work.
+
+Those responsible for the scheme have in the main been very successful
+in their work; they have generally succeeded in fusing the two elements
+which they had to deal with, namely ancient French law, and that of the
+Revolution. The point in which their work is comparatively weak is the
+system of hypothec (q.v.), because they did not succeed in steering a
+middle course between two opposite systems, and the law of the 23rd of
+March 1855 (_sur la transcription en matiere hypothecaire_) was
+necessary to make good the deficiency. A fault frequently found with the
+Code Civil is that its general divisions show a lack of logic and
+method, but the division is practically that of the Institutes of
+Justinian, and is about as good as any other: persons, things,
+inheritance, contracts and obligations, and finally, in place of
+actions, which have no importance for French law except from the point
+of view of procedure, privileges and hypothecs, as in the ancient
+_coutumes_ of France, and prescription. It is, _mutatis mutandis_,
+practically the same division as that of Blackstone's Commentaries.
+
+Of late years other objections have been expressed; serious omissions
+have been pointed out in the Code; it has not given to personal property
+the importance which it has acquired in the course of the 19th century;
+it makes no provision for dealing with the legal relations between
+employers and employed which modern complex undertakings involve; it
+does not treat of life insurance, &c. But this only proves that it could
+not foretell the future, for most of these questions are concerned with
+economic phenomena and social relations which did not exist at the time
+when it was framed. The Code needed revising and completing, and this
+was carried out by degrees by means of numerous important laws. In 1904,
+after the celebration of the centenary of the Code Civil, an
+extra-parliamentary commission was nominated to prepare a revision of
+it, and at once began the work.
+
+The influence of the Code Civil has been very great, not only in France
+but also abroad. Belgium has preserved it, and the Rhine provinces only
+ceased to be subject to it on the promulgation of the civil code of the
+German empire. Its ascendancy has been due chiefly to the clearness of
+its provisions, and to the spirit of equity and equality which inspires
+them. Numerous more recent codes have also taken it as a model: the
+Dutch code, the Italian, and the code of Portugal; and, more remotely,
+the Spanish code, and those of the Central and South American republics.
+In the present day it is rivalled by the German civil code, which,
+having been drawn up at the end of the 19th century, naturally does not
+show the same lacunae or omissions. It is inspired, however, by a very
+different spirit, and the French code does not suffer altogether by
+comparison with it either in substance or in form.
+
+  See _Le Code Civil, livre du centenaire_ (Paris, 1904), a collection
+  of essays by French and foreign lawyers.     (J. P. E.)
+
+
+
+
+CODIAEUM, a small genus of plants belonging to the natural order
+Euphorbiaceae. One species, _C. variegatum_, a native of Polynesia, is
+cultivated in greenhouses, under the name of croton, for the sake of its
+leaves, which are generally variegated with yellow, and are often
+twisted or have the blades separated into distinct portions.
+
+
+
+
+CODICIL (Lat. _codicillus_, a little book or tablet, diminutive of
+_codex_), a supplement to a will (q.v.), containing anything which a
+testator desires to add, or which he wishes to retract, to explain or to
+alter. In English law a codicil requires to be executed with the same
+formalities as a will under the Wills Act 1837.
+
+
+
+
+CODILLA, the name given to the broken fibres which are separated from
+the flax during the scutching process. On this account it is sometimes
+termed scutching tow. Quantities of this material are used along with
+heckled tow in the production of tow yarns.
+
+
+
+
+CODINUS, GEORGE [GEORGIOS KODINOS], the reputed author of three extant
+works in Byzantine literature. Their attribution to him is merely a
+matter of convenience, two of them being anonymous in the MSS. Of
+Codinus himself nothing is known; it is supposed that he lived towards
+the end of the 15th century. The works referred to are the following:--
+
+1. _Patria_ ([Greek: Ta Patria tes Konstantinoupoleos]), treating of the
+history, topography, and monuments of Constantinople. It is divided
+into five sections: (_a_) the foundation of the city; (_b_) its
+situation, limits and topography; (_c_) its statues, works of art, and
+other notable sights; (_d_) its buildings; (_e_) the construction of the
+church of St Sophia. It was written in the reign of Basil II.
+(976-1025), revised and rearranged under Alexius I. Comnenus
+(1081-1118), and perhaps copied by Codinus, whose name it bears in some
+(later) MSS. The chief sources are: the _Patria_ of Hesychius Illustrius
+of Miletus, an anonymous (_c._ 750) brief chronological record ([Greek:
+Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai]), and an anonymous account ([Greek:
+diegesis]) of St Sophia (ed. T. Preger in _Scriptores originum
+Constantinopolitanarum_, fasc. i., 1901, to be followed by the _Patria_
+of Codinus). Procopius, _De Aedificiis_ and the poem of Paulus
+Silentiarius on the dedication of St Sophia should be read in connexion
+with this subject.
+
+2. _De Officiis_ ([Greek: Peri ton Ophphikion]), a sketch, written in an
+unattractive style, of court and higher ecclesiastical dignities and of
+the ceremonies proper to different occasions. It should be compared with
+the _De Cerimoniis_ of Constantine Porphyrogenitus.
+
+3. A chronological outline of events from the beginning of the world to
+the taking of Constantinople by the Turks (called Agarenes in the MS.
+title). It is of little value.
+
+  Complete editions are (by I. Bekker) in the Bonn _Corpus scriptorum
+  Hist. Byz._ (1839-1843, where, however, some sections of the _Patria_
+  are omitted), and in J. P. Migne, _Patrologia graeca_, clvii.; see
+  also C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+COD-LIVER OIL (_Oleum Morrhuae_, or _Oleum Jecoris Aselli_), the oil
+obtained from the liver of the common cod (_Gadus morrhua_). In the
+early process for extracting the oil the livers were allowed to putrefy
+in wooden tubs, when oils of two qualities, one called "pale oil," and
+the other "light brown oil," successively rose to the surface and were
+drawn off. A third oil was obtained by heating the liver-residues to
+above the boiling-point of water, whereupon a black product, technically
+called "brown oil," separated. The modern practice consists in heating
+the perfectly fresh, cleaned livers by steam to a temperature above that
+of boiling water, or, in more recent practice, to a lower temperature,
+the livers being kept as far as possible from contact with air. The oils
+so obtained are termed "steamed-liver oils." The "pale" and "light
+brown" oils are used in pharmacy; the "brown" oil, the cod oil of
+commerce, being obtained from putrid and decomposing livers, has an
+objectionable taste and odour and is largely employed by tanners. By
+boiling the livers at a somewhat high temperature, "unracked" cod oil is
+obtained, containing a considerable quantity of "stearine"; this fat,
+which separates on cooling, is sold as "fish stearine" for soap-making,
+or as "fish-tallow" for currying. The oil when freed from the stearine
+is known as "racked oil." "Coast cod oil" is the commercial name for the
+oil obtained from the livers of various kinds of fish, _e.g._ hake,
+ling, haddock, &c. The most important centres of the cod-liver oil
+industry are Lofoten and Romsdal in Norway; the oil is also prepared in
+the United States, Canada, Newfoundland, Iceland and Russia; and at one
+time a considerable quantity was prepared in the Shetland Islands and
+along the east coast of Scotland.
+
+Cod-liver oil contains palmitin, stearin and other more complex
+glycerides; the "stearine" mentioned above, however, contains very
+little palmitin and stearin. Several other acids have been identified:
+P. M. Meyerdahl obtained 4% of palmitic acid, 20% of jecoleic acid,
+C19H36O2, and 20% of therapic acid, C17H26O2; other investigators have
+recognized jecoric acid, C18H30O2, asellic acid, C17H32O2, and
+physetoleic acid, C16H30O2, but some uncertainty attends these last
+three acids. Therapic and jecoleic acids apparently do not occur
+elsewhere in the animal kingdom, and it is probable that the therapeutic
+properties of the oil are associated with the presence of these acids,
+and not with the small amount of iodine present as was at one time
+supposed. Other constituents are cholesterol (0.46-1.32%), traces of
+calcium, magnesium, sodium, chlorine and bromine, and various aliphatic
+amines which are really secondary products, being formed by the
+decomposition of the cellular tissue.
+
+Cod-liver oil is used externally in medicine when its internal
+administration is rendered impossible by idiosyncrasy or the state of
+the patient's digestion. The oil is very readily absorbed from the skin
+and exerts all its therapeutic actions when thus exhibited. This method
+is often resorted to in the case of infants or young children suffering
+from abdominal or other forms of tuberculosis. Its only objection is the
+odour which the patient exhales. When taken by the mouth, cod-liver oil
+shares with other liver-oils the property of ready absorption. It often
+causes unpleasant symptoms, which must always be dealt with and not
+disregarded, more harm than good being done if this course is not
+followed. Fortunately a tolerance is soon established in the majority of
+cases. It has been experimentally proved that this is more readily
+absorbed than any other oil--including other liver-oils. Much attention
+has been paid to the explanation of this fact, since knowledge on this
+point might enable an artificial product, without the disadvantages of
+this oil, to be substituted for it. Very good results have been obtained
+from a preparation named "lipanin," which consists of six parts of oleic
+acid and ninety-four of pure olein. Cod-liver oil has the further
+peculiarity of being more readily oxidizable than any other oil; an
+obviously valuable property when it is remembered that the entire
+food-value of oils depends on their oxidation.
+
+Cod-liver oil may be given in all wasting diseases, and is occasionally
+valuable in cases of chronic rheumatoid arthritis; but its great
+therapeutic value is in cases of tuberculosis of whatever kind, and
+notably in pulmonary tuberculosis or consumption. Its reputation in this
+is quite inexpugnable. It is essential to remember that "in phthisis the
+key of the situation is the state of the alimentary tract," and the
+utmost care must be taken to obviate the nausea, loss of appetite and
+diarrhoea, only too easily induced by this oil. It is best to begin with
+only one dose in the twenty-four hours, to be taken just before going to
+sleep, so that the patient is saved its unpleasant "repetition" from an
+unaccustomed stomach. In general, it is therefore wise to order a double
+dose at bedtime. The oil may be given in capsules, or in the form of an
+emulsion, with or without malt-extract, or success may be obtained by
+adding, to every two drachms of the oil, ten minims of pure ether and a
+drop of peppermint oil. The usual dose, at starting, is one or two
+drachms, but the oil should be given eventually in the largest
+quantities that the patient can tolerate.
+
+
+
+
+CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER (1668-1710), British soldier and colonial
+governor, whose father was captain-general of the Leeward Isles, was
+born in the island of Barbados, West Indies, in 1668. Educated at Christ
+Church, Oxford, he was elected a fellow of All Souls, and subsequently
+served with the British forces in Flanders, being rewarded in 1695 with
+a captaincy in the Guards. In the same year he attended King William
+III. on his visit to Oxford, and, in the absence of the public orator,
+was chosen to deliver the University oration. In 1697, on the death of
+his father, he was appointed captain-general and commander-in-chief of
+the Leeward Isles. In 1703 he commanded the unsuccessful British
+expedition against Guadeloupe. After this he resigned his governorship,
+and spent the rest of his life in retirement and study on his Barbados
+estates. He died on the 7th of April 1710, bequeathing these estates to
+the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts for the
+foundation of a college in Barbados. This college, known as the
+Codrington college, was built in 1714-1742. To All Souls College,
+Oxford, he bequeathed books worth L6000 and L10,000 in money, out of
+which was built and endowed the Codrington library there.
+
+
+
+
+CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD (1770-1851), British admiral, belonged to a
+family long settled at Dodington in Gloucestershire. He was the youngest
+of three brothers, who were left orphans at an early age, and were
+educated by an uncle, Mr Bethell. Edward Codrington was sent for a short
+time to Harrow, and entered the navy in July 1783. He served on the
+American station, in the Mediterranean and at home, till he was promoted
+lieutenant on the 28th of May 1783. Lord Howe selected him to be signal
+lieutenant on the flagship of the Channel fleet at the beginning of the
+revolutionary war with France. In that capacity he served in the "Queen
+Charlotte" (100) during the operations which culminated in the battle
+of the 1st of June 1794. The notes he wrote on Barrow's account of the
+battle in his _Life of Howe_, and the reminiscences he dictated to his
+daughter, which are to be found in her memoir of him, are of great value
+for the history of the action. On the 7th of October 1794 he was
+promoted commander, and on the 6th of April 1795 attained the rank of
+post-captain and the command of the "Babet" (22). He continued to serve
+in the Channel, and was present at the action off L'Orient on the 23rd
+of June 1795. Codrington wrote notes on this encounter also, which are
+to be found in the memoir. They are able and valuable, but, like all his
+correspondence throughout his life, show that he was of a somewhat
+censorious disposition, was apt to take the worst view of the conduct of
+others, and was liable to be querulous. He next commanded the "Druid"
+(32) in the Channel and on the coast of Portugal, till she was paid off
+in 1797. Codrington now remained on shore and on half-pay for some
+years. In December 1802 he married Jane, daughter of Jasper Hall of
+Kingston, Jamaica.
+
+On the renewal of the war after the breach of the peace of Amiens he was
+appointed (May 1805) to the command of the "Orion" (74) and was attached
+to the fleet on the coast of Spain, then blockading Villeneuve in Cadiz.
+The "Orion" took a conspicuous part in the battle of Trafalgar.
+Codrington's correspondence contains much illuminative evidence as to
+the preliminaries and the events of the victory. From 1805 till 1813 he
+continued to serve first in the "Orion" and then (1808) in the "Blake"
+(74) in European waters. He was present on the Walcheren expedition, and
+was very actively employed on the Mediterranean coast of Spain in
+co-operating with the Spaniards against the French. In 1814 he was
+promoted rear-admiral, at which time he was serving on the coast of
+North America as captain of the fleet to Sir Alexander Cochrane during
+the operations against Washington, Baltimore and New Orleans. In 1815 he
+was made K.C.B., and was promoted vice-admiral on the 10th of July 1821.
+In December 1826 he was appointed to the Mediterranean command, and
+sailed on the 1st of February 1827. From that date until his recall on
+the 21st of June 1828 he was engaged in the arduous duties imposed on
+him by the Greek War of Independence, which had led to anarchy and much
+piracy in the Levant. On the 20th of October 1827 he destroyed the
+Turkish and Egyptian naval forces at Navarino (q.v.), while in command
+of a combined British, French and Russian fleet. As the battle had been
+unforeseen in England, and its result was unwelcome to the ministry of
+the day, Codrington was entangled in a correspondence to prove that he
+had not gone beyond his instructions, and he was recalled by a despatch,
+dated the 4th of June.
+
+After the battle Codrington went to Malta to refit his ships. He
+remained there till May 1828, when he sailed to join his French and
+Russian colleagues on the coast of the Morea. They endeavoured to
+enforce the evacuation of the peninsula by Ibrahim peacefully. The Pasha
+made diplomatic difficulties, and on the 25th of July the three admirals
+agreed that Codrington should go to Alexandria to obtain Ibrahim's
+recall by his father Mehemet Ali. Codrington had heard on the 22nd of
+June of his own supersession, but, as his successor had not arrived, he
+carried out the arrangement made on the 25th of July, and his presence
+at Alexandria led to the treaty of the 6th of August 1828, by which the
+evacuation of the Morea was settled. His services were recognized by the
+grant of the grand cross of the Bath, but there is no doubt that he was
+treated as a scape-goat at least to some extent. After his return home
+he was occupied for a time in defending himself, and then in leisure
+abroad. He commanded a training squadron in the Channel in 1831 and
+became admiral on the 10th of January 1837. From November 1839 to
+December 1842 he was commander-in-chief at Portsmouth. He died on the
+28th of April 1851.
+
+Sir Edward Codrington left two sons, Sir William (1804-1884), a soldier
+who commanded in the Crimea, and Sir John Henry (1808-1877), a naval
+officer, who died an admiral of the fleet.
+
+  See _Memoir of the Life of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington_, by his
+  daughter Jane, Lady Bourchier, wife of Sir T. Bourchier, R.N. (London,
+  1873).     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CODRUS, in Greek legend, the last king of Athens. According to the
+story, it was prophesied at the time of the Dorian invasion of
+Peloponnesus (_c._ 1068 B.C.) that only the death of their king at the
+enemy's hands could ensure victory to the Athenians. Devoting himself to
+his country, Codrus, in the disguise of a peasant, made his way into the
+enemy's camp, and provoked a quarrel with some Dorian soldiers. He fell,
+and the Dorians, on discovering that Codrus had been slain, retreated
+homeward, despairing of success. No one being thought worthy to succeed
+Codrus, the title of king was abolished, and that of archon (q.v.)
+substituted for it.
+
+  See Lycurgus, _Leocr._ xx. [=84-87]; Justin ii. 6; Vell. Pat. i. 2;
+  Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, pt. i. ch. 18; Busolt, _Griechische
+  Geschichte_, i.
+
+
+
+
+CODY, WILLIAM FREDERICK (1846-   ), American scout and showman, known
+under the name of "Buffalo Bill," was born in 1846 in Scott county,
+Iowa. He first became known as one of the riders of the "Pony Express,"
+a mail service established in the spring of 1860 by the Central Overland
+California and Pike's Peak Express Company to carry the mails overland
+from Saint Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, a distance of
+1950 m., by means of relays of ponies, each rider being expected to
+cover about 75 m. daily. Owing to the wildness of the country and the
+hostility of the Indians, both the riders and the station-keepers led
+lives of great hardship and danger. The "Pony Express" was discontinued
+in 1861 upon the completion of the Pacific Telegraph company's line, and
+young Cody became a scout and guide for the United States army. In 1863
+he formally enlisted in the 7th regiment of Kansas cavalry, in which he
+served until the close of the Civil War. In 1867 he made a contract with
+the Kansas Pacific railway to furnish its employees with buffalo meat
+while the line was being extended through the wilderness, and his name
+of "Buffalo Bill" was given him from this circumstance. In 1868-1872 he
+was again an army scout and guide, serving against the Sioux and
+Cheyennes; and in 1872 was a member of the Nebraska house of
+representatives. During the Sioux-Cheyenne War of 1876 he served in the
+5th United States Cavalry, and at the battle of Indian Creek killed the
+Cheyenne chief Yellow Hand in single combat. In 1883 he organized his
+"Wild West Show," a spectacular performance on a large scale, his first
+European tour taking place in 1887. In the Nebraska national guard he
+again served against the Sioux in 1890-1891.
+
+
+
+
+CO-EDUCATION, the term applied to the instruction and training of boys
+and girls, or of young people of both sexes, in the same school or
+institution, in the same classes and through the same courses of study.
+Examples of the thoroughgoing application of this principle can be found
+in every grade of education from the elementary school to the
+university. But the term "Co-education" is sometimes used in a wider
+sense, in order to include cases in which boys and girls, or young men
+and young women of university age, are admitted to membership of the
+same school or college but receive instruction wholly or in part in
+separate classes and in different subjects. Other variable factors in
+co-educational systems are the extent to which men and women are mixed
+on the teaching staff, and the freedom of intercourse permitted between
+pupils of the two sexes in class, in games and in other activities of
+school life. In another form of combined education (preferred by Comte,
+_Systeme de politique positive_, iv. 266), pupils of the two sexes are
+taught successively by the same teacher. By the English Board of
+Education, a distinction is drawn between mixed schools and dual
+schools. "Mixed schools" are those in which, for most subjects of the
+curriculum, boys and girls are taught together by the same teachers: in
+"dual schools" there are separate boys' and girls' departments under a
+single principal, but with separate entrances, classrooms and
+playgrounds for the two sexes.
+
+_History._--Co-education in early times was occasional and sporadic. For
+example, women were admitted by Plato to the inner circle of the Academy
+on terms of equality with men. The educational endowments of Teos
+provided that the professors of literature should teach both boys and
+girls. It is uncertain whether the Roman schools in classical times were
+attended by both sexes. A tombstone found at Capua represents a
+schoolmaster with a boy on one side and a girl on the other. Probably
+co-education was practised in country districts for economical reasons;
+and also in the home schools organized by wealthier families (Wilkins,
+_Roman Education_, pp. 42-43). At Charles the Great's Palace School at
+Aachen (A.D. 782 onwards), Alcuin taught together the young princes and
+their sisters, as well as grown men and women. The Humanists of the
+Renaissance made the full development of personality a chief aim of
+education, and held up literary accomplishment as a desirable mark of
+personal distinction both for men and women. This led to the scholarly
+education of girls along with boys in the home schools of some great
+families. Thus, at Mantua (1423 onwards), Vittorino da Feltre taught
+Cecilia Gonzaga with her brothers and the other boy pupils at his
+boarding-school; but there is no evidence that the latter was otherwise
+co-educational. Luther and other Reformers urged that girls as well as
+boys should be taught to read the Bible. Hence came the tendency to
+co-education of boys and girls in some elementary schools in Protestant
+lands. This tendency can be traced both in Scotland and in the northern
+parts of England. It is believed that, in the early days of New England,
+district schools in smaller American towns were open to boys and girls
+alike, but that few girls advanced beyond reading and writing (Martin,
+_Massachusetts Public School System_, p. 130). At Dorchester, Mass., it
+was left to the discretion of the elders and schoolmen whether maids
+should be taught with the boys or not; but in practice the girls seem to
+have been educated apart. In 1602 the council of Ayr, Scotland, ordained
+that the girls who were learning to read and write at the Grammar School
+should be sent to the master of the Song School, "because it is not
+seemly that sic lasses should be among the lads" (Grant, _History of the
+Burgh and Parish Schools of Scotland_, p. 526 ff.). Meriden,
+Connecticut, seems to have made common provision for the elementary
+education of boys and girls in 1678. Northampton, Mass., did the same in
+1680. Deerfield, Mass., in 1698 voted that "all families having children
+either male or female between the ages of six and ten years shall pay by
+the poll for their schooling"--presumably in the common school.
+
+Thus the beginnings of co-education in its modern organized form may be
+traced back partly to Scotland and partly to the United States. The
+co-education of boys and girls, carried through in varying degrees of
+completeness, was not uncommon in the old Endowed Schools of Scotland,
+and became more frequent as increasing attention was given to the
+education of girls. At the Dollar Institution, founded by John McNabb
+for the benefit of the poor of the parish of Dollar and shire of
+Clackmannan (date of will, 1800), boys and girls have been educated
+together in certain classes since the beginning of the school in 1818.
+In the eastern parts of the United States, where the Puritan tradition
+also prevailed, co-education struck firm root, and spread chiefly for
+reasons of convenience and economy (Dexter, _History of Education in
+United States_, p. 430). But throughout the west, co-education was
+strongly preferred in elementary and secondary schools and in
+universities on the further ground that it was believed to be more in
+accordance with the democratic principle of equal educational
+opportunity for the two sexes.
+
+It should be added, however, that the leaven of Pestalozzi's thought has
+worked powerfully both in Europe and America in favour of the idea of
+co-education. His view was that all educational institutions should, as
+far as possible, be modelled upon the analogy of the family and of the
+home. At Stanz (1798-1799) he educated together in one household boys
+and girls ranging in age from five to fifteen. At Burgdorf (1799-1804)
+his work was in part co-educational. At Yverdun (1804-1825) Pestalozzi
+established a school for girls close to his school for boys. The girls
+received instruction from some of the masters of the boys' school, and
+girls and boys met at evening worship, in short excursions and at other
+times.
+
+In England, the Society of Friends have been the pioneers of
+co-education in boarding schools, both for younger children and for
+pupils up to fifteen or sixteen years of age. The practice of the
+society, though not exclusively co-educational, has long been favourable
+to co-education, either in its complete or restricted form, as being
+more in harmony with the conditions of family life. Ackworth school was
+established by the London Yearly Meeting in 1779 for the education of
+boys and girls; but the school has never been fully co-educational, the
+boys and girls being taught separately except in a few classes. At
+Sidcot school, which was founded in 1808 by the Associated Quarterly
+Meetings in the west of England for the education of children of
+Friends, boys and girls are taught together, except in certain
+handicraft subjects. Several other co-educational schools were founded
+by the Society of Friends during the first half of the 19th century.
+
+Since that time the movement towards co-education in secondary schools
+and universities has steadily gained strength in England. It has been
+furthered by the diffusion of Pestalozzian ideas and also by the
+influence of American example. In England, private schools have made
+some of the most valuable co-educational experiments. A private boarding
+and day secondary school on co-educational lines was instituted by Mr W.
+A. Case in Hampstead in 1865. A co-educational boarding-school was
+founded in 1869 by Miss Lushington at Kingsley near Alton, Hants. In
+1873 Mr W. H. Herford began the Ladybarn school for boys and girls at
+Withington in the suburbs of Manchester. The passing of the Welsh
+Intermediate Education Act 1889 led to the establishment of a
+considerable number of new mixed or dual secondary day-schools in Wales.
+Many English teachers gained experience in these schools and
+subsequently influenced English education. The work and writings of Mr
+J. H. Badley at Bedales, Petersfield, a co-educational boarding-school
+of the first grade, gave greatly increased weight to the principle of
+co-education. Important additions have also been made to the fund of
+co-educational experience by the King Alfred's school (Hampstead),
+Keswick school, and West Heath school (Hampstead). In 1907 a Public
+Co-educational Boarding School was opened at Harpenden.
+
+Since the Education Act 1902 became law, there has been a rapid increase
+of co-educational secondary day-schools of the lower grade, under county
+or borough education authorities, in all parts of England. This increase
+is due to two chief causes, viz. (1) The co-educational tradition of
+some of the higher grade board schools, many of which have become
+secondary schools; and (2) the economy effected by establishing one
+co-educational secondary school, in place of two smaller schools for
+boys and girls separately.
+
+The idea of co-education in secondary schools has spread in several
+other European countries, especially in Holland, Norway, Sweden and
+Denmark. In Scandinavia, the new practice appears to have begun with the
+establishment of a private higher secondary school, the Palmgremska
+Samskolan, in Stockholm, in 1876. A similar school, Nya Svenska
+Laroverket, was founded upon the same model in Helsingfors, Finland, in
+1880. In Norway, the law of 1896 introduced co-education in all state
+schools. In Denmark, as in Norway, co-education was begun in private
+schools; on its proving a success there, it was introduced into the
+state schools, with two exceptions; and it is now obligatory in most
+state schools but optional in private schools (J. S. Thornton, _Schools
+Public and Private in the North of Europe_, 1907, p. 97). In Holland,
+there is now a good deal of co-education in lower secondary schools of
+the modern type. For example, at Utrecht, the state higher burgher
+school provides the same course of instruction, except in gymnastics,
+for boys and girls. At Almeloo, the municipal higher burgher school,
+though co-educational, differentiates the classes in several subjects.
+In Belgium, France, Germany and Austria, co-education, though frequent
+in elementary schools, is regarded as undesirable in secondary; but the
+movement in its favour in many parts of Germany seems to be gathering
+strength. All over Europe the Roman Catholic populations prefer the
+older ideal of separate schools for boys and girls.
+
+Co-education in colleges and universities, which began at Oberlin, Ohio,
+in 1833, was adopted almost without exception by the state universities
+throughout the west of America from 1862 onwards. Since that time the
+idea has spread rapidly throughout Europe, and the presence of women
+students at universities originally confined to men is one of the most
+striking educational facts of the age.
+
+_Co-education in the United Kingdom, (a) England and Wales._--The Board
+of Education does not possess any summary showing the number of pupils
+in mixed public elementary schools or in mixed departments of such
+schools. In 1901, out of 31,502 departments of public elementary schools
+in England and Wales, nearly half (15,504) were mixed departments, in
+which boys and girls were educated together. But as the departments were
+of unequal size, it must not be inferred from this that half the
+children in public elementary schools in that year (5,883,762) were
+receiving co-education. Of the total number of departments in public
+elementary schools in England and Wales, the percentage of mixed schools
+fell from 51.6 in 1881 to 49.4 in 1891 and 49.2 in 1901. But these
+percentages must not be taken to prove an absolute decline in the number
+of children in mixed departments.
+
+In England, out of 492 public secondary schools which were recognized by
+the Board of Education for the receipt of government grant for the
+school year ending July 31, 1905, and which contained 85,358 pupils, 108
+schools, with 21,720 pupils, were mixed; and 20 schools, with 8980
+pupils, were dual schools.
+
+Thus, of the total number of pupils in the secondary schools referred to
+above, a little over 25% were in mixed schools, and about 10% were in
+dual schools. It is not safe to assume, however, that all the mixed
+schools were completely co-educational in their work, or that the dual
+schools were not co-educational in respect of certain subjects or parts
+of the course. It should also be remembered that, besides the secondary
+schools recognized by the Board of Education for the receipt of
+government grant, there is a considerable number of great endowed
+secondary boarding-schools ("public schools" in the English use of that
+expression) which are for boys only. There are also at least 5000
+private secondary schools, of which, in 1897 (since when no
+comprehensive statistical inquiry has been made), 970, with 26,027
+pupils, were mixed schools. But the great majority of the children in
+these mixed schools were under twelve years of age. The number of boys
+and girls over twelve years of age, in the mixed private secondary
+schools which were included in the 1897 return, was only 5488.
+
+In Wales, for the school year ending July 31, 1905, out of 84
+state-aided public secondary schools, 11 were mixed and 44 were dual
+schools. The number of scholars in the Welsh schools referred to above
+was 9340. Of these, 1457, or 15%, were in mixed schools, and 5085, or
+54%, were in dual schools. The managers of dual schools in Wales have
+the power to arrange that boys and girls shall be taught together in any
+or all the classes; and, as a matter of fact, nearly all the dual
+schools are worked as mixed schools, though they appear in these figures
+under dual.
+
+_(b) Scotland._--In the public elementary schools, including the higher
+grade schools of Scotland, co-education is the almost universal rule.
+The exceptions, which for the most part are Roman Catholic or Episcopal
+Church schools, tend to diminish year by year. In 1905, out of 3843
+departments in the Scotch public elementary and higher grade schools,
+3783 were mixed. These include the infant departments. Out of the total
+number of children in the public elementary and higher grade schools,
+including infants' departments, 98.43% were receiving co-education.
+
+In the secondary schools of Scotland there has been in recent years
+little perceptible movement either towards co-education or away from it.
+What movement there is, favours the establishment of separate secondary
+schools for girls in the large centres of population. Out of 109 public
+secondary schools in Scotland in 1905-1906, 29 schools were for boys
+only and 40 schools for girls only. One school had boys and girls in
+separate departments. In the remaining 39 schools, boys and girls were
+taken together to an extent which varied with the subjects taken; but
+there was nothing of the nature of a strict separation of the sexes as
+regards the ordinary work of the school.
+
+_(c) Ireland._--In Ireland, the percentage of pupils on the rolls of
+mixed national schools (_i.e._ schools attended by boys and girls), to
+the total number of pupils on the rolls of all national schools, has
+slowly increased. In 1880 the percentage was 57.5; in 1898, 59.4; in
+1905, 60.9.
+
+The Commissioners of Intermediate Education in Ireland had on their list
+in 1906, 38 secondary schools which were classified by them as mixed
+schools. These schools were attended by 640 boys and 413 girls between
+13 and 19 years of age. The commissioners do not know to what extent the
+boys and girls in these schools received instruction in the same
+classes. As, however, the schools are small, they believe that in the
+great majority of cases the boys and girls were taught together. In one
+large school not classified as mixed, the boys (117) and girls (60) were
+taught in the same classes.
+
+_Universities and University Colleges in the United Kingdom._--Women are
+admitted as members of the universities of London, Durham, Manchester,
+Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Wales, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, St
+Andrews, Glasgow, Dublin and the Royal University of Ireland. At Oxford
+and Cambridge women are not admitted as members of the university, but
+by courtesy enjoy entrance to practically all university lectures and
+examinations. The social life of the men and women students is more
+separate in the old than in the new universities. In no grade of
+education in the United Kingdom has the principle of co-education made
+more rapid advance than in the universities. The university education of
+women began in London (Queen's College 1848, Bedford College 1849, both
+being preceded by classes in earlier years). The University of London in
+1878 decided to accept from the crown a supplemental charter making
+every degree, honour and prize awarded by the university accessible to
+students of both sexes on perfectly equal terms. By charter in 1880, the
+Victoria University (now broken up into the universities of Manchester,
+Liverpool and Leeds) received power to grant degrees to women as well as
+to men. The charter of the university of Wales (1893) provides that
+"Women shall be eligible equally with men for admittance to any degree
+which our university is authorized to confer; every office created in
+the university, and the membership of every authority constituted by the
+charter shall be open to women equally with men." In 1889 the
+Universities (Scotland) Act empowered the commissioners to make
+ordinances, enabling each university to admit women in graduation in one
+or more faculties and to provide for their instruction. At all the
+university colleges in the United Kingdom women are educated as well as
+men.
+
+_United States._--Co-education is a characteristic feature of the
+educational system of the different states of the American Union. Of
+elementary school pupils at least 96%, and of secondary school pupils
+95%, are in mixed schools. In 1903, out of a total enrolment of
+15,990,803 pupils in public elementary and secondary schools and
+training colleges, 15,387,734 were in schools attended by pupils of both
+sexes. Out of 550,600 pupils on the rolls of public secondary schools
+(high schools) in 1902, 523,300 were in co-educational schools. The same
+was true of 43% of the pupils (numbering over 100,000) in private
+secondary schools. In colleges and universities 62% of all
+undergraduates were in co-educational institutions, to which category
+thirty-four American universities belong (U.S. Commissioner of
+Education, _Report for 1903_, p. 2454). In America opinion is thus
+predominantly in favour of co-education, but there is a current of
+adverse criticism, especially among some who have had experience of
+school conditions in large cities.
+
+_General Review of the Question._--In schools for infants and younger
+children co-education is approved by all authorities. It is increasingly
+favoured on educational grounds in smaller schools for children up to 12
+or 13 years of age or thereabouts. But where elementary schools have to
+be large, separate departments for boys and girls are generally
+preferable, though mixed schools are often established for reasons of
+economy. At the other end of the educational scale, viz. in the
+universities, the co-education of men and women in the same institution
+is fast becoming the rule. This is due partly to the prohibitive cost of
+duplicating teaching staff, laboratories, libraries and other equipment,
+partly to the desire of women to qualify themselves for professional
+life by passing through the same courses of training as are prescribed
+for men. The degree, however, to which social intercourse is carried on
+between men and women students differs widely in the different
+co-educational universities. There are occasional signs, _e.g._ at
+Chicago, of a reaction against the fullest form of academic
+co-education. And it is probable that the universities will provide,
+among many courses common to men and women, some (like engineering)
+suitable for men only, and others (like advanced instruction in
+home-science, or certain courses of professional preparation for
+teachers of young children) which will rarely be attended by any but
+women. Common use of the same university institutions is compatible with
+much differentiation in courses of study and with separately organized
+forms of collegiate life. It is with regard to the part of education
+which lies between the elementary schools and the universities that the
+sharpest division of opinion upon the principle of co-education now
+exists. In Europe, with the exception of Scandinavia, those who advocate
+co-education of the sexes in secondary schools up to 18 or 19 years of
+age are at present in a distinct minority, even as regards day schools,
+and still more when they propose to apply the same principle to boarding
+schools. But the application of the co-educational principle to all
+schools alike is favoured by an apparently increasing number of men and
+women. This movement in opinion is connected with the increase in the
+number of girls desiring access to secondary schools, a demand which can
+most easily and economically be met by granting to girls access to some
+of the existing schools for boys. The co-educational movement is also
+connected with a strong view of sex equality. It is furthered by the
+rapidly increasing number of women teachers who are available for higher
+educational work. Mixed secondary schools with mixed staffs are
+spreading for reasons of economy in smaller towns and rural districts.
+In large towns separate schools are usually recommended in preference,
+but much depends upon the social tradition of the neighbourhood. Those
+who advocate co-education for boys and girls in secondary schools urge
+it mainly on the ground of its naturalness and closer conformity to the
+conditions of healthy, unselfconscious home life. They believe it to be
+a protective against uncleanness of talk and school immorality. They
+point to its convenience and economy. They welcome co-education as
+likely to bring with it a healthy radicalism in regard to the older
+tradition of studies in boys' secondary schools. They approve it as
+leading to mixed staffs of men and women teachers, and as the most
+effectual way of putting girls in a position of reasonable equality with
+boys in respect of intellectual and civic opportunity. On the other
+hand, those who oppose co-education in secondary schools rest their case
+upon the danger of the intellectual or physical overstrain of girls
+during adolescence; and upon the unequal rate of development of boys and
+girls during the secondary school period, the girls being more forward
+than the boys at first, but as a rule less able to work as hard at a
+somewhat later stage. The critics further complain that co-education is
+generally so organized that the girls' course of study is more or less
+assimilated to that of the boys, with the result that it cannot have the
+artistic and domestic character which is suitable for the majority of
+girls. Complaint is also made that the head of a co-educational school
+for pupils over the age of 10 is usually a man, though the health and
+character of girls need the care and control of a woman vested with
+complete authority and responsibility. While demurring to the view that
+co-education of the sexes would be a moral panacea, the critics of the
+system admit that the presence of the girls would exert a refining
+influence, but they believe that on the whole the boys are likely to
+gain less from co-education than the girls are likely to lose by it. In
+all these matters carefully recorded observation and experiment are
+needed, and it may well be found that co-education is best for some boys
+and for some girls, though not for all. Temperaments and dispositions
+differ. Some boys seem by nature more fitted for the kind of training
+generally given to girls; some girls are by nature fitted for the kind
+of training generally given to boys. The sex division does not mark off
+temperaments into two sharply contrasted groups. The introduction of
+girls into boys' secondary schools may remove or mitigate coarse
+traditions of speech and conduct where such persist. But it would be
+unfortunate if stiff and pedantic traditions of secondary education were
+now fixed upon girls instead of being reconsidered and modified in the
+interests of boys also. In any case, if co-education in secondary
+schools is to yield the benefits which some anticipate from it, great
+vigilance, careful selection of pupils and very liberal staffing will be
+necessary. Without these securities the results of co-education in
+secondary schools might be disappointing, disquieting or even
+disastrous.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Plato in the _Republic_ (v. 452-456) and _Laws_ (vii.
+  804-805) argues that women should share as far as possible in
+  education with men. Mary Wollstonecraft, _A Vindication of the Rights
+  of Women_ (1792), contends that "both sexes ought, not only in private
+  families but in public schools, to be educated together." J. G.
+  Spurzheim, _Principles of Education_, pp. 272-288 (Edinburgh, 1821),
+  replies to this argument. In the Board of Education _Special Reports
+  on Educational Subjects_, vol. vi. (Wyman & Sons, 1900), J. H. Badley,
+  writing on _The Possibility of Co-education in English Preparatory and
+  other Secondary Schools_, is strongly in favour. "In co-education ...
+  half-heartedness means failure. The more completely both sexes can be
+  brought together upon an equal and natural footing the less the
+  difficulties grow." In the Board of Education _Special Reports_, vol.
+  xi. (Wyman & Sons, 1902), Rev. Cecil Grant, writing on _Can American
+  Education be grafted upon the English Public School System?_ answers
+  strongly in the affirmative; co-education is recommended on eight
+  grounds:--(1) Vast economy of expenditure; (2) return to the natural
+  system; (3) discipline made easier; (4) intellectual stimulus; (5) a
+  better balance in instruction; (6) improved manners; (7) prevention of
+  extremes of masculinity or femininity; (8) a safeguard against the
+  moral danger.
+
+  _Co-education: a series of Essays_ (London, 1903), edited by Alice
+  Woods, is in favour of co-education, nine practical workers recording
+  their experience; this is one of the best books on the subject. J. H.
+  Badley's _Co-education after Fifteen: its Value and Difficulties_.
+  _Child Life_ (London, January, 1906), is candid, judicious and
+  practical. M. E. Sadler in _Reports on Secondary Education in
+  Hampshire, Derbyshire and Essex_ (1904, 1905 and 1906 respectively)
+  gives details of the curriculum of many co-educational secondary
+  schools. In the U.S. Commissioner of Education _Report for 1903_, vol.
+  i. pp. 1047-1078, Anna Tolman Smith, writing on _Co-education in the
+  Schools and Colleges of the United States_, gives an historical review
+  of the subject with bibliography (compare bibliography in _Report of
+  U.S. Commissioner of Education for 1900-1901_, pp. 1310-1325). G.
+  Stanley Hall on _Adolescence, its Psychology and its Relations to
+  Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion and
+  Education_, vol. ii. chap. xvii., on Adolescent Girls and their
+  education (New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1904), is strongly against
+  co-education during adolescence. In W. Rein's _Encyklopadisches
+  Handbuch der Padagogik_ (Langensalza, Beyer), art. "Gemeinsame
+  Erziehung fur Knaben und Madchen," K. E. Palmgren is in favour of
+  co-education (vol. iii. of 2nd ed. 1905). See also W. Rein, _Uber
+  gemeinsame Erziehung von Knaben und Madchen_ (Freiburg, 1903), and
+  _Bericht uber den I. Internationalen Kongress fur Schulhygiene_
+  (Nurnberg, 1904), vol. ii. pp. 140 ff., "Co-education in der hoheren
+  Schulen."     (M. E. S.)
+
+
+
+
+COEFFETEAU, NICOLAS (1574-1623), French theologian, poet and historian,
+was born at Saint-Calais. He entered the Dominican order and lectured on
+philosophy at Paris, being also "ordinary preacher" to Henry IV., and
+afterwards ambassador at Rome. In 1606 he was vicar-general of the
+congregation of France, and received from Marie de' Medici the revenues
+of the sees of Lombez and Saintes. He also administered the diocese of
+Metz, and was nominated to that of Marseilles in 1621, but ill-health
+obliged him here to take a coadjutor. Coeffeteau won considerable
+distinction in the controversy against the Protestant reformers and also
+wrote a _History of Rome from Augustus to Constantine_. Many of his
+theological writings were collected in one volume (Paris, 1622), and at
+the time of his death in 1623 he was engaged on a translation of the New
+Testament which is still in manuscript.
+
+
+
+
+COEHOORN, MENNO, BARON VAN (1641-1704), Dutch soldier and military
+engineer, of Swedish extraction, was born at Leeuwarden in Friesland. He
+received an excellent military and general education, and at the age of
+sixteen became a captain in the Dutch army. He took part in the defence
+of Maastricht in 1673 and in the siege of Grave in the same year, where
+the small mortars (called coehorns) invented by him caused the French
+garrison considerable trouble (Seydel, _Nachrichten uber
+Festungskriege_, Leipzig, 1818). He was made a colonel for his gallant
+conduct at the battle of Seneff (1674), and was present also at the
+battles of Cassel (1677) and Saint Denis (1678).
+
+The circumstances of the time and the country turned Coehoorn's
+attention to the art of fortification, and the events of the late war
+showed him that existing methods could no longer be relied upon. His
+first published work, _Versterckinge de Vijfhoeks met alle syne
+Buytenwerken_ (Leeuwarden, 1682), at once aroused attention, and
+involved the author in a lively controversy with a rival engineer, Louys
+Paan (Leeuwarden, 1682, 1683; copies are in the library of the Dutch
+ministry of war). The military authorities were much interested in this,
+and entrusted Coehoorn with the reconstruction of several fortresses in
+the Netherlands. This task he continued throughout his career; and his
+experience in the work made him the worthy rival of his great
+contemporary Vauban. He formulated his ideas a little later in his chief
+work, _Nieuwe Vestingbouw op en natte of lage horizont_, &c.
+(Leeuwarden, 1685), in which he laid down three "systems," the
+characteristic feature of which was the multiplicity and great saliency
+of the works, which were calculated and in principle are still eminently
+suited for flat and almost marshy sites such as those of the Low
+Countries. He borrowed many of the details from the works of his Dutch
+predecessor Freytag, of Albrecht Durer, and of the German engineer
+Speckle, and in general he aimed rather at the adaptation of his
+principles to the requirements of individual sites than at producing a
+geometrically and theoretically perfect fortress; and throughout his
+career he never hesitated to depart from his own rules in dealing with
+exceptional cases, such as that of Groningen. Subsequent editions of
+_Nieuwe Vestingbouw_ appeared in Dutch (1702, and frequently
+afterwards), English (London, 1705), French (Wesel, 1705), and German
+(Dusseldorf, 1709).
+
+From 1688 to the treaty of Ryswick Coehoorn served as a brigadier. At
+the battle of Fleurus he greatly distinguished himself, and in 1692 he
+defended Namur, a fortress of his own creation. Namur was taken by
+Vauban; but the Dutch engineer had his revenge three years later, when
+the place, on which in the meantime Vauban had lavished his skill, fell
+to his attack. Coehoorn became lieutenant-general and inspector-general
+of the Netherlands fortresses, and the high-German peoples as well as
+his own countrymen honoured him. He commanded a corps in the army of the
+duke of Marlborough from 1701 to 1703, and in the constant siege warfare
+of these campaigns in the Low Countries his technical skill was of the
+highest value. The swift reduction of the fortress of Bonn and the siege
+of Huy in 1703 were his crowning successes. At the opening of his
+following campaign he was on his way to confer with Marlborough when he
+died of apoplexy at Wijkel on the 17th of March 1704.
+
+His "first system" was applied to numerous places in Holland, notably
+Nijmwegen, Breda and Bergen-op-Zoom. Mannheim in Germany was also
+fortified in this way, while the "secondsystem" was applied to Belgrade
+and Temesvar in eastern Europe.
+
+  His son, Gosewijn Theodor van Coehoorn, wrote his life (re-edited
+  Syperstein, Leeuwarden, 1860). See also v. Zastrow, _Geschichte der
+  bestandigen Befestigung_ (Leipzig, 1828); von Brese-Winiari, _Uber
+  Entstehen und Wesen der neueren Befestigungsmethode_ (1844); Cosseran
+  de Villenoisy, _Essai historique sur la fortification_ (1869); Mandar,
+  _Architecture des forteresses_ (1801); Krayenhoff, _Verhandeling over
+  de erste versterkingsmanier van Coehoorn_ (Hague, 1823); Bosscha,
+  _Nederlandsche heldend te Land_ (Amsterdam, 1838); Dewez, _Histoire de
+  Belgique_ (Brussels, 1823); Ypey, _Narratio de rebus gestis Mennonis
+  Cohorni_ (1771); Hennert, _Dissertation sur la fortification
+  permanente_ (1795); Bohms, _Grundliche Anleitung zur Kriegsbaukunst_
+  (1776); _Axiomatas of allgemeene bekentnisse over de Vestinghbouw door
+  Menno Baron van Coehoorn, Uytgewerkt door E. W. Berg_ (MS. in Dutch
+  Ministry of War); Bousmard, _Essai general de fortification_ (1797);
+  also the article FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT.
+
+
+
+
+COELENTERA, a group or grade of the animal kingdom, the zoological
+importance of which has risen considerably since the time (1887) of the
+publication of the first article under that heading in the _Ency. Brit._
+(9th edit.), even though their numbers have been reduced by the
+elevation of the Sponges or Porifera to the rank of an independent
+Phylum under the title Parazoa (W. J. Sollas, 1884). For the Coelentera
+thus restricted, the term Enterocoela, in contrast to Coelomocoela (the
+old Coelomata), was suggested by E. R. Lankester (1900).
+
+From the more complex colonial Protozoa the Coelentera are readily
+separated by their possession of two distinct sets of cells, with
+diverse functions, arranged in two definite layers,--a condition found
+in no Protozoan. The old criterion by which they and other Metazoa were
+once distinguished from Protozoa, namely, the differentiation of large
+and small sexual cells from each other and from the remaining cells of
+the body, has been broken down by the discovery of numerous cases of
+such differentiation among Protozoa. The Coelentera, as contrasted with
+other Metazoa (but not Parazoa), consist of two layers of cells only, an
+outer layer or ectoderm, an inner layer or endoderm. They have hence
+been described as Diploblastica. In the remaining Metazoa certain cells
+are budded off at an early stage of development from one or both of the
+two original layers, to form later a third layer, the mesoderm, which
+lies between the ectoderm and endoderm; such forms have therefore
+received the name Triploblastica. At the same time it is necessary to
+observe that it is by no means certain that the mesoderm found in
+various groups of Metazoa is a similar or homologous formation in all
+cases. A second essential difference between Coelentera and other
+Metazoa (except Parazoa) is that in the former all spaces in the
+interior of the body are referable to a single cavity of endodermal
+origin, the "gastro-vascular cavity," often termed the coelenteron: the
+spaces are always originally continuous with one another, and are in
+almost every case permanently so. This single cavity and its lining
+serve apparently for all those functions (digestion, excretion,
+circulation and often reproduction) which in more complex organisms are
+distributed among various cavities of independent and often very diverse
+origin.
+
+In the Coelentera the ectoderm and endoderm are set apart from one
+another at a very early period in the life-history; generally either by
+delamination or invagination, processes described in the article
+EMBRYOLOGY. Between these two cell-layers a mesogloea (G. C. Bourne,
+1887) is always intercalated as a secretion by one or both of them; this
+is a gelatinoid, primitively structureless lamella, which in the first
+instance serves merely as a basal support for the cells. In many cases,
+as, for example, in the Medusae or jelly-fish, the mesogloea may be so
+thick as to constitute the chief part of the body in bulk and weight.
+The ectoderm rarely consists of more than one layer of cells: these are
+divisible by structure and function into nervous, muscular and secretory
+cells, supported by interstitial cells. The endoderm is generally also
+an epithelium one cell in thickness, the cells being digestive,
+secretory and sometimes muscular. Reproductive sexual cells may be found
+in either of these two layers, according to the class and sub-class in
+question. The mesogloea is in itself an inert non-cellular secretion,
+but the immigration of muscular and other cells into its substance, from
+both ectoderm and endoderm, gives it in many cases a strong resemblance
+to the mesoderm of Triploblastica,--a resemblance which, while probably
+superficial, may yet serve to indicate the path of evolution of the
+mesoderm.
+
+The Coelentera may thus be briefly defined as Metazoa which exhibit two
+embryonic cell-layers only,--the ectoderm and endoderm,--their
+body-cavities being referable to a single cavity or coelenteron in the
+endoderm. Their position in the animal kingdom and their main
+subdivisions may be expressed in the following table:--
+
+                  I. PROTOZOA.
+                 II. PARAZOA or PORIFERA.
+                III. METAZOA.
+                       |
+            +----------+--------------+
+            |                         |
+        Coelentera            Triploblastica
+      = Diploblastica.      (including Coelomata).
+              |
+       +------+-----------+-----------------+
+       |                  |                 |
+  Hydromedusae.       Scyphozoa.       Ctenophora.
+                          |
+                 +--------+----------+
+                 |                   |
+            Scyphomedusae.       Anthozoa.
+
+In the above-given classification, the Scyphomedusae, formerly included
+with the Hydromedusae as Hydrozoa, are placed nearer the Anthozoa. The
+reasons for this may be stated briefly.
+
+The HYDROMEDUSAE are distinguished from the Scyphozoa chiefly by
+negative characters; they have no stomodaeum, that is, no ingrowth of
+ectoderm at the mouth to form an oesophagus; they have no mesenteries
+(radiating partitions) which incompletely subdivide the coelenteron; and
+they have no concentration of digestive cells into special organs. Their
+ectodermal muscles are mainly longitudinal, their endodermal muscles are
+circularly arranged on the body-wall. Their sexual cells are (probably
+in all cases) produced from the ectoderm, and lie in those radii which
+are first accentuated in development. They typically present two
+structural forms, the non-sexual hydroid and the sexual medusoid; in
+such a case there is an alternation of generations (metagenesis), the
+hydroid giving rise to the medusoid by a sexual gemmation, the medusoid
+bearing sexual cells which develop into a hydroid. In some other cases
+medusoid develops directly from medusoid (hypogenesis), whether by
+sexual cells or by gemmation. The medusoids have a muscular velum of
+ectoderm and mesogloea only.
+
+The SCYPHOZOA have the following features in common:--They typically
+exhibit an ectodermal stomodaeum; partitions or mesenteries project into
+their coelenteron from the body-wall, and on these are generally
+concentrated digestive cells (to form mesenterial filaments, phacellae
+or gastric filaments, &c.); the external musculature of the body-wall is
+circular (except in _Cerianthus_); the internal, longitudinal; and the
+sexual cells probably always arise in the endoderm.
+
+The SCYPHOMEDUSAE, like the Hydromedusae, typically present a
+metagenesis, the non-sexual scyphistomoid (corresponding to the hydroid)
+alternating with the sexual medusoid. In other cases the medusoid is
+hypogenetic, medusoid producing medusoid. The sexual cells of the
+medusoid lie in the endoderm on interradii, that is, on the second set
+of radii accentuated in the course of development. The medusoids have no
+true velum; in some cases a structure more or less resembling this
+organ, termed a velarium, is present, permeated by endodermal canals.
+
+The ANTHOZOA differ from the Scyphomedusae in having no medusoid form;
+they all more or less resemble a sea-anemone, and may be termed
+actinioid. They are (with rare exceptions, probably secondarily
+acquired) hypogenetic, the offspring resembling the parent, and both
+being sexual. The sexual cells are borne on the mesenteries in positions
+irrespective of obvious developmental radii.
+
+The CTENOPHORA are so aberrant in structure that it has been proposed to
+separate them from the Coelentera altogether: they are, however,
+theoretically deducible from an ancestor common to other Coelentera, but
+their extreme specialization precludes the idea of any close
+relationship with the rest.
+
+As regards the other three groups, however, it is easy to conceive of
+them as derived from an ancestor, represented to-day to some extent by
+the planula-larva, which was Coelenterate in so far as it was composed
+of an ectoderm and endoderm, and had an internal digestive cavity (I. of
+the table).
+
+At the point of divergence between Scyphozoa and Hydromedusae (II. of
+the table of hypothetical descent), we may conceive of its descendant as
+tentaculate, capable of either floating (swimming) or fixation at will
+like Lucernaria to-day; and exhibiting incipient differentiation of
+myoepithelial cells (formerly termed neuro-muscular cells). At the
+parting of the ways which led, on the one hand, to modern Scyphomedusae,
+on the other to Anthozoa (III.), it is probable that the common ancestor
+was marked by incipient mesenteries and by the limitation of the sexual
+cells to endoderm. The lines of descent--II. to Hydromedusae, and III.
+to Scyphomedusae--represent periods during which the hypothetical
+ancestors II. and III., capable of either locomotion or fixation at
+will, were either differentiated into alternating generations of fixed
+sterile nutritive hydroids (scyphistomoids) and locomotor sexual
+medusoids, or abandoned the power of fixation in hypogenetic cases.
+During the period represented by the line of descent--III. to
+Anthozoa--this group abandoned its power of adult locomotion by
+swimming. During these periods were also attained those less important
+structural characters which these three groups present to-day.
+      (G. H. Fo.)
+
+  Hydromedusae.   Scyphomedusae.  Anthozoa.
+           \               |         /
+            \              |        /
+             \             |       /
+              \            |      /
+               \           |     /
+                \          |    /
+                 \         |   /
+                  \        |  /
+                   \       | /
+                    \      |/
+                     \    III.
+                      \   /
+     Ctenophora?       \ /
+             \         II.
+              \         |
+               \        |
+                \       |
+                 \      |
+                  \     |
+                   \    |
+                    \   |
+                     \  |
+                      \ |
+                       \|
+                        I.
+
+
+
+
+COELLO, ALONSO SANCHEZ (1515-1590), Spanish painter, according to some
+authorities a native of Portugal, was born, according to others, at
+Benifacio, near the city of Valencia. He studied many years in Italy;
+and returning to Spain in 1541 he settled at Madrid, and worked on
+religious themes for most of the palaces and larger churches. He was a
+follower of Titian, and, like him, excelled in portraits and single
+figures, elaborating the textures of his armours, draperies, and such
+accessories in a manner so masterly as strongly to influence Velazquez
+in his treatment of like objects. Many of his pictures were destroyed in
+the fires that consumed the Madrid and Prado palaces, but many good
+examples are yet extant, among which may be noted the portraits of the
+infantes Carlos and Isabella, now in the Madrid gallery, and the St
+Sebastian painted in the church of San Geronimo, also in Madrid. Coello
+left a daughter, Isabella Sanchez, who studied under him, and painted
+excellent portraits.
+
+
+
+
+COELLO, ANTONIO (1610?-1652), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at
+Madrid about the beginning of the 17th century. He entered the household
+of the duke de Albuquerque, and after some years of service in the army
+received the order of Santiago in 1648. He was a favourite of Philip
+IV., who is reported to have collaborated with him; this rumour is not
+confirmed, but there is ample proof of Coello's collaboration with
+Calderon, Rojas Zorrilla, Solis and Velez de Guevara, the most
+distinguished dramatists of the age. The best of his original plays,
+_Los Empenos de seis horas_, has been wrongly ascribed to Calderon; it
+was adapted by Samuel Tuke, under the title of _The Adventures of five
+Hours_, and was described by Pepys as superior to _Othello_. It is an
+excellent example of stagecraft and animated dialogue. Coello died on
+the 20th of October 1652, shortly after his nomination to a post in the
+household of Philip IV.
+
+
+
+
+COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES. In human anatomy the body-cavity or coelom
+(Gr. [Greek: koilos], hollow) is divided into the _pericardium_, the two
+_pleurae_, the _peritoneum_ and the two _tunicae vaginales_.
+
+The _pericardium_ is a closed sac which occupies the central part of the
+thorax and contains the heart. Like all the serous membranes it has a
+visceral and a parietal layer, the former of which is closely applied to
+the heart and consists of endothelial cells with a slight fibrous
+backing: to it is due the glossy appearance of a freshly removed heart.
+The parietal layer is double; externally there is a strong fibrous
+protective coat which is continuous with the other fibrous structures in
+the neighbourhood, especially with the sheaths of the great vessels at
+the root of the heart, with prolongations of the fascia of the neck, and
+with the central tendon of the diaphragm, while internally is the serous
+layer which is reflected from the surface of the heart, where the great
+vessels enter, so that everywhere the two layers of the serous membrane
+are in contact, and the only thing within the cavity is a drop or two of
+the fluid secreted by the serous walls. When the parietal layer is laid
+open and the heart removed by cutting through the great vessels, it will
+be seen that there are two lines of reflection of the serous layer, one
+common to the aorta and pulmonary artery, the other to all the pulmonary
+veins and the two venae cavae.
+
+The _pleurae_ very closely resemble the pericardium except that the
+fibrous outer coat of the parietal layer is not nearly as strong; it is
+closely attached to the inner surface of the chest walls and mesially to
+the outer layer of the pericardium; above it is thickened by a fibrous
+contribution from the scalene muscles, and this forms the _dome of the
+pleura_ which fits into the concavity of the first rib and contains the
+apex of the lung. The reflection of the serous layer of the pleura, from
+the parietal to the visceral part, takes place at the root of the lung,
+where the great vessels enter, and continues for some distance below
+this as the _ligamentum latum pulmonis_. The upper limit of the pleural
+cavity reaches about half an inch above the inner third of the clavicle,
+while, below, it may be marked out by a line drawn from the twelfth
+thoracic spine to the tenth rib in the mid axillary line, the eighth rib
+in the nipple line, and the sixth rib at its junction with the sternum.
+There is probably very little difference in the lower level of the
+pleurae on the two sides.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of vertical median section of Abdomen.
+
+  A, Aorta.          D, Duodenum.
+  P, Pancreas.       B, Bladder.
+  I, Intestine.      St, Stomach.
+  R, Rectum.         C, Colon.
+  L, Liver.          V, Vagina.
+
+(The fine dots represent the great sac of the peritoneum, the coarse
+dots the lesser sac.)]
+
+The _peritoneum_ is a more extensive and complicated membrane than
+either the pericardium or pleura; it surrounds the abdominal and pelvic
+viscera, and, like the other sacs, has a parietal and visceral layer.
+The line of reflection of these, though a continuous one, is very
+tortuous. The peritoneum consists of a _greater_ and _lesser sac_ which
+communicate through an opening known as the _foramen of Winslow_, and
+the most satisfactory way of understanding these is to follow the
+reflections first in a vertical median (sagittal) section and then in a
+horizontal one, the body being supposed to be in the upright position.
+If a median sagittal section be studied first, and a start be made at
+the umbilicus (see fig. 1), the parietal peritoneum is seen to run
+upward, lining the anterior abdominal wall, and then to pass along the
+under surface of the diaphragm till its posterior third is reached; here
+there is a reflection on to the liver (L), forming the anterior layer of
+the _coronary ligament_ of that viscus, while the membrane now becomes
+visceral and envelops the front of the liver as far back as the
+transverse fissure on its lower surface; here it is reflected on to the
+stomach (St) forming the anterior layer of the _gastro-hepatic_ or
+_lesser omentum_. It now covers the front of the stomach, and at the
+lower border runs down as the anterior layer of an apron-like fold, the
+_great omentum_, which in some cases reaches as low as the pubes; then
+it turns up again as the posterior or fourth layer of the great omentum
+until the transverse colon (C) is reached, the posterior surface of
+which it covers and is reflected, as the posterior layer of the
+_transverse meso-colon_, to the lower part of the pancreas (P); after
+this it turns down and covers the anterior surface of the third part of
+the duodenum (D) till the posterior wall of the abdomen is reached, from
+which it is reflected on to the small intestine (I) as the anterior
+layer of the _mesentery_, a fold varying from 5 to 8 in. between its
+attachments. After surrounding the small intestine it becomes the
+posterior layer of the mesentery and so again reaches the posterior
+abdominal wall, down which it runs until the rectum (R) is reached. The
+anterior surface of this tube is covered by peritoneum to a point about
+3 in. from the anus, where it is reflected on to the uterus and vagina
+(V) in the female and then on to the bladder (B); in the male, on the
+other hand, the reflection is directly from the rectum to the bladder.
+At the apex of the bladder, after covering the upper surface of that
+organ, it is lifted off by the urachus and runs up the anterior
+abdominal wall to the umbilicus, from which the start was made. All this
+is the greater sac. The tracing of the lesser sac may be conveniently
+started at the transverse fissure of the liver, whence the membrane runs
+down to the stomach (St) as the posterior layer of the lesser omentum,
+lines the posterior surface of the stomach, passes down as the second
+layer of the great omentum and up again as the third layer, covers the
+anterior surface of the transverse colon (C) and then reaches the
+pancreas (P) as the anterior layer of the transverse mesocolon. After
+this it covers the front of the pancreas and in the middle line of the
+body runs up below the diaphragm to within an inch of the anterior layer
+of the coronary ligament of the liver; here it is reflected on to the
+top of the Spigelian lobe of the liver to form the posterior layer of
+the coronary ligament, covers the whole Spigelian lobe, and so reaches
+the transverse fissure, the starting-point.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of Horizontal Section through upper part
+of 1st Lumbar Vertebra.
+
+  A,   Aorta.         H.A, Hepatic Artery.
+  Sp,  Spleen.        K,   Kidney.
+  B.D, Bile duct.     L,   Liver.
+  V.C, Vena Cava.     St,  Stomach.
+  P,   Pancreas.      P.V, Portal Vein.
+
+The dotting of the peritoneum is as in fig. 1.]
+
+This section, therefore, shows two completely closed sacs without any
+visible communication. In the female, however, the great sac is not
+absolutely closed, for the Fallopian tubes open into it by their minute
+_ostia abdominalia_, while at the other ends they communicate with the
+cavity of the uterus and so with the vagina and exterior.
+
+A horizontal section through the upper part of the first lumbar vertebra
+will, if a fortunate one (see fig. 2), pass through the foramen of
+Winslow and show the communication of the two sacs. A starting-point may
+be made from the mid-ventral line and the parietal peritoneum traced
+round the left side of the body wall until the outer edge of the left
+kidney (K) is reached; here it passes in front of the kidney and is soon
+reflected off on to the spleen, which it nearly surrounds; just before
+it reaches the hilum of that organ, where the vessels enter, it is
+reflected on to the front of the stomach (St), forming the anterior
+layer of the _gastro-splenic omentum_; it soon reaches the lesser
+curvature of the stomach and then becomes the anterior layer of the
+lesser omentum, which continues until the bile duct (B.D) and portal
+vein (P.V) are reached at its right free extremity; here it turns
+completely round these structures and runs to the left again, as the
+posterior layer of the lesser omentum, behind the stomach (St) and then
+to the spleen (Sp) as the posterior layer of the gastro-splenic omentum.
+From the spleen it runs to the right once more, in front of the pancreas
+(P), until the inferior vena cava (V.C) is reached, and this point is
+just behind the portal vein and is the place where the lesser and
+greater sacs communicate, known as the foramen of Winslow. From this
+opening the lesser sac runs to the left, while all the rest of the
+peritoneal cavity in the section is greater sac. From the front of the
+vena cava the parietal peritoneum passes in front of the right kidney
+(K) and round the right abdominal wall to the mid-ventral line. The
+right part of this section is filled by the liver (L), which is
+completely surrounded by a visceral layer of peritoneum, and no
+reflection is usually seen at this level between it and the parietal
+layer. Some of the viscera, such as the kidneys and pancreas, are
+retro-peritoneal; others, such as the small intestines and transverse
+colon, are surrounded, except at one point where they are attached to
+the dorsal wall by a _mesentery_ or _mesocolon_ as the reflections are
+called; others again are completely surrounded, and of these the caecum
+is an example; while some, like the liver and bladder, have large
+uncovered areas, and the reflections of the membrane form ligaments
+which allow considerable freedom of movement.
+
+The _tunica vaginalis_ is the remains of a process of the peritoneum
+(_processus vaginalis_) which descends into the scrotum during foetal
+life some little time before the testis itself descends. After the
+descent of the testis the upper part usually becomes obliterated, while
+the lower part forms a serous sac which nearly surrounds the testis, but
+does not quite do so. Posteriorly the epididymis is in close contact
+with the testis, and here the visceral layer is not in contact; there
+is, however, a pocket called the _digital fossa_ which squeezes in from
+the outer side between the testis and epididymis. The parietal layer
+lines the inner wall of its own side of the scrotum.
+
+  For a full description of the topography of the serous membranes see
+  any of the standard text-books of anatomy, by Gray, Quain, Cunningham
+  or Macalister. Special details will be found in Sir F. Treves'
+  _Anatomy of the Intestinal Canal and Peritoneum_ (London, 1885); C. B.
+  Lockwood, _Hunterian Lectures on Hernia_ (London, 1889); C. Addison,
+  "Topographical Anatomy of the Abdominal Viscera in Man," _Jour.
+  Anat._, vols. 34, 35; F. Dixon and A. Birmingham, "Peritoneum of the
+  Pelvic Cavity," _Jour. Anat._ vol. 34, p. 127; W. Waldeyer, "Das
+  Becken" (1899), and "Topographical Sketch of the Lateral Wall of the
+  Pelvic Cavity," _Jour. Anat._ vol. 32; B. Moynihan, _Retroperitoneal
+  Hernia_ (London, 1899). A complete bibliography of the subject up to
+  1895 will be found in _Quain's Anatomy_, vol. 3, part 4, p. 69.
+
+[Illustration: After Young and Robinson, Cunningham's _Text-Book of
+Anatomy_.
+
+FIG. 3.--Diagram of Longitudinal Section, showing the different areas of
+the Blastodermic Vesicle.
+
+  _a_, Pericardium.                _e_, Placental area.
+  _b_, Bucco-pharyngeal area.      _d_, Entoderm.
+  _c_, Ectoderm.]
+
+_Embryology._--As the mesoderm is gradually spreading over the embryo it
+splits into two layers, the outer of which is known as the
+_somatopleure_ and lines the parietal or ectodermal wall, while the
+inner lines the entoderm and is called the _splanchnopleure_; between
+the two is the coelom. The pericardial area is early differentiated from
+the rest of the coelom and at first lies in front of the neural and
+bucco-pharyngeal area; here the mesoderm stretches right across the
+mid-line, which it does not in front and behind. As the head fold of the
+embryo is formed the pericardium is gradually turned right over, so that
+the dorsal side becomes the ventral and the anterior limit the
+posterior; this will be evident on referring to the two accompanying
+diagrams.
+
+[Illustration: After Young and Robinson, Cunningham's _Text-Book of
+Anatomy_.
+
+FIG. 4.--Diagram of a Developing Ovum, seen in Longitudinal Section.
+
+  _f_, Spinal cord.                     _i_, Brain.
+  _g_, Notochord.                       _k_, Extra embryonic coelom.
+  _h_, Dorsal wall of alimentary canal.      Other numbers as in fig. 3.]
+
+The two primitive aortae lie at first in the ventral wall of the
+pericardium, but with the folding over they come to lie in the dorsal
+wall and gradually bulge into the cavity as they coalesce to form the
+heart, so that the heart drops into the dorsal side of the pericardium
+and draws down a fold of the membrane called the _dorsal mesocardium_.
+In mammals A. Robinson (_Jour. Anat. and Phys._, xxxvii. 1) has shown
+that no ventral mesocardium exists, though in more lowly vertebrates it
+is present. Laterally the pericardial cavity communicates with the
+general cavity of the coelom, but with the growth of the Cuvierian ducts
+(see development of veins) these communications disappear. Originally
+the mesocardium runs the whole length of the pericardium from before
+backward, but later on the middle part becomes obliterated, and so the
+two separate reflections from the parietal to the visceral layer,
+already noticed, are accounted for.
+
+Just behind the pericardium and in front of the umbilicus, which at
+first are close together, the mesoderm forms a mass which is called the
+_septum transversum_, and into this the developing lungs push bag-like
+protrusions of the coelom, consisting of visceral and parietal layers,
+and these eventually lose their connexion with the rest of the coelom,
+as the diaphragm develops, and become the pleural cavities. After the
+pericardium and pleurae have been separated off the remainder of the
+coelom becomes the peritoneum. At first the stomach and intestine form a
+straight tube, which is connected to the dorsum of the embryo by a
+_dorsal mesentery_ and to the mid-ventral wall in front of the umbilicus
+by a _ventral mesentery_. Into the ventral mesentery the liver grows as
+diverticula from the duodenum, so that some of the mesentery remains as
+the _falciform ligament_ of the liver and some as the lesser omentum.
+Into the dorsal mesentery the pancreas grows, also as diverticula, from
+the duodenum, while the spleen is developed from the mesoderm contained
+in the same fold. As the stomach turns over so that its left side
+becomes ventral, the dorsal mesentery attached to it becomes pulled out,
+in such a way that part of it forms the great omentum and part the
+gastro-splenic omentum. After the caecum is formed as a diverticulum
+from the intestine it is situated close to the liver and gradually
+travels down into the right iliac fossa. This passage to the right is
+accompanied by a throwing over of the duodenal loop to the right, so
+that the right side of its mesentery becomes pressed against the dorsal
+wall of the abdomen and obliterated. This accounts for the fact that the
+pancreas and duodenum are only covered by peritoneum on their anterior
+surfaces in man. The formation of the lesser sac is due to the turning
+over of the stomach to the right, with the result that a cave, known
+sometimes as the _bursa omentalis_, is formed behind it. Originally, of
+course, the whole colon had a _dorsal mesocolon_ continuous with the
+mesentery, but in the region of the ascending and descending colon this
+usually disappears and these parts of the gut are uncovered by
+peritoneum posteriorly. The transverse mesocolon persists and at first
+is quite free from the great omentum, but later, in man, the two
+structures fuse[1] and the fourth layer of the great omentum becomes
+continuous with the posterior layer of the transverse mesocolon.
+
+  For further details see Quain's _Anatomy_ (London, 1908).
+
+_Comparative Anatomy._--In the Amphioxus the coelom is developed in the
+embryo as a series of bilateral pouches, called _enterocoeles_, from the
+sides of the alimentary canal; these are therefore entodermal in their
+origin, as in Sagitta and the Echinodermata among the invertebrates. In
+the adult the development of the atrium causes a considerable reduction
+of the coelom, represented by two dorsal coelomic canals communicating
+with a ventral canal by means of branchial canals which run down the
+outer side of the primary gill bars. Into the dorsal canals the
+nephridia open. In the intestinal region the coelom is only present on
+the left side.
+
+In the higher vertebrates (_Craniata_) the coelom is developed by a
+splitting of the mesoderm into two layers, and a pericardium is
+constricted off from the general cavity. In all cases the ova burst into
+the coelom before making their way to the exterior, and in some cases,
+_e.g._ amphioxus, lamprey (Cyclostomata), eels and mud-fish (Dipnoi),
+the sperm cells do so too. The Cyclostomata have a pair of _genital
+pores_ which lead from the coelom into the urino-genital sinus, and so
+to the exterior.
+
+In the Elasmobranch fish there is a _pericardio-peritoneal canal_
+forming a communication between these two parts of the coelom; also a
+large common opening for the two oviducts in the region of the liver,
+and two openings, called _abdominal pores_, on to the surface close to
+the cloacal aperture. In the Teleostomi (Teleostean and Ganoid fish)
+abdominal pores are rare, but in most Teleostei (bony fish) the ova pass
+directly down oviducts, as they do in Arthropods, without entering the
+peritoneal cavity; there is little doubt, however, that these oviducts
+are originally coelomic in origin. In the Dipnoi (mud-fish) abdominal
+pores are found, and probably serve as a passage for the sperm cells,
+since there are no vasa deferentia. In fishes a complete dorsal
+mesentery is seldom found in the adult; in many cases it only remains as
+a tube surrounding the vessels passing to the alimentary canal.
+
+In the Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves, one cavity acts as pleura and
+peritoneum, though in the latter the lungs are not completely surrounded
+by a serous membrane. In many lizards the comparatively straight
+intestine, with its continuous dorsal mesentery and ventral mesentery in
+the anterior part of the abdomen, is very like a stage in the
+development of the human and other mammalian embryos. In the mammalia
+the diaphragm is complete (see DIAPHRAGM) and divides the
+pleuro-peritoneal cavity into its two constituent parts. In the lower
+mammals the derivatives of the original dorsal mesentery do not undergo
+as much fusion and obliteration as they do in adult man; the ascending
+and descending mesocolon is retained, and the transverse mesocolon
+contracts no adhesion to the great omentum. It is a common thing,
+however, to find a fenestrated arrangement of the great omentum which
+shows that its layers have been completely obliterated in many places.
+
+In those animals, such as the rabbit, in which the tests are sometimes
+in the scrotum and sometimes in the abdomen, the communication between
+the peritoneum and the tunica vaginalis remains throughout life.
+
+  For further details and literature up to 1902, see R. Wiedersheim's
+  _Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1902).     (F. G. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Some authorities hold that this alteration is not brought about
+    by fusion, but by a dragging away of the posterior layer of the great
+    omentum from the dorsal wall of the abdomen.
+
+
+
+
+COEN, JAN PIETERSZOON (1587-1630), fourth governor-general of the Dutch
+East Indies, was born at Hoorn, and spent his youth at Rome in the house
+of the famous merchants the Piscatori. In 1607 he sailed from Amsterdam
+to the Indies as second commercial agent, and remained away four years.
+He had proved so capable that in 1612 he was sent out a second time at
+the head of a trading expedition. In the following year he was made a
+councillor and director-general of the East Indian trade. Afterwards he
+became president at Bantam, and on the 31st of October 1617 he was
+promoted in succession to Laurens Reaal to the post of governor-general.
+To his vigour and intrepidity the Dutch in no small measure owed the
+preservation and establishment of their empire in the East. He took and
+destroyed Jacatra, and founded on its ruins the capital of the Dutch
+East Indies, to which he gave the name of Batavia. In 1622 Coen obtained
+leave to resign his post and return to Holland, but in his absence great
+difficulties had arisen with the English at Amboina (the so-called
+massacre of Amboina), and in 1627 under pressure from the directors of
+the East India Company he again returned as governor-general to Batavia.
+In 1629 he was able to beat off a formidable attack of the sultan of
+Mataram, sometimes styled emperor of Java, upon Batavia. He died the
+following year.
+
+
+
+
+COENACULUM, the term applied to the eating-room of a Roman house in
+which the supper (_coena_) or latest meal was taken. It was sometimes
+placed in an upper storey and reached by an external staircase. The Last
+Supper in the New Testament was taken in the Coenaculum, the "large
+upper room" cited in St Mark (xiv. 15) and St Luke (xxii. 12).
+
+
+
+
+COENWULF (d. 821), king of Mercia, succeeded to the throne in 796, on
+the death of Ecgfrith, son of Offa. His succession is somewhat
+remarkable, as his direct ancestors do not seem to have held the throne
+for six generations. In 798 he invaded Kent, deposed and imprisoned
+Eadberht Praen, and made his own brother Cuthred king. Cuthred reigned in
+Kent from 798 to 807, when he died, and Coenwulf seems to have taken
+Kent into his own hands. It was during this reign that the archbishopric
+of Lichfield was abolished, probably before 803, as the Hygeberht who
+signed as an abbot at the council of Cloveshoe in that year was
+presumably the former archbishop. Coenwulf appears from the charters
+to have quarrelled with Wulfred of Canterbury, who was consecrated in
+806, and the dispute continued for several years. It was probably only
+settled at Cloveshoe in 825, when the lawsuit of Cwoenthryth, daughter
+and heiress of Coenwulf, with Wulfred was terminated. Coenwulf may
+have instigated the raid of Aethelmund, earl of the Hwicce, upon the
+accession of Ecgberht. He died in 821, and was succeeded by his brother
+Ceolwulf I.
+
+  See Earle and Plummer's edition of the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, 796,
+  819 (Oxford, 1892); W. de G. Birch, _Cartularium Saxonicum_, 378
+  (London, 1885-1893).     (F. G. M. B.)
+
+
+
+
+COERCION (from Lat. _coercere_, to restrain), an application of moral or
+physical compulsion by which a person is forced to do or refrain from
+doing some act or set of acts apart from his own voluntary motion. Where
+the coercion is direct or positive, _i.e._ where the person is compelled
+by physical force to do an act contrary to his will,--for example, when
+a man is compelled to join a rebel army, and to serve as a soldier under
+threats of death,--his act is not legally a crime. Where the coercion is
+implied, as when a person is legally under subjection to another, the
+person coerced, having no will on the subject, is not responsible. But
+this principle is applied only within narrow limits, and does not extend
+to the command of a superior to an inferior; of a parent to a child; of
+a master to his servant or a principal to his agent. Where, however, a
+married woman commits a crime in the presence of her husband, she is
+generally presumed to have acted by his coercion, and to be entitled to
+acquittal, but this presumption does not extend to grave crimes, nor to
+those in which the principal part may be supposed to be taken by the
+woman, such as keeping a brothel. In civil matters, such as the making
+of a contract, where the law requires the free assent of the person who
+undertakes the obligation, coercion is a ground for invalidating the
+instrument.
+
+The term "coercion" is inevitably somewhat ambiguous, and depends on the
+circumstances of the case. In a political sense, the application of the
+Crimes Act of 1887 to Ireland was called "coercion" by those opposed to
+the English Unionist party and government, as being special legislation
+differing from the ordinary law applicable in the United Kingdom.
+
+
+
+
+COEUR, JACQUES (_c._ 1395-1456), founder of the trade between France
+and the Levant, was born at Bourges, in which city his father, Pierre
+Coeur, was a rich merchant. Jacques is first heard of about 1418, when
+he married Macee de Leodepart, daughter of Lambert de Leodepart, an
+influential citizen, provost of Bourges, and a former valet of John,
+duke of Berry. About 1429 he formed a commercial partnership with two
+brothers named Godard; and in 1432 he was at Damascus, buying and
+bartering, and transporting the wares of the Levant--gall-nuts, wools
+and silks, goats' hair, brocades and carpets--to the interior of France
+by way of Narbonne. In the same year he established himself at
+Montpellier, and there began those gigantic operations which have made
+him illustrious among financiers. Details are wanting; but it is certain
+that in a few years he placed his country in a position to contend not
+unsuccessfully with the great trading republics of Italy, and acquired
+such reputation as to be able, mere trader as he was, to render material
+assistance to the knights of Rhodes and to Venice herself.
+
+In 1436 Coeur was summoned to Paris by Charles VII., and made master
+of the mint that had been established in that city. The post was of vast
+importance, and the duties onerous. The country was deluged with the
+base moneys of three reigns, charged with superscriptions both French
+and English, and Charles had determined on a sweeping reform. In this
+design he was ably seconded by the merchant, who, in fact, inspired or
+prepared all the ordinances concerning the coinage of France issued
+between 1435 and 1451. In 1438 he was made steward of the royal
+expenditure; in 1441 he and his family were ennobled by letters patent.
+In 1444 he was sent as one of the royal commissioners to preside over
+the new parlement of Languedoc, a dignity he bore till the day of his
+disgrace. In 1445 his agents in the East negotiated a treaty between the
+sultan of Egypt and the knights of Rhodes; and in 1447, at his instance,
+Jean de Village, his nephew by marriage, was charged with a mission to
+Egypt. The results were most important; concessions were obtained which
+greatly improved the position of the French consuls in the Levant, and
+that influence in the East was thereby founded which, though often
+interrupted, was for several centuries a chief commercial glory of
+France. In the same year Coeur assisted in an embassy to Amadeus
+VIII., former duke of Savoy, who had been chosen pope as Felix V. by the
+council of Basel; and in 1448 he represented the French king at the
+court of Pope Nicholas V., and was able to arrange an agreement between
+Nicholas and Amadeus, and so to end the papal schism. Nicholas treated
+him with the utmost distinction, lodged him in the papal palace, and
+gave him a special licence to traffic with the infidels. From about this
+time he made large advances to Charles for carrying on his wars; and in
+1449, after fighting at the king's side through the campaign, he entered
+Rouen in his train.
+
+At this moment the great trader's glory was at its height. He had
+represented France in three embassies, and had supplied the sinews of
+that war which had ousted the English from Normandy. He was invested
+with various offices of dignity, and possessed the most colossal fortune
+that had ever been amassed by a private Frenchman. The sea was covered
+with his ships; he had 300 factors in his employ, and houses of business
+in all the chief cities of France. He had built houses and chapels, and
+had founded colleges in Paris, at Montpellier and at Bourges. The house
+at Bourges (see HOUSE, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8) was of exceptional
+magnificence, and remains to-day one of the finest monuments of the
+middle ages in France. He also built there the sacristy of the cathedral
+and a sepulchral chapel for his family. His brother Nicholas was made
+bishop of Lucon, his sister married Jean Bochetel, the king's secretary,
+his daughter married the son of the viscount of Bourges, and his son
+Jean became archbishop of Bourges. But Coeur's gigantic monopoly
+caused his ruin. Dealing in everything, money and arms, peltry and
+jewels, brocades and woollens--a broker, a banker, a farmer--he had
+absorbed the trade of the country, and merchants complained they could
+make no gains on account of "that Jacquet." He had lent money to needy
+courtiers, to members of the royal family, and to the king himself, and
+his debtors, jealous of his wealth, were eager for a chance to cause his
+overthrow.
+
+In February 1450 Agnes Sorel, the king's mistress, suddenly died.
+Eighteen months later it was rumoured that she had been poisoned, and a
+lady of the court who owed money to Jacques Coeur, Jeanne de Vendome,
+wife of Francois de Montberon, and an Italian, Jacques Colonna, formally
+accused him of having poisoned her. There was not even a pretext for
+such a charge, but for this and other alleged crimes the king, on the
+31st of July 1451, gave orders for his arrest and for the seizure of his
+goods, reserving to himself a large sum of money for the war in Guienne.
+Commissioners extraordinary, the merchant's declared enemies, were
+chosen to conduct the trial, and an inquiry began, the judges in which
+were either the prisoner's debtors or the holders of his forfeited
+estates. He was accused of having paid French gold and ingots to the
+infidels, of coining light money, of kidnapping oarsmen for his galleys,
+of sending back a Christian slave who had taken sanctuary on board one
+of his ships, and of committing frauds and exactions in Languedoc to the
+king's prejudice. He defended himself with all the energy of his nature.
+His innocence was manifest; but a conviction was necessary, and in spite
+of strenuous efforts on the part of his friends, after twenty-two
+months of confinement in five prisons, he was condemned to do public
+penance for his fault, to pay the king a sum equal to about L1,000,000
+of modern money, and to remain a prisoner till full satisfaction had
+been obtained; his sentence also embraced confiscation of all his
+property, and exile during royal pleasure. On the 5th of June 1453 the
+sentence took effect; at Poitiers the shameful form of making honourable
+amends was gone through; and for nearly three years nothing is known of
+him. It is probable that he remained in prison; it is certain that his
+vast possessions were distributed among the intimates of Charles.
+
+In 1455 Jacques Coeur, wherever confined, contrived to escape into
+Provence. He was pursued; but a party, headed by Jean de Village and two
+of his old factors, carried him off to Tarascon, whence, by way of
+Marseilles, Nice and Pisa, he managed to reach Rome. He was honourably
+and joyfully received by Nicholas V., who was fitting out an expedition
+against the Turks. On the death of Nicholas, Calixtus III. continued his
+work, and named his guest captain of a fleet of sixteen galleys sent to
+the relief of Rhodes. Coeur set out on this expedition, but was taken
+ill at Chios, and died there on the 25th of November 1456. After his
+death Charles VII. showed himself well disposed to the family, and
+allowed Jacques Coeur's sons to come into possession of whatever was
+left of their father's wealth.
+
+  See the admirable monograph of Pierre Clement, _Jacques Coeur et
+  Charles VII_ (1858, 2nd ed. 1874); A. Valet de Viriville, _Charles
+  Sept et son epoque_ (3 vols., 1862-1865); and Louisa Costello,
+  _Jacques Coeur, the French Argonaut_ (London, 1847).
+
+
+
+
+COEUR D'ALENE ("awl-heart," the French translation of the native name
+_skitswish_), a tribe of North American Indians of Salishan stock. The
+name is said to have been originally that of a chief noted for his
+cruelty. The tribe has given its name to a lake, river and range of
+mountains in Idaho, where on a reservation the survivors, some 400, are
+settled.
+
+
+
+
+COFFEE (Fr: _cafe_, Ger. _Kaffee_). This important and valuable article
+of food is the produce chiefly of _Coffea arabica_, a Rubiaceous plant
+indigenous to Abyssinia, which, however, as cultivated originally,
+spread outwards from the southern parts of Arabia. The name is probably
+derived from the Arabic K'h[=a]wah, although by some it has been traced
+to Kaffa, a province in Abyssinia, in which the tree grows wild.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Branch of _Coffea arabica_.]
+
+The genus _Coffea_, to which the common coffee tree belongs, contains
+about 25 species in the tropics of the Old World, mainly African.
+Besides being found wild in Abyssinia, the common coffee plant appears
+to be widely disseminated in Africa, occurring wild in the Mozambique
+district, on the shores of the Victoria Nyanza, and in Angola on the
+west coast. The coffee leaf disease in Ceylon brought into prominence
+Liberian coffee (_C. liberica_), a native of the west coast of Africa,
+now extensively grown in several parts of the world. Other species of
+economic importance are Sierra Leone coffee (_C. stenophylla_) and Congo
+coffee (_C. robusta_), both of which have been introduced into and are
+cultivated on a small scale in various parts of the tropics. _C.
+excelsa_ is another species of considerable promise.
+
+The common Arabian coffee shrub is an evergreen plant, which under
+natural conditions grows to a height of from 18 to 20 ft., with
+oblong-ovate, acuminate, smooth and shining leaves, measuring about 6
+in. in length by 2-1/2 wide. Its flowers, which are produced in dense
+clusters in the axils of the leaves, have a five-toothed calyx, a
+tubular five-parted corolla, five stamens and a single bifid style. The
+flowers are pure white in colour, with a rich fragrant odour, and the
+plants in blossom have a lovely and attractive appearance, but the bloom
+is very evanescent. The fruit is a fleshy berry, having the appearance
+and size of a small cherry, and as it ripens it assumes a dark red
+colour. Each fruit contains two seeds embedded in a yellowish pulp, and
+the seeds are enclosed in a thin membranous endocarp (the "parchment").
+Between each seed and the parchment is a delicate covering called the
+"silver skin." The seeds which constitute the raw coffee "beans" of
+commerce are plano-convex in form, the flat surfaces which are laid
+against each other within the berry having a longitudinal furrow or
+groove. When only one seed is developed in a fruit it is not flattened
+on one side, but circular in cross section. Such seeds form "pea-berry"
+coffee.
+
+The seeds are of a soft, semi-translucent, bluish or greenish colour,
+hard and tough in texture. The regions best adapted for the cultivation
+of coffee are well-watered mountain slopes at an elevation ranging from
+1000 to 4000 ft. above sea-level, within the tropics, and possessing a
+mean annual temperature of about 65 deg. to 70 deg. F.
+
+The Liberian coffee plant (_C. liberica_) has larger leaves, flowers and
+fruits, and is of a more robust and hardy constitution, than Arabian
+coffee. The seeds yield a highly aromatic and well-flavoured coffee (but
+by no means equal to Arabian), and the plant is very prolific and yields
+heavy crops. Liberian coffee grows, moreover, at low altitudes, and
+flourishes in many situations unsuitable to the Arabian coffee. It grows
+wild in great abundance along the whole of the Guinea coast.
+
+_History._--The early history of coffee as an economic product is
+involved in considerable obscurity, the absence of fact being
+compensated for by a profusion of conjectural statements and mythical
+stories. The use of coffee (_C. arabica_) in Abyssinia was recorded in
+the 15th century, and was then stated to have been practised from time
+immemorial. Neighbouring countries, however, appear to have been quite
+ignorant of its value. Various legendary accounts are given of the
+discovery of the beneficial properties of the plant, one ascribing it to
+a flock of sheep accidentally browsing on the wild shrubs, with the
+result that they became elated and sleepless at night! Its physiological
+action in dissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken
+advantage of in connexion with the prolonged religious service of the
+Mahommedans, and its use as a devotional antisoporific stirred up fierce
+opposition on the part of the strictly orthodox and conservative section
+of the priests. Coffee by them was held to be an intoxicating beverage,
+and therefore prohibited by the Koran, and severe penalties were
+threatened to those addicted to its use. Notwithstanding threats of
+divine retribution and other devices, the coffee-drinking habit spread
+rapidly among the Arabian Mahommedans, and the growth of coffee and its
+use as a national beverage became as inseparably connected with Arabia
+as tea is with China.
+
+Towards the close of the 16th century the use of coffee was recorded by
+a European resident in Egypt, and about this epoch it came into general
+use in the near East. The appreciation of coffee as a beverage in Europe
+dates from the 17th century. "Coffee-houses" were soon instituted, the
+first being opened in Constantinople and Venice. In London coffee-houses
+date from 1652, when one was opened in St Michael's Alley, Cornhill.
+They soon became popular, and the role played by them in the social life
+of the 17th and 18th centuries is well known. Germany, France, Sweden
+and other countries adopted them at about the same time as Great
+Britain. In Europe, as in Arabia, coffee at first made its way into
+favour in the face of various adverse and even prohibitive restrictions.
+Thus at one time in Germany it was necessary to obtain a licence to
+roast coffee. In England Charles II. endeavoured to suppress
+coffee-houses on the ground that they were centres of political
+agitation, his royal proclamation stating that they were the resort of
+disaffected persons "who devised and spread abroad divers false,
+malicious and scandalous reports, to the defamation of His Majesty's
+government, and to the disturbance of the peace and quiet of the
+nation."
+
+Up to the close of the 17th century the world's entire, although
+limited, supply of coffee was obtained from the province of Yemen in
+south Arabia, where the true celebrated Mocha or Mokka coffee is still
+produced. At this time, however, plants were successfully introduced
+from Arabia to Java, where the cultivation was immediately taken up. The
+government of Java distributed plants to various places, including the
+botanic garden of Amsterdam. The Portuguese introduced coffee into
+Ceylon. From Amsterdam the Dutch sent the plant to Surinam in 1718, and
+in the same year Jamaica received it through the governor Sir Nicholas
+Lawes. Within a few years coffee reached the other West Indian islands,
+and spread generally through the tropics of the New World, which now
+produce by far the greater portion of the world's supply.
+
+_Cultivation and Preparation for Market._--Coffee plants are grown from
+seeds, which, as in the case of other crops, should be obtained from
+selected trees of desirable characteristics. The seeds may be sown "at
+stake," _i.e._ in the actual positions the mature plants are to occupy,
+or raised in a nursery and afterwards transplanted. The choice of
+methods is usually determined by various local considerations. Nurseries
+are desirable where there is risk of drought killing seedlings in the
+open. Whilst young the plants usually require to be shaded, and this may
+be done by growing castor oil plants, cassava (_Manihot_), maize or
+Indian corn, bananas, or various other useful crops between the coffee,
+until the latter develop and occupy the ground. Sometimes, but by no
+means always, permanent shading is afforded by special shade trees, such
+as species of the coral tree (_Erythrina_) and other leguminous trees.
+Opinions as to the necessity of shade trees varies in different
+countries; _e.g._ in Brazil and at high elevations in Jamaica they are
+not employed, whereas in Porto Rico many look on them as absolutely
+essential. It is probable that in many cases where shade trees are of
+advantage their beneficial action may be indirect, in affording
+protection from wind, drought or soil erosion, and, when leguminous
+plants are employed, in enriching the soil in nitrogen. The plants begin
+to come into bearing in their second or third year, but on the average
+the fifth is the first year of considerable yield. There may be two,
+three, or even more "flushes" of blossom in one year, and flowers and
+fruits in all stages may thus be seen on one plant. The fruits are fully
+ripe about seven months after the flowers open; the ripe fruits are
+fleshy, and of a deep red colour, whence the name of "cherry." When
+mature the fruits are picked by hand, or allowed to fall of their own
+accord or by shaking the plant. The subsequent preparation may be
+according to (1) the dry or (2) the wet method.
+
+In the dry method the cherries are spread in a thin layer, often on a
+stone drying floor, or barbecue, and exposed to the sun. Protection is
+necessary against heavy dew or rain. The dried cherries can be stored
+for any length of time, and later the dried pulp and the parchment are
+removed, setting free the two beans contained in each cherry. This
+primitive and simple method is employed in Arabia, in Brazil and other
+countries. In Brazil it is giving place to the more modern method
+described below.
+
+In the wet, or as it is sometimes called, West Indian method, the
+cherries are put in a tank of water. On large estates galvanized
+spouting is often employed to convey the beans by the help of running
+water from the fields to the tank. The mature cherries sink, and are
+drawn off from the tank through pipes to the pulping machines. Here they
+are subjected to the action of a roughened cylinder revolving closely
+against a curved iron plate. The fleshy portion is reduced to a pulp,
+and the mixture of pulp and liberated seeds (each still enclosed in its
+parchment) is carried away to a second tank of water and stirred. The
+light pulp is removed by a stream of water and the seeds allowed to
+settle. Slight fermentation and subsequent washings, accompanied by
+trampling with bare feet and stirring by rakes or special machinery,
+result in the parchment coverings being left quite clean. The beans are
+now dried on barbecues, in trays, &c., or by artificial heat if
+climatic conditions render this necessary. Recent experiments in Porto
+Rico tend to show that if the weather is unfavourable during the crop
+period the pulped coffee can be allowed to remain moist and even to malt
+or sprout without injury to the final value of the product when dried
+later. The product is now in the state known as parchment coffee, and
+may be exported. Before use, however, the parchment must be removed.
+This may be done on the estate, at the port of shipment, or in the
+country where imported. The coffee is thoroughly dried, the parchment
+broken by a roller, and removed by winnowing. Further rubbing and
+winnowing removes the silver skin, and the beans are left in the
+condition of ordinary unroasted coffee. Grading into large, medium and
+small beans, to secure the uniformity desirable in roasting, is effected
+by the use of a cylindrical or other pattern sieve, along which the
+beans are made to travel, encountering first small, then medium, and
+finally large apertures or meshes. Damaged beans and foreign matter are
+removed by hand picking. An average yield of cleaned coffee is from
+1-1/2 to 2 lb per tree, but much greater crops are obtained on new rich
+lands, and under special conditions.
+
+  _Production._--The centre of production has shifted greatly since
+  coffee first came into use in Europe. Arabia formerly supplied the
+  world; later the West Indies and then Java took the lead, to be
+  supplanted in turn by Brazil, which now produces about three-quarters
+  of the world's supply and controls the market.
+
+  _Brazil._--Coffee planting is the chief industry of Brazil, and coffee
+  the principal export. The states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas
+  Geraes and Santos, contain the chief coffee-producing lands. The
+  annual output ranges from about 10,000,000 to 16,000,000 bags (of 120
+  lb each), whilst the world's annual consumption is more or less
+  stationary at about 16,000,000 bags. The overwhelming importance of
+  the Brazilian output is thus evident. Recently efforts have been made
+  to restrict production to maintain prices, and the Coffee Convention
+  scheme came into force in Sao Paulo on December 1, 1906, and in Rio de
+  Janeiro and Minas Geraes on January 1, 1907. The cultivation in
+  general is very primitive in character, periodical weeding being
+  almost all the attention the plants receive. Manuring is commonly
+  confined to mulches of the cut weeds and addition of the coffee husks.
+  New lands in Sao Paulo yield from 80 cwt. to 100 cwt. of cleaned
+  coffee per 1000 trees (700 go to the acre); the average yield,
+  however, is not more than 15 cwt. The plants are at their best when
+  from 10 to 15 years old, but continue yielding for 30 years or even
+  more.
+
+  _Other South American Countries._--Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru,
+  and to a much less degree Bolivia and Paraguay, produce coffee, the
+  annual crops of the two former countries being each of about
+  L1,500,000 in value.
+
+  _Central America._--Guatemala produces the most in this region; the
+  coffee estates are mainly controlled by Germans, who have brought them
+  to a high pitch of perfection. The crop ranges in value from about
+  L1,000,000 to L1,500,000 per annum. Costa Rica and San Salvador
+  produce about half this amount. In Nicaragua, Honduras and Panama,
+  coffee is extensively cultivated, and all export the product.
+
+  _West Indies._--Coffee is grown in most of the islands, often only for
+  local use. Haiti produces the largest amount, the annual value of the
+  crop being about L500,000. Porto Rico formerly had a flourishing
+  industry, but it has declined owing to various causes. The interior is
+  still expected to be devoted largely to coffee, and the U.S.
+  Department of Agriculture has carried out experiments to improve
+  methods and ensure the cultivation of better varieties. Jamaica
+  produces the famous Blue Mountain Coffee, which compares favourably
+  with the best coffees of the world, and also ordinary or "plain
+  grown"; the Blue Mountain is cultivated at elevations of from 3000 to
+  4500 ft. Coffee usually ranks third or fourth in value amongst the
+  exports of the island.
+
+  _Africa_, the native country of the coffees, does not now contribute
+  any important amount to the world's output. In Liberia, the Gold Coast
+  and elsewhere on the West Coast are many plantations, but the low
+  prices ruling of recent years have caused coffee to be neglected for
+  more remunerative crops. Coffee is, however, still the principal
+  export of Nyasaland (British Central Africa), where it was introduced
+  as recently as 1894. The area under coffee has been greatly reduced,
+  owing partly to more attention being paid to cotton, partly to
+  droughts and other causes. In Somaliland and Abyssinia coffee
+  cultivation is of very ancient date. Two kinds are exported, Harrari
+  and Habashi. The former compares favourably with Mocha coffee. The
+  industry could be very considerably extended. In Natal, Rhodesia, &c.,
+  coffee is grown, but not in sufficient quantity to supply the local
+  demand.
+
+  _Arabia._--The name "Mocha" is applied generally to coffee produced in
+  Arabia. Turkey and Egypt obtain the best grades. Traders from these
+  countries go to Arabia, buy the crops on the trees, and supervise its
+  picking and preparation themselves. The coffee is prepared by the "dry
+  method."
+
+
+  _India_ is the principal coffee-growing region in the British empire,
+  and produces about one-fifth of the total supply of the United
+  Kingdom. There are some 213,000 acres under coffee, mostly in southern
+  India. The official report states that the production of coffee is
+  restricted for the most part to a limited area in the elevated region
+  above the south-western coast, the coffee lands of Mysore, Coorg, and
+  the Madras districts of Malabar and the Nilgiris, comprising 86% of
+  the whole area under the plant in India. About one-half of the whole
+  coffee-producing area is in Mysore. In Burma, Assam and Bombay, coffee
+  is of minor importance. During 1904-1906 there was a reduction of the
+  area under coffee in India by 21,554 acres.
+
+  _Ceylon._--The history of coffee in Ceylon is practically that of the
+  coffee-leaf disease (see below). The Dutch introduced Arabian coffee
+  in 1720, but abandoned its cultivation later. It was revived by the
+  British, and developed very rapidly between 1836 and 1845, when there
+  was a temporary collapse owing to financial crisis in the United
+  Kingdom. In 1880 the exports of coffee were of the value of about
+  L2,784,163. Ten years later they had fallen to L430,633, owing to the
+  ravages of the coffee-leaf disease. The output continued to decrease,
+  and the value of the crop in 1906 was only L17,258. Liberian coffee,
+  which is hardier and more resistant to disease, was introduced, but
+  met with only partial success.
+
+  _Dutch East Indies._--Coffee from this source passes under the general
+  name of "Java," that island producing the greatest amount; Sumatra,
+  Borneo and the Celebes, &c., however, also contribute. The Java
+  plantations are largely owned by the government. Much of the coffee
+  from these islands is of a high quality.
+
+  _Australasia._--Coffee can be cultivated in the northern territories
+  of Australia, but comparatively little is done with this crop;
+  Queensland produces the largest amount.
+
+  _Hawaii_, &c.--In all the islands of the Hawaiian group coffee is
+  grown, but nine-tenths or more is raised in Hawaii itself, the Kona
+  district being the chief seat of production. The exports go mostly to
+  the United States, and there is also a large local consumption.
+
+  Coffee thrives well also in the Philippines and Guam.
+
+  _The World's Trade._--The following figures, from the _Year-book_ of
+  the U.S. Department of Agriculture, indicate the relative importance
+  of the coffee-exporting countries.
+
+                                   1904.                 1905.
+     Country.                 Exports coffee        Exports coffee
+                                  in lb.                in lb.
+  _America_--
+    Brazil                    1,326,027,795         1,431,328,038
+    Colombia                    130,000,000  (est.)    70,000,000
+    Venezuela                   128,000,000    "       94,370,090
+    Haiti                        81,407,346            45,244,232
+    Salvador                     75,314,003            61,822,223
+    Guatemala                    71,653,700            81,081,600
+    Mexico                       41,855,368            42,456,491
+    Costa Rica                   27,730,672            39,788,002
+    Nicaragua                    21,661,621            18,171,515
+    Porto Rico                   15,330,590
+    Jamaica                       5,781,440             9,046,464
+
+  _Asia_--
+    Dutch East Indies            77,168,254            72,864,649
+    British India                36,920,464            40,340,384
+    Singapore (port of export)   12,367,156            11,935,034
+
+  _Other countries_             216,891,567           220,132,690
+                              -------------         -------------
+                  Total       2,268,109,976         2,238,581,412
+
+  In 1906 there was an increased total of 2,680,855,878 lb, due to the
+  Brazil export rising to 1,847,367,771 lb. The aggregate value of the
+  coffee annually entering the world's markets is about L40,000,000.
+
+_Coffee Consumption._--The United States of America consume nearly one
+half of all the coffee exported from the producing countries of the
+world. This might of course be due merely to the States containing more
+coffee-drinkers than other countries, but the average consumption per
+head in the country is about 11 to 12 lb per annum, an amount equalled
+or excelled only in Norway, Sweden and Holland. Whilst one great branch
+of the Anglo-Saxon stock is near the head of the list, it is interesting
+to note that the United Kingdom and also Canada and Australia are almost
+at the foot, using only about 1 lb of coffee per head each year.
+Germany, with a consumption of about 6 to 7 lb per person per annum uses
+considerably less than a quarter of the world's commercial crop. France,
+about 5 lb per head, takes about one eighth; and Austria-Hungary, about
+2 lb, uses some one-sixteenth. Holland consumes approximately as much,
+but with a much smaller population, the Dutch using more per head than
+any other people--14 lb to 15 lb per annum. Their taste is seen also in
+the relatively high consumption in South Africa. Sweden, Belgium and the
+United Kingdom, follow next in order of total amount used.
+
+In many tropical countries much coffee is drunk, but as it is often
+produced locally exact figures are not available. The average
+consumption in the United Kingdom is about 50,000,000 lb per annum;
+about one-fifth only is produced in the British empire, and of this
+about nineteen-twentieths come from India and one-twentieth from the
+British West Indies.
+
+_Coffee-leaf Disease._--The coffee industry in Ceylon was ruined by the
+attack of a fungoid disease (_Hemileia vastatrix_) known as the Ceylon
+coffee-leaf disease. This has since extended its ravages into every
+coffee-producing country in the Old World, and added greatly to the
+difficulties of successful cultivation. The fungus is a microscopic one,
+the minute spores of which, carried by the wind, settle and germinate
+upon the leaves of the plant. The fungal growth spreads through the
+substance to the leaf, robbing the leaf of its nourishment and causing
+it to wither and fall. An infected plantation may be cleansed, and the
+fungus in its nascent state destroyed, by powdering the trees with a
+mixture of lime and sulphur, but, unless the access of fresh spores
+brought by the wind can be arrested, the plantations may be readily
+reinfected when the lime and sulphur are washed off by rain. The
+separation of plantations by belts of trees to windward is suggested as
+a check to the spread of the disease.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Coffee-leaf Disease, _Hemileia vastatrix_.
+
+  1, Part of leaf showing diseased patches.
+  2, Cluster of uredospores.
+  3, Transverse section of a diseased patch in the leaf showing the
+     hyphae of the fungus pushing between the leaf-cells and tapping
+     them for nourishment. The hyphae have broken through in the upper
+     face and are forming a cluster of spores.
+  4, Ripe uredospores.
+  5, A teleutospore.
+  6, A uredospore germinating, the germ-tube is penetrating the leaf.
+  7, Uredospore germinating.
+  u, Uredospore.
+  t, Teleutospore.
+  2-7, Highly magnified.]
+
+_Microscopic Structure._--Raw coffee seeds are tough and horny in
+structure, and are devoid of the peculiar aroma and taste which are so
+characteristic of the roasted seeds. The minute structure of coffee
+allows it to be readily recognized by means of the microscope, and as
+roasting does not destroy its distinguishing peculiarities, microscopic
+examination forms the readiest means of determining the genuineness of
+any sample. The substance of the seed, according to Dr Hassall, consists
+"of an assemblage of vesicles or cells of an angular form, which adhere
+so firmly together that they break up into pieces rather than separate
+into distinct and perfect cells. The cavities of the cells include, in
+the form of little drops, a considerable quantity of aromatic volatile
+oil, on the presence of which the fragrance and many of the active
+principles of the berry depend" (see fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Microscopic structure of Coffee.]
+
+_Physiological Action._--Coffee belongs to the medicinal or auxiliary
+class of food substances, being solely valuable for its stimulant effect
+upon the nervous and vascular system. It produces a feeling of buoyancy
+and exhilaration comparable to a certain stage of alcoholic
+intoxication, but which does not end in depression or collapse. It
+increases the frequency of the pulse, lightens the sensation of fatigue,
+and it sustains the strength under prolonged and severe muscular
+exertion. The value of its hot infusion under the rigours of Arctic cold
+has been demonstrated in the experience of all Arctic explorers, and it
+is scarcely less useful in tropical regions, where it beneficially
+stimulates the action of the skin.
+
+The physiological action of coffee mainly depends on the presence of the
+alkaloid caffeine, which occurs also in tea, Paraguay tea, and cola
+nuts, and is very similar to theobromine, the active principle in cocoa.
+The percentage of caffeine present varies in the different species of
+_Coffea_. In Arabian coffee it ranges from about 0.7 to 1.6%; in
+Liberian coffee from 1.0 to 1.5%. Sierra Leone coffee (_C. stenophylla_)
+contains from 1.52 to 1.70%; in _C. excelsa_ 1.89% is recorded, and as
+much as 1.97% in _C. canephora_. Four species have been shown by M. G.
+Bertrand to contain no caffeine at all, but instead a considerable
+quantity of a bitter principle. All these four species are found only in
+Madagascar or the neighbouring islands. Other coffees grown there
+contain caffeine as usual. Coffee, with the caffeine extracted, has also
+been recently prepared for the market. The commercial value of coffee is
+determined by the amount of the aromatic oil, caffeone, which develops
+in it by the process of roasting. By prolonged keeping it is found that
+the richness of any seeds in this peculiar oil is increased, and with
+increased aroma the coffee also yields a blander and more mellow
+beverage. Stored coffee loses weight at first with great rapidity, as
+much as 8% having been found to dissipate in the first year of keeping,
+5% in the second, and 2% in the third; but such loss of weight is more
+than compensated by improvement in quality and consequent enhancement of
+value.
+
+_Roasting._--In the process of roasting, coffee seeds swell up by the
+liberation of gases within their substance,--their weight decreasing in
+proportion to the extent to which the operation is carried. Roasting
+also develops with the aromatic caffeone above alluded to a bitter
+soluble principle, and it liberates a portion of the caffeine from its
+combination with the caffetannic acid. Roasting is an operation of the
+greatest nicety, and one, moreover, of a crucial nature, for equally by
+insufficient and by excessive roasting much of the aroma of the coffee
+is lost; and its infusion is neither agreeable to the palate nor
+exhilarating in its influence. The roaster must judge of the amount of
+heat required for the adequate roasting of different qualities, and
+while that is variable, the range of roasting temperature proper for
+individual kinds is only narrow. In continental countries it is the
+practice to roast in small quantities, and thus the whole charge is well
+under the control of the roaster; but in Britain large roasts are the
+rule, in dealing with which much difficulty is experienced in producing
+uniform torrefaction, and in stopping the process at the proper moment.
+The coffee-roasting apparatus is usually a malleable iron cylinder
+mounted to revolve over the fire on a hollow axle which allows the
+escape of gases generated during torrefaction. The roasting of coffee
+should be done as short a time as practicable before the grinding for
+use, and as ground coffee especially parts rapidly with its aroma, the
+grinding should only be done when coffee is about to be prepared.
+
+_Adulteration._--Although by microscopic, physical and chemical tests
+the purity of coffee can be determined with perfect certainty, yet
+ground coffee is subjected to many and extensive adulterations (see also
+ADULTERATION). Chief among the adulterant substances, if it can be so
+called, is chicory; but it occupies a peculiar position, since very many
+people on the European continent as well as in Great Britain
+deliberately prefer a mixture of chicory with coffee to pure coffee.
+Chicory is indeed destitute of the stimulant alkaloid and essential oil
+for which coffee is valued; but the facts that it has stood the test of
+prolonged and extended use, and that its infusion is, in some
+localities, used alone, indicate that it performs some useful function
+in connexion with coffee, as used at least by Western communities. For
+one thing, it yields a copious amount of soluble matter in infusion with
+hot water, and thus gives a specious appearance of strength and
+substance to what may be really only a very weak preparation of coffee.
+The mixture of chicory with coffee is easily detected by the microscope,
+the structure of both, which they retain after torrefaction, being very
+characteristic and distinct. The granules of coffee, moreover, remain
+hard and angular when mixed with water, to which they communicate but
+little colour; chicory, on the other hand, swelling up and softening,
+yields a deep brown colour to water in which it is thrown. The specific
+gravity of an infusion of chicory is also much higher than that of
+coffee. Among the numerous other substances used to adulterate coffee
+are roasted and ground roots of the dandelion, carrot, parsnip and beet;
+beans, lupins and other leguminous seeds; wheat, rice and various cereal
+grains; the seeds of the broom, fenugreek and iris; acorns; "negro
+coffee," the seeds of _Cassia occidentalis_, the seeds of the ochro
+(_Hibiscus esculentus_), and also the soja or soy bean (_Glycine Soya_).
+Not only have these with many more similar substances been used as
+adulterants, but under various high-sounding names several of them have
+been introduced as substitutes for coffee; but they have neither merited
+nor obtained any success, and their sole effect has been to bring coffee
+into undeserved disrepute with the public.
+
+Not only is ground coffee adulterated, but such mixtures as flour,
+chicory and coffee, or even bran and molasses, have been made up to
+simulate coffee beans and sold as such.
+
+The leaves of the coffee tree contain caffeine in larger proportion than
+the seeds themselves, and their use as a substitute for tea has
+frequently been suggested. The leaves are actually so used in Sumatra,
+but being destitute of any attractive aroma such as is possessed by both
+tea and coffee, the infusion is not palatable. It is, moreover, not
+practicable to obtain both seeds and leaves from the same plant, and as
+the commercial demand is for the seed alone, no consideration either of
+profit or of any dietetic or economic advantage is likely to lead to the
+growth of coffee trees on account of their leaves.
+     (A. B. R.; W. G. F.)
+
+
+
+
+COFFER (Fr. _coffre_, O. Fr. _cofre_ or _cofne_, Lat. _cophinus_, cf.
+"coffin"), in architecture, a sunk panel in a ceiling or vault; also a
+casket or chest in which jewels or precious goods were kept, and, if of
+large dimensions, clothes. The marriage coffers in Italy were of
+exceptional richness in their carving and gilding and were sometimes
+painted by great artists.
+
+
+
+
+COFFERDAM, in engineering. To enable foundations (q.v.) to be laid in a
+site which is under water, the engineer sometimes surrounds it with an
+embankment or dam, known as a cofferdam, to form an enclosure from which
+the water is excluded. Where the depth of water is small and the current
+slight, simple clay dams may be used, but in general cofferdams consist
+of two rows of piles, the space between which is packed with clay
+puddle. The dam must be sufficiently strong to withstand the exterior
+pressure to which it is exposed when the enclosed space is pumped dry.
+
+
+
+
+COFFEYVILLE, a city of Montgomery county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the
+Verdigris river, about 150 m. S. of Topeka and near the southern
+boundary of the state. Pop. (1890) 2282; (1900) 4953, of whom 803 were
+negroes; (1905) 13,196; (1910) 12,687. Coffeyville is served by the
+Missouri Pacific, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Missouri, Kansas
+& Texas, and the Saint Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern railways, and by
+inter-urban electric railway to Independence. It is in the Kansas
+natural-gas field, ships large quantities of grain, and has a large zinc
+oxide smelter and a large oil refinery, and various manufactures,
+including vitrified brick and tile, flour, lumber, chemicals, window
+glass, bottles, pottery and straw boards. The municipality owns and
+operates its water-works and electric lighting plant. Coffeyville, named
+in honour of A. M. Coffey, who was a member of the first legislature of
+the territory of Kansas, was founded in 1869, but in 1871 it was removed
+about 1 m. from its original site, now known as "old town." It was
+incorporated as a city of the third class in 1872 and received a new
+charter in 1887. Coffeyville became a station on the Leavenworth,
+Lawrence & Galveston railway (now part of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa
+Fe), and for several years large numbers of cattle were driven here from
+Indian Territory and Texas for shipment; in fact, the city's chief
+importance was as a trade centre for the north part of Indian Territory
+until natural gas was found here in large quantities in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+COFFIN (from Lat. _cophinus_, Gr. [Greek: kophinos], a coffer, chest or
+basket, but never meaning "coffin" in its present sense), the receptacle
+in which a corpse is confined. The Greeks and Romans disposed of their
+dead both by burial and by cremation. Greek coffins varied in shape,
+being in the form of an urn, or like the modern coffins, or triangular,
+the body being in a sitting posture. The material used was generally
+burnt clay, and in some cases this had obviously been first moulded
+round the body, and so baked. Cremation was the commonest method of
+disposing of the dead among the Romans, until the Christian era, when
+stone coffins came into use. Examples of these have been frequently dug
+up in England. In 1853, during excavations for the foundations of some
+warehouses in Hayden Square, Minories, London, a Roman stone coffin was
+found within which was a leaden shell. Others have been found at
+Whitechapel, Stratford-le-Bow, Old Kent Road and Battersea Fields, and
+in great numbers at Colchester, York, Southfleet and Kingsholme near
+Gloucester. In early England stone coffins were only used by the nobles
+and the wealthy. Those of the Romans who were rich enough had their
+coffins made of a limestone brought from Assos in Troas, which it was
+commonly believed "ate the body"; hence arose the name sarcophagus
+(q.v.).
+
+The coffins of the Chaldaeans were generally clay urns with the top left
+open, resembling immense jars. These, too, must have been moulded round
+the body, as the size of the mouth would not admit of its introduction
+after the clay was baked. The Egyptian coffins, or sarcophagi, as they
+have been improperly called, are the largest stone coffins known and are
+generally highly polished and covered with hieroglyphics, usually a
+history of the deceased. Mummy chests shaped to the form of the body
+were also used. These were made of hard wood or _papier mache_ painted,
+and like the stone coffins bore hieroglyphics. The Persians, Parthians,
+Medes and peoples of the Caspian are not known to have had any coffins,
+their usual custom being to expose the body to be devoured by beasts and
+birds of prey. Unhewn flat stones were sometimes used by the ancient
+European peoples to line the grave. One was placed at the bottom, others
+stood on their edges to form the sides, and a large slab was put on top,
+thus forming a rude cist. In England after the Roman invasion these rude
+cists gave place to the stone coffin, and this, though varying much in
+shape, continued in use until the 16th century.
+
+The most primitive wooden coffin was formed of a tree-trunk split down
+the centre, and hollowed out. The earliest specimen of this type is in
+the Copenhagen museum, the implements found in it proving that it
+belonged to the Bronze Age. This type of coffin, more or less modified
+by planing, was used in medieval Britain by those of the better classes
+who could not afford stone, but the poor were buried without coffins,
+wrapped simply in cloth or even covered only with hay and flowers.
+Towards the end of the 17th century, coffins became usual for all
+classes. It is worth noting that in the Burial Service in the Book of
+Common Prayer the word "coffin" is not used.
+
+Among the American Indians some tribes, e.g. the Sacs, Foxes and Sioux,
+used rough hewn wooden coffins; others, such as the Seris, sometimes
+enclosed the corpse between the carapace and plastron of a turtle. The
+Seminoles of Florida used no coffins, while at Santa Barbara,
+California, canoes containing corpses have been found buried though they
+may have been intended for the dead warrior's use in the next world.
+Rough stone cists, too, have been found, especially in Illinois and
+Kentucky. In their tree and scaffold burial the Indians sometimes used
+wooden coffins, but oftener the bodies were simply wrapped in blankets.
+Canoes mounted on a scaffold near a river were used as coffins by some
+tribes, while others placed the corpse in a canoe or wicker basket and
+floated them out into the stream or lake (see FUNERAL RITES). The
+aborigines of Australia generally used coffins of bark, but some tribes
+employed baskets of wicker-work.
+
+Lead coffins were used in Europe in the middle ages, shaped like the
+mummy chests of ancient Egypt. Iron coffins were more rare, but they
+were certainly used in England and Scotland as late as the 17th century,
+when an order was made that upon bodies so buried a heavier burial fee
+should be levied. The coffins used in England to-day are generally of
+elm or oak lined with lead, or with a leaden shell so as to delay as far
+as possible the process of disintegration and decomposition. In America
+glass is sometimes used for the lids, and the inside is lined with
+copper or zinc. The coffins of France and Germany and the continent
+generally, usually differ from those of England in not being of the
+ordinary hexagonal shape but having sides and ends parallel. Coffins
+used in cremation throughout the civilized world are of some light
+material easily consumed and yielding little ash. Ordinary thin deal and
+_papier mache_ are the favourite materials. Coffins for what is known as
+Earth to Earth Burial are made of wicker-work covered with a thin layer
+of _papier mache_ over cloth.
+
+  See also FUNERAL RITES; CREMATION; Burial and Burial Acts; EMBALMING;
+  MUMMY, &c.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Dr H. C. Yarrow, "Study of the Mortuary Customs of the
+  North American Indians," _Report of Bureau of Amer. Ethnol._ vol. i.
+  (Washington, U.S.A., 1881); Rev. Thomas Hugo, "On the Hayden Square
+  Sarcophagus," _Journ. of Archaeol. Soc._ vol. ix. (London, 1854); C.
+  V. Creagh, "On Unusual Forms of Burial by People of the East Coast of
+  Borneo," _J.A.I._, vol. xxvi. (London, 1896-1897); Rev. J. Edward
+  Vaux, _Church Folk-lore_ (1894).
+
+
+
+
+COG. (1) (From an older _cogge_, a word which appears in various forms
+in Teutonic languages, as in O. Ger. _kogge_ or _kocke_, and also in
+Romanic, as in O. Fr. _cogue_, or _coque_, from which the Eng.
+"cock-boat" is derived; the connexion between the Teutonic and the
+Romanic forms is obscure), a broadly built, round-shaped ship, used as a
+trader and also as a ship of war till the 15th century. (2) (A word of
+obscure origin, possibly connected with Fr. _coche_, and Ital. _cocca_,
+a notch; the Celtic forms _cog_ and _cocas_ come from the English), a
+tooth in a series of teeth, morticed on to, or cut out of the
+circumference of a wheel, which works with the tooth in a corresponding
+series on another wheel (see MECHANICS). (3) (Also of quite obscure
+origin), a slang term for a form of cheating at dice. The early uses of
+the word show that this was done not by "loading" the dice, as the
+modern use of the expression of "cogged dice" seems to imply, but by
+sleight of hand in directing the fall or in changing the dice.
+
+
+
+
+COGERS HALL, a London tavern debating society. It was instituted in 1755
+at the White Bear Inn (now St Bride's Tavern), Fleet Street, moved about
+1850 to Discussion Hall, Shoe Lane, and in 1871 finally migrated to the
+Barley Mow Inn, Salisbury Square, E.C., its present quarters. The name
+is often wrongly spelt Codgers and Coggers; the "o" is really long, the
+accepted derivation being from Descartes' _Cogito, ergo sum_, and thus
+meaning "The society of thinkers." The aims of the Cogers were "the
+promotion of the liberty of the subject and the freedom of the Press,
+the maintenance of loyalty to the laws, the rights and claims of
+humanity and the practice of public and private virtue." Among its early
+members Cogers Hall reckoned John Wilkes, one of its first presidents,
+and Curran, who in 1773 writes to a friend that he spent a couple of
+hours every night at the Hall. Later Dickens was a prominent member.
+
+  See Peter Rayleigh, _History of Ye Antient Society of Cogers_ (London,
+  1904).
+
+
+
+
+COGHLAN, CHARLES FRANCIS (1841-1899), Irish actor, was born in Paris,
+and was educated for the law. He made his first London appearance in
+1860, and became the leading actor at the Prince of Wales's. He went to
+America in 1876, where he remained for the rest of his life, playing
+first in Augustin Daly's company and then in the Union Square stock
+company, during the long run of _The Celebrated Case_. He also played
+with his sister, and in support of Mrs Langtry and Mrs Fiske, and in
+1898 produced a version of Dumas' _Kean_, called _The Royal Box_, in
+which he successfully starred during the last years of his life. He died
+in Galveston, Texas, on the 27th of November 1899.
+
+His sister, the actress ROSE COGHLAN (1853-   ), went to America in 1871,
+was again in England from 1873 to 1877, playing with Barry Sullivan, and
+then returned to America, where she became prominent as Countess Zicka
+in _Diplomacy_, and Stephanie in _Forget-me-not_. She was at Wallack's
+almost continuously until 1888, and subsequently appeared in melodrama
+in parts like the title-role of _The Sporting Duchess_.
+
+
+
+
+COGNAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Charente, on the left bank of the river Charente, 32
+m. W. of Angouleme on the Ouest-Etat railway, between Angouleme and
+Saintes. Pop. (1906) 18,389. The streets of the old town--which borders
+the river--are narrow and tortuous, but the newer parts are well
+provided with open spaces. The chief of these is the beautiful Parc
+Francois 1er overlooking the Charente. In one of the squares there is a
+statue of Francis I., who was born here. The chief building is a church
+of the 12th century dedicated to St Leger, which preserves a fine
+Romanesque facade and a tower of the 15th century. A castle of the 15th
+and 16th centuries, once the residence of the counts of Angouleme, now a
+storehouse for brandy, and a medieval gate stand in the older part of
+the town. Cognac is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of first
+instance and of commerce, a council of trade arbitrators, a chamber of
+commerce, and consulates of the United States, Spain and Portugal. Its
+most important industry is the distillation of the brandy (q.v.) to
+which the town gives its name. Large quantities are carried, by way of
+the river, to the neighbouring port of Tonnay-Charente. The industries
+subsidiary to the brandy trade, such as the making of cases and bottles,
+occupy many hands. Ironware is also manufactured, and a considerable
+trade is maintained in grain and cattle. In 1526 Cognac gave its name to
+a treaty concluded against Charles V. by Francis I., the pope, Venice
+and Milan. Its possession was contested during the wars of religion, and
+in 1570 it became one of the Huguenot strongholds. In 1651 it
+successfully sustained a siege against Louis II., prince of Conde,
+leader of the Fronde.
+
+  See _Le Pays du Cognac_, by L. Ravaz, for a description of the
+  district and its viticulture.
+
+
+
+
+COGNITION (Latin _cognitio_, from _cognoscere_, to become acquainted
+with), in psychology, a term used in its most general sense for all
+modes of being conscious or aware of an object, whether material or
+intellectual. It is an ultimate mode of consciousness, strictly the
+presentation (through sensation or otherwise) of an object to
+consciousness; in its complete form, however, it seems to involve a
+judgment, i.e. the separation from other objects of the object
+presented. The psychological theory of cognition takes for granted the
+dualism of the mind that knows and the object known; it takes no account
+of the metaphysical problem as to the possibility of a relation between
+the ego and the non-ego, but assumes that such a relation does exist.
+Cognition is therefore distinct from emotion and conation; it has no
+psychological connexion with feelings of pleasure and pain, nor does it
+tend as such to issue in action.
+
+  For the analysis of cognition-reactions see O. Kulpe, _Outlines of
+  Psychology_ (Eng. trans., 1895), pp. 411 foll.; E. B. Titchener,
+  _Experimental Psychology_ (1905), ii. 187 foll. On cognition
+  generally, G. F. Stout's _Analytic Psychology and Manual of
+  Psychology_; W. James's _Principles of Psychology_ (1890), i. 216
+  foll.; also article PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+COGNIZANCE (Lat. _cognoscere_, to know), knowledge, notice, especially
+judicial notice, the right of trying or considering a case judicially,
+the exercise of jurisdiction by a court of law. In heraldry a
+"cognizance" is an emblem, badge or device, used as a distinguishing
+mark by the body of retainers of a royal or noble house.
+
+
+
+
+COHEN (Hebrew for "priest"), a Jewish family name, implying descent from
+the ancient Hebrew priests. Many families claiming such descent are,
+however, not named Cohen. Other forms of the name are Cohn, Cowen, Kahn.
+
+  See J. Jacobs, _Jewish Encyclopedia_, iv. 144.
+
+
+
+
+COHN, FERDINAND JULIUS (1828-1898), German botanist, was born on the
+24th of January 1828 at Breslau. He was educated at Breslau and Berlin,
+and in 1859 became extraordinary, and in 1871 ordinary, professor of
+botany at Breslau University. He had a remarkable career, owing to his
+Jewish origin. He was contemporary with N. Pringsheim, and worked with
+H. R. Goeppert, C. G. Nees von Esenbeck, C. G. Ehrenberg and Johannes
+Muller. At an early date he exhibited astonishing ability with the
+microscope, which he did much to improve, and his researches on
+cell-walls and the growth and contents of plant-cells soon attracted
+attention, especially as he made remarkable advances in the
+establishment of an improved cell-theory, discovered the cilia in, and
+analysed the movements of, zoospores, and pointed out that the
+protoplasm of the plant-cell and the sarcode of the zoologists were one
+and the same physical vehicle of life. Although these early researches
+were especially on the Algae, in which group he instituted marked
+reforms of the rigid system due to F. T. Kutzing, Cohn had already
+displayed that activity in various departments which made him so famous
+as an all-round naturalist, his attention at various times being turned
+to such varied subjects as _Aldorovanda_, torsion in trees, the nature
+of waterspouts, the effects of lightning, physiology of seeds, the
+proteid crystals in the potato, which he discovered, the formation of
+travertin, the rotatoria, luminous worms, &c.
+
+It is, however, in the introduction of the strict biological and
+philosophical analysis of the life-histories of the lower and most
+minute forms of life that Cohn's greatest achievements consist, for he
+applied to these organisms the principle that we can only know the
+phases of growth of microscopic plants by watching every stage of
+development under the microscope, just as we learn how different are the
+youthful and adult appearances of an oak or a fern by direct
+observation. The success with which he attempted and carried out the
+application of cultural and developmental methods on the Algae, Fungi
+and Bacteria can only be fully appreciated by those familiar with the
+minute size and elusive evolutions of these organisms, and with the
+limited appliances at Cohn's command. Nevertheless his account of the
+life-histories of _Protococcus_ (1850), _Stephanosphaera_ (1852),
+_Volvox_ (1856 and 1875), _Hydrodictyon_ (1861), and _Sphaeroplea_
+(1855-1857) among the Algae have never been put aside. The first is a
+model of what a study in development should be; the last shares with G.
+Thuret's studies on _Fucus_ and Pringsheim's on _Vaucheria_ the merit of
+establishing the existence of a sexual process in Algae. Among the Fungi
+Cohn contributed important researches on _Pilobolus_ (1851), _Empusa_
+(1855), _Tarichium_ (1869), as well as valuable work on the nature of
+parasitism of Algae and Fungi.
+
+It is as the founder of bacteriology that Cohn's most striking claims to
+recognition will be established. He seems to have been always attracted
+particularly by curious problems of fermentation and coloration due to
+the most minute forms of life, as evinced by his papers on _Monas
+prodigiosa_ (1850) and "Uber blutahnliche Farbungen" (1850), on
+infusoria (1851 and 1852), on organisms in drinking-water (1853), "Die
+Wunder des Blutes" (1854), and had already published several works on
+insect epidemics (1869-1870) and on plant diseases, when his first
+specially bacteriological memoir (_Crenothrix_) appeared in the
+journal, _Beitrage zur Biologie_, which he then started (1870-1871), and
+which has since become so renowned. Investigations on other branches of
+bacteriology soon followed, among which "Organismen der Pockenlymphe"
+(1872) and "Untersuchungen uber Bacterien" (1872-1875) are most
+important, and laid the foundations of the new department of science
+which has now its own laboratories, literature and workers specially
+devoted to its extension in all directions. When it is remembered that
+Cohn brought out and helped R. Koch in publishing his celebrated paper
+on _Anthrax_ (1876), the first clearly worked out case of a bacterial
+disease, the significance of his influence on bacteriology becomes
+apparent.
+
+Among his most striking discoveries during his studies of the forms and
+movements of the Bacteria may be mentioned the nature of Zoogloea, the
+formation and germination of true spores--which he observed for the
+first time, and which he himself discovered in _Bacillus subtilis_--and
+their resistance to high temperatures, and the bearing of this on the
+fallacious experiments supposed to support abiogenesis; as well as works
+on the bacteria of air and water, the significance of the bright sulphur
+granules in sulphur bacteria, and of the iron oxide deposited in the
+walls of _Crenothrix_. His discoveries in these and in other departments
+all stand forth as mementoes of his acute observation and reasoning
+powers, and the thoughtful (in every sense of the word) consideration of
+the work of others, and suggestive ideas attached to his principal
+papers, bear the same characteristics. If we overcome the always
+difficult task of bridging in imagination the interval between our
+present platform of knowledge and that on which bacteriologists stood
+in, say, 1870, we shall not undervalue the important contributions of
+Cohn to the overthrow of the then formidable bugbear known as the
+doctrine of "spontaneous generation," a dogma of despair calculated to
+impede progress as much in its day as that of "vitalism" did in other
+periods. Cohn had also clear perceptions of the important bearings of
+Mycology and Bacteriology in infective diseases, as shown by his studies
+in insect-killing fungi, microscopic analysis of water, &c. He was a
+foreign member of the Royal Society and of the Linnean Society, and
+received the gold medal of the latter in 1895. He died at Breslau on the
+25th of June 1898.
+
+  Lists of his papers will be found in the _Catalogue of Scientific
+  Papers of the Royal Society_, and in _Ber. d. d. bot. Gesellsch._,
+  1899, vol. xvii. p. (196). The latter also contains (p. (172)) a full
+  memoir by F. Rosen.     (H. M. W.)
+
+
+
+
+COHN, GUSTAV (1840-   ), German economist, was born on the 12th of
+December 1840 at Marienwerder, in West Prussia. He was educated at
+Berlin and Jena universities. In 1869 he obtained a post at the
+polytechnic in Riga, and in 1875 was elected a professor at the
+polytechnic at Zurich. In 1873 he went to England for a period of study,
+and as a result published his _Untersuchungen uber die englische
+Eisenbahnpolitik_ (Leipzig, 1874-1875). In 1884 he was appointed
+professor of political science at Gottingen. Cohn's best-known works are
+_System der Nationalokonomie_ (Stuttgart, 1885); _Finanzwissenschaft_
+(1889); _Nationalokonomische Studien_ (1886), and _Zur Geschichte und
+Politik des Verkehrswesens_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+COHOES, a city of Albany county, New York, U.S.A., about 9 m. N. of
+Albany, at the confluence of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers. Pop. (1890)
+22,509; (1900) 23,910, of whom 7303 were foreign-born; (1910) 24,709. It
+is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Delaware &
+Hudson railways, by electric lines to Troy and Albany, and by the Erie
+and Champlain canals. It is primarily a manufacturing city. Hosiery and
+knit goods, cotton cloth, cotton batting, shoddy, underwear and shirts
+and collars are the principal products, but there are also extensive
+valve works and manufactories of pulp, paper and paper boxes, beer, pins
+and needles, tools and machinery, and sash, doors and blinds. The value
+of the factory products in 1905 was $10,289,822, of which $4,126,873, or
+40.1%, was the value of hosiery and knit goods, Cohoes ranking fifth
+among the cities of the United States (of 20,000 inhabitants or more) in
+this industry, and showing a higher degree of specialization in it than
+any other city in the United States except Little Falls, N.Y. The Falls
+of the Mohawk, which furnish power for the majority of the manufacturing
+establishments, are 75 ft. high and 900 ft. broad, a large dam above the
+falls storing the water, which is conveyed through canals to the mills.
+Below the falls the river is crossed by two fine iron bridges. The city
+has a public library, a normal training school and the St Bernard's
+(Roman Catholic) Academy. Cohoes was a part of the extensive manorial
+grant made to Killian Van Rensselaer in 1629 and it was probably settled
+very soon afterwards. It was incorporated as a village in 1848 and was
+chartered as a city in 1870.
+
+
+
+
+COHORT (Lat. _cohors_), originally a place enclosed: in the Roman army,
+the name of a unit of infantry. The troops of the first grade, the
+legions, were divided into cohorts, of which there were ten in each
+legion: the cohort thus contained 600 men. Among the troops of the
+second grade (the _auxilia_) the cohorts were independent foot regiments
+500 or 1000 strong, corresponding to the _alae_, which were similar
+regiments of cavalry; they were generally posted on the frontiers of the
+Empire in small forts of four to eight acres, each holding one cohort or
+_ala_. The special troops of Rome itself, the Praetorian Guard, the
+Urbanae Cohortes, and the Vigiles (fire brigade), were divided into
+cohorts (see further ROMAN ARMY). The phrase _cohors praetoria_ or
+_cohors amicorum_ was sometimes used, especially during the Roman
+republic, to denote the suite of the governor of a province; hence
+developed the Praetorian cohorts which formed the emperor's bodyguard.
+
+In biology, "cohort" is a term for a group of allied orders or families
+of plants or animals.
+
+
+
+
+COIF (from Fr. _coiffe_, Ital. _cuffia_, a cap), a close-fitting
+covering for the head. Originally it was the name given to a
+head-covering worn in the middle ages, tied like a night-cap under the
+chin, and worn out of doors by both sexes; this was later worn by men as
+a kind of night-cap or skull-cap. The coif was also a close-fitting cap
+of white lawn or silk, worn by English serjeants-at-law as a
+distinguishing mark of their profession. It became the fashion to wear
+on the top of the white coif a small skull-cap of black silk or velvet;
+and on the introduction of wigs at the end of the 17th century a round
+space was left on the top of the wig for the display of the coif, which
+was afterwards covered by a small patch of black silk edged with white
+(see A. Pulling, _Order of the Coif_, 1897). The random conjecture of
+Sir H. Spelman (_Glossarium archaiologicum_) that the coif was
+originally designed to conceal the ecclesiastical tonsure has
+unfortunately been quoted by annotators of Blackstone's _Commentaries_
+as well as by Lord Campbell in his _Lives of the Chief Justices_. It may
+be classed with the curious conceit, recorded in Brand's _Popular
+Antiquities_, that the coif was derived from the child's caul, and was
+worn on the advocate's head for luck.
+
+
+
+
+COIMBATORE, a city and district of British India, in the Madras
+presidency. The city is situated on the left bank of the Noyil river,
+305 m. from Madras by the Madras railway. In 1901 it had a population of
+53,080, showing an increase of 14% in the decade. The city stands 1437
+ft. above sea-level, is well laid out and healthy, and is rendered
+additionally attractive to European residents by its picturesque
+position on the slopes of the Nilgiri hills. It is an important
+industrial centre, carrying on cotton weaving and spinning, tanning,
+distilling, and the manufacture of coffee, sugar, manure and saltpetre.
+It has two second-grade colleges, a college of agriculture, and a school
+of forestry.
+
+The DISTRICT OF COIMBATORE has an area of 7860 sq. m. It may be
+described as a flat, open country, hemmed in by mountains on the north,
+west and south, but opening eastwards on to the great plain of the
+Carnatic; the average height of the plain above sea-level is about 900
+ft. The principal mountains are the Anamalai Hills, in the south of the
+district, rising at places to a height of between 8000 and 9000 ft. In
+the west the Palghat and Vallagiri Hills form a connecting link between
+the Anamalai range and the Nilgiris, with the exception of a remarkable
+gap known as the Palghat Pass. This gap, which completely intersects the
+Ghats, is about 20 m. wide. In the north is a range of primitive
+trap-hills known as the Cauvery chain, extending eastwards from the
+Nilgiris, and rising in places to a height of 4000 ft. The principal
+rivers are the Cauvery, Bhavani, Noyil, and Amravati. Numerous canals
+are cut from the rivers for the purpose of affording artificial
+irrigation, which has proved of immense benefit to the country. Well and
+tank water is also largely used for irrigation purposes. Coimbatore
+district was acquired by the British in 1799 at the close of the war
+which ended with the death of Tippoo. In 1901 the population was
+2,201,782, showing an increase of 10% in the preceding decade. The
+principal crops are millet, rice, other food grains, pulse, oilseeds,
+cotton and tobacco, with a little coffee. Forests cover nearly 1-1/2
+million acres, yielding valuable timber (teak, sandalwood, &c.), and
+affording grazing-ground for cattle. There are several factories for
+pressing cotton, and for cleaning coffee, oil-cake presses, tanneries
+and saltpetre refineries. Cereals, cotton, forest products, cattle and
+hides, and brass and copper vessels are the chief exports from the
+district. The south-west line of the Madras railway runs through the
+district, and the South Indian railway (of metre gauge) joins this at
+Erode.
+
+
+
+
+COIMBRA, the capital of an administrative district formerly included in
+the province of Beira, Portugal; on the north bank of the river Mondego,
+115 m. N.N.E. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-Oporto railway. Pop. (1900)
+18,144. Coimbra is built for the most part on rising ground, and
+presents from the other side of the river a picturesque and imposing
+appearance; though in reality its houses have individually but little
+pretension, and its streets are, almost without exception, narrow and
+mean. It derives its present importance from being the seat of the only
+university in the kingdom--an institution which was originally
+established at Lisbon in 1291, was transferred to Coimbra in 1306, was
+again removed to Lisbon, and was finally fixed at Coimbra in 1527. There
+are five faculties--theology, law, medicine, mathematics and
+philosophy--with more than 1300 students. The library contains about
+150,000 volumes, and the museums and laboratories are on an extensive
+scale. In connexion with the medical faculty there are regular
+hospitals; the mathematical faculty maintains an observatory from which
+an excellent view can be obtained of the whole valley of the Mondego;
+and outside the town there is a botanic garden (especially rich in the
+flora of Brazil), which also serves as a public promenade. Among the
+other educational establishments are a military college, a royal college
+of arts, a scientific and literary institute, and an episcopal seminary.
+
+The city is the seat of a bishop, suffragan to the archbishop of Braga;
+its new cathedral, founded in 1580, is of little interest; but the old
+is a fine specimen of 12th-century Romanesque, and retains portions of
+the mosque which it replaced. The principal churches are Santa Cruz, of
+the 16th century, and San Salvador, founded in 1169. On the north bank
+of the Mondego stand the ruins of the once splendid monastery of Santa
+Clara, established in 1286; and on the south bank is the celebrated
+_Quinta das lagrimas_, or Villa of Tears, where Inez de Castro (q.v.) is
+believed to have been murdered in 1355. The town is supplied with water
+by means of an aqueduct of 20 arches. The Mondego is only navigable in
+flood, and the port of Figueira da Foz is 20 m. W. by S., so that the
+trade of Coimbra is mainly local; but there are important lamprey
+fisheries and manufactures of pottery, leather and hats.
+
+A Latin inscription of the 4th century identifies Coimbra with the
+ancient Aeminium; while Condeixa (3623), 8 m. S.S.W., represents the
+ancient Conimbriga or Conembrica,. In the 9th century, however, when the
+bishopric of Conimbriga was removed hither, its old title was
+transferred to the new see, and hence arose the modern name Coimbra. The
+city was for a long time a Moorish stronghold, but in 1064 it was
+captured by Ferdinand I. of Castile and the Cid. Until 1260 it was the
+capital of the country, and no fewer than six kings--Sancho I. and II.,
+Alphonso II. and III., Pedro and Ferdinand--were born within its walls.
+It was also the birthplace of the poet Francisco Sa de Miranda
+(1495-1558), and, according to one tradition, of the more famous Luiz de
+Camoens (1524-1580), who was a student at the university between 1537
+and 1542. In 1755 Coimbra suffered considerably from the earthquake. In
+1810 it was sacked by the French under Marshal Massena. In 1834 Dom
+Miguel made the city his headquarters; and in 1846 it was the scene of a
+Miguelist insurrection.
+
+The administrative district of Coimbra coincides with the south-western
+part of Beira; pop. (1900) 332,168; area 1508 sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+COIN, a town of southern Spain in the province of Malaga; 18 m. W.S.W.
+of the city of Malaga. Pop. (1900) 12,326. Coin is finely situated on
+the northern slope of the Sierra de Mijas, overlooking the small river
+Seco and surrounded by vineyards and plantations of oranges and lemons.
+There are marble quarries in the neighbourhood, and, despite the lack of
+a railway, Coin has a thriving agricultural trade. The population
+increased by more than half between 1880 and 1900.
+
+
+
+
+COIN (older forms of the word are _coyne_, _quoin_ and _coign_, all
+derived through the O. Fr. _coing_, and _cuigne_ from Lat. _cuneus_, a
+wedge), properly the term for a wedge-shaped die used for stamping
+money, and so transferred to the money so stamped; hence a piece of
+money. The form "quoin" is used for the external angle of a building
+(see QUOINS), and "coign," also a projecting angle, survives in the
+Shakespearean phrase "a coign of vantage."
+
+
+
+
+COINAGE OFFENCES. The coinage of money is in all states a prerogative of
+the sovereign power; consequently any infringement of that prerogative
+is always severely punished, as being an offence likely to interfere
+with the well-being of the state.
+
+In the United Kingdom the statute law against offences relating to the
+coin was codified by an act of 1861. The statute provides that whoever
+falsely makes or counterfeits any coin resembling or apparently intended
+to resemble or pass for any current gold or silver coin of the realm (s.
+2), or gilds, silvers, washes, cases over or colours with materials
+capable of producing the appearance of gold or silver a coin or a piece
+of any metal or mixture of metals, or files or alters it, with intent to
+make it resemble or pass for any current gold or silver coin (s. 3), or
+who buys, sells, receives or pays a false gold or silver coin at a lower
+rate than its denomination imports, or who receives into the United
+Kingdom any false coin knowing it to be counterfeit (ss. 6, 7), or who,
+without lawful authority or excuse, knowingly makes or mends, buys or
+sells, or has in his custody or possession, or conveys out of the Royal
+Mint any coining moulds, machines or tools, is guilty of felony (ss. 24,
+25). The punishment for such offences is either penal servitude for life
+or for not less than three years, or imprisonment for not more than two
+years, with or without hard labour. Whoever impairs, diminishes or
+lightens current gold or silver coin, with intent to pass same, is
+liable to penal servitude for from three to fourteen years (s. 4), and
+whoever has in his possession filings or clippings obtained by impairing
+or lightening current coin is liable to the same punishment, or to penal
+servitude for from three to seven years. The statute also makes
+provision against tendering or uttering false gold or silver coin, which
+is a misdemeanour, punishable by imprisonment with or without hard
+labour. Provision is also made with respect to falsely making,
+counterfeiting, tendering or uttering copper coin, exporting false coin,
+or defacing current coin by stamping names or words on it, and
+counterfeiting, tendering or uttering coin resembling or meant to pass
+as that of some foreign state. The act of 1861 applies to offences with
+respect to colonial coins as well as to those of the United Kingdom.
+
+By the constitution of the United States, Congress has the power of
+coining money, regulating the value thereof and of foreign coin (Art. i.
+s. viii.), and the states are prohibited from coining money, or making
+anything but gold and silver money a tender in payment of debts (Art. i.
+s. x.). The counterfeiting coin or money, uttering the same, or
+mutilating or defacing it, is an offence against the United States, and
+is punishable by fine and imprisonment with hard labour for from two to
+ten years. It has also been made punishable by state legislation.
+
+
+
+
+COIR (from Malay _K[=a]yar_, cord, _K[=a]yaru_, to be twisted), a rough,
+strong, fibrous substance obtained from the outer husk of the coco-nut.
+(See COCO-NUT PALM.)
+
+
+
+
+COIRE (Ger. _Chur_ or _Cur_, Ital. _Coira_, Lat. _Curia Raetorum_,
+Romonsch _Cuera_), the capital of the Swiss canton of the Grisons. It is
+built, at a height of 1949 ft. above the sea-level, on the right bank of
+the Plessur torrent, just as it issues from the Schanfigg valley, and
+about a mile above its junction with the Rhine. It is overshadowed by
+the Mittenberg (east) and Pizokel (south), hills that guard the entrance
+to the deep-cut Schanfigg valley. In 1900 it contained 11,532
+inhabitants, of whom 9288 were German-speaking, 1466 Romonsch-speaking,
+and 677 Italian-speaking; while 7561 were Protestants, 3962 Romanists
+and one a Jew. The modern part of the city is to the west, but the old
+portion, with all the historical buildings, is to the east. Here is the
+cathedral church of St Lucius (who is the patron of Coire, and is
+supposed to be a 2nd-century British king, though really the name has
+probably arisen from a confusion between Lucius of Cyrene--miswritten
+"_curiensis_"--with the Roman general Lucius Munatius Plancus, who
+conquered Raetia). Built between 1178 and 1282, on the site of an older
+church, it contains many curious medieval antiquities (especially in the
+sacristy), as well as a picture by Angelica Kaufmann, and the tomb of
+the great Grisons political leader (d. 1637) Jenatsch (q.v.). Opposite
+is the Bishop's Palace, and not far off is the Episcopal Seminary (built
+on the ruins of a 6th-century monastic foundation). Not far from these
+ancient monuments is the new Raetian Museum, which contains a great
+collection of objects relating to Raetia (including the geological
+collections of the Benedictine monk of Disentis, Placidus a Spescha
+(1752-1833), who explored the high snowy regions around the sources of
+the Rhine). One of the hospitals was founded by the famous Capuchin
+philanthropist, Father Theodosius Florentini (1808-1865), who was long
+the Romanist cure of Coire, and whose remains were in 1906 transferred
+from the cathedral here to Ingenbohl (near Schwyz), his chief
+foundation. Coire is 74 m. by rail from Zurich, and is the meeting-point
+of the routes from Italy over many Alpine passes (the Lukmanier, the
+Splugen, the San Bernardino) as well as from the Engadine (Albula,
+Julier), so that it is the centre of an active trade (particularly in
+wine from the Valtelline), though it possesses also a few local
+factories.
+
+The episcopal see is first mentioned in 452, but probably existed a
+century earlier. The bishop soon acquired great temporal powers,
+especially after his dominions were made, in 831, dependent on the
+Empire alone, of which he became a prince in 1170. In 1392 he became
+head of the league of God's House (originally formed against him in
+1367), one of the three Raetian leagues, but, in 1526, after the
+Reformation, lost his temporal powers, having fulfilled his historical
+mission (see GRISONS). The bishopric still exists, with jurisdiction
+over the Cantons of the Grisons, Glarus, Zurich, and the three Forest
+Cantons, as well as the Austrian principality of Liechtenstein. The gild
+constitution of the city of Chur lasted from 1465 to 1839, while in 1874
+the _Burgergemeinde_ was replaced by an _Einwohnergemeinde_.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A. Eichhorn, _Episcopatus Curiensis_ (St Blasien, 1797);
+  W. von Juvalt, _Forschungen uber die Feudalzeit im Curischen Raetien_,
+  2 parts (Zurich, 1871); C. Kind, _Die Reformation in den Bisthumern
+  Chur und Como_ (Coire, 1858); Conradin von Moor, Geschichte von
+  Curraetien (2 vols., Coire, 1870-1874); P. C. von Planta, _Das alte
+  Raetien_ (Berlin, 1872); _Idem, Die Curraetischen Herrschaften in der
+  Feudalzeit_ (Bern, 1881); _Idem, Verfassungsgeschichte der Stadt Cur
+  im Mittelalter_ (Coire, 1879); _Idem, Geschichte von Graubunden_
+  (Bern, 1892).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+COKE, SIR EDWARD (1552-1634), English lawyer, was born at Mileham, in
+Norfolk, on the 1st of February 1552. From the grammar school of Norwich
+he passed to Trinity College, Cambridge; and in 1572 he entered
+Lincoln's Inn. In 1578 he was called to the bar, and in the next year he
+was chosen reader at Lyon's Inn. His extensive and exact legal
+erudition, and the skill with which he argued the intricate libel case
+of Lord Cromwell (4 Rep. 13), and the celebrated real property case of
+Shelley (1 Rep. 94, 104), soon brought him a practice never before
+equalled, and caused him to be universally recognized as the greatest
+lawyer of his day. In 1586 he was made recorder of Norwich, and in 1592
+recorder of London, solicitor-general, and reader in the Inner Temple.
+In 1593 he was returned as member of parliament for his native county,
+and also chosen speaker of the House of Commons. In 1594 he was promoted
+to the office of attorney-general, despite the claims of Bacon, who was
+warmly supported by the earl of Essex. As crown lawyer his treatment of
+the accused was marked by more than the harshness and violence common in
+his time; and the fame of the victim has caused his behaviour in the
+trial of Raleigh to be lastingly remembered against him. While the
+prisoner defended himself with the calmest dignity and self-possession,
+Coke burst into the bitterest invective, brutally addressing the great
+courtier as if he had been a servant, in the phrase, long remembered for
+its insolence and its utter injustice--"Thou hast an English face, but a
+Spanish heart!"
+
+In 1582 Coke married the daughter of John Paston, a gentleman of
+Suffolk, receiving with her a fortune of L30,000; but in six months he
+was left a widower. Shortly after he sought the hand of Lady Elizabeth
+Hatton, daughter of Thomas, second Lord Burghley, and granddaughter of
+the great Cecil. Bacon was again his rival, and again unsuccessfully;
+the wealthy young widow became--not, it is said, to his future
+comfort--Coke's second wife.
+
+In 1606 Coke was made chief justice of the common pleas, but in 1613 he
+was removed to the office of chief justice of the king's bench, which
+gave him less opportunity of interfering with the court. The change,
+though it brought promotion in dignity, caused a diminution of income as
+well as of power; but Coke received some compensation in being appointed
+a member of the privy council. The independence of his conduct as a
+judge, though not unmixed with the baser elements of prejudice and
+vulgar love of authority, has partly earned forgiveness for the
+harshness which was so prominent in his sturdy character. Full of an
+extreme reverence for the common law which he knew so well, he defended
+it alike against the court of chancery, the ecclesiastical courts, and
+the royal prerogative. In a narrow spirit, and strongly influenced, no
+doubt, by his enmity to the chancellor, Thomas Egerton (Lord Brackley),
+he sought to prevent the interference of the court of chancery with even
+the unjust decisions of the other courts. In the case of an appeal from
+a sentence given in the king's bench, he advised the victorious, but
+guilty, party to bring an action of praemunire against all those who had
+been concerned in the appeal, and his authority was stretched to the
+utmost to obtain the verdict he desired. On the other hand, Coke has the
+credit of having repeatedly braved the anger of the king. He freely gave
+his opinion that the royal proclamation cannot make that an offence
+which was not an offence before. An equally famous but less satisfactory
+instance occurred during the trial of Edmund Peacham, a divine in whose
+study a sermon had been found containing libellous accusations against
+the king and the government. There was nothing to give colour to the
+charge of high treason with which he was charged, and the sermon had
+never been preached or published; yet Peacham was put to the torture,
+and Bacon was ordered to confer with the judges individually concerning
+the matter. Coke declared such conference to be illegal, and refused to
+give an opinion, except in writing, and even then he seems to have said
+nothing decided. But the most remarkable case of all occurred in the
+next year (1616). A trial was held before Coke in which one of the
+counsel denied the validity of a grant made by the king to the bishop of
+Lichfield of a benefice to be held _in commendam_. James, through Bacon,
+who was then attorney-general, commanded the chief justice to delay
+judgment till he himself should discuss the question with the judges. At
+Coke's request Bacon sent a letter containing the same command to each
+of the judges, and Coke then obtained their signatures to a paper
+declaring that the attorney-general's instructions were illegal, and
+that they were bound to proceed with the case. His Majesty expressed his
+displeasure, and summoned them before him in the council-chamber, where
+he insisted on his supreme prerogative, which, he said, ought not to be
+discussed in ordinary argument. Upon this all the judges fell on their
+knees, seeking pardon for the form of their letter; but Coke ventured to
+declare his continued belief in the loyalty of its substance, and when
+asked if he would in the future delay a case at the king's order, the
+only reply he would vouchsafe was that he would do what became him as a
+judge. Soon after he was dismissed from all his offices on the following
+charges,--the concealment, as attorney-general, of a bond belonging to
+the king, a charge which could not be proved, illegal interference with
+the court of chancery and disrespect to the king in the case of
+commendams. He was also ordered by the council to revise his book of
+reports, which was said to contain many extravagant opinions (June
+1616).
+
+Coke did not suffer these losses with patience. He offered his daughter
+Frances, then little more than a child, in marriage to Sir John
+Villiers, brother of the favourite Buckingham. Her mother, supported at
+first by her husband's great rival and her own former suitor, Bacon,
+objected to the match, and placed her in concealment. But Coke
+discovered her hiding-place; and she was forced to wed the man whom she
+declared that of all others she abhorred. The result was the desertion
+of the husband and the fall of the wife. It is said, however, that after
+his daughter's public penance in the Savoy church, Coke had heart enough
+to receive her back to the home which he had forced her to leave. Almost
+all that he gained by his heartless diplomacy was a seat in the council
+and in the star-chamber.
+
+In 1620 a new and more honourable career opened for him. He was elected
+member of parliament for Liskeard; and henceforth he was one of the most
+prominent of the constitutional party. It was he who proposed a
+remonstrance against the growth of popery and the marriage of Prince
+Charles to the infanta of Spain, and who led the Commons in the decisive
+step of entering on the journal of the House the famous petition of the
+18th of December 1621, insisting on the freedom of parliamentary
+discussion, and the liberty of speech of every individual member. In
+consequence, together with Pym and Sir Robert Philips, he was thrown
+into confinement; and, when in the August of the next year he was
+released, he was commanded to remain in his house at Stoke Poges during
+his Majesty's pleasure. Of the first and second parliaments of Charles
+I. Coke was again a member. From the second he was excluded by being
+appointed sheriff of Buckinghamshire. In 1628 he was at once returned
+for both Buckinghamshire and Suffolk, and he took his seat for the
+former county. After rendering other valuable support to the popular
+cause, he took a most important part in drawing up the great Petition of
+Right. The last act of his public career was to bewail with tears the
+ruin which he declared the duke of Buckingham was bringing upon the
+country. At the close of the session he retired into private life; and
+the six years that remained to him were spent in revising and improving
+the works upon which, at least as much as upon his public career, his
+fame now rests. He died at Stoke Poges on the 3rd of September 1634.
+
+Coke published _Institutes_ (1628), of which the first is also known as
+_Coke upon Littleton_; _Reports_ (1600-1615), in thirteen parts; _A
+Treatise of Bail and Mainprize_ (1635); _The Complete Copyholder_
+(1630); _A Reading on Fines and Recoveries_ (1684).
+
+  See Johnson, _Life of Sir Edward Coke_ (1837); H. W. Woolrych, _The
+  Life of Sir Edward Coke_ (1826); Foss, _Lives of the Judges_;
+  Campbell, _Lives of the Chief Justices_; also ENGLISH LAW.
+
+
+
+
+COKE, SIR JOHN (1563-1644), English politician, was born on the 5th of
+March 1563, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. After
+leaving the university he entered public life as a servant of William
+Cecil, Lord Burghley, afterwards becoming deputy-treasurer of the navy
+and then a commissioner of the navy, and being specially commended for
+his labours on behalf of naval administration. He became member of
+parliament for Warwick in 1621 and was knighted in 1624, afterwards
+representing the university of Cambridge. In the parliament of 1625 Coke
+acted as a secretary of state; in this and later parliaments he
+introduced the royal requests for money, and defended the foreign policy
+of Charles I. and Buckingham, and afterwards the actions of the king.
+His actual appointment as secretary dates from September 1625. Disliked
+by the leaders of the popular party, his speeches in the House of
+Commons did not improve the king's position, but when Charles ruled
+without a parliament he found Coke's industry very useful to him. The
+secretary retained his post until 1639, when a scapegoat was required to
+expiate the humiliating treaty of Berwick with the Scots, and the
+scapegoat was Coke. Dismissed from office, he retired to his estate at
+Melbourne in Derbyshire, and then resided in London, dying at Tottenham
+on the 8th of September 1644. Coke's son, Sir John Coke, sided with the
+parliament in its struggle with the king, and it is possible that in
+later life Coke's own sympathies were with this party, although in his
+earlier years he had been a defender of absolute monarchy. Coke, who
+greatly disliked the papacy, is described by Clarendon as "a man of very
+narrow education and a narrower mind"; and again he says, "his cardinal
+perfection was industry and his most eminent infirmity covetousness."
+
+
+
+
+COKE, THOMAS (1747-1814), English divine, the first Methodist bishop,
+was born at Brecon, where his father was a well-to-do apothecary. He was
+educated at Jesus College, Oxford, taking the degree of M.A. in 1770 and
+that of D.C.L. in 1775. From 1772 to 1776 he was curate at South
+Petherton in Somerset, whence his rector dismissed him for adopting the
+open-air and cottage services introduced by John Wesley, with whom he
+had become acquainted. After serving on the London Wesleyan circuit he
+was in 1782 appointed president of the conference in Ireland, a position
+which he frequently held, in the intervals of his many voyages to
+America. He first visited that country in 1784, going to Baltimore as
+"superintendent" of the Methodist societies in the new world and, in
+1787 the American conference changed his title to "bishop," a
+nomenclature which he tried in vain to introduce into the English
+conference, of which he was president in 1797 and 1805. Failing this, he
+asked Lord Liverpool to make him a bishop in India, and he was voyaging
+to Ceylon when he died on the 3rd of May 1814. Coke had always been a
+missionary enthusiast, and was the pioneer of such enterprise in his
+connexion. He was an ardent opponent of slavery, and endeavoured also to
+heal the breach between the Methodist and Anglican communions. He
+published a _History of the West Indies_ (3 vols., 1808-1811), several
+volumes of sermons, and, with Henry Moore, a _Life of Wesley_ (1792).
+
+
+
+
+COKE (a northern English word, possibly connected with "colk," core),
+the product obtained by strongly heating coal out of contact with the
+air until the volatile constituents are driven off; it consists
+essentially of carbon, the so-called "fixed carbon," together with the
+incombustible matters or ash contained in the coal from which it is
+derived. In addition to these it almost invariably contains small
+quantities of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, the whole, however, not
+exceeding 2 or 3%. It also contains water, the amount of which may vary
+considerably according to the method of manufacture. When produced
+rapidly and at a low heat, as in gas-making, it is of a dull black
+colour, and a loose spongy or pumice-like texture, and ignites with
+comparative ease, though less readily than bituminous coal, so that it
+may be burnt in open fire-places; but when a long-continued heat is
+used, as in the preparation of coke for iron and steel melting, the
+product is hard and dense, is often prismatic in structure, has a
+brilliant semi-metallic lustre and silvery-grey colour, is a conductor
+of heat and electricity, and can only be burnt in furnaces provided with
+a strong chimney draught or an artificial blast. The strength and
+cohesive properties are also intimately related to the nature and
+composition of the coals employed, which are said to be caking or
+non-caking according to the compact or fragmentary character of the coke
+produced.
+
+Formerly coke was made from large coal piled in heaps with central
+chimneys like those of the charcoal burner, or in open rectangular
+clamps or kilns with air flues in the enclosing walls; but these methods
+are now practically obsolete, closed chambers or ovens being generally
+used. These vary considerably in construction, but may be classified
+into three principal types:--(1) direct heated ovens, (2) flue-heated
+ovens, (3) condensing ovens. In the first class the heating is done by
+direct contact or by burning the gases given off in coking within the
+oven, while in the other two the heating is indirect, the gas being
+burned in cellular passages or flues provided in the walls dividing the
+coking chambers, and the heat transmitted through the sides of the
+latter which are comparatively thin. The arrangement is somewhat similar
+to that of a gas-works retort, whence the name of "retort ovens" is
+sometimes applied to them. The difference between the second and third
+classes is founded on the treatment of the gases. In the former the gas
+is fired in the side flues immediately upon issuing from the oven, while
+in the latter the gases are first subjected to a systematic treatment in
+condensers, similar to those used in gas-works, to remove tar, ammonia
+and condensable hydrocarbons, the incondensable gases being returned to
+the oven and burned in the heating flues. These are generally known as
+"by-product ovens."
+
+
+    Beehive oven.
+
+  The simplest form of coke oven, and probably that still most largely
+  used, is the so-called "beehive oven." This is circular in plan, from
+  7 to 12 ft. in diameter, with a cylindrical wall about 2-1/2 ft. high
+  and a nearly hemispherical roof with a circular hole at the top. The
+  floor, made of refractory bricks or slabs, is laid with a slight slope
+  towards an arched opening in the ring wall, which is stopped with
+  brickwork during the coking but opened for drawing the finished
+  charge. The ovens are usually arranged in rows or banks of 20 to 30 or
+  more, with their doors outwards, two rows being often placed with a
+  longitudinal flue between them connected by uptakes with the
+  individual ovens on either side. A railway along the top of the bank
+  brings the coal from the screens or washery. The largest ovens take a
+  charge of about 5 tons, which is introduced through the hole in the
+  roof, the brickwork of the empty oven being still red hot from the
+  preceding charge, and when levelled fills the cylindrical part nearly
+  to the springing of the roof. The gas fires as it is given off and
+  fills the dome with flame, and the burning is regulated by air
+  admitted through holes in the upper part of the door stopping. The
+  temperature being very high, a proportion of the volatile hydrocarbons
+  is decomposed, and a film of graphitic carbon is deposited on the
+  coke, giving it a semi-metallic lustre and silvery grey colour. When
+  the gas is burned off, the upper part of the door is opened and the
+  glowing charge cooled by jets of water thrown directly upon it from a
+  hose, and it is subsequently drawn out through the open door. The
+  charge breaks up into prisms or columns whose length corresponds to
+  the depth of the charge, and as a rule is uniform in character and
+  free from dull black patches or "black ends." The time of burning is
+  either 48 or 72 hours, the turns being so arranged as to avoid the
+  necessity of drawing the ovens on Sunday. The longer the heat is
+  continued the denser the product becomes, but the yield also
+  diminishes, as a portion of the finished coke necessarily burns to
+  waste when the gas is exhausted. For this reason the yield on the coal
+  charged is usually less than that obtained in retort ovens, although
+  the quality may be better. Coals containing at most about 35% of
+  volatile matter are best suited for the beehive oven. With less than
+  25% the gas is not sufficient to effect the coking completely, and
+  when there is a higher percentage the coke is brittle and spongy and
+  unsuited for blast furnace or foundry use. The spent flame from the
+  ovens passes to a range of steam boilers before escaping by the
+  chimney.
+
+
+    Retort oven.
+
+  The retort oven, which is now generally displacing the beehive form in
+  new installations, is made in a great variety of forms, the
+  differences being mainly in the arrangement of the heating flues, but
+  all have the central feature, the coking chamber, in common. This is a
+  tubular chamber with vertical sides and cylindrical roof, about 30 ft.
+  long, from 17 to 20 in. wide, and 6 or 7 ft. high, and closed at both
+  ends by sliding doors which are raised by crab winches when the charge
+  is to be drawn. The general arrangements of such an oven are shown in
+  fig. 1, which represents one of the earliest and most popular forms,
+  that of Evence Coppee of Brussels. The coking chambers A B connect by
+  rectangular posts at the springing of the roof, where the gas given
+  off from the top of the charge is fired by air introduced through _c
+  c_. The flames pass downwards through the parallel flues _f f_ along
+  the bottom flue of one oven, and return in the opposite direction
+  under the next to the chimney flue, a further part of the heat being
+  intercepted by placing a range of steam boilers between the ovens and
+  the chimney stack. The charging of the oven is done through the
+  passages D D in the roof from small wagons on transverse lines of
+  rails, the surface being raked level before the doors are closed and
+  luted up. The time of coking is much less than in the beehive ovens
+  and may be from 24 to 36 hours, according to the proportion of
+  volatile matter present. When the gas is completely given off the
+  doors are lifted and the charge is pushed out by the ram--a cast-iron
+  plate of the shape of the cross section of the oven, at the end of a
+  long horizontal bar, which is driven by a rack and pinion movement and
+  pushes the block of coke out of the oven on to the wharf or bank in
+  front where it falls to pieces and is immediately quenched by jets of
+  water from a hose pipe. When sufficiently cooled it is loaded into
+  railway wagons or other conveyances for removal. The ram, together
+  with its motor, and boiler when steam is used, is mounted upon a
+  carriage running upon a line of rails of about 2 ft. gauge along the
+  back of the range of ovens, so that it can be brought up to any one of
+  them in succession.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Coppee's Coke Oven.]
+
+  In some cases, instead of the small coal being charged through the
+  roof of the oven and levelled by hand, it is formed into blocks by
+  being stamped in a slightly moistened condition in a mould consisting
+  of a bottom plate or peel on a racked rod like that of the ram, with
+  movable sides and ends. This, when the ends are removed, is pushed
+  forward into the oven, and the bottom plate is withdrawn by reversing
+  the rack motion. The moulding box is mounted on a carriage like that
+  of the ram, the two being sometimes carried on the same framing. The
+  moulding is done at a fixed station in the centre of the range of
+  ovens by a series of cast-iron stampers driven by an electric motor.
+  This system is useful for coals low in volatile matter, which do not
+  give a coherent coke under ordinary conditions.
+
+
+    Condensing ovens.
+
+  In the distilling or by-product ovens the gases, instead of being
+  burned at the point of origin, pass by an uptake pipe in the roof
+  about the centre of the oven into a water-sealed collecting trough or
+  hydraulic main, whence they are drawn by exhausters through a series
+  of air and water cooled condensers and scrubbers. In the first or
+  atmospheric condensers the tar is removed, and in the second
+  ammoniacal water, which is further enriched by a graduated system of
+  scrubbing with weak ammoniacal liquor until it is sufficiently
+  concentrated to be sent to the ammonia stills. The first treatment by
+  scrubbing with creosote or heavy tar oil removes benzene, after which
+  the permanent gaseous residue consisting chiefly of hydrogen and marsh
+  gas is returned to the ovens as fuel.
+
+  In the Otto-Hoffmann oven, one of the most generally used forms,
+  vertical side flues like those of Coppee are adopted. The returned gas
+  enters by a horizontal flue along the bottom of the coking chamber,
+  divided into two parts by a mid-feather wall, and is fired by heated
+  air from a Siemens regenerator on the substructure at one end, and the
+  flame rising through one half of the side flues to a parallel
+  collector at the top returns downwards through the flues of the other
+  half and passes out to the chimney through a similar regenerator at
+  the other end. The course of the gases is reversed at intervals of
+  about an hour, as in the ordinary Siemens furnace, each end of the
+  oven having its own gas supply. In the later modification known as the
+  Otto-Hilgenstock, the regenerators are abandoned, but provision is
+  made for more perfect distribution of the heat by a line of sixteen
+  Bunsen burners in each wall; each of these serves two flues, the
+  course of the flame being continuously upwards without reversal. In
+  the newest Otto ovens the same system of burners is combined with
+  regenerators. In the Bauer system, another vertical flue oven, each
+  flue has its own burner, which is of a simplified construction.
+
+  In the Carves oven, the earliest of the by-product ovens, the heating
+  flues are arranged horizontally in parallel series along the entire
+  length of the side walls, the gas being introduced from both ends but
+  at different levels. This system was further developed by H. Simon of
+  Manchester, who added a continuous air "recuperator" heated by the
+  spent flame; this Simon-Carves system has been extensively adopted in
+  Great Britain. Another horizontal flue oven, the Semet-Solvay, is
+  distinguished by the structure of the flues, which are independent of
+  the dividing walls of the ovens, so that the latter can be made with
+  thinner sides than those of the earlier systems, and are more readily
+  repaired. In the horizontal ovens it is sometimes difficult to
+  maintain the heat when the flues are continuous along the whole length
+  of the wall, especially when the heating value of the gas is reduced
+  by the removal of the heavy hydrocarbons. This difficulty is met by
+  dividing the flues in the middle so as to shorten the length of travel
+  of the flame, and working each end independently. The Hussener and
+  Koppers systems are two of the best-known examples of this
+  modification.
+
+  Coke from retort ovens is not so dense or brilliant as that made in
+  beehive ovens, but the waste being less there is a decided saving,
+  apart from the value of the condensed products. In one instance the
+  coke was found to be about 5% less efficient in the blast furnace,
+  while the yield on the coal charged was increased 10%. In the further
+  treatment of the condensed products by distillation the tar gives
+  burning oil and pitch, the benzene is separated from the creosote oil
+  by steam-heated stills, and the ammoniacal liquor, after some lime has
+  been added to decompose fixed ammonium compounds, is heated to
+  vaporize the ammonia, which is condensed in lead or copper-lined tanks
+  containing strong sulphuric acid to produce a crystalline powder of
+  ammonium sulphate, which accumulates in the receiver and is fished out
+  from time to time. The yield of by-products averages about 1% of
+  ammonium sulphate, about 3-1/2% of tar, and 0.6 to 0.9% of benzene, of
+  the weight of the coal carbonized. After the ovens have been heated
+  and steam supplied for the machinery of the condensing plant and the
+  coke ovens, there is usually a surplus of gas, which may be used for
+  lighting or driving gas-engines. For the latter purpose, however, it
+  is necessary to remove the last traces of tar, which acts very
+  prejudicially in fouling the valves when the gas is not completely
+  purified. The gas given off during the earlier part of the coking
+  process is richer in heavy hydrocarbons and of a higher illuminating
+  value than that of the later period when the temperature is higher.
+  This property is utilized in several large coking plants in America,
+  where the gas from the first ten hours' working is drawn off by a
+  second hydraulic main and sent directly to town gas-works, where it
+  passes through the ordinary purifying treatment, the gas from the
+  second period being alone used for heating the ovens.
+
+Coke is essentially a partially graphitized carbon, its density being
+about midway between that of coal and graphite, and it should therefore
+occupy less space than the original coal; but owing to the softening of
+the charge a spongy structure is set up by the escaping gases, which
+acts in the other direction, so that for equal bulk coke is somewhat
+lighter than coal. It is this combination of properties that gives it
+its chief value in iron smelting, the substance being sufficiently dense
+to resist oxidation by carbon dioxide in the higher regions of the
+furnace, while the vesicular structure gives an extended surface for the
+action of heated air and facilitates rapid consumption at the tuyeres.
+Compact coke, such as that formed on the inner sides of gas retorts
+(retort carbon), can only be burned with great difficulty in small
+furnaces of special construction, but it gives out a great amount of
+heat.
+
+The most deleterious constituents of coke are ash, sulphur and volatile
+constituents including water. As the coke yield is only from two-thirds
+to three-quarters of that of the coal, the original proportion of ash is
+augmented by one-third or one-half in the product. For this reason it is
+now customary to crush and wash the coal carefully to remove
+intermingled patches of shale and dirt before coking, so that the ash
+may not if possible exceed 10% in the coke. About one-half of the
+sulphur in the coal is eliminated in coking, so that the percentage in
+the coke is about the same. It should not be much above 1%. According to
+the researches of F. Wuest (_Journ. Iron and Steel Inst._, 1906) the
+sulphur is retained in a complex carbon compound which is not destroyed
+until the coke is actually consumed.
+
+  The older methods of coking and the earlier forms of retort ovens are
+  described in J. Percy, _Metallurgy_, Jordan, _Album du cours de
+  metallurgie_; Phillips and Bauerman, _Handbook of Metallurgy_, and
+  other text-books. A systematic series of articles on the newer forms
+  will be found in _The Engineer_, vol. 82, pp. 205-303 and vol. 83, pp.
+  207-231; see also Durre, _Die neuern Koksofen_ (Leipzig, 1892); D. A.
+  Louis, "Von Bauer and Brunck Ovens," _Journ. Iron and Steel Inst._,
+  1904, ii. p. 293; C. L. Bell, "Hussener Oven," _id._, 1904, i. p. 188;
+  Hurez, "A Comparison of Different Systems of Vertical and Horizontal
+  Flue Ovens," _Bull. soc. industrie minerale_, 1903, p. 777. A
+  well-illustrated description of the Otto system in its American
+  modification was issued by the United Gas & Coke Company of New York,
+  in 1906.     (H. B.)
+
+
+
+
+COL (Fr. for "neck," Lat. _collum_), in physical geography, generally
+any marked depression upon a high and rugged water-parting over which
+passage is easy from one valley to another. Such is the Col de Balme
+between the Trient and Chamounix valleys, where the great inaccessible
+wall crowned with aiguilles running to the massif of Mt. Blanc is broken
+by a gentle downward curve with smooth upland slopes, over which a
+footpath gives easy passage. The col is usually formed by the
+head-waters of a stream eating backward and lowering the water-parting
+at the head of its valley. In early military operations, the march of an
+army was always over a col, which has at all times considerable
+commercial importance in relation to roads in high mountain regions.
+
+
+
+
+COLBERT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1619-1683), French statesman, was born at Reims,
+where his father and grandfather were merchants. He claimed to be the
+descendant of a noble Scottish family, but the evidence for this is
+lacking. His youth is said to have been spent in a Jesuit college, in
+the office of a Parisian banker, and in that of a Parisian notary,
+Chapelain, the father of the poet. But the first fact on which we can
+rely with confidence is that, when not yet twenty, he obtained a post in
+the war-office, by means of the influence that he possessed through the
+marriage of one of his uncles to the sister of Michel Le Tellier, the
+secretary of state for war. During some years he was employed in the
+inspection of troops and other work of the kind, but at length his
+ability, his extraordinary energy and his untiring laboriousness induced
+Le Tellier to make him his private secretary. These qualities, combined,
+it must be confessed, with a readiness to seize every opportunity of
+advancement, soon brought Colbert both wealth and influence. In 1647 we
+find him receiving the confiscated goods of his uncle Pussort, in 1648
+obtaining 40,000 crowns with his wife Marie Charron, in 1649 appointed
+councillor of state.
+
+It was the period of the wars of the Fronde; and in 1651 the triumph of
+the Conde family drove Cardinal Mazarin from Paris. Colbert, now aged
+thirty-two, was engaged to keep him acquainted with what should happen
+in the capital during his absence. At first Colbert's position was far
+from satisfactory; for the close wary Italian treated him merely as an
+ordinary agent. On one occasion, for example, he offered him 1000
+crowns. The gift was refused somewhat indignantly; and by giving proof
+of the immense value of his services, Colbert gained all that he
+desired. His demands were not small; for, with an ambition mingled, as
+his letters show, with strong family affection, he aimed at placing all
+his relatives in positions of affluence and dignity; and many a rich
+benefice and important public office was appropriated by him to that
+purpose. For these favours, conferred upon him by his patron with no
+stinted hand, his thanks were expressed in a most remarkable manner; he
+published a letter defending the cardinal from the charge of ingratitude
+which was often brought against him, by enumerating the benefits that he
+and his family had received from him (April 1655). Colbert obtained,
+besides, the higher object of his ambition; the confidence of Mazarin,
+so far as it was granted to any one, became his, and he was entrusted
+with matters of the gravest importance. In 1659 he was giving directions
+as to the suppression of the revolt of the gentry which threatened in
+Normandy, Anjou and Poitou, with characteristic decision arresting those
+whom he suspected, and arranging every detail of their trial, the
+immediate and arbitrary destruction of their castles and woods, and the
+execution of their chief, Bonnesson. In the same year we have evidence
+that he was already planning his great attempt at financial reform. His
+earliest tentative was the drawing up of a _memoire_ to Mazarin, showing
+that of the taxes paid by the people not one-half reached the king. The
+paper also contained an attack upon the superintendent Nicholas Fouquet
+(q.v.), and being opened by the postmaster of Paris, who happened to be
+a spy of Fouquet's, it gave rise to a bitter quarrel, which, however,
+Mazarin repressed during his lifetime.
+
+In 1661 the death of Mazarin allowed Colbert to take the first place in
+the administration, and he made sure of the king's favour by revealing
+to him some of Mazarin's hidden wealth. It was some time before he
+assumed official dignities; but in January 1664 he obtained the post of
+superintendent of buildings; in 1665 he was made controller-general; in
+1669 he became minister of the marine; and he was also appointed
+minister of commerce, the colonies and the king's palace. In short, he
+soon acquired power in every department except that of war.
+
+A great financial and fiscal reform at once claimed all his energies.
+Not only the nobility, but many others who had no legal claim to
+exemption, paid no taxes; the weight of the burden fell on the wretched
+country-folk. Colbert sternly and fearlessly set about his task.
+Supported by the young king, Louis XIV., he aimed the first blow at the
+greatest of the extortioners--the bold and powerful superintendent,
+Fouquet; whose fall, in addition, secured his own advancement.
+
+The office of superintendent and many others dependent upon it being
+abolished the supreme control of the finances was vested in a royal
+council. The sovereign was its president; but Colbert, though for four
+years he only possessed the title of intendant, was its ruling spirit,
+great personal authority being conferred upon him by the king. The
+career on which Colbert now entered must not be judged without constant
+remembrance of the utter rottenness of the previous financial
+administration. His ruthlessness in this case, dangerous precedent as it
+was, was perhaps necessary; individual interests could not be respected.
+Guilty officials having been severely punished, the fraudulent creditors
+of the government remained to be dealt with. Colbert's method was
+simple. Some of the public loans were totally repudiated, and from
+others a percentage was cut off, which varied, at first according to his
+own decision, and afterwards according to that of the council which he
+established to examine all claims against the state.
+
+Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce equality in
+the pressure of the taxes on the various classes. To diminish the number
+of the privileged was impossible, but false claims to exemption were
+firmly resisted, and the unjust direct taxation was lightened by an
+increase of the indirect taxes, from which the privileged could not
+escape. The mode of collection was at the same time immensely improved.
+
+Order and economy being thus introduced into the working of the
+government, the country, according to Colbert's vast yet detailed plan,
+was to be enriched by commerce. Manufactures were fostered in every way
+he could devise. New industries were established, inventors protected,
+workmen invited from foreign countries, French workmen absolutely
+prohibited to emigrate. To maintain the character of French goods in
+foreign markets, as well as to afford a guarantee to the home consumer,
+the quality and measure of each article were fixed by law, breach of the
+regulations being punished by public exposure of the delinquent and
+destruction of the goods, and, on the third offence, by the pillory. But
+whatever advantage resulted from this rule was more than compensated by
+the disadvantages it entailed. The production of qualities which would
+have suited many purposes of consumption was prohibited, and the odious
+supervision which became necessary involved great waste of time and a
+stereotyped regularity which resisted all improvements. And other parts
+of Colbert's schemes deserve still less equivocal condemnation. By his
+firm maintenance of the corporation system, each industry remained in
+the hands of certain privileged bourgeois; in this way, too, improvement
+was greatly discouraged; while to the lower classes opportunities of
+advancement were closed. With regard to international commerce Colbert
+was equally unfortunate in not being in advance of his age; the tariffs
+he published were protective to an extreme. The interests of internal
+commerce were, however, wisely consulted. Unable to abolish the duties
+on the passage of goods from province to province, he did what he could
+to induce the provinces to equalize them. The roads and canals were
+improved. The great canal of Languedoc was planned and constructed by
+Pierre Paul Riquet (1604-1680) under his patronage. To encourage trade
+with the Levant, Senegal, Guinea and other places, privileges were
+granted to companies; but, like the more important East India Company,
+all were unsuccessful. The chief cause of this failure, as well as of
+the failure of the colonies, on which he bestowed so much watchful care,
+was the narrowness and rigidity of the government regulations.
+
+The greatest and most lasting of Colbert's achievements was the
+establishment of the French marine. The royal navy owed all to him, for
+the king thought only of military exploits. For its use, Colbert
+reconstructed the works and arsenal of Toulon, founded the port and
+arsenal of Rochefort, and the naval schools of Rochefort, Dieppe and
+Saint-Malo, and fortified, with some assistance from Vauban (who,
+however, belonged to the party of his rival Louvois), among other ports
+those of Calais, Dunkirk, Brest and Havre. To supply it with recruits
+he invented his famous system of classes, by which each seaman,
+according to the class in which he was placed, gave six months' service
+every three or four or five years. For three months after his term of
+service he was to receive half-pay; pensions were promised; and, in
+short, everything was done to make the navy popular. There was one
+department, however, that was supplied with men on a very different
+principle. Letters exist written by Colbert to the judges requiring them
+to sentence to the oar as many criminals as possible, including all
+those who had been condemned to death; and the convict once chained to
+the bench, the expiration of his sentence was seldom allowed to bring
+him release. Mendicants also, against whom no crime had been proved,
+contraband dealers, those who had been engaged in insurrections, and
+others immeasurably superior to the criminal class, nay, innocent
+men--Turkish, Russian and negro slaves, and poor Iroquois Indians, whom
+the Canadians were ordered to entrap--were pressed into that terrible
+service. By these means the benches of the galleys were filled, and
+Colbert took no thought of the long unrelieved agony borne by those who
+filled them.
+
+Nor was the mercantile marine forgotten. Encouragement was given to the
+building of ships in France by allowing a premium on those built at
+home, and imposing a duty on those brought from abroad; and as French
+workmen were forbidden to emigrate, so French seamen were forbidden to
+serve foreigners on pain of death.
+
+Even ecclesiastical affairs, though with these he had no official
+concern, did not altogether escape Colbert's attention. He took a
+subordinate part in the struggle between the king and Rome as to the
+royal rights over vacant bishoprics; and he seems to have sympathized
+with the proposal that was made to seize part of the wealth of the
+clergy. In his hatred of idleness, he ventured to suppress no less than
+seventeen fetes, and he had a project for lessening the number of those
+devoted to clerical and monastic life, by fixing the age for taking the
+vows some years later than was then customary. With heresy he was at
+first unwilling to interfere, for he was aware of the commercial value
+of the Huguenots; but when the king resolved to make all France Roman
+Catholic, he followed him and urged his subordinates to do all that they
+could to promote conversions.
+
+In art and literature Colbert took much interest. He possessed a
+remarkably fine private library, which he delighted to fill with
+valuable manuscripts from every part of Europe where France had placed a
+consul. He has the honour of having founded the Academy of Sciences (now
+called the Institut de France), the Observatory, which he employed
+Claude Perrault to build and brought G. D. Cassini (1625-1712) from
+Italy to superintend, the Academies of Inscriptions and Medals, of
+Architecture and of Music, the French Academy at Rome, and Academies at
+Arles, Soissons, Nimes and many other towns, and he reorganized the
+Academy of Painting and Sculpture which Richelieu had established. He
+was a member of the French Academy; and one very characteristic rule,
+recorded to have been proposed by him with the intention of expediting
+the great Dictionary, in which he was much interested, was that no one
+should be accounted present at any meeting unless he arrived before the
+hour of commencement and remained till the hour for leaving. In 1673 he
+presided over the first exhibition of the works of living painters; and
+he enriched the Louvre with hundreds of pictures and statues. He gave
+many pensions to men of letters, among whom we find Moliere, Corneille,
+Racine, Boileau, P. D. Huet (1630-1721) and Antoine Varillas
+(1626-1696), and even foreigners, as Huyghens, Vossius the geographer,
+Carlo Dati the Dellacruscan, and Heinsius the great Dutch scholar. There
+is evidence to show that by this munificence he hoped to draw out
+praises of his sovereign and himself; but this motive certainly is far
+from accounting for all the splendid, if in some cases specious,
+services that he rendered to literature, science and art.
+
+Indeed to everything that concerned the interests of France Colbert
+devoted unsparing thought and toil. Besides all that has been
+mentioned, he found time to do something for the better administration
+of justice (the codification of ordinances, the diminishing of the
+number of judges, the reduction of the expense and length of trials for
+the establishment of a superior system of police) and even for the
+improvement of the breed of horses and the increase of cattle. As
+superintendent of public buildings he enriched Paris with boulevards,
+quays and triumphal arches; he relaid the foundation-stone of the
+Louvre, and brought Bernin from Rome to be its architect; and he erected
+its splendid colonnade upon the plan of Claude Perrault, by whom Bernin
+had been replaced. He was not permitted, however, to complete the work,
+being compelled to yield to the king's preference for residences outside
+Paris, and to devote himself to Marly and Versailles.
+
+Amid all these public labours his private fortune was never neglected.
+While he was reforming the finances of the nation, and organizing its
+navy, he always found time to direct the management of his smallest
+farm. He died extremely rich, and left fine estates all over France. He
+had been created marquis de Seignelay, and for his eldest son he
+obtained the reversion of the office of minister of marine; his second
+son became archbishop of Rouen; and a third son, the marquis d'Ormoy,
+became superintendent of buildings.
+
+To carry out his reforms, Colbert needed peace; but the war department
+was in the hands of his great rival Louvois, whose influence gradually
+supplanted that of Colbert with the king. Louis decided on a policy of
+conquest. He was deaf also to all the appeals against the other forms of
+his boundless extravagance which Colbert, with all his deference towards
+his sovereign, bravely ventured to make.[1] Thus it came about that,
+only a few years after he had commenced to free the country from the
+weight of the loans and taxes which crushed her to the dust, Colbert was
+forced to heap upon her a new load of loans and taxes more heavy than
+the last. Henceforth his life was a hopeless struggle, and the financial
+and fiscal reform which, with the great exception of the establishment
+of the navy, was the most valuable service to France contemplated by
+him, came to nought.
+
+Depressed by his failure, deeply wounded by the king's favour for
+Louvois, and worn out by overwork, Colbert's strength gave way at a
+comparatively early age. In 1680 he was the constant victim of severe
+fevers, from which he recovered for a time through the use of quinine
+prescribed by an English physician. But in 1683, at the age of
+sixty-four, he was seized with a fatal illness, and on the 6th of
+September he expired. It was said that he died of a broken heart, and a
+conversation with the king is reported in which Louis disparagingly
+compared the buildings of Versailles, which Colbert was superintending,
+with the works constructed by Louvois in Flanders. He took to bed, it is
+true, immediately afterwards, refusing to receive all messages from the
+king; but his constitution was utterly broken before, and a post-mortem
+examination proved that he had been suffering from stone. His body was
+interred in the secrecy of night, for fear of outrage from the
+Parisians, by whom his name was cordially detested.
+
+Colbert was a great statesman, who did much for France. Yet his insight
+into political science was not deeper than that of his age; nor did he
+possess any superiority in moral qualities. His rule was a very bad
+example of over-government. He did not believe in popular liberty;, the
+parlements and the states-general received no support from him. The
+technicalities of justice he never allowed to interfere with his plans;
+but he did not hesitate to shield his friends. He trafficked in public
+offices for the profit of Mazarin and in his own behalf. He caused the
+suffering of thousands in the galleys; he had no ear, it is said, for
+the cry of the suppliant. There was indeed a more human side to his
+character, as is shown in his letters, full of wise advice and
+affectionate care, to his children, his brothers, his cousins even. Yet
+to all outside he was "the man of marble." Madame de Sevigne called him
+"the North." To diplomacy he never pretended; persuasion and deceit were
+not the weapons he employed; all his work was carried out by the iron
+hand of authority. He was a great statesman in that he conceived a
+magnificent yet practicable scheme for making France first among
+nations, and in that he possessed a matchless faculty for work, neither
+shrinking from the vastest undertakings nor scorning the most trivial
+details.
+
+  Numerous _vies_ and _eloges_ of Colbert have been published; but the
+  most thorough student of his life and administration was Pierre
+  Clement, member of the Institute, who in 1846 published his _Vie de
+  Colbert_, and in 1861 the first of the 9 vols. of the _Lettres,
+  instructions, et memoires de Colbert_. The historical introductions
+  prefixed to each of these volumes have been published by Mme. Clement
+  under the title of the _Histoire de Colbert et de son administration_
+  (3rd ed., 1892). The best short account of Colbert as a statesman is
+  that in Lavisse, _Histoire de France_ (1905), which gives a thorough
+  study of the administration. Among Colbert's papers are _Memoires sur
+  les affaires de finance de France_ (written about 1663), a fragment
+  entitled _Particularites secretes de la vie du Roy_, and other
+  accounts of the earlier part of the reign of Louis XIV.     (J. T. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See especially a _Memoire_ presented to the king in 1666,
+    published in the _Lettres, &c., de Colbert_, vol. ii.
+
+
+
+
+COLBERT DE CROISSY, CHARLES, MARQUIS (1625-1696), French diplomatist,
+like his elder brother Jean Baptiste Colbert, began his career in the
+office of the minister of war Le Tellier. In 1656 he bought a
+counsellorship at the parlement of Metz, and in 1658 was appointed
+intendant of Alsace and president of the newly-created sovereign council
+of Alsace. In this position he had to re-organize the territory recently
+annexed to France. The steady support of his brother at court gained for
+him several diplomatic missions--to Germany and Italy (1659-1661). In
+1662 he became marquis de Croissy and _president a mortier_ of the
+parlement of Metz. After various intendancies, at Soissons (1665), at
+Amiens (1666), and at Paris (1667), he turned definitely to diplomacy.
+In 1668 he represented France at the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle; and
+in August of the same year was sent as ambassador to London, where he
+was to negotiate the definite treaty of alliance with Charles II. He
+arranged the interview at Dover between Charles and his sister Henrietta
+of Orleans, gained the king's personal favour by finding a mistress for
+him, Louise de Keroualle, maid of honour to Madame, and persuaded him to
+declare war against Holland. The negotiation of the treaty of Nijmwegen
+(1676-1678) still further increased his reputation as a diplomatist and
+Louis XIV. made him secretary of state for foreign affairs after the
+disgrace of Arnauld de Pomponne, brought about by his brother, 1679. He
+at once assumed the entire direction of French diplomacy. Foreign
+ambassadors were no longer received and diplomatic instructions were no
+longer given by other secretaries of state. It was he, not Louvois, who
+formed the idea of annexation during a time of peace, by means of the
+chambers of reunion. He had outlined this plan as early as 1658 with
+regard to Alsace. His policy at first was to retain the territory
+annexed by the chambers of reunion without declaring war, and for this
+purpose he signed treaties of alliance with the elector of Brandenburg
+(1681), and with Denmark (1683); but the troubles following upon the
+revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685) forced him to give up his
+scheme and to prepare for war with Germany (1688). The negotiations for
+peace had been begun again when he died, on the 28th of July 1696. His
+clerk, Bergeret, was his invaluable assistant.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--His papers, preserved in the _Archives des affaires
+  etrangeres_ at Paris, have been partially published in the _Recueil
+  des instructions donnees aux ambassadeurs et ministres de France_
+  (since 1884). See especially the volumes:--_Autriche_ (t. i.), _Suede_
+  (t. ii.), _Rome_ (t. vi.), _Baviere_ (t. viii.), _Savoie_ (t. xiv.),
+  _Prusse_ (t. xvi.). Other documents have been published in Mignet's
+  _Negociations relatives a la succession d'Espagne_, vol. iv., and in
+  the collection of _Lettres et negociations ... pour la paix de
+  Nimegue_, 1676-1677 (La Haye, 1710). In addition to the _Memoires_ of
+  the time, see Spanheim, _Relation de la cour de France en 1690_, ed.
+  E. Bourgeois (Paris and Lyons, 1900); Baschet, _Histoire du depot des
+  affaires etrangeres_; C. Rousset, _Histoire de Louvois_ (4 vols.,
+  Paris, 1863); E. Bourgeois, "Louvois, et Colbert de Croissy," in the
+  _Revue historique_, vol. xxxiv. (1887); A. Waddington, _Le Grand
+  Electeur et Louis XIV_ (Paris, 1905); G. Pagis, _Le Grand Electeur et
+  Louis XIV_ (Paris, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+COLBURN, HENRY (d. 1855), British publisher, obtained his earliest
+experience of bookselling in London at the establishment of W. Earle,
+Albemarle Street, and afterwards as an assistant at Morgan's Library,
+Conduit Street, of which in 1816 he became proprietor. He afterwards
+removed to New Burlington Street, where he established himself as a
+publisher, resigning the Conduit Street Library to Messrs Saunders &
+Otley. In 1814 he originated the _New Monthly Magazine_, of which at
+various times Thomas Campbell, Bulwer Lytton, Theodore Hook and Harrison
+Ainsworth were editors. Colburn published in 1818 _Evelyn's Diary_, and
+in 1825 the _Diary of Pepys_, edited by Lord Braybrooke, paying L2200
+for the copyright. He also issued Disraeli's first novel, _Vivian Grey_,
+and a large number of other works by Theodore Hook, G. P. R. James,
+Marryat and Bulwer Lytton. In 1829 Richard Bentley (q.v.) was taken into
+partnership; and in 1832 Colburn retired, but set up again soon
+afterwards independently in Great Marlborough Street; his business was
+taken over in 1841 by Messrs Hurst & Blackett. Henry Colburn died on the
+16th of August 1855, leaving property to the value of L35,000.
+
+
+
+
+COLBURN, ZERAH (1804-1840), American mathematical prodigy, was born at
+Cabot, Vermont, on the 1st of September 1804. At a very early age he
+developed remarkable powers of calculating with extreme rapidity, and in
+1810 his father began to exhibit him. As a performing prodigy he visited
+Great Britain and France. From 1816 to 1819 he studied in Westminster
+school, London. After the death of his father in 1824 he returned to
+America, and from 1825 to 1834 he was a Methodist preacher. As he grew
+older his extraordinary calculating powers diminished. From 1835 until
+his death, on the 2nd of March 1840, he was professor of languages at
+the Norwich University in Vermont. He published a _Memoir_ of his life
+in 1833.
+
+His nephew, also named ZERAH COLBURN (1832-1870), was a well-known
+mechanical engineer; the editor successively of the _Railroad Advocate_,
+in New York, _The Engineer_, in London, and _Engineering_, in London;
+and the author of a work entitled _The Locomotive Engine_ (1851).
+
+
+
+
+COLBY, THOMAS FREDERICK (1784-1852), British major-general and director
+of ordnance survey, was born at St Margaret's, Rochester, on the 1st of
+September 1784, a member of a South Wales family. Entering the Royal
+Engineers he began in 1802 a life-long connexion with the Ordnance
+Survey department. His most important work was the survey of Ireland.
+This he planned in 1824, and was engaged upon it until 1846. The last
+sheets of this survey were almost ready for issue in that year when he
+reached the rank of major-general, and according to the rules of the
+service had to vacate his survey appointment. He was the inventor of the
+compensation bar, an apparatus used in base-measurements. He died at New
+Brighton on the 9th of October 1852.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHAGUA, a province of central Chile, bounded N. by Santiago and
+O'Higgins, E. by Argentina, S. by Curico, and W. by the Pacific. Its
+area is officially estimated at 3856 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 157,566.
+Extending across the great central valley of Chile, the province has a
+considerable area devoted to agriculture, but much attention is given to
+cattle and mining. Its principal river is the Rapel, sometimes
+considered as the southern limit of the Inca empire. Its greatest
+tributary is the Cachapoal, in the valley of which, among the Andean
+foothills, are the popular thermal mineral baths of Cauquenes, 2306 ft.
+above sea-level. The state central railway from Santiago to Puerto Montt
+crosses the province and has two branches within its borders, one from
+Rengo to Peumo, and one from San Fernando via Palmilla to Pichilemu on
+the coast. The principal towns are the capital, San Fernando, Rengo and
+Palmilla. San Fernando is one of the several towns founded in 1742 by
+the governor-general Jose de Manso, and had a population of 7447 in
+1895. Rengo is an active commercial town and had a population of 6463 in
+1895.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHESTER, CHARLES ABBOT, 1ST BARON (1757-1829), born at Abingdon, was
+the son of Dr John Abbot, rector of All Saints, Colchester, and, by his
+mother's second marriage, half-brother of the famous Jeremy Bentham.
+From Westminster school Charles Abbot passed to Christ Church, Oxford,
+at which he gained the chancellor's medal for Latin verse as well as the
+Vinerian scholarship. In 1795, after having practised twelve years as a
+barrister, and published a treatise proposing the incorporation of the
+judicial system of Wales with that of England, he was appointed to the
+office previously held by his brother of clerk of the rules in the
+king's bench; and in June of the same year he was elected member of
+parliament for Helston, through the influence of the duke of Leeds. In
+1796 Abbot commenced his career as a reformer in parliament by obtaining
+the appointment of two committees--the one to report on the arrangements
+which then existed as to temporary laws or laws about to expire, the
+other to devise methods for the better publication of new statutes. To
+the latter committee, and a second committee which he proposed some
+years later, it is owing that copies of new statutes were thenceforth
+sent to all magistrates and municipal bodies. To Abbot's efforts were
+also due the establishment of the Royal Record Commission, the reform of
+the system which had allowed the public money to lie for some time at
+long interest in the hands of the public accountants, by charging them
+with payment of interest, and, most important of all, the act for taking
+the first census, that of 1801. On the formation of the Addington
+ministry in March 1801 Abbot became chief secretary and privy seal for
+Ireland; and in the February of the following year he was chosen speaker
+of the House of Commons--a position which he held with universal
+satisfaction till 1817, when an attack of erysipelas compelled him to
+retire. In response to an address of the Commons, he was raised to the
+peerage as Baron Colchester, with a pension of L4000, of which L3000 was
+to be continued to his heir. He died on the 8th of May 1829. His
+speeches against the Roman Catholic claims were published in 1828.
+
+He was succeeded by his eldest son CHARLES (d. 1867), postmaster-general
+in 1858; and the latter by his son REGINALD CHARLES EDWARD (b. 1842), as
+3rd baron.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHESTER a market town, river port and municipal and parliamentary
+borough of Essex, England; 52 m. N. E. by E. from London by the Great
+Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 38,373. It lies on the river Colne, 12 m.
+from the open sea. Among numerous buildings of antiquarian interest the
+first is the ruined keep of the castle, a majestic specimen of Norman
+architecture, the largest of its kind in England, covering nearly twice
+the area of the White Tower in London. It was erected in the reign of
+William I. or William II., and is quadrangular, turreted at the angles.
+As in other ancient buildings in Colchester there are evidences of the
+use of material from the Roman town which occupied the site, but it is
+clearly of Norman construction. Here is the museum of the Essex
+Archaeological Society, with a remarkable collection of Roman
+antiquities, and a library belonging to the Round family, who own the
+castle. Among ecclesiastical buildings are remains of two monastic
+foundations--the priory of St Botolph, founded early in the 12th century
+for Augustinian canons, of which part of the fine Norman west front (in
+which Roman bricks occur), and of the nave arcades remain; and the
+restored gateway of the Benedictine monastery of St John, founded by
+Eudo, steward to William II. This is a beautiful specimen of
+Perpendicular work, embattled, flanked by spired turrets, and covered
+with panel work. The churches of Holy Trinity, St Martin and St Leonard
+at Hythe are of antiquarian interest; the first has an apparently
+pre-Norman tower and the last preserves some curious frescoes.
+
+The principal modern buildings are the town hall, corn exchange, free
+library, the Eastern Counties' asylum, Essex county hospital and
+barracks. The town has long been an important military centre with a
+large permanent camp. There are a free grammar school (founded 1539), a
+technical and university extension college, a literary institute and
+medical and other societies. Castle Park is a public ground surrounding
+the castle. Colchester is the centre of an agricultural district, and
+has extensive corn and cattle markets. Industries include founding,
+engineering, malting, flour-milling, rose-growing and the making of
+clothing and boots and shoes. The oyster fisheries at the mouth of the
+Colne, for which the town has been famous for centuries, belong to the
+corporation, and are held on a ninety-nine years' lease by the Colne
+Fishery Company, incorporated under an act of 1870. The harbour, with
+quayage at the suburb of Hythe, is controlled by the corporation. The
+parliamentary borough, which is co-extensive with the municipal, returns
+one member. The municipal corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen
+and 24 councillors. Area 11,333 acres.
+
+The Roman town, _Colonia Victricensis Camalodunum_ (or _Camulodunum_),
+was of great importance. It was founded by Claudius, early in the period
+of the Roman conquest, as a municipality with discharged Roman soldiers
+as citizens, to assist the Roman dominion and spread its civilization.
+Under Queen Boadicea the natives burned the town and massacred the
+colonists; but Camalodunum soon rose to fresh prosperity and flourished
+throughout the Roman period. Its walls and some other remains, including
+the guardroom at the principal gate, can still be clearly traced, and
+many such relics as sculptures, inscriptions, pavements and pottery have
+been discovered. When the borough originated is not known, but Domesday
+Book mentions two hundred and seventy-six burgesses and land _in commune
+burgensium_, a phrase that may point to a nascent municipal corporation.
+The first charter given by Richard I. in 1189 granted the burghers leave
+to choose their bailiffs and a justice to hold the pleas of the crown
+within the borough, freedom from the obligation of duel, freedom of
+passage and pontage through England, free warren, fishery and custom as
+in the time of Henry I., and other privileges. An _inspeximus_ of this
+charter by Henry III. in 1252 granted the burgesses the return of
+certain writs. The charters were confirmed by various kings, and new
+grants obtained in 1447 and 1535. In 1635 Charles I. granted a fresh
+charter, which replaced the bailiffs by a mayor, and in 1653 Cromwell
+altered it to secure a permanent majority for his party on the
+corporation. But his action was undone in 1659, and in 1663 Charles II.
+granted a new charter. In 1684 the charters were surrendered, and a new
+one obtained reserving to the crown power to remove the mayor and
+alderman, and this one was further modified by James II. But the charter
+of 1663 was confirmed in 1693 and remained in force till 1741, when the
+liberties were allowed to lapse. In 1763 George III. made the borough a
+renewed grant of its liberties. Colchester returned two members to
+parliament from 1295 until 1885. Fairs were granted by Richard I. in
+1189 to the hospital of St Mary Magdalene, and by Edward II. in 1319 to
+the town for the eve of and feast of St Denis and the six following
+days--a fair which is still held. In the 13th century Colchester was
+sufficiently important as a port to pay a fee-farm of L46, its ships
+plying to Winchelsea and France. Elizabeth and James I. encouraged
+Flemish settlers in the manufacture of baize ("bays and says"), which
+attained great importance, so that a charter of Charles I. speaks of
+burgesses industriously exercising the manufacture of cloth. Both Camden
+and Fuller mention the trade in barrelled oysters and candied
+eringo-root. The most notable event in the history of the town was its
+siege by Fairfax in 1648, when the raw levies of the Royalists in the
+second civil war held his army at bay for nearly eleven weeks, only
+surrendering when starved out, and when Cromwell's victory in the north
+made further resistance useless. Colchester was made the see of a
+suffragan bishop by King Henry VIII., and two bishops were in succession
+appointed by him; no further appointments, however, were made until the
+see was re-established under Queen Victoria.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Essex_; _Charters and Letters Patent
+  granted to the Borough of Colchester_ (Colchester, 1903); Morant,
+  _History of Colchester_ (1748); Harrod's _Report on the Records of
+  Colchester_ (1865); Cutts, _Colchester_ (Historic Towns) 1888; J. H.
+  Round, "Colchester and the Commonwealth" in _Eng. Hist. Rev._ vol.
+  xv.; Benham, _Red Paper Book of Colchester_ (1902), and _Oath Book of
+  Colchester_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+COLCHESTER, a township of Chittenden county, Vermont, U.S.A., on Lake
+Champlain, immediately N.E. of Burlington, from which it is separated by
+the Winooski river. Pop. (1900) 5352; (1910) 6450. It is served by the
+Central Vermont railway. The surface is generally gently rolling, and in
+places along the banks of the Winooski or Onion river, the shore of the
+lake, and in the valleys, it is very picturesque. At Mallett's Bay, an
+arm of Lake Champlain, 2 m. long and 1-1/2 m. wide, several large private
+schools hold summer sessions. The soil is varied, much of it being good
+meadow land or well adapted to the growing of grain and fruit. The
+township has two villages: Colchester Centre, a small, quiet settlement,
+and Winooski (pop. in 1900, 3783) on the Winooski river. This stream
+furnishes good water power, and the village has manufactories of cotton
+and woollen goods, lumber, woodenware, gold and silver plated ware,
+carriages, wagons and screens. Within the township there is a United
+States military reservation, Fort Ethan Allen. The village was founded
+in 1772 by Ira Allen and for many years it was known as "Allen's
+Settlement"; but later it was called Winooski Falls, and in 1866 it was
+incorporated as the Village of Winooski.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHICUM, the Meadow Saffron, or Autumn Crocus (_Colchicum autumnale_),
+a perennial plant of the natural order, Liliaceae, found wild in rich
+moist meadow-land in England and Ireland, in middle and southern Europe,
+and in the Swiss Alps. It has pale-purple flowers, rarely more than
+three in number; the perianth is funnel-shaped, and produced below into
+a long slender tube, in the upper part of which the six stamens are
+inserted. The ovary is three-celled, and lies at the bottom of this
+tube. The leaves are three or four in number, flat, lanceolate, erect
+and sheathing; and there is no stem. Propagation is by the formation of
+new corms from the parent corm, and by seeds. The latter are numerous,
+round, reddish-brown, and of the size of black mustard-seeds. The corm
+of the meadow-saffron attains its full size in June or early in July. A
+smaller corm is then formed from the old one, close to its root; and
+this in September and October produces the crocus-like flowers. In the
+succeeding January or February it sends up its leaves, together with the
+ovary, which perfects its seeds during the summer. The young corm, at
+first about the diameter of the flower-stalk, grows continuously, till
+in the following July it attains the size of a small apricot. The parent
+corm remains attached to the new one, and keeps its form and size till
+April in the third year of its existence, after which it decays. In some
+cases a single corm produces several new plants during its second spring
+by giving rise to immature corms.
+
+_C. autumnale_ and its numerous varieties as well as other species of
+the genus, are well known in cultivation, forming some of the most
+beautiful of autumn-flowering plants. They are very easy to cultivate
+and do not require lifting. The most suitable soil is a light, sandy
+loam enriched with well decomposed manure, in a rather moist situation.
+The corms should be planted not less than 3 in. deep. Propagation is
+effected by seed or increase of corms; the seed should be sown as soon
+as it is ripe in June or July.
+
+Colchicum was known to the Greeks under the name of [Greek: Kolchikon],
+from [Greek: Kolchis], or Colchis, a country in which the plant grew;
+and it is described by Dioscorides as a poison. In the 17th century the
+corms were worn by some of the German peasantry as a charm against the
+plague. The drug was little used till 1763, when Baron Storck of Vienna
+introduced it for the treatment of dropsy. Its use in febrile diseases,
+at one time extensive, is now obsolete. As a specific for gout colchicum
+was early employed by the Arabs; and the preparation known as _eau
+medicinale_, much resorted to in the 18th century for the cure of gout,
+owes its therapeutic virtues to colchicum; but general attention was
+first directed by Sir Everard Home to the use of the drug in gout.
+
+For medical purposes the corm should be collected in the early summer
+and, after the outer coat has been removed, should be sliced and dried
+at a temperature of 130 deg. to 150 deg. F.
+
+The chief constituents of colchicum are two alkaloids, _colchicine_ and
+_veratrine_. Colchicine is the active principle and may be given in full
+form in doses of 1/32 to 1/16 grain. It is a yellow, micro-crystalline
+powder, soluble in water, alcohol and chloroform, and forming readily
+decomposed salts with acids. It is the methyl ester of a neutral body
+_colchicein_, which may be obtained in white acicular crystals.
+
+The official dose of powdered colchicum is 2 to 5 grains, which may be
+given in a cachet. The British Pharmacopoeia contains (1) an extract of
+the fresh corm, having doses of 1/4 to 1 grain, and (2) the _Vinum
+Colchici_, made by treating the dried corm with sherry and given in
+doses of 10 to 30 minims. This latter is the preparation still most
+generally used, though the presence of veratrine both in the corm and
+the seeds renders the use of colchicine itself theoretically preferable.
+The dried ripe seeds of this plant are also used in medicine. They are
+exceedingly hard and difficult to pulverize, odourless, bitter and
+readily confused with black mustard seeds. They contain a volatile oil
+which does not occur in the corm, and their proportion of colchicine is
+higher, for which reason the _Tinctura Colchici Seminum_--dose 5 to 15
+minims--is preferable to the wine prepared from the corm. At present
+this otherwise excellent preparation is not standardized, but the
+suggestion has been made that it should be standardized to contain 0.1%
+of colchicine. The salicylate of colchicine is stable in water and may
+be given in doses of about one-thirtieth of a grain. It is often known
+as Colchi-Sal.
+
+_Pharmacology._--Colchicum or colchicine, when applied to the skin, acts
+as a powerful irritant, causing local pain and congestion. When inhaled,
+the powder causes violent sneezing, similar to that produced by
+veratrine itself, which is, as already stated, a constituent of the
+corm. Taken internally, colchicum or colchicine markedly increases the
+amount of bile poured into the alimentary canal, being amongst the most
+powerful of known cholagogues. Though this action doubtless contributes
+to its remarkable therapeutic power, it is very far from being an
+adequate explanation of the virtues of the drug in gout. In larger doses
+colchicum or colchicine acts as a most violent gastrointestinal
+irritant, causing terrible pain, colic, vomiting, diarrhoea, haemorrhage
+from the bowel, thirst and ultimately death from collapse. This is
+accelerated by a marked depressant action upon the heart, similar to
+that produced by veratrine and aconite. Large doses also depress the
+nervous system, weakening the anterior horns of grey matter in the
+spinal cord so as ultimately to cause complete paralysis, and also
+causing a partial insensibility of the cutaneous nerves of touch and
+pain. The action of colchicum or colchicine upon the kidneys has been
+minutely studied, and it is asserted on the one hand that the urinary
+solids are much diminished and, on the other hand, that they are
+markedly increased, the specific gravity of the secretion being much
+raised. These assertions, and the total inadequacy of the pharmacology
+of colchicum, as above detailed, to explain its specific therapeutic
+property, show that the secret of colchicum is as yet undiscovered.
+
+The sole but extremely important use of this drug is as a specific for
+gout. It has an extraordinary power over the pain of acute gout; it
+lessens the severity and frequency of the attacks when given
+continuously between them, and it markedly controls such symptoms of
+gout as eczema, bronchitis and neuritis, whilst it is entirely
+inoperative against these conditions when they are not of gouty origin.
+Despite the general recognition of these facts, the pharmacology of
+colchicum has hitherto thrown no light on the pathology of gout, and the
+pathology of gout has thrown no light upon the manner in which colchicum
+exerts its unique influence upon this disease. Veratrine is useless in
+the treatment of gout. A further curious fact, doubtless of very great
+significance, but hitherto lacking interpretation, is that the
+administration of colchicum during an acute attack of gout may often
+hasten the oncoming of the next attack; and this property, familiar to
+many gouty patients, may not be affected by the administration of small
+doses after the attack. Altogether colchicum is a puzzle, and will
+remain so until the efficient poison of gout is isolated and defined.
+When that is done, colchicine may be found to exhibit a definite
+chemical interaction with this hitherto undiscovered substance.
+
+In _colchicum poisoning_, empty the stomach, give white of egg, olive or
+salad oil, and water. Use hot bottles and stimulants, especially trying
+to counteract the cardiac depression by atropine, caffeine,
+strophanthin, &c.
+
+
+
+
+COLCHIS, in ancient geography, a nearly triangular district of Asia
+Minor, at the eastern extremity of the Black Sea, bounded on the N. by
+the Caucasus, which separated it from Asiatic Sarmatia, E. by Iberia,
+S. by the Montes Moschici, Armenia and part of Pontus, and W. by the
+Euxine. The ancient district is represented roughly by the modern
+province of Kutais (formerly Mingrelia). The name of Colchis first
+appears in Aeschylus and Pindar. It was inhabited by a number of tribes
+whose settlements lay chiefly along the shore of the Black Sea. The
+chief of those were the Lazi, Moschi, Apsilae, Abasci, Sagadae, Suani
+and Coraxi. These tribes differed so completely in language and
+appearance from the surrounding nations, that the ancients originated
+various theories to account for the phenomenon. Herodotus, who states
+that they, with the Egyptians and the Ethiopians, were the first to
+practise circumcision, believed them to have sprung from the relics of
+the army of Sesostris (q.v.), and thus regarded them as Egyptians.
+Apollonius Rhodius (_Argon_, iv. 279) states that the Egyptians of
+Colchis preserved as heirlooms a number of wooden [Greek: kurbeis]
+(tablets) showing seas and highways with considerable accuracy. Though
+this theory was not generally adopted by the ancients, it has been
+defended, but not with complete success, by some modern writers. It is
+quite possible that there was an ancient trade connexion between the
+Colchians and the Mediterranean peoples. We learn that women were
+buried, while the corpses of men were suspended on trees. The principal
+coast town was the Milesian colony of Dioscurias (Roman Sebastopolis;
+mod. Sukhum Kaleh), the ancient name being preserved in the modern C.
+Iskuria. The chief river was the Phasis (mod. Rion). From Colchis is
+derived the name of the plant Colchicum (q.v.).
+
+Colchis was celebrated in Greek mythology as the destination of the
+Argonauts, the home of Medea and the special domain of sorcery. Several
+Greek colonies were founded there by Miletus. At a remote period it
+seems to have been incorporated with the Persian empire, though the
+inhabitants evidently enjoyed a considerable degree of independence; in
+this condition it was found by Alexander the Great, when he invaded
+Persia. From this time till the era of the Mithradatic wars nothing is
+known of its history. At the time of the Roman invasion it seems to have
+paid a nominal homage to Mithradates the Great and to have been ruled
+over by Machares, his second son. On the defeat of Mithradates by
+Pompey, it became a Roman province. After the death of Pompey,
+Pharnaces, the son of Mithradates, rose in rebellion against the Roman
+yoke, subdued Colchis and Armenia, and made head, though but for a short
+time, against the Roman arms. After this Colchis was incorporated with
+Pontus, and the Colchians are not again alluded to in ancient history
+till the 6th century, when, along with the Abasci or Abasgi, under their
+king Gobazes, whose mother was a Roman, they called in the aid of
+Chosroes I. of Persia (541). The importance of the district, then
+generally called Lazica from the Lazi (cf. mod. Lazistan) who led the
+revolt, was due to the fact that it was the only remaining bar which
+held the Persians, already masters of Iberia, from the Black Sea. It had
+therefore been specially garrisoned by Justinian under first Peter, a
+Persian slave, and subsequently Johannes Tzibos, who built Petra on the
+coast as the Roman Headquarters. Tzibos took advantage of the extreme
+poverty of the Lazi to create a Roman monopoly by which he became a
+middleman for all the trade both export and import. Chosroes at once
+accepted the invitation of Gobazes and succeeded in capturing Petra
+(A.D. 541). The missionary zeal of the Zoroastrian priests soon caused
+discontent among the Christian inhabitants of Colchis, and Gobazes,
+perceiving that Chosroes intended to Persianize the district, appealed
+to Rome, with the result that in 549 one Dagisthaeus was sent out with
+7000 Romans and 1000 auxiliaries of the Tzani (Zani, Sanni). The "Lazic
+War" lasted till 556 with varying success. Petra was recaptured in 551
+and Archaeopolis was held by the Romans against the Persian general
+Mermeroes. Gobazes was assassinated in 552, but the Persian general
+Nachoragan was heavily defeated at Phasis in 553.
+
+By the peace of 562 the district was left in Roman possession, but
+during the next 150 years it is improbable that the Romans exercised
+much authority over it. In 697 we hear of a revolt against Rome led by
+Sergius the Patrician, who allied himself with the Arabs. Justinian II.
+in his second period of rule sent Leo the Isaurian, afterwards emperor,
+to induce the Alans to attack the Abasgi. The Alans, having gained
+knowledge of the district by a trick, invaded Lazica, and, probably in
+712, a Roman and Armenian army laid siege to Archaeopolis. On the
+approach of a Saracen force they retired, but a small plundering
+detachment was cut off. Ultimately Leo joined this band and aided by the
+Apsilian chief Marinus escaped with them to the coast.
+
+From the beginning of the 14th to the end of the 17th century the
+district under the name Mingrelia (q.v.) was governed by an independent
+dynasty, the Dadians, which was succeeded by a semi-independent dynasty,
+the Chikovans, who by 1838 had submitted to Russia, though they retained
+a nominal sovereignty. In 1866 the district was finally annexed by
+Russia.
+
+  For the kings see Stokvis, _Manuel d'histoire_, i. 83.     (J. M. M.)
+
+
+
+
+COLCOTHAR (adapted in Romanic languages from Arabic _golgotar_, which
+was probably a corruption of the Gr. [Greek: chalkanthos], from [Greek:
+chalkos], copper, [Greek: anthos], flower, i.e. copper sulphate), a name
+given to the brownish-red ferric oxide formed in the preparation of
+fuming sulphuric (Nordhausen) acid by distilling ferrous sulphate. It is
+used as a polishing powder, forming the rouge of jewellers, and as the
+pigment Indian red. It is also known as _Crocus Martis_.
+
+
+
+
+COLD (in O. Eng. _cald_ and _ceald_, a word coming ultimately from a
+root cognate with the Lat. _gelu_, _gelidus_, and common in the Teutonic
+languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and
+the adjective, cf. Ger. _Kalte_, _kalt_, Dutch _koude_, _koud_),
+subjectively the sensation which is excited by contact with a substance
+whose temperature is lower than the normal; objectively a quality or
+condition of material bodies which gives rise to that sensation. Whether
+cold, in the objective sense, was to be regarded as a positive quality
+or merely as absence of heat was long a debated question. Thus Robert
+Boyle, who does not commit himself definitely to either view, says, in
+his _New Experiments and Observations touching Cold_, that "the dispute
+which is the _primum frigidum_ is very well known among naturalists,
+some contending for the earth, others for water, others for the air, and
+some of the moderns for nitre, but all seeming to agree that there is
+some body or other that is of its own nature supremely cold and by
+participation of which all other bodies obtain that quality." But with
+the general acceptance of the dynamical theory of heat, cold naturally
+came to be regarded as a negative condition, depending on decrease in
+the amount of the molecular vibration that constitutes heat.
+
+The question whether there is a limit to the degree of cold possible,
+and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first attacked by the
+French physicist, G. Amontons, in 1702-1703, in connexion with his
+improvements in the air-thermometer. In his instrument temperatures were
+indicated by the height at which a column of mercury was sustained by a
+certain mass of air, the volume or "spring" of which of course varied
+with the heat to which it was exposed. Amontons therefore argued that
+the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the
+spring of the air in it was reduced to nothing. On the scale he used the
+boiling-point of water was marked at 73 and the melting-point of ice at
+51-1/2, so that the zero of his scale was equivalent to about -240 deg.
+on the centigrade scale. This remarkably close approximation to the
+modern value of -273 deg. for the zero of the air-thermometer was
+further improved on by J. H. Lambert (_Pyrometrie_, 1779), who gave the
+value -270 deg. and observed that this temperature might be regarded as
+absolute cold. Values of this order for the absolute zero were not,
+however, universally accepted about this period. Laplace and Lavoisier,
+for instance, in their treatise on heat (1780), arrived at values
+ranging from 1500 deg. to 3000 deg. below the freezing-point of water,
+and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 deg. below, while
+John Dalton in his _Chemical Philosophy_ gave ten calculations of this
+value, and finally adopted -3000 deg. C. as the natural zero of
+temperature. After J. P. Joule had determined the mechanical equivalent
+of heat, Lord Kelvin approached the question from an entirely different
+point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature which
+was independent of the properties of any particular substance and was
+based solely on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics (see HEAT and
+THERMODYNAMICS). It followed from the principles on which this scale was
+constructed that its zero was placed at -273 deg., at almost precisely
+the same point as the zero of the air-thermometer.
+
+In nature the realms of space, on the probable assumption that the
+interstellar medium is perfectly transparent and diathermanous, must, as
+was pointed out by W. J. Macquorn Rankine, be incapable of acquiring any
+temperature, and must therefore be at the absolute zero. That, however,
+is not to say that if a suitable thermometer could be projected into
+space it would give a reading of -273 deg.. On the contrary, not being a
+transparent and diathermanous body, it would absorb radiation from the
+sun and other stars, and would thus become warmed. Professor J. H.
+Poynting ("Radiation in the Solar System," _Phil. Trans._, A, 1903, 202,
+p. 525) showed that as regards bodies in the solar system the effects of
+radiation from the stars are negligible, and calculated that by solar
+radiation alone a small absorbing sphere at the distance of Mercury from
+the sun would have its temperature raised to 483 deg. Abs. (210 deg. C),
+at the distance of Venus to 358 deg. Abs. (85 deg. C), of the earth to
+300 deg. Abs. (27 deg. C), of Mars to 243 deg. Abs. (-30 deg. C), and of
+Neptune to only 54 deg. Abs. (-219 deg. C.). The French physicists of
+the early part of the 19th century held a different view, and rejected
+the hypothesis of the absolute cold of space. Fourier, for instance,
+postulated a fundamental temperature of space as necessary for the
+explanation of the heat-effects observed on the surface of the earth,
+and estimated that in the interplanetary regions it was little less than
+that of the terrestrial poles and below the freezing-point of mercury,
+though it was different in other parts of space (_Ann. chim. phys._,
+1824, 27, pp. 141, 150). C. S. M. Pouillet, again, calculated the
+temperature of interplanetary space as -142 deg. C. (_Comptes rendus_,
+1838, 7, p. 61), and Sir John Herschel as -150 deg. (_Ency. Brit._, 8th
+ed., art. "Meteorology," p. 643).
+
+To attain the absolute zero in the laboratory, that is, to deprive a
+substance entirely of its heat, is a thermodynamical impossibility, and
+the most that the physicist can hope for is an indefinitely close
+approach to that point. The lowest steady temperature obtainable by the
+exhaustion of liquid hydrogen is about -262 deg. C. (11 deg. Abs.), and
+the liquefaction of helium by Professor Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908 yielded
+a liquid having a boiling-point of about 4.3 deg. Abs., which on
+exhaustion must bring us to within about 2-1/2 degrees of the absolute
+zero. (See LIQUID GASES.)
+
+  For a "cold," in the medical sense, see CATARRH and Respiratory
+  System: _Pathology_.
+
+
+
+
+COLDEN, CADWALLADER (1688-1776), American physician and colonial
+official, was born at Duns, Scotland, on the 17th of February 1688. He
+graduated at the university of Edinburgh in 1705, spent three years in
+London in the study of medicine, and emigrated to America in 1708. After
+practising medicine for ten years in Philadelphia, he was invited to
+settle in New York by Governor Hunter, and in 1718 was appointed the
+first surveyor-general of the colony. Becoming a member of the
+provincial council in 1720, he served for many years as its president,
+and from 1761 until his death was lieutenant-governor; for a
+considerable part of the time, during the interim between the
+appointment of governors, he was acting-governor. About 1755 he retired
+from medical practice. As early as 1729 he had built a country house
+called Coldengham on the line between Ulster and Orange counties, where
+he spent much of his time until 1761. Aristocratic and extremely
+conservative, he had a violent distrust of popular government and a
+strong aversion to the popular party in New York. Naturally he came into
+frequent conflict with the growing sentiment in the colony in opposition
+to royal taxation. He was acting-governor when in 1765 the stamped paper
+to be used under the Stamp Act arrived in the port of New York; a mob
+burned him in effigy in his own coach in Bowling Green, in sight of the
+enraged acting-governor and of General Gage; and Colden was compelled to
+surrender the stamps to the city council, by whom they were locked up
+in the city hall until all attempts to enforce the new law were
+abandoned. Subsequently Colden secured the suspension of the provincial
+assembly by an act of parliament. He understood, however, the real
+temper of the patriot party, and in 1775, when the outbreak of
+hostilities seamed inevitable, he strongly advised the ministry to act
+with caution and to concede some of the colonists' demands. When the war
+began, he retired to his Long Island country seat, where he died on the
+28th of September 1776. Colden was widely known among scientists and men
+of letters in England and America. He was a life-long student of botany,
+and was the first to introduce in America the classification system of
+Linnaeus, who gave the name "Coldenia" to a newly recognized genus. He
+was an intimate friend of Benjamin Franklin. He wrote several medical
+works of importance in their day, the most noteworthy being _A Treatise
+on Wounds and Fevers_ (1765); he also wrote _The History of the Five
+Indian Nations depending on the Province of New York_ (1727, reprinted
+1866 and 1905), and an elaborate work on _The Principles of Action in
+Matter_ (1751) which, with his _Introduction to the Study of Physics_
+(c. 1756), his _Enquiry into the Principles of Vital Motion_ (1766), and
+his _Reflections_ (c. 1770), mark him as the first of American
+materialists and one of the ablest material philosophers of his day. I.
+Woodbridge Riley, in _American Philosophy_ (New York, 1907), made the
+first critical study of Colden's philosophy, and said of it that it
+combined "Newtonian mechanics with the ancient hylozoistic doctrine ..."
+and "ultimately reached a kind of dynamic panpsychism, substance being
+conceived as a self-acting and universally diffused principle, whose
+essence is power and force."
+
+  See Alice M. Keys, _Cadwallader Colden, A Representative 18th Century
+  Official_ (New York, 1906), a Columbia University doctoral
+  dissertation; J. G. Mumford, _Narrative of Medicine in America_ (New
+  York, 1903); and Asa Gray, "Selections from the Scientific
+  Correspondence of Cadwallader Colden" in _American Journal of
+  Science_, vol. 44, 1843.
+
+His grandson, CADWALLADER DAVID COLDEN (1769-1834), lawyer and
+politician, was educated in London, but returned in 1785 to New York,
+where he attained great distinction at the bar. He was a colonel of
+volunteers during the war of 1812, and from 1818 to 1821 was the
+successor of Jacob Radcliff as mayor of New York City. He was a member
+of the state assembly (1818) and the state senate (1825-1827), and did
+much to secure the construction of the Erie Canal and the organization
+of the state public school system; and in 1821-1823 he was a
+representative in Congress. He wrote a _Life of Robert Fulton_ (1817)
+and a _Memoir of the Celebration of the Completion of the New York
+Canals_ (1825).
+
+
+
+
+COLD HARBOR, OLD and NEW, two localities in Hanover county, Virginia,
+U.S.A., 10 m. N.E. of Richmond. They were the scenes of a succession of
+battles, on May 31-June 12, 1864, between the Union forces under command
+of General U. S. Grant and the Confederates under General R. E. Lee, who
+held a strongly entrenched line at New Cold Harbor. The main Union
+attack on June 3 was delivered by the II. (Hancock), VI. (Wright), and
+XVIII. (W. F. Smith) corps, and was brought to a standstill in eight
+minutes. An order from army headquarters to renew the attack was ignored
+by the officers and men at the front, who realized fully the strength of
+the hostile position. These troops lost as many as 5,000 men in an
+hour's fighting, the greater part in the few minutes of the actual
+assault. In the constant fighting of 31st of May to 12th of June on this
+ground Grant lost 14,000 men. (See WILDERNESS and AMERICAN CIVIL WAR.)
+
+
+
+
+COLDSTREAM, a police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1482.
+It is situated on the north bank of the Tweed, here spanned by John
+Smeaton's fine bridge of five arches, erected in 1763-1766, 13-1/2 m.
+south-west of Berwick by the North Eastern railway. The chief public
+buildings are the town hall, library, mechanics' institute, and cottage
+hospital. Some brewing is carried on. Owing to its position on the
+Border and also as the first ford of any consequence above Berwick, the
+town played a prominent part in Scottish history during many centuries.
+Here Edward I. crossed the stream in 1296 with his invading host, and
+Montrose with the Covenanters in 1640. Of the Cistercian priory, founded
+about 1165 by Cospatric of Dunbar, and destroyed by the 1st earl of
+Hertford in 1545, which stood a little to the east of the present
+market-place, no trace remains; but for nearly four hundred years it was
+a centre of religious fervour. Here it was that the papal legate, in the
+reign of Henry VIII., published a bull against the printing of the
+Scriptures; and by the irony of fate its site was occupied in the 19th
+century by an establishment, under Dr Adam Thomson, for the production
+of cheap Bibles. At Coldstream General Monk raised in 1659 the
+celebrated regiment of Foot Guards bearing its name. Like Gretna Green,
+Coldstream long enjoyed a notoriety as the resort of runaway couples,
+the old toll-house at the bridge being the usual scene of the marriage
+ceremony. "Marriage House," as it is called, still exists in good
+repair. Henry Brougham, afterwards lord chancellor, was married in this
+clandestine way, though in an inn and not at the bridge, in 1821.
+Birgham, 3 m. west, was once a place of no small importance, for there
+in 1188 William the Lion conferred with the bishop of Durham concerning
+the attempt of the English Church to impose its supremacy upon Scotland;
+there in 1289 was held the convention to consider the question of the
+marriage of the Maid of Norway with Prince Edward of England; and there,
+too, in 1290 was signed the treaty of Birgham, which secured the
+independence of Scotland. Seven miles below Coldstream on the English
+side, though 6 m. north-east of it, are the massive ruins of Norham
+Castle, made famous by Scott's _Marmion_, and from the time of its
+building by Ranulph Flambard in 1121 a focus of Border history during
+four centuries.
+
+
+
+
+COLDWATER, a city and county-seat of Branch county, Michigan, U.S.A., on
+Coldwater Stream (which connects two of the group of small lakes in the
+vicinity), about 80 m. S.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 5247; (1900)
+6216, of whom 431 were foreign-born; (1904) 6225; (1910) 5945. It is
+served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railway. It is the seat of
+a state public school and temporary home (opened in 1874) for dependent,
+neglected or ill-treated children, who are received at any age under
+twelve. The city is situated in a fine farming region, has an important
+flouring and grist mill industry, and also manufactures Portland cement,
+liniment, lumber, furniture, sashes, doors and blinds, brass castings,
+sleighs, shoes, &c. The municipality owns and operates the water-works
+and electric lighting plant. Coldwater was settled in 1829, was laid out
+as a town under the name of Lyons in 1832, received its present name in
+the following year, was incorporated as a village in 1837, was reached
+by railway and became the county-seat in 1851, and was chartered as a
+city in 1861.
+
+
+
+
+COLE, SIR HENRY (1808-1882), English civil servant, was born at Bath on
+the 15th of July 1808, and was the son of an officer in the army. At the
+age of fifteen he became clerk to Sir Francis Palgrave, then a
+subordinate officer in the record office, and, helped by Charles Buller,
+to whom he had been introduced by Thomas Love Peacock, and who became
+chairman of a royal commission for inquiry into the condition of the
+public records, worked his way up until he became an assistant keeper.
+He largely assisted in influencing public opinion in support of Sir
+Rowland Hill's reforms at the post office. A connexion with the Society
+of Arts caused him to drift gradually out of the record office: he was a
+leading member of the commission that organized the Great Exhibition of
+1851, and upon the conclusion of its labours was made secretary to the
+School of Design, which by a series of transformations became in 1853
+the Department of Science and Art. Under its auspices the South
+Kensington (now Victoria and Albert) Museum was founded in 1855 upon
+land purchased out of the surplus of the exhibition, and Cole
+practically became its director, retiring in 1873. His proceedings were
+frequently criticized, but the museum owes much to his energy.
+Indefatigable, genial and masterful, he drove everything before him, and
+by all sorts of schemes and devices built up a great institution, whose
+variety and inequality of composition seemed imaged in the anomalous
+structure in which it was temporarily housed. He also, though to the
+financial disappointment of many, conferred a great benefit upon the
+metropolis by originating the scheme for the erection of the Royal
+Albert Hall. He was active in founding the national training schools for
+cookery and music, the latter the germ of the Royal College of Music. He
+edited the works of his benefactor Peacock; and was in his younger days
+largely connected with the press, and the author of many useful
+topographical handbooks published under the pseudonym of "Felix
+Summerly." He died on the 18th of April 1882.
+
+
+
+
+COLE, THOMAS (1801-1848), American landscape painter, was born at
+Bolton-le-Moors, England, on the 1st of February 1801. In 1819 the
+family emigrated to America, settling first in Philadelphia and then at
+Steubenville, Ohio, where Cole learned the rudiments of his profession
+from a wandering portrait painter named Stein. He went about the country
+painting portraits, but with little financial success. Removing to New
+York (1825), he displayed some landscapes in the window of an
+eating-house, where they attracted the attention of the painter Colonel
+Trumbull, who sought him out, bought one of his canvases, and found him
+patrons. From this time Cole was prosperous. He is best remembered by a
+series of pictures consisting of four canvases representing "The Voyage
+of Life," and another series of five canvases representing "The Course
+of Empire," the latter now in the gallery of the New York Historical
+Society. They were allegories, in the taste of the day, and became
+exceedingly popular, being reproduced in engravings with great success.
+The work, however, was meretricious, the sentiment false, artificial and
+conventional, and the artist's genuine fame must rest on his landscapes,
+which, though thin in the painting, hard in the handling, and not
+infrequently painful in detail, were at least earnest endeavours to
+portray the world out of doors as it appeared to the painter; their
+failings were the result of Cole's environment and training. He had an
+influence on his time and his fellows which was considerable, and with
+Durand he may be said to have founded the early school of American
+landscape painters. Cole spent the years 1829-1832 and 1841-1842 abroad,
+mainly in Italy, and at Florence lived with the sculptor Greenough.
+After 1827 he had a studio in the Catskills which furnished the subjects
+of some of his canvases, and he died at Catskill, New York, on the 11th
+of February 1848. His pictures are in many public and private
+collections. His "Expulsion from Eden" is in the Metropolitan Museum in
+New York.
+
+
+
+
+COLE, TIMOTHY (1852-   ), American wood engraver, was born in London,
+England, in 1852, his family emigrating to the United States in 1858. He
+established himself in Chicago, where in the great fire of 1871 he lost
+everything he possessed. In 1875 he removed to New York, finding work on
+the _Century_ (then _Scribner's_) magazine. He immediately attracted
+attention by his unusual facility and his sympathetic interpretation of
+illustrations and pictures, and his publishers sent him abroad in 1883
+to engrave a set of blocks after the old masters in the European
+galleries. These achieved for him a brilliant success. His reproductions
+of Italian, Dutch, Flemish and English pictures were published in book
+form with appreciative notes by the engraver himself. Though the advent
+of new mechanical processes had rendered wood engraving almost a lost
+art and left practically no demand for the work of such craftsmen, Mr
+Cole was thus enabled to continue his work, and became one of the
+foremost contemporary masters of wood engraving. He received a medal of
+the first class at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and the only grand
+prize given for wood engraving at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at
+St Louis, Missouri, in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+COLE, VICAT (1833-1893), English painter, born at Portsmouth on the 17th
+of April 1833, was the son of the landscape painter, George Cole, and in
+his practice followed his father's lead with marked success. He
+exhibited at the British Institution at the age of nineteen, and was
+first represented at the Royal Academy in 1853. His election as an
+associate of this institution took place in 1870, and he became an
+Academician ten years later. He died in London on the 6th of April 1893.
+The wide popularity of his work was due partly to the simple directness
+of his technical method, and partly to his habitual choice of attractive
+material. Most of his subjects were found in the counties of Surrey and
+Sussex, and along the banks of the Thames. One of his largest pictures,
+"The Pool of London," was bought by the Chantrey Fund Trustees in 1888,
+and is now in the Tate Gallery.
+
+  See Robert Chignell, _The Life and Paintings of Vicat Cole, R.A._
+  (London, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+COLEBROOKE, HENRY THOMAS (1765-1837), English Orientalist, the third son
+of Sir George Colebrooke, 2nd baronet, was born in London on the 15th of
+June 1765. He was educated at home; and when only fifteen he had made
+considerable attainments in classics and mathematics. From the age of
+twelve to sixteen he resided in France, and in 1782 was appointed to a
+writership in India. About a year after his arrival there he was placed
+in the board of accounts in Calcutta; and three years later he was
+removed to a situation in the revenue department at Tirhut. In 1789 he
+was removed to Purneah, where he investigated the resources of that part
+of the country, and published his _Remarks on the Husbandry and Commerce
+of Bengal_, privately printed in 1795, in which he advocated free trade
+between Great Britain and India. After eleven years' residence in India,
+Colebrooke began the study of Sanskrit; and to him was confided the
+translation of the great _Digest of Hindu Laws_, which had been left
+unfinished by Sir William Jones. He translated the two treatises
+_Mitacshara_ and _Dayabhaga_ under the title _Law of Inheritance_. He
+was sent to Nagpur in 1799 on a special mission, and on his return was
+made a judge of the new court of appeal, over which he afterwards
+presided. In 1805 Lord Wellesley appointed him professor of Hindu Law
+and Sanskrit at the college of Fort William. During his residence at
+Calcutta he wrote his _Sanskrit Grammar_ (1805), some papers on the
+religious ceremonies of the Hindus, and his _Essay on the Vedas_ (1805),
+for a long time the standard work on the subject. He became member of
+council in 1807 and returned to England seven years later. He died on
+the 18th of March 1837. He was a director of the Asiatic Society, and
+many of the most valuable papers in the society's _Transactions_ were
+communicated by him.
+
+  His life was written by his son, Sir T. E. Colebrooke, in 1873.
+
+
+
+
+COLEMANITE, a hydrous calcium borate, Ca2B6O11 + 5H2O, found in
+California as brilliant monoclinic crystals. It contains 50.9% of boron
+trioxide, and is an important source of commercial borates and boracic
+acid. Beautifully developed crystals, up to 2 or 3 in. in length,
+encrust cavities in compact, white colemanite; they are colourless and
+transparent, and the brilliant lustre of their faces is vitreous to
+adamantine in character. There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the
+plane of symmetry of the crystals. Hardness 4-4-1/2; specific gravity
+2.42. The mineral was first discovered in 1882 in Death Valley, Inyo
+county, California, and in the following year it was found in greater
+abundance near Daggett in San Bernardino county, forming with other
+borates and borosilicates a bed in sedimentary strata of sandstones and
+clays; in more recent years very large masses have been found and worked
+in these localities, and also in Los Angeles county (see Special Report,
+1905, of U.S. Census Bureau on _Mines and Quarries_; and _Mineral
+Resources of the U.S._, 1907).
+
+Priceite and pandermite are hydrous calcium borates with very nearly the
+same composition as colemanite, and they may really be only impure forms
+of this species. They are massive white minerals, the former friable and
+chalk-like, and the latter firm and compact in texture. Priceite occurs
+near Chetco in Curry county, Oregon, where it forms layers between a bed
+of slate and one of tough blue steatite; embedded in the steatite are
+rounded masses of priceite varying in size from that of a pea to masses
+weighing 200 lb. Pandermite comes from Asia Minor, and is shipped from
+the port of Panderma on the Sea of Marmora: it occurs as large nodules,
+up to a ton in weight, beneath a thick bed of gypsum.
+
+Another borate of commercial importance found abundantly in the
+Californian deposits is ulexite, also known as boronatrocalcite or
+"cotton-ball," a hydrous calcium and sodium borate, CaNaB5O9 + 8H2O,
+which forms rounded masses consisting of a loose aggregate of fine
+fibres. It is the principal species in the borate deposits in the
+Atacama region of South America.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+COLENSO, JOHN WILLIAM (1814-1883), English bishop of Natal, was born at
+St Austell, Cornwall, on the 24th of January 1814. His family were in
+embarrassed circumstances, and he was indebted to relatives for the
+means of university education. In 1836 he was second wrangler and
+Smith's prizeman at Cambridge, and in 1837 he became fellow of St
+John's. Two years later he went to Harrow as mathematical tutor, but the
+step proved an unfortunate one. The school was just then at the lowest
+ebb, and Colenso not only had few pupils, but lost most of his property
+by a fire. He went back to Cambridge, and in a short time paid off heavy
+debts by diligent tutoring and the proceeds of his series of manuals of
+algebra (1841) and arithmetic (1843), which were adopted all over
+England. In 1846 he became rector of Forncett St Mary, Norfolk, and in
+1853 he was appointed bishop of Natal. He at once devoted himself to
+acquiring the Zulu language, of which he compiled a grammar and a
+dictionary, and into which he translated the New Testament and other
+portions of Scripture. He had already given evidence, in a volume of
+sermons dedicated to Maurice, that he was not satisfied with the
+traditional views about the Bible. The puzzling questions put to him by
+the Zulus strengthened him in this attitude and led him to make a
+critical examination of the Pentateuch. His conclusions, positive and
+negative, were published in a series of treatises on the Pentateuch,
+extending from 1862 to 1879, and, being in advance of his time, were
+naturally disputed in England with a fervour of conviction equal to his
+own. On the continent they attracted the notice of Abraham Kuenen, and
+furthered that scholar's investigations.
+
+While the controversy raged in England, the South African bishops, whose
+suspicions Colenso had already incurred by the liberality of his views
+respecting polygamy among native converts and by a commentary upon the
+Epistle to the Romans (1861), in which he combated the doctrine of
+eternal punishment, met in conclave to condemn him, and pronounced his
+deposition (December 1863). Colenso, who had refused to appear before
+their tribunal otherwise than as sending a protest by proxy, appealed to
+the privy council, which pronounced that the metropolitan of Cape Town
+(Robert Gray) had no coercive jurisdiction and no authority to interfere
+with the bishop of Natal. No decision, therefore, was given upon the
+merits of the case. His adversaries, though unable to obtain his
+condemnation, succeeded in causing him to be generally inhibited from
+preaching in England, and Bishop Gray not only excommunicated him but
+consecrated a rival bishop for Natal (W. K. Macrorie), who, however,
+took his title from Maritzburg. The contributions of the missionary
+societies were withdrawn, but an attempt to deprive him of his episcopal
+income was frustrated by a decision of the courts. Colenso, encouraged
+by a handsome testimonial raised in England, to which many clergymen
+subscribed, returned to his diocese, and devoted the latter years of his
+life to further labours as a biblical commentator and translator. He
+also championed the cause of the natives against Boer oppression and
+official encroachments, a course by which he made more enemies among the
+colonists than he had ever made among the clergy. He died at Durban on
+the 20th of June 1883. His daughter Frances Ellen Colenso (1840-1887)
+published two books on the relations of the Zulus to the British (1880
+and 1885), taking a pro-Zulu view; and an elder daughter, Harriette E.
+Colenso (b. 1847), became prominent as an advocate of the natives in
+opposition to their treatment by Natal, especially in the case of
+Dinizulu in 1888-1889 and in 1908-1909.
+
+  See his _Life_ by Sir G. W. Cox (2 vols., London, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+COLENSO, a village of Natal on the right or south bank of the Tugela
+river, 16 m. by rail south by east of Ladysmith. It was the scene of an
+action fought on the 15th of December 1899 between the British forces
+under Sir Redvers Buller and the Boers, in which the former were
+repulsed. (See LADYSMITH.)
+
+
+
+
+COLEOPTERA, a term used in zoological classification for the true
+beetles which form one of the best-marked and most natural of the orders
+into which the class Hexapoda (or Insecta) has been divided. For the
+relationship of the Coleoptera to other orders of insects see HEXAPODA.
+The name (Gr. [Greek: koleos], a sheath, and [Greek: ptera], wings) was
+first used by Aristotle, who noticed the firm protective sheaths,
+serving as coverings for the hind-wings which alone are used for flight,
+without recognizing their correspondence with the fore-wings of other
+insects.
+
+These firm fore-wings, or elytra (fig. 1, A), are usually convex above,
+with straight hind margins (_dorsa_); when the elytra are closed, the
+two hind margins come together along the mid-dorsal line of the body,
+forming a _suture_. In many beetles the hind-wings are reduced to mere
+vestiges useless for flight, or are altogether absent, and in such cases
+the two elytra are often fused together at the suture; thus organs
+originally intended for flight have been transformed into an armour-like
+covering for the beetle's hind-body. In correlation with their heavy
+build and the frequent loss of the power of flight, many beetles are
+terrestrial rather than aerial in habit, though a large proportion of
+the order can fly well.
+
+Aristotle's term was adopted by Linnaeus (1758), and has been
+universally used by zoologists. The identification of the elytra of
+beetles with the fore-wings of other insects has indeed been questioned
+(1880) by F. Meinert, who endeavoured to compare them with the tegulae
+of Hymenoptera, but the older view was securely established by the
+demonstration in pupal elytra by J. G. Needham (1898) and W. L. Tower
+(1903), of nervures similar to those of the hind-wing, and by the proof
+that the small membranous structures present beneath the elytra of
+certain beetles, believed by Meinert to represent the whole of the true
+fore-wings, are in reality only the alulae.
+
+_Structure._--Besides the conspicuous character of the elytra, beetles
+are distinguished by the adaptation of the jaws for biting, the
+mandibles (fig. 1, Bb) being powerful, and the first pair of maxillae
+(fig. 1, Bc) usually typical in form. The maxillae of the second pair
+(fig. 1, Bd) are very intimately fused together to form what is called
+the "lower lip" or labium, a firm transverse plate representing the
+fused basal portions of the maxillae, which may carry a small median
+"ligula," representing apparently the fused inner maxillary lobes, a
+pair of paraglossae (outer maxillary lobes), and a pair of palps. The
+feelers of beetles differ greatly in the different families (cf. figs.
+2b, 9b and 26b, c); the number of segments is usually eleven, but may
+vary from two to more than twenty.
+
+The head is extended from behind forwards, so that the crown
+(epicranium) is large, while the face (clypeus) is small. The chin
+(gula) is a very characteristic sclerite in beetles, absent only in a
+few families, such as the weevils. There is usually a distinct labrum
+(fig. 1, Ba).
+
+The prothorax is large and "free," i.e. readily movable on the
+mesothorax, an arrangement usual among insects with the power of rapid
+running. The tergite of the prothorax (pronotum) is prominent in all
+beetles, reaching back to the bases of the elytra and forming a
+substantial shield for the front part of the body. The tergal regions of
+the mesothorax and of the metathorax are hidden under the pronotum and
+the elytra when the latter are closed, except that the mesothoracic
+scutellum is often visible--a small triangular or semicircular plate
+between the bases of the elytra (fig. 1, A). The ventral region of the
+thoracic skeleton is complex, each segment usually possessing a median
+sternum with paired episterna (in front) and epimera (behind). The
+articular surfaces of the haunches (coxae) of the fore-legs are often
+conical or globular, so that each limb works in a ball-and-socket joint,
+while the hind haunches are large, displacing the ventral sclerites of
+the first two abdominal segments (fig. 1, C). The legs themselves (fig.
+1, A) are of the usual insectan type, but in many families one, two, or
+even three of the five foot-segments may be reduced or absent. In
+beetles of aquatic habit the intermediate and hind legs are modified as
+swimming-organs (fig. 2, a), while in many beetles that burrow into the
+earth or climb about on trees the fore-legs are broadened and
+strengthened for digging, or lengthened and modified for clinging to
+branches. The hard fore-wings (elytra) are strengthened with marginal
+ridges, usually inflected ventrally to form epipleura which fit
+accurately along the edges of the abdomen. The upper surface of the
+elytron is sharply folded inwards at intervals, so as to give rise to a
+regular series of external longitudinal furrows (striae) and to form a
+set of supports between the two chitinous layers forming the elytron.
+The upper surface often shows a number of impressed dots (punctures).
+Along the sutural border of the elytron, the chitinous lamella forms a
+tubular space within which are numerous glands. The glands occur in
+groups, and lead into common ducts which open in several series along
+the suture. Sometimes the glands are found beneath the disk of the
+elytron, opening by pores on the surface. The hind-wings, when
+developed, are characteristic in form, possessing a sub-costal nervure
+with which the reduced radial nervure usually becomes associated. There
+are several curved median and cubital nervures and a single anal, but
+few cross nervures or areolets. The wing, when not in use, is folded
+both lengthwise and transversely, and doubled up beneath the elytron; to
+permit the transverse folding, the longitudinal nervures are
+interrupted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Structure of Male Stag-Beetle (_Lucanus
+cervus_). A, Dorsal view; B, mouth organs; C, under side.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Water Beetles (_Dyticidae_). a, Beetle; b, head
+of beetle with feelers and palps; c, larva; d, pupa.]
+
+Ten segments can be recognized--according to the studies of K. W.
+Verhoeff (1804-1896)--in a beetle's abdomen, but the tenth sternite is
+usually absent. On account of the great extension of the metathorax and
+the haunches of the large hind-legs, the first abdominal sternite is
+wanting, and the second is usually so much reduced that the foremost
+apparent ventral sclerite of the abdomen represents the third sternite.
+From this point backwards the successive abdominal segments, as far as
+the seventh or eighth, can be readily made out. The ninth and tenth
+segments are at most times retracted within the eighth. The female can
+protrude a long flexible tube in connexion with the eighth segment,
+carrying the sclerites of the ninth at its extremity, and these
+sclerites may carry short hairy processes--the stylets. This flexible
+tube is the functional ovipositor, the typical insectan ovipositor with
+its three pairs of processes (see HEXAPODA) being undeveloped among the
+Coleoptera. In male beetles, however, the two pairs of genital processes
+(paramera) belonging to the ninth abdominal segment are always present,
+though sometimes reduced. Between them is situated, sometimes
+asymmetrically, the prominent intromittent organ.
+
+In the structure of the digestive system, beetles resemble most other
+mandibulate insects, the food-canal consisting of gullet, crop, gizzard,
+mid-gut or stomach, intestine and rectum. The stomach is beset
+throughout its length with numerous small, finger-like caecal tubes. The
+excretory (malpighian) tubes are few in number, either four or six. Many
+beetles have, in connexion with the anus, glands which secrete a
+repellent acid fluid, serving as a defence for the insect when attacked.
+The "bombardier" ground beetles (fig. 5) have this habit. Oil-beetles
+(figs. 23 and 24) and ladybirds (fig. 32) defend themselves by ejecting
+drops of fluid from the knee-joints. The nervous system is remarkably
+concentrated in some beetles, the abdominal ganglia showing a tendency
+to become shifted forward and crowded together, and in certain chafers
+all the thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused into a single
+nerve-centre situated in the thorax,--a degree of specialization only
+matched in the insectan class among the Hemiptera and some muscid flies.
+
+  _Development._--The embryonic development (see HEXAPODA) has been
+  carefully studied in several genera of beetles. As regards growth
+  after hatching, all beetles undergo a "complete" metamorphosis, the
+  wing-rudiments developing beneath the cuticle throughout the larval
+  stages, and a resting pupal stage intervening between the last larval
+  instar[1] and the imago. The coleopterous pupa (figs. 2d, 3c) is
+  always "free," the legs, wings and other appendages not being fixed
+  to the body as in the pupa of a moth, and the likeness of pupa to
+  perfect insect is very close.
+
+  The most striking feature in the development of beetles is the great
+  diversity noticeable in the outward form of the larva in different
+  families. The larva of a ground-beetle or a carnivorous water-beetle
+  (fig. 2 c) is an active elongate grub with well-armoured cuticle. The
+  head--carrying feelers, mandibles and two pairs of maxillae--is
+  succeeded by the three thoracic segments, each bearing a pair of
+  strong five-segmented legs, whose feet, like those of the adult, carry
+  two claws. Ten segments can be distinguished in the tapering abdomen,
+  the ninth frequently bearing a pair of tail-feelers (cerci), and the
+  tenth, attached ventrally to the ninth, having the anal opening at its
+  extremity and performing the function of a posterior limb, supporting
+  and temporarily fixing the tail end of the insect on the surface over
+  which it crawls. Such a typically "campodeiform" grub, moving actively
+  about in pursuit of prey, is the one extreme of larval structure to be
+  noticed among the Coleoptera. The other is exemplified by the white,
+  wrinkled, soft-skinned, legless grub of a weevil, which lives
+  underground feeding on roots, or burrows in the tissues of plants
+  (fig. 3 b). Between these two extremes we find various transitional
+  forms: an active larva, as described above, but with four-segmented,
+  single-clawed legs, as among the rove-beetles and their allies; the
+  body well armoured, but slender and worm-like, with very short legs as
+  in wireworms and mealworms (figs. 18, 21 b); the body shortened, with
+  the abdomen swollen, but protected with tubercles and spines, and with
+  longish legs adapted for an active life, as in the predaceous larvae
+  of ladybirds; the body soft-skinned, swollen and caterpillar-like,
+  with legs well developed, but leading a sluggish underground life, as
+  in the grub of a chafer; the body soft-skinned and whitish, and the
+  legs greatly reduced in size, as in the wood-feeding grub of a
+  longhorn beetle. In the case of certain beetles whose larvae do not
+  find themselves amid appropriate food from the moment of hatching, but
+  have to migrate in search of it, an early larval stage, with legs, is
+  followed by later sluggish stages in which legs have disappeared,
+  furnishing examples of what is called hypermetamorphosis. For example,
+  the grub of a pea or bean beetle (_Bruchus_) is hatched, from the egg
+  laid by its mother on the carpel of a leguminous flower, with three
+  pairs of legs and spiny processes on the prothorax. It bores through
+  and enters the developing seed, where it undergoes a moult and becomes
+  legless. Similarly the newly-hatched larva of an oil-beetle (_Meloe_)
+  is an active little campodeiform insect, which, hatched from an egg
+  laid among plants, waits to attach itself to a passing bee. Carried to
+  the bee's nest, it undergoes a moult, and becomes a fat-bodied grub,
+  ready to lead a quiet life feeding on the bee's rich food-stores.
+
+[Illustration: From Chittenden, _Yearbook_, 1894, U.S. Dept. of
+Agriculture.
+
+FIG. 3.--Grain Weevils. a, _Calandra granaria_; b, larva; c, pupa; d,
+_C. oryzae_.]
+
+_Distribution and Habits._--The Coleoptera are almost world-wide in
+their distribution, being represented in the Arctic regions and on
+almost all oceanic islands. Most of the dominant families--such as the
+_Carabidae_ (ground-beetles), _Scarabaeidae_ (chafers), or
+_Curculionidae_ (weevils) have a distribution as wide as the order. But
+while some large families, such as the _Staphylinidae_ (rove-beetles)
+are especially abundant on the great northern continents, becoming
+scarcer in the tropics, others, the _Cicindelidae_ (tiger-beetles), for
+example, are most strongly represented in the warmer regions of the
+earth, and become scarce as the collector journeys far to south or
+north. The distribution of many groups of beetles is restricted in
+correspondence with their habits; the _Cerambycidae_ (longhorns), whose
+larvae are wood-borers, are absent from timberless regions, and most
+abundant in the great tropical forests. Some families are very
+restricted in their range. The _Amphizoidae_, for example, a small
+family of aquatic beetles, are known only from western North America and
+Eastern Tibet, while an allied family, the _Pelobiidae_, inhabit the
+British Isles, the Mediterranean region, Tibet and Australia. The
+beetles of the British islands afford some very interesting examples of
+restricted distribution among species. For example, large and
+conspicuous European beetles, such as the stag-beetle (fig. 1, _Lucanus
+cervus_) and the great water-beetle (_Hydrophilus piceus_, fig. 20), are
+confined to eastern and southern Britain, and are unknown in Ireland. On
+the other hand, there are Arctic species like the ground-beetle,
+_Pelophila borealis_, and south-western species like the boring weevil,
+_Mesites Tardyi_, common in Ireland, and represented in northern or
+western Britain, but unknown in eastern Britain or in Central Europe.
+Careful study of insular faunas, such as that of Madeira by T. V.
+Wollaston, and of the Sandwich Islands by D. Sharp, and the comparison
+of the species found with those of the nearest continental land, furnish
+the student of geographical distribution with many valuable and
+suggestive facts.
+
+Notes on habit are given below in the accounts of the various families.
+In general it may be stated that beetles live and feed in almost all the
+diverse ways possible for insects. There are carnivores, herbivores and
+scavengers among them. Various species among those that are predaceous
+attack smaller insects, hunt in packs crustaceans larger than
+themselves, insert their narrow heads into snail-shells to pick out and
+devour the occupants, or pursue slugs and earthworms underground. The
+vegetable-feeders attack leaves, herbaceous or woody stems and roots;
+frequently different parts of a plant are attacked in the two active
+stages of the life-history; the cockchafers, for example, eating leaves,
+and their grubs gnawing roots. Some of the scavengers, like the burying
+beetles, inter the bodies of small vertebrates to supply food for
+themselves and their larvae, or, like the "sacred" beetle of Egypt,
+collect for the same purpose stores of dung. Many beetles of different
+families have become the "unbidden guests" of civilized man, and may be
+found in dwelling-houses, stores and ships' cargoes, eating food-stuffs,
+paper, furniture, tobacco and drugs. Hence we find that beetles of some
+kind can hold their own anywhere on the earth's surface. Some climb
+trees and feed on leaves, while others tunnel between bark and wood.
+Some fly through the air, others burrow in the earth, while several
+families have become fully adapted to life in fresh water. A large
+number of beetles inhabit the deep limestone caves of Europe and North
+America, while many genera and some whole families are at home nowhere
+but in ants' nests. Most remarkable is the presence of a number of
+beetles along the seashore between tide-marks, where, sheltered in some
+secure nook, they undergo immersion twice daily, and have their active
+life confined to the few hours of the low ebb.
+
+_Stridulating Organs._--Many beetles make a hissing or chirping sound by
+rubbing a "scraper," formed by a sharp edge or prominence on some part
+of their exoskeleton, over a "file" formed by a number of fine ridges
+situate on an adjacent region. These stridulating organs were mentioned
+by C. Darwin as probable examples of the action of sexual selection;
+they are, however, frequently present in both sexes, and in some
+families also in the larvae. An account of the principal types of
+stridulators that have been described has been published by C. J. Gahan
+(1900). The file may be on the head--either upper or lower surface--and
+the scraper formed by the front edge of the prothorax, as in various
+wood-boring beetles (_Anobium_ and _Scolytus_). Or ridged areas on the
+sides of the prothorax may be scraped by "files" on the front thighs, as
+in some ground-beetles. Among the longhorn beetles, the prothorax
+scrapes over a median file on the mid-dorsal aspect of the mesothorax.
+In a large number of beetles of different families, stridulating areas
+occur on various segments of the abdomen, and are scraped by the elytra.
+It is remarkable that these organs are found in similar positions in
+genera belonging to widely divergent families, while two genera of the
+same family may have them in different positions. It follows, therefore,
+that they have been independently acquired in the course of the
+evolution of the Coleoptera.
+
+Stridulating organs among beetle-larvae have been noted, especially in
+the wood-feeding grub of the stag-beetles (_Lucanidae_) and their allies
+the _Passalidae_, and in the dung-eating grubs of the dor-beetles
+(_Geotrupes_), which belong to the chafer family (_Scarabaeidae_). These
+organs are described by J. C. Schiodte and D. Sharp; in the stag-beetle
+larva a series of short tubercles on the hind-leg is drawn across the
+serrate edge of a plate on the haunch of the intermediate legs, while in
+the Passalid grub the modified tip of the hind-leg acts as a scraper,
+being so shortened that it is useless for locomotion, but highly
+specialized for producing sound. Whatever may be the true explanation of
+stridulating organs in adult beetles, sexual selection can have had
+nothing to do with the presence of these highly-developed larval
+structures. It has been suggested that the power of stridulation would
+be advantageous to wood-boring grubs, the sound warning each of the
+position of its neighbour, so that adjacent burrowers may not get in
+each other's way. The root-feeding larvae of the cockchafer and allied
+members of the _Scarabaeidae_ have a ridged area on the mandible, which
+is scraped by teeth on the maxillae, apparently forming a stridulating
+organ.
+
+_Luminous Organs._--The function of the stridulating organs just
+described is presumably to afford means of recognition by sound. Some
+beetles emit a bright light from a portion of their bodies, which leads
+to the recognition of mate or comrade by sight. In the wingless female
+glow-worm (_Lampyris_, fig. 15 f) the luminous region is at the hinder
+end, the organ emitting the light consisting, according to H. von
+Wielowiejski (1882), of cells similar to those of the fat-body,
+containing a substance that undergoes oxidation. The illumination is
+intermittent, and appears to be under the control of the insect's
+nervous system. The well-known "fire-flies" of the tropics are large
+click-beetles (_Elateridae_), that emit light from paired spots on the
+prothorax and from the base of the ventral abdominal region. The
+luminous organs of these beetles consist of a specialized part of the
+fat-body, with an inner opaque and an outer transparent layer. Its
+structure has been described by C. Heinemann, and its physiology by R.
+Dubois (1886), who considers that the luminosity is due to the influence
+of an enzyme in the cells of the organ upon a special substance in the
+blood. The eggs and larvae of the fire-flies are luminous as well as the
+perfect beetles.
+
+_Fossil History._--The Coleoptera can be traced back farther in time
+than any other order of insects with complete transformations, if the
+structures that have been described from the Carboniferous rocks of
+Germany are really elytra. In the Triassic rocks of Switzerland remains
+of weevils (_Curculionidae_) occur, a family which is considered by many
+students the most specialized of the order. And when we know that the
+_Chrysomelidae_ and _Buprestidae_ also lived in Triassic, and the
+_Carabidae_, _Elateridae_, _Cerambycidae_ and _Scarabaeidae_, in Liassic
+times, we cannot doubt that the great majority of our existing families
+had already been differentiated at the beginning of the Mesozoic epoch.
+Coming to the Tertiary we find the Oligocene beds of Aix, of east
+Prussia (amber) and of Colorado, and the Miocene of Bavaria, especially
+rich in remains of beetles, most of which can be referred to existing
+genera.
+
+_Classification._--The Coleoptera have been probably more assiduously
+studied by systematic naturalists than any other order of insects. The
+number of described species can now hardly be less than 100,000, but
+there is little agreement as to the main principles of a natural
+classification. About eighty-five families are generally recognized; the
+difficulty that confronts the zoologists is the arrangement of these
+families in "superfamilies" or "sub-orders." Such obvious features as
+the number of segments in the foot and the shape of the feeler were
+used by the early entomologists for distinguishing the great groups of
+beetles. The arrangement dependent on the number of tarsal segments--the
+order being divided into tribes _Pentamera_, _Tetramera_, _Heteromera_
+and _Trimera_--was suggested by E. L. Geoffroy in 1762, adopted by P. A.
+Latreille, and used largely through the 19th century. W. S. Macleay's
+classification (1825), which rested principally on the characters of the
+larvae, is almost forgotten nowadays, but it is certain that in any
+systematic arrangement which claims to be natural the early stages in
+the life-history must receive due attention. In recent years
+classifications in part agreeing with the older schemes but largely
+original, in accord with researches on the comparative anatomy of the
+insects, have been put forward. Among the more conservative of these may
+be mentioned that of D. Sharp (1899), who divides the order into six
+great series of families: _Lamellicornia_ (including the chafers and
+stag-beetles and their allies with five-segmented feet and plate-like
+terminal segments to the feelers); _Adephaga_ (carnivorous, terrestrial
+and aquatic beetles, all with five foot-segments); _Polymorpha_
+(including a heterogeneous assembly of families that cannot be fitted
+into any of the other groups); _Heteromera_ (beetles with the fore and
+intermediate feet five-segmented, and the hind-feet four-segmented);
+_Phytophaga_ (including the leaf-beetles, and longhorns, distinguished
+by the apparently four-segmented feet), and _Rhynchophora_ (the weevils
+and their allies, with head prolonged into a snout, and feet with four
+segments). L. Ganglbauer (1892) divides the whole order into two
+sub-orders only, the _Caraboidea_ (the _Adephaga_ of Sharp and the older
+writers) and the _Cantharidoidea_ (including all other beetles), since
+the larvae of _Caraboidea_ have five-segmented, two-clawed legs, while
+those of all other beetles have legs with four segments and a single
+claw. A. Lameere (1900) has suggested three sub-orders, the
+_Cantharidiformia_ (including the _Phytophaga_, the _Heteromera_, the
+_Rhynchophora_ and most of the _Polymorpha_ of Sharp's classification),
+the _Staphyliniformia_ (including the rove-beetles, carrion-beetles and
+a few allied families of Sharp's _Polymorpha_), and the _Carabidiformia_
+(_Adephaga_). Lameere's classification is founded on the number of
+abdominal sterna, the nervuration of the wings, the number of malpighian
+tubules (whether four or six) and other structural characters.
+Preferable to Lameere's system, because founded on a wider range of
+adult characters and taking the larval stages into account, is that of
+H. J. Kolbe (1901), who recognizes three sub-orders: (i.) the
+_Adephaga_; (ii.) the _Heterophaga_, including the _Staphylinoidea_, the
+_Actinorhabda_ (_Lamellicornia_), the _Heterorhabda_ (most of Sharp's
+_Polymorpha_), and the _Anchistopoda_ (the _Phytophaga_, with the
+ladybirds and some allied families which Sharp places among the
+_Polymorpha_); (iii.) the _Rhynchophora_.
+
+Students of the Coleoptera have failed to agree not only on a system of
+classification, but on the relative specialization of some of the groups
+which they all recognize as natural. Lameere, for example, considers
+some of his _Cantharidiformia_ as the most primitive Coleoptera. J. L.
+Leconte and G. H. Horn placed the _Rhynchophora_ (weevils) in a group
+distinct from all other beetles, on account of their supposed primitive
+nature. Kolbe, on the other hand, insists that the weevils are the most
+modified of all beetles, being highly specialized as regards their adult
+structure, and developing from legless maggots exceedingly different
+from the adult; he regards the Adephaga, with their active armoured
+larvae with two foot-claws, as the most primitive group of beetles, and
+there can be little doubt that the likeness between larvae and adult may
+safely be accepted as a primitive character among insects. In the
+Coleoptera we have to do with an ancient yet dominant order, in which
+there is hardly a family that does not show specialization in some point
+of structure or life-history. Hence it is impossible to form a
+satisfactory linear series.
+
+In the classification adopted in this article, the attempt has been made
+to combine the best points in old and recent schemes, and to avoid the
+inconvenience of a large heterogeneous group including the vast majority
+of the families.
+
+
+  ADEPHAGA.--This tribe includes beetles of carnivorous habit with five
+  segments on every foot, simple thread-like feelers with none of the
+  segments enlarged to form club or pectination, and the outer lobs
+  (galea) of the first maxilla usually two-segmented and palpiform (fig.
+  4 b). The transverse fold of the hind-wing is towards the tip, about
+  two-thirds of the wing-length from the base. At this fold the median
+  nervure stops and is joined by a cross nervure to the radial, which
+  can be distinguished throughout its length from the subcostal. There
+  are four malpighian tubules. In the ovarian tubes of Adephaga small
+  yolk-chambers alternate with the egg-chambers, while in all other
+  beetles there is only a single large yolk-chamber at the narrow end of
+  the tube. The larvae (fig. 2 c) are active, with well-chitinized
+  cuticle, often with elongate tail-feelers (cerci), and with
+  five-segmented legs, the foot-segment carrying two claws.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Mormolyce phyllodes_. Java. a, Labium; b,
+  maxilla; c, labrum; d, mandible.]
+
+  The generalized arrangement of the wing-nervure and the nature of the
+  larva, which is less unlike the adult than in other beetles,
+  distinguish this tribe as primitive, although the perfect insects are,
+  in the more dominant families, distinctly specialized. Two very small
+  families of aquatic beetles seem to stand at the base of the series,
+  the _Amphizoidae_, whose larvae are broad and well armoured with short
+  cerci, and the _Pelobiidae_, which have elongate larvae, tapering to
+  the tail end, where are long paired cerci and a median process,
+  recalling the grub of a Mayfly.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Pheropsophus Jurinei_. W. Africa.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Carabus rutilans_. Spain.]
+
+  The _Dyticidae_ (fig. 2) are Adephaga highly specialized for life in
+  the water, the hind-legs having the segments short, broad and fringed,
+  so as to be well adapted for swimming, and the feet without claws. The
+  metasternum is without the transverse linear impression that is found
+  in most families of Adephaga. The beetles are ovoid in shape, with
+  smooth contours, and the elytra fit over the edges of the abdomen so
+  as to enclose a supply of air, available for use when the insect
+  remains under water. The fore-legs of many male dyticids have the
+  three proximal foot-segments broad and saucer-shaped, and covered
+  with suckers, by means of which they secure a firm hold of their
+  mates. Larval dyticids (fig. 2 b) possess slender, curved, hollow
+  mandibles, which are perforated at the tip and at the base, being thus
+  adapted for sucking the juices of victims. Large dyticid larvae often
+  attack small fishes and tadpoles. They breathe by piercing the surface
+  film with the tail, where a pair of spiracles are situated. The pupal
+  stage is passed in an earthen cell, just beneath the surface of the
+  ground. Nearly 2000 species of _Dyticidae_ are known: they are
+  universally distributed, but are most abundant in cool countries. The
+  _Haliplidae_ form a small aquatic family allied to the _Dyticidae_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Cicindela sylvatica_ (Wood Tiger-Beetle).
+  Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Manticora tuberculata_. S. Africa.]
+
+  The _Carabidae_, or ground-beetles, comprising 13,000 species, form
+  the largest and most typical family of the Adephaga (figs. 4, 5, 6),
+  the legs of all three pairs being alike and adapted for rapid running.
+  In many _Carabidae_ the hind-wings are reduced or absent, and the
+  elytra fused together along the suture. Many of our native species
+  spend the day lurking beneath stones, and sally forth at night in
+  pursuit of their prey, which consists of small insects, earthworms and
+  snails. But a number of the more brightly coloured ground-beetles run
+  actively in the sunshine. The carabid larva is an active well-armoured
+  grub with the legs and cerci variable in length. Great differences in
+  the general form of the body may be observed in the family. For
+  example, the stout, heavy body of _Carabus_ (fig. 6) contrasts
+  markedly with the wonderful flattened abdomen and elytra of
+  _Mormolyce_ (fig. 4), a Malayan genus found beneath fallen trees, a
+  situation for which its compressed shape is admirably adapted. Blind
+  _Carabidae_ form a large proportion of cave-dwelling beetles, and
+  several species of great interest live between tide-marks along the
+  seashore.
+
+  The _Cicindelidae_, or tiger-beetles (figs. 7, 8) are the most highly
+  organized of all the Adephaga. The inner lobe (lacinia) of the first
+  maxilla terminates in an articulated hook, while in the second
+  maxillae (labium) both inner and outer lobes ("ligula" and
+  "para-glossae") are much reduced. The face (clypeus) is broad,
+  extending on either side in front of the insertion of the feelers. The
+  beetles are elegant insects with long, slender legs, running quickly,
+  and flying in the sunshine. The pronotum and elytra are often adorned
+  with bright colours or metallic lustre, and marked with stripes or
+  spots. The beetles are fierce in nature and predaceous in habit, their
+  sharp toothed mandibles being well adapted for the capture of small
+  insect-victims. The larvae are more specialized than those of other
+  Adephaga, the head and prothorax being very large and broad, the
+  succeeding segments slender and incompletely chitinized. The fifth
+  abdominal segment has a pair of strong dorsal hook-like processes, by
+  means of which the larva supports itself in the burrow which it
+  excavates in the earth, the great head blocking the entrance with the
+  mandibles ready to seize on any unwary insect that may venture within
+  reach.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.
+
+    a  _Gyrinus sulcatus_ (Grooved Whirligig). Europe.
+    b  Antenna of _Gyrinus_.
+    c  Larva of _Gyrinus_.]
+
+  Two or three families may be regarded as aberrant Adephaga. The
+  _Paussidae_ are a very remarkable family of small beetles, mostly
+  tropical, found only in ants' nests, or flying by night, and
+  apparently migrating from one nest to another. The number of antennal
+  segments varies from eleven to two. It is supposed that these beetles
+  secrete a sweet substance on which the ants feed, but they have been
+  seen to devour the ants' eggs and grubs. The _Gyrinidae_, or whirligig
+  beetles (fig. 9), are a curious aquatic family with the feelers (fig.
+  9, b) short and reduced as in most _Paussidae_. They are flattened
+  oval in form, circling with gliding motion over the surface film of
+  the water, and occasionally diving, when they carry down with them a
+  bubble of air. The fore-legs are elongate and adapted for clasping,
+  while the short and flattened intermediate and hind legs form very
+  perfect oar-like propellers. The larva of _Gyrinus_ (fig. 9, c) is
+  slender with elongate legs, and the abdominal segments carry paired
+  tracheal gills.
+
+  STAPHYLINOIDEA.--The members of this tribe may be easily recognized by
+  their wing-nervuration. Close to a transverse fold near the base of
+  the wing, the median nervure divides into branches which extend to the
+  wing-margin; there is a second transverse fold near the tip of the
+  wing, and cross nervures are altogether wanting. There are four
+  malpighian tubes, and all five tarsal segments are usually
+  recognizable. With very few exceptions, the larva in this group is
+  active and campodeiform, with cerci and elongate legs as in the
+  Adephaga, but the leg has only four segments and one claw.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Silpha quadripunctata_. Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Necrophorus vespillo_ (Sexton Beetle).
+  Europe.]
+
+  The _Silphidae_, or carrion beetles, form one of the best-known
+  families of this group. They are rotund or elongate insects with
+  conical front haunches, the elytra generally covering (fig. 10) the
+  whole dorsal region of the abdomen, but sometimes leaving as many as
+  four terga exposed (fig. 11). Some of these beetles are brightly
+  coloured, while others are dull black. They are usually found in
+  carrion, and the species of _Necrophorus_ (fig. 11) and _Necrophaga_
+  are valuable scavengers from their habit of burying small vertebrate
+  carcases which may serve as food for their larvae. At this work a
+  number of individuals are associated together. The larvae that live
+  underground have spiny dorsal plates, while those of the _Silpha_
+  (fig. 10) and other genera that go openly about in search of food
+  resemble wood-lice. About 1000 species of _Silphidae_ are known.
+  Allied to the _Silphidae_ are a number of small and obscure families,
+  for which reference must be made to monographs of the order. Of
+  special interest among these are the _Histeridae_, compact beetles
+  (fig. 12) with very hard cuticle and somewhat abbreviated elytra, with
+  over 2000 species, most of which live on decaying matter, and the
+  curious little _Pselaphidae_, with three-segmented tarsi, elongate
+  palpi, and shortened abdomen; the latter are usually found in ants'
+  nests, where they are tended by the ants, which take a sweet fluid
+  secreted among little tufts of hair on the beetles' bodies; these
+  beetles, which are carried about by the ants, sometimes devour their
+  larvae. The _Trichopterygidae_, with their delicate narrow fringed
+  wings, are the smallest of all beetles, while the _Platypsyllidae_
+  consist of only a single species of curious form found on the beaver.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12. _Hister iv-maculatus_ (Mimic Beetle). Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13. _Oxyporus rufus_. Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14. _Stenus biguttatus_. Europe.]
+
+  The _Staphylinidae_, or rove-beetles--a large family of nearly 10,000
+  species--may be known by their very short elytra, which cover only two
+  of the abdominal segments, leaving the elongate hind-body with seven
+  or eight exposed, firm terga (figs. 13, 14). These segments are very
+  mobile, and as the rove-beetles run along they often curl the abdomen
+  upwards and forwards like the tail of a scorpion. The _Staphylinid_
+  larvae are typically campodeiform. Beetles and larvae are frequently
+  carnivorous in habit, hunting for small insects under stones, or
+  pursuing the soft-skinned grubs of beetles and flies that bore in
+  woody stems or succulent roots. Many _Staphylinidae_ are constant
+  inmates of ants' nests.
+
+  MALACODERMATA.--In this tribe may be included a number of families
+  distinguished by the softness of the cuticle, the presence of seven or
+  eight abdominal sterna and of four malpighian tubes, and the firm,
+  well-armoured larva (fig. 15, c) which is often predaceous in habit.
+  The mesothoracic epimera bound the coxal cavities of the intermediate
+  legs. The _Lymexylonidae_, a small family of this group, characterized
+  by its slender, undifferentiated feelers and feet, is believed by
+  Lameere to comprise the most primitive of all living beetles, and
+  Sharp lays stress on the undeveloped structure of the tribe generally.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Glow-worm. _Lampyris noctiluca_. a, Male; b,
+  female; c, larva (ventral view). Europe.]
+
+  The _Lampyridae_ are a large family, of which the glow-worm
+  (_Lampyris_) and the "soldier beetles" (_Telephorus_) are familiar
+  examples. The female "glow-worm" (fig. 15, b), emitting the well-known
+  light (see above), is wingless and like a larva; the luminosity seems
+  to be an attraction to the male, whose eyes are often exceptionally
+  well developed. Some male members of the family have remarkably
+  complex feelers. In many genera of _Lampyridae_ the female can fly as
+  well as the male; among these are the South European "fireflies."
+
+  TRICHODERMATA.--Several families of rather soft-skinned beetles, such
+  as the _Melyridae_, _Cleridae_ (fig. 16), _Corynetidae_, _Dermestidae_
+  (fig. 17), and _Dascillidae_, are included in this tribe. They may be
+  distinguished from the Malacodermata by the presence of only five or
+  six abdominal sterna, while six malpighian tubes are present in some
+  of the families. The beetles are hairy and their larvae well-armoured
+  and often predaceous. Several species of _Dermestidae_ are commonly
+  found in houses, feeding on cheeses, dried meat, skins and other such
+  substances. The "bacon beetle" (_Dermestes lardarius_), and its hard
+  hairy larva, are well known. According to Sharp, all Dermestid larvae
+  probably feed on dried animal matters; he mentions one species that
+  can find sufficient food in the horsehair of furniture, and another
+  that eats the dried insect-skins hanging in old cobwebs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--_Clerus apiarus_ (Hive Beetle). Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--_Dermestes lardarius_ (Bacon Beetle).]
+
+  STERNOXIA.--This is an important tribe of beetles, including families
+  with four malpighian tubes and only five or six abdominal sterna,
+  while in the thorax there is a backwardly directed process of the
+  prosternum that fits into a mesosternal cavity. The larvae are
+  elongate and worm-like, with short legs but often with hard strong
+  cuticle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--A, Wireworm; B, pupa of Click Beetle; C,
+  adult Click Beetle (_Agriotes lineatum_).]
+
+  The _Elateridae_ or click beetles (fig. 18) have the prosternal
+  process just mentioned, capable of movement in and out of the
+  mesosternal cavity, the beetles being thus enabled to leap into the
+  air, hence their popular name of "click-beetles" or "skip-jacks." The
+  prothorax is convex in front, and is usually drawn out behind into a
+  prominent process on either side, while the elytra are elongate and
+  tapering. Many of the tropical American _Elateridae_ emit light from
+  the spots on the prothorax and an area beneath the base of the
+  abdomen; these are "fireflies" (see above). The larvae of _Elateridae_
+  are elongate, worm-like grubs, with narrow bodies, very firm cuticle,
+  short legs, and a distinct anal proleg. They are admirably adapted for
+  moving through the soil, where some of them live on decaying organic
+  matter, while others are predaceous. Several of the elaterid larvae,
+  however, gnaw roots and are highly destructive to farm crops. These
+  are the well-known "wire-worms" (q.v.).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Catoxantha bicolor_. Java.]
+
+  The _Buprestidae_ are distinguished from the _Elateridae_ by the
+  immobility of the prosternal process in the mesosternal cavity and by
+  the absence of the lateral processes at the hind corners of the
+  prothorax. Many tropical _Buprestidae_ are of large size (fig. 19),
+  and exhibit magnificent metallic colours; their elytra are used as
+  ornaments in human dress. The larvae are remarkable for their small
+  head, very broad thorax, with reduced legs, and narrow elongate
+  abdomen. They feed by burrowing in the roots and stems of plants.
+
+  BOSTRYCHOIDEA.--This tribe is distinguished from the Malacoderma and
+  allied groups by the mesothoracic epimera not bounding the coxal
+  cavities of the intermediate legs. The downwardly directed head is
+  covered by the pronotum, and the three terminal antennal segments form
+  a distinct club. To this group belong the _Bostrychidae_ and
+  _Ptinidae_, well known (especially the latter family) for their
+  ravages in old timber. The larvae are stout and soft-skinned, with
+  short legs in correlation with their burrowing habit. The noises made
+  by some _Ptinidae_ (_Anobium_) tapping on the walls of their burrows
+  with their mandibles give rise to the "death tick" that has for long
+  alarmed the superstitious.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Hydrophilus piceus_ (Black Water Beetle).
+  Europe.]
+
+  CLAVICORNIA.--This is a somewhat heterogeneous group, most of whose
+  members are characterized by clubbed feelers and simple, unbroadened
+  tarsal segments--usually five on each foot--but in some families and
+  genera the males have less than the normal number on the feet of one
+  pair. There are either four or six malpighian tubes. A large number of
+  families, distinguished from each other by more or less trivial
+  characters, are included here, and there is considerable diversity in
+  the form of the larvae. The best-known family is the _Hydrophilidae_,
+  in which the feelers are short with less than eleven segments and the
+  maxillary palpi very long. Some members of this family--the large
+  black _Hydrophilus piceus_ (fig. 20), for example--are specialized for
+  an aquatic life, the body being convex and smooth as in the
+  _Dyticidae_, and the intermediate and hind-legs fringed for swimming.
+  When _Hydrophilus_ dives it carries a supply of air between the elytra
+  and the dorsal surface of the abdomen, while air is also entangled in
+  the pubescence which extends beneath the abdomen on either side, being
+  scooped in bubbles by the terminal segments of the feelers when the
+  insect rises to the surface. Many of the _Hydrophilidae_ construct,
+  for the protection of their eggs, a cocoon formed of a silky material
+  derived from glands opening at the tip of the abdomen. That of
+  _Hydrophilus_ is attached to a floating leaf, and is provided with a
+  hollow, tapering process, which projects above the surface and
+  presumably conveys air to the enclosed eggs. Other _Hydrophilidae_
+  carry their egg-cocoons about with them beneath the abdomen. Many
+  _Hydrophilidae_, unmodified for aquatic life, inhabit marshes. The
+  larvae in this family are well-armoured, active and predaceous. Of the
+  numerous other families of the Clavicornia may be mentioned the
+  _Cucujidae_ and _Cryptophagidae_, small beetles, examples of which may
+  be found feeding on stored seeds or vegetable refuse, and the
+  _Mycetophagidae_, which devour fungi. The _Nitidulidae_ are a large
+  family with 1600 species, among which members of the genus
+  _Meligethes_ are often found in numbers feeding on blossoms, while
+  others live under the bark of trees and prey on the grubs of boring
+  beetles.
+
+  HETEROMERA.--This tribe is distinguished by the presence of the normal
+  five segments in the feet of the fore and intermediate legs, while
+  only four segments are visible in the hind-foot. Considerable
+  diversity is to be noticed in details of structure within this group,
+  and for an enumeration of all the various families which have been
+  proposed and their distinguishing characters the reader is referred to
+  one of the monographs mentioned below. Some of the best-known members
+  of the group belong to the _Tenebrionidae_, a large family containing
+  over 10,000 species and distributed all over the world. The
+  tenebrionid larva is elongate, with well-chitinized cuticle, short
+  legs and two stumpy tail processes, the common mealworm (fig. 21)
+  being a familiar example. Several species of this family are found
+  habitually in stores of flour or grain. The beetles have feelers with
+  eleven segments, whereof the terminal few are thickened so as to form
+  a club. The true "black-beetles" or "churchyard beetles" (_Blaps_)
+  (fig. 22) belong to this family; like members of several allied genera
+  they are sooty in colour, and somewhat resemble ground beetles
+  (_Carabi_) in general appearance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--(a) _Tenebrio molitor_ (Flour Beetle).
+  Europe. (b) Larva, or mealworm.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--_Blaps mortisaga_ (Churchyard Beetle).
+  Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--_Meloe proscarabaeus_ (Oil Beetle). Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--_Lytta vesicatoria_ (Blister Beetle).
+  Europe.]
+
+  The most interesting of the Heteromera, and perhaps of all the
+  Coleoptera, are some beetles which pass through two or more larval
+  forms in the course of the life-history (hypermetamorphosis). These
+  belong to the families _Rhipidophoridae_ and _Meloidae_. The latter
+  are the oil beetles (fig. 23) or blister beetles (fig. 24), insects
+  with rather soft cuticle, the elytra (often abbreviated) not fitting
+  closely to the sides of the abdomen, the head constricted behind the
+  eyes to form a neck, and the claws of the feet divided to the base.
+  Several of the _Meloidae_ (such as the "Spanish fly," fig. 24) are of
+  economic importance, as they contain a vesicant substance used for
+  raising medicinal blisters on the human skin. The wonderful
+  transformations of these insects were first investigated by G. Newport
+  in 1851, and have recently been more fully studied by C. V. Riley
+  (1878) and J. H. Fabre. The first larval stage is the "triungulin," a
+  tiny, active, armoured larva with long legs (each foot with three
+  claws) and cercopods. In the European species of _Sitaris_ and _Meloe_
+  these little larvae have the instinct of clinging to any hairy object.
+  All that do not happen to attach themselves to a bee of the genus
+  _Anthophora_ perish, but those that succeed in reaching the right host
+  are carried to the nest, and as the bee lays an egg in the cell the
+  triungulin slips off her body on to the egg, which floats on the
+  surface of the honey. After eating the contents of the egg, the larva
+  moults and becomes a fleshy grub with short legs and with paired
+  spiracles close to the dorsal region, so that, as it floats in and
+  devours the honey, it obtains a supply of air. After a resting
+  (pseudo-pupal) stage and another larval stage, the pupa is developed.
+  In the American EPICAUTA VITTATA the larva is parasitic on the eggs
+  and egg-cases of a locust. The triungulin searches for the eggs, and,
+  after a moult, becomes changed into a soft-skinned tapering larva.
+  This is followed by a resting (pseudo-pupal) stage, and this by two
+  successive larval stages like the grub of a chafer. The
+  RHIPIDOPHORIDAE are beetles with, short elytra, the feelers pectinate
+  in the males and serrate in the females. The life-history of
+  _Metoecus_ has been studied by T. A. Chapman, who finds that the eggs
+  are laid in old wood, and that the triungulin seeks to attach itself
+  to a social wasp, who carries it to her nest. There it feeds first as
+  an internal parasite of the wasp-grub, then bores its way out, moults
+  and devours the wasp larva from outside. The wasps are said to leave
+  the larval or pupal _Metoecus_ unmolested, but they are hostile to the
+  developed beetles, which hasten to leave the nest as soon as possible.
+
+  STREPSIPTERA.--Much difference of opinion has prevailed with regard to
+  the curious, tiny, parasitic insects included in this division, some
+  authorities considering that they should be referred to a distinct
+  order, while others would group them in the family _Meloidae_ just
+  described. While from the nature of their life-history there is no
+  doubt that they have a rather close relationship to the _Meloidae_,
+  their structure is so remarkable that it seems advisable to regard
+  them as at least a distinct tribe of Coleoptera.
+
+  They may be comprised in a single family, the _Stylopidae_. The males
+  are very small, free-flying insects with the prothorax, mesothorax and
+  elytra greatly reduced, the latter appearing as little, twisted
+  strips, while the metathorax is relatively large, with its wings broad
+  and capable of longitudinal folding. The feelers are branched and the
+  jaws vestigial. The female is a segmented, worm-like creature,
+  spending her whole life within the body of the bee, wasp or bug on
+  which she is parasitic. One end of her body protrudes from between two
+  of the abdominal segments of the host; it has been a subject of
+  dispute whether this protruded end is the head or the tail, but there
+  can be little doubt that it is the latter. While thus carried about by
+  the host-insect, the female is fertilized by the free-flying male, and
+  gives birth to a number of tiny triungulin larvae. The chief points in
+  the life-history of _Stylops_ and _Xenos_, which are parasitic on
+  certain bees (_Andrena_) and wasps (_Polistes_), have been
+  investigated by K. T. E. von Siebold (1843) and N. Nassonov (1892).
+  The little triungulins escape on to the body of the bee or wasp; then
+  those that are to survive must leave their host for a non-parasitized
+  insect. Clinging to her hairs they are carried to the nest, where they
+  bore into the body of a bee or wasp larva, and after a moult become
+  soft-skinned legless maggots. The growth of the parasitic larva does
+  not stop the development of the host-larva, and when the latter
+  pupates and assumes the winged form, the stylopid, which has completed
+  its transformation, is carried to the outer world. The presence of a
+  _Stylops_ causes derangement in the body of its host, and can be
+  recognized by various external signs. Other genera of the family are
+  parasitic on Hemiptera--bugs and frog-hoppers--but nothing is known as
+  to the details of their life-history.
+
+  LAMELLICORNIA.--This is a very well-marked tribe of beetles,
+  characterized by the peculiar elongation and flattening of three or
+  more of the terminal antennal segments, so that the feeler seems to
+  end in a number of leaf-like plates, or small comb-teeth (fig. 26, b,
+  c). The wings are well developed for flight, and there is a tendency
+  in the group, especially among the males, towards an excessive
+  development of the mandibles or the presence of enormous, horn-like
+  processes on the head or pronotum. There are four malpighian tubes.
+  The larvae are furnished with large heads, powerful mandibles and
+  well-developed legs, but the body-segments are feebly chitinized, and
+  the tail-end is swollen. They feed in wood or spend an underground
+  life devouring roots or animal excrement.
+
+  The _Lucanidae_ or stag beetles (figs. 1 and 25) have the terminal
+  antennal segments pectinate, and so arranged that the comb-like part
+  of the feeler cannot be curled up, while the elytra completely cover
+  the abdomen. There are about 600 species in the family, the males
+  being usually larger than the females, and remarkable for the size of
+  their mandibles. In the same species, however, great variation occurs
+  in the development of the mandibles, and the breadth of the head
+  varies correspondingly, the smallest type of male being but little
+  different in appearance from the female. The larvae of _Lucanidae_
+  live within the wood of trees, and may take three or four years to
+  attain their full growth. The _Passalidae_ are a tropical family of
+  beetles generally considered to be intermediate between stag-beetles
+  and chafers, the enlarged segments of the feeler being capable of
+  close approximation.
+
+  The _Scarabaeidae_ or chafers are an enormous family of about 15,000
+  species. The plate-like segments of the feeler (fig. 26, b, c) can be
+  brought close together so as to form a club-like termination; usually
+  the hinder abdominal segments are not covered by the elytra. In this
+  family there is often a marked divergence between the sexes; the
+  terminal antennal segments are larger in the male than in the female,
+  and the males may carry large spinous processes on the head or
+  prothorax, or both. These structures were believed by C. Darwin to be
+  explicable by sexual selection. The larvae have the three pairs of
+  legs well developed, and the hinder abdominal segments swollen. Most
+  of the _Scarabaeidae_ are vegetable-feeders, but one section of the
+  family--represented in temperate countries by the dor-beetles
+  (_Geotrupes_) (fig. 28) and _Aphodius_, and in warmer regions by the
+  "sacred" beetles of the Egyptians (_Scarabaeus_) (fig. 27), and allied
+  genera--feed both in the adult and larval stages, on dung or decaying
+  animal matter. The heavy grubs of _Geotrupes_, their swollen tail-ends
+  black with the contained food-material, are often dug up in numbers in
+  well-manured fields. The habits of _Scarabaeus_ have been described in
+  detail by J. H. Fabre. The female beetle in spring-time collects dung,
+  which she forms into a ball by continuous rolling, sometimes assisted
+  by a companion. This ball is buried in a suitable place, and serves
+  the insect as a store of food. During summer the insects rest in their
+  underground retreats, then in autumn they reappear to bury another
+  supply of dung, which serves as food for the larvae. Fabre states that
+  the mother-insect carefully arranges the food-supply so that the most
+  nutritious and easily digested portion is nearest the egg, to form the
+  first meal of the young larva. In some species of _Copris_ it is
+  stated that the female lays only two or three eggs at a time, watching
+  the offspring grow to maturity, and then rearing another brood.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--_Cladognathus cinnamomeus_. Java.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--_Melolontha fullo_ (Cockchafer). S. Europe,
+  b, Antenna of male; c, antenna of female.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Scarabaeus Aegyptiorum_. Africa.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Geotrupes Blackburnei_. N. America.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Phaneus Imperator_. S. America.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--_Cetonia Baxii_. W. Africa.]
+
+  Among the vegetable-feeding chafers we usually find that while the
+  perfect insect devours leaves, the larva lives underground and feeds
+  on roots. Such are the habits of the cockchafer (_Melolontha
+  vulgaris_) and other species that often cause great injury to farm and
+  garden crops (see CHAFER). Many of these insects, such as the species
+  of _Phanaeus_ (fig. 29) and _Cetonia_ (fig. 30), are adorned with
+  metallic or other brilliant colours. The African "goliath-beetles"
+  (fig. 31) and the American "elephant-beetles" (_Dynastes_) are the
+  largest of all insects.
+
+  ANCHISTOPODA.--The families of beetles included by Kolbe in this group
+  are distinguished by the possession of six malpighian tubes, and a
+  great reduction in one or two of the tarsal segments, so that there
+  seem to be only four or three segments in each foot; hence the names
+  _Tetramera_ and _Trimera_ formerly applied to them. The larvae have
+  soft-skinned bodies sometimes protected by rows of spiny tubercles,
+  the legs being fairly developed in some families and greatly reduced
+  or absent in others. As might be expected, degeneration in larval
+  structure is correlated with a concealed habit of life.
+
+  The _Coccinellidae_, or ladybirds (fig. 32), are a large family of
+  beetles, well known by their rounded convex bodies, usually shining
+  and hairless. They have eleven segments to the feeler, which is
+  clubbed at the tip, and apparently three segments only in each foot.
+  Ladybirds are often brightly marked with spots and dashes, their
+  coloration being commonly regarded as an advertisement of inedibility.
+  The larvae have a somewhat swollen abdomen, which is protected by
+  bristle-bearing tubercles. Like the perfect insects, they are
+  predaceous, feeding on plant-lice (_Aphidae_) and scale insects
+  (_Coccidae_). Their role in nature is therefore beneficial to the
+  cultivator. The _Endomychidae_ (fig. 33), an allied family, are mostly
+  fungus-eaters. In the _Erotylidae_ and a few other small related
+  families the feet are evidently four-segmented.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--_Goliathus giganteus_ (Goliath Beetle).]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--_Anatio ocellata_ (Eyed Ladybird). Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--_Endomychus coccineus_. Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--_Sagra cyanea_. W. Africa.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Eumorphus ivguttatus_. Sumatra.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--_Lophonocerus barbicornis_. S. America.]
+
+  The _Chrysomelidae_, or leaf-beetles (figs. 34, 35), are a very large
+  family, with "tetramerous" tarsi; there seem to be only four segments
+  to the foot, but there are really five, the fourth being greatly
+  reduced. The mandibles are strong, adapted for biting the vegetable
+  substances on which these beetles feed, and the palps of the second
+  maxillae have three segments. Most of the _Chrysomelidae_ are metallic
+  in colour and convex in form; in some the head is concealed beneath
+  the prothorax, and the so-called "tortoise" beetles (_Cassidinae_)
+  have the elytra raised into a prominent median ridge. The most active
+  form of larva found in this family resembles in shape that of a
+  ladybird, tapering towards the tail end, and having the trunk segments
+  protected by small firm sclerites. Such larvae, and also many with
+  soft cuticle and swollen abdomen--those of the notorious "Colorado
+  beetle," for example--feed openly on foliage. Others, with soft,
+  white, cylindrical bodies, which recall the caterpillars of moths,
+  burrow in the leaves or stems of plants. The larvae of the
+  tortoise-beetles have the curious habit of forming an umbrella-like
+  shield out of their own excrement, held in position by the upturned
+  tail-process. The larvae of the beautiful, elongate, metallic
+  _Donaciae_ live in the roots and stems of aquatic plants, obtaining
+  thence both food and air. The larva pierces the vessels of the plant
+  with sharp processes at the hinder end of its body. In this way it is
+  believed that the sub-aqueous cocoon in which the pupal stage is
+  passed becomes filled with air.
+
+  The _Cerambycidae_, or longhorn beetles, are recognizable by their
+  slender, elongate feelers, which are never clubbed and rarely serrate.
+  The foot has apparently four segments, as in the _Chrysomelidae_. The
+  beetles are usually elongate and elegant in form, often adorned with
+  bright bands of colour, and some of the tropical species attain a very
+  large size (figs. 36, 37). The feelers are usually longer in the male
+  than in the female, exceeding in some cases by many times the length
+  of the body. The larvae have soft, fleshy bodies, with the head and
+  prothorax large and broad, and the legs very much reduced. They live
+  and feed in the wood of trees. Consequently, beetles of this family
+  are most abundant in forest regions, and reach their highest
+  development in the dense virgin forests of tropical countries, South
+  America being particularly rich in peculiar genera.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Phryneta aurocincta_. West Africa.]
+
+  The _Bruchidae_, or seed-beetles, agree with the two preceding
+  families in tarsal structure; the head is largely hidden by the
+  pronotum, and the elytra are short enough to leave the end of the
+  abdomen exposed (fig. 38). The development of the pea and bean-beetles
+  has been carefully studied by C. V. Riley, who finds that the young
+  larva, hatched from the egg laid on the pod, has three pairs of legs,
+  and that these are lost after the moult that occurs when the grub has
+  bored its way into the seed. In Great Britain the beetle, after
+  completing its development, winters in the seed, waiting to emerge and
+  lay its eggs on the blossom in the ensuing spring.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--_Bruchus piei_ (Pea Beetle.) Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Platyrrhinus latirostris_. Europe.]
+
+  RHYNCHOPHORA.--The _Rhynchophora_ are a group of beetles easily
+  recognized by the elongation of the head into a beak or snout, which
+  carries the feelers at its sides and the jaws at its tip. The third
+  tarsal segment is broad and bi-lobed, and the fourth is so small that
+  the feet seem to be only four-segmented. There are six malpighian
+  tubes. The ventral sclerite of the head-skeleton (gula), well
+  developed in most families of beetles, is absent among the
+  _Rhynchophora_, while the palps of the maxillae are much reduced. The
+  larvae have soft, white bodies and, with very few exceptions, no legs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--_Brenthus anchorago_. Tropical Countries.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--_Otiorrhynchus ligustici_. Europe.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--_Lixus paraplecticus_. Europe.]
+
+  Of the four families included in this group, the _Anthribidae_ (fig.
+  39) have jointed, flexible palps, feelers--often of excessive
+  length--with a short basal segment, and the three terminal segments
+  forming a club, and, in some genera, larvae with legs. There are
+  nearly 1000 known species, most of which live in tropical countries.
+  The _Brenthidae_ are a remarkable family almost confined to the
+  tropics; they are elongate and narrow in form (fig. 40), with a
+  straight, cylindrical snout which in some male beetles of the family
+  is longer than the rest of the body.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--_Scolytus ulmi_. (Bark Beetle). Europe.]
+
+  The _Curculionidae_, or weevils (q.v.), comprising 23,000 species, are
+  by far the largest family of the group. The maxillary palps are short
+  and rigid, and there is no distinct labrum, while the feelers are
+  usually of an "elbowed" form, the basal segment being very elongate
+  (figs. 41, 42). They are vegetable feeders, both in the perfect and
+  larval stages, and are often highly injurious. The female uses her
+  snout as a boring instrument to prepare a suitable place for
+  egg-laying. The larvae (fig. 3) of some weevils live in seeds; others
+  devour roots, while the parent-beetles eat leaves; others, again, are
+  found in wood or under bark. The _Scolytidae_, or bark-beetles, are a
+  family of some 1500 species, closely allied to the _Curculionidae_,
+  differing only in the feeble development of the snout. They have
+  clubbed feelers, and their cylindrical bodies (fig. 43) are well
+  adapted for their burrowing habits under the bark of trees. Usually
+  the mother-beetle makes a fairly straight tunnel along which, at short
+  intervals, she lays her eggs. The grubs, when hatched, start galleries
+  nearly at right angles to this, and when fully grown form oval cells
+  in which they pupate; from these the young beetles emerge by making
+  circular holes directly outward through the bark.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to what may be found in numerous important
+  works on the Hexapoda (q.v.) as a whole, such as J. O. Westwood's
+  _Modern Classification of Insects_, vol. i. (London, 1838); J. H.
+  Fabre's _Souvenirs Entomologiques_ (Paris, 1879-1891); D. Sharp's
+  contribution to the Cambridge Natural History (vol. vi., London,
+  1899); and L. C. Miall's _Aquatic Insects_ (London, 1895), the special
+  literature of the _Coleoptera_ is enormous. Classical anatomical
+  memoirs are those of L. Dufour (_Ann. Sci. Nat._ ii., iii., iv., vi.,
+  viii., xiv., 1824-1828); _Ib._ (ser. 2, Zool.) i., 1834; and H. E.
+  Strauss-Durkheim, _Anatomie comparee des animaux articulees_ (Paris,
+  1828).
+
+  The wings of _Coleoptera_ (including the elytra) are described and
+  discussed by F. Meinert (_Entom. Tijdsk._ v., 1880); C. Hoffbauer
+  (_Zeit. f. wissen. Zool._ liv., 1892); J. H. Comstock and J. G.
+  Needham (_Amer. Nat._ xxxii., 1898); and W. L. Tower (_Zool. Jahrb.
+  Anat._ xvii., 1903). The morphology of the abdomen, ovipositor and
+  genital armature is dealt with by K. W. Verhoeff (_Ent. Nachtr._ xx.,
+  1894, and _Arch. f. Naturg._ lxi., lxii., 1895-1896); and B.
+  Wandolleck (_Zool. Jahrb. Anat._ xxii., 1905).
+
+  Luminous organs are described by H. von Wielowiejski (_Zeits. f.
+  wissen. Zool._ xxxvii., 1882); C. Heinemann (_Arch. f. mikr. Anat._
+  xxvii., 1886); and R. Dubois (_Bull. soc. zool. France_, 1886); and
+  stridulating organs by C. J. Gahan (_Trans. Entom. Soc._, 1900). See
+  also C. Darwin's _Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex_
+  (London, 1871).
+
+  Many larvae of _Coleoptera_ are described and beautifully figured by
+  J. C. Schiodte (_Naturh. Tidsskr._ i.-xiii., 1861-1872).
+  Hypermetamorphosis in the _Meloidae_ is described by G. Newport
+  (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ xx., xxi., 1851-1853); C. V. Riley (_Rep. U.S.
+  Entom. Comm._ i., 1878); J. H. Fabre (_Ann. Sci. Nat._ (4), ix., xix.,
+  1848-1853); H. Beauregard (_Les Insectes vesicants_, Paris, 1890); and
+  A. Chabaud (_Ann. Soc. Ent. France_, lx., 1891); in the _Bruchidae_ by
+  Riley (_Insect Life_, iv., v., 1892-1893); and in the _Strepsiptera_
+  (_Stylopidae_) by K. T. E. von Siebold (_Arch. f. Naturg._ ix., 1843);
+  N. Nassonov (_Bull. Univ. Narsovie_, 1892); and C. T. Brues (_Zool.
+  Jahrb. Anat._ xiii., 1903).
+
+  For various schemes of classification of the _Coleoptera_ see E. L.
+  Geoffroy (_Insectes qui se trouvent aux environs de Paris_, Paris,
+  1762); A. G. Olivier (_Coleopteres_, Paris, 1789-1808); W. S. MacLeay
+  (_Annulosa Javanica_, London, 1825); the general works of Westwood and
+  Sharp, mentioned above; M. Gemminger and B. de Harold (_Catalogus
+  Coleopterorum_, 12 vols., Munich, 1868-1872); T. Lacordaire and F.
+  Chapuis (_Genera des Coleopteres_, 10 vols., Paris, 1854-1874); J. L.
+  Leconte and G. H. Horn (_Classification of Coleoptera of N. America_,
+  Washington, Smithsonian Inst., 1883); L. Ganglbauer (_Die Kafer von
+  Mitteleuropa_, Vienna, 1892, &c.); A. Lameere (_Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg._
+  xliv., xlvii., 1900-1903); and H. J. Kolbe (_Arch. f. Naturg._ lxvii.,
+  1901).
+
+  For the British species, W. W. Fowler (_Coleoptera of the British
+  Islands_, 5 vols., London, 1887-1891) is the standard work; and W. F.
+  Johnson and J. N. Halbert's "Beetles of Ireland" (_Proc. R. Irish
+  Acad._, 3, vi., 1902) is valuable faunistically. Among the large
+  number of systematic writers on the order generally, or on special
+  families, may be mentioned D. Sharp, T. V. Wollaston, H. W. Bates, G.
+  C. Champion, E. Reitter, G. C. Crotch, H. S. Gorham, M. Jacoby, L.
+  Fairmaire and C. O. Waterhouse. (G. H. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Instar is a convenient term suggested by D. Sharp to indicate a
+    stage in the life-history of an insect between two successive
+    castings of the cuticle.
+
+
+
+
+COLEPEPER, JOHN COLEPEPER (or CULPEPPER), 1ST BARON (d. 1660), English
+politician, was the only son of Sir John Colepeper of Wigsell, Sussex.
+He began his career in military service abroad, and came first into
+public notice at home through his knowledge of country affairs, being
+summoned often before the council board to give evidence on such
+matters. He was knighted, and was elected member for Kent in the Long
+Parliament, when he took the popular side, speaking against monopolies
+on the 9th of November 1640, being entrusted with the impeachment of Sir
+Robert Berkeley on the 12th of February 1641, supporting Stafford's
+attainder, and being appointed to the committee of defence on the 12th
+of August 1641. He separated, however, from the popular party on the
+Church question, owing to political rather than religious objections,
+fearing the effect of the revolutionary changes which were now
+contemplated. He opposed the London petition for the abolition of
+episcopacy, the project of religious union with the Scots, and the Root
+and Branch Bill, and on the 1st of September he moved a resolution in
+defence of the prayer-book. In the following session he opposed the
+militia bill and the Grand Remonstrance, and finally on the 2nd of
+January 1642 he joined the king's party, taking office as chancellor of
+the exchequer. He highly disapproved of the attempt upon the five
+members, which was made without his knowledge, but advised the
+enterprise against Hull. On the 25th of August 1642 he appeared at the
+bar of the House of Commons to deliver the king's final proposals for
+peace, and was afterwards present at Edgehill, where he took part in
+Prince Rupert's charge and opposed the retreat of the king's forces from
+the battlefield. In December he was made by Charles master of the rolls.
+He was a leading member of the Oxford Parliament, and was said, in
+opposition to the general opinion, to have counselled considerable
+concessions to secure peace. His influence in military affairs caused
+him to be much disliked by Prince Rupert and the army, and the general
+animosity against him was increased by his advancement to the peerage on
+the 21st of October 1644 by the title of Baron Colepeper of Thoresway in
+Lincolnshire.
+
+He was despatched with Hyde in charge of the prince of Wales to the West
+in March 1645, and on the 2nd of March 1646, after Charles's final
+defeat, embarked with the prince for Scilly, and thence to France. He
+strongly advocated the gaining over of the Scots by religious
+concessions, a policy supported by the queen and Mazarin, but opposed by
+Hyde and other leading royalists, and constantly urged this course upon
+the king, at the same time deprecating any yielding on the subject of
+the militia. He promoted the mission of Sir John Berkeley in 1647 to
+secure an understanding between Charles and the army. In 1648 he
+accompanied the prince in his unsuccessful naval expedition, and
+returned with him to the Hague, where violent altercations broke out
+among the royalist leaders, Colepeper going so far, on one occasion in
+the council, as to challenge Prince Rupert, and being himself severely
+assaulted in the streets by Sir Robert Walsh. He continued after the
+execution of the king to press the acceptance on Charles II. of the
+Scottish proposals. He was sent to Russia in 1650, where he obtained a
+loan of 20,000 roubles from the tsar, and, soon after his return, to
+Holland, to procure military assistance. By the treaty, agreed to
+between Cromwell and Mazarin, of August 1654, Colepeper was obliged to
+leave France, and he appears henceforth to have resided in Flanders. He
+accompanied Charles II. to the south of France in September 1659, at the
+time of the treaty of the Pyrenees. At the Restoration he returned to
+England, but only survived a few weeks, dying on the 11th of June 1660.
+
+Several contemporary writers agree in testifying to Colepeper's great
+debating powers and to his resources as an adviser, but complain of his
+want of stability and of his uncertain temper. Clarendon, with whom he
+was often on ill terms, speaks generally in his praise, and repels the
+charge of corruption levelled against him. That he was gifted with
+considerable political foresight is shown by a remarkable letter written
+on the 20th of September 1658 on the death of Cromwell, in which he
+foretells with uncommon sagacity the future developments in the
+political situation, advises the royalists to remain inactive till the
+right moment and profit by the division of their opponents, and
+distinguishes Monck as the one person willing and capable of effecting
+the Restoration (_Clarendon State Papers_, iii. 412). Colepeper was
+twice married, (1) to Philippa, daughter of Sir John Snelling, by whom
+he had one son, who died young, and a daughter, and (2) to Judith,
+daughter of Sir J. Colepeper of Hollingbourn, Kent, by whom he had seven
+children. Of these Thomas (d. 1719; governor of Virginia 1680-1683) was
+the successor in the title, which became extinct on the death of his
+younger brother Cheney in 1725.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+
+
+COLERAINE, a seaport and market town of Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in the
+north parliamentary division, on the Bann, 4 m. from its mouth, and
+61-1/2 m. N.W. by N. from Dublin by the Northern Counties (Midland)
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6958. The town stands upon both
+sides of the river, which is crossed by a handsome stone bridge,
+connecting the town and its suburb, Waterside or Killowen. The principal
+part is on the east bank, and consists of a central square called the
+Diamond, and several diverging streets. Among institutions may be
+mentioned the public schools founded in 1613 and maintained by the
+Honourable Irish Society, and the Academical Institution, maintained by
+the Irish Society and the London Clothworkers' Company. The linen trade
+has long been extensively carried on in the town, from which, indeed, a
+fine description of cloth is known as "Coleraines." Whisky-distilling,
+pork-curing, and the salmon and eel fisheries are prosecuted. The mouth
+of the river was formerly obstructed by a bar, but piers were
+constructed, and the harbours greatly improved by grants from the Irish
+Society of London and from a loan under the River Bann Navigation Act
+1879. Coleraine ceased to return one member to the Imperial parliament
+in 1885; having previously returned two to the Irish parliament until
+the Union. It was incorporated by James I. It owed its importance mainly
+to the Irish Society, which was incorporated as the Company for the New
+Plantation of Ulster in 1613. Though fortified only by an earthen wall,
+it managed to hold out against the rebels in 1641. There are no remains
+of a former priory, monastery and castle. A rath or encampment of large
+size occupies Mount Sandel, 1 m. south-east.
+
+
+
+
+COLERIDGE, HARTLEY (1796-1849), English man of letters, eldest son of
+the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, was born on the 19th of September
+1796, near Bristol. His early years were passed under Southey's care at
+Greta Hall, Keswick, and he was educated by the Rev. John Dawes at
+Ambleside. In 1815 he went to Oxford, as scholar of Merton College. His
+university career, however, was very unfortunate. He had inherited the
+weakness of purpose, as well as the splendid conversational powers, of
+his father, and lapsed into habits of intemperance. He was successful in
+gaining an Oriel fellowship, but at the close of the probationary year
+(1820) was judged to have forfeited it. The authorities could not be
+prevailed upon to reverse their decision; but they awarded to him a free
+gift of L300. Hartley Coleridge then spent two years in London, where he
+wrote short poems for the _London Magazine_. His next step was to become
+a partner in a school at Ambleside, but this scheme failed. In 1830 a
+Leeds publisher, Mr. F. E. Bingley, made a contract with him to write
+biographies of Yorkshire and Lancashire worthies. These were afterwards
+republished under the title of _Biographia Borealis_ (1833) and
+_Worthies of Yorkshire and Lancashire_ (1836). Bingley also printed a
+volume of his poems in 1833, and Coleridge lived in his house until the
+contract came to an end through the bankruptcy of the publisher. From
+this time, except for two short periods in 1837 and 1838 when he acted
+as master at Sedbergh grammar school, he lived quietly at Grasmere and
+(1840-1849) Rydal, spending his time in study and wanderings about the
+countryside. His figure was as familiar as Wordsworth's, and his
+gentleness and simplicity of manner won for him the friendship of the
+country-people. In 1839 appeared his edition of Massinger and Ford, with
+biographies of both dramatists. The closing decade of Coleridge's life
+was wasted in what he himself calls "the woeful impotence of weak
+resolve." He died on the 6th of January 1849. The prose style of Hartley
+Coleridge is marked by much finish and vivacity; but his literary
+reputation must chiefly rest on the sanity of his criticisms, and above
+all on his _Prometheus_, an unfinished lyric drama, and on his sonnets.
+As a sonneteer he achieved real excellence, the form being exactly
+suited to his sensitive genius. _Essays and Marginalia_, and _Poems_,
+with a memoir by his brother Derwent, appeared in 1851.
+
+
+COLERIDGE, JOHN DUKE COLERIDGE, 1ST BARON (1820-1894), lord chief
+justice of England, was the eldest son of Sir John Taylor Coleridge. He
+was born at Heath's Court, Ottery St Mary, on the 3rd of December 1820.
+He was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford, of which he was a
+scholar. He was called to the bar in 1846, and went the western circuit,
+rising steadily, through more than twenty years of hard work, till in
+1865 he was returned as member for Exeter in the Liberal interest. The
+impression which he made on the heads of his party was so favourable
+that they determined, early in the session of 1867, to put him forward
+as the protagonist of their attack on the Conservative government. But
+that move seemed to many of their staunchest adherents unwise, and it
+was frustrated by the active opposition of a section, including Hastings
+Russell (later ninth duke of Bedford), his brother Arthur, member for
+Tavistock, Alexander Mitchell of Stow, A. W. Kinglake and Henry Seymour.
+They met to deliberate in the tea-room of the House, and were afterwards
+sometimes confounded with the tea-room party which was of subsequent
+formation and under the guidance of a different group. The protest was
+sufficient to prevent the contemplated attack being made, but the
+Liberals returned to power in good time with a large majority behind
+them in 1868. Coleridge was made, first solicitor-, and then
+attorney-general.
+
+As early as 1863 a small body of Oxford men in parliament had opened
+fire against the legislation which kept their university bound by
+ecclesiastical swaddling clothes. They had made a good deal of progress
+in converting the House of Commons to their views before the general
+election of 1865. That election having brought Coleridge into
+parliament, he was hailed as a most valuable ally, whose great
+university distinction, brilliant success as an orator at the bar, and
+hereditary connexion with the High Church party, entitled him to take
+the lead in a movement which, although gathering strength, was yet very
+far from having achieved complete success. The clerically-minded section
+of the Conservative party could not but listen to the son of Sir John
+Coleridge, the godson of Keble, and the grand-nephew of the man who had
+been an indirect cause of the Anglican revival of 1833,--for John Stuart
+Mill was right when he said that the poet Coleridge and the philosopher
+Bentham were, so far as England was concerned, the leaders of the two
+chief movements of their times: "it was they who taught the teachers,
+and who were the two great seminal minds."
+
+Walking up one evening from the House of Commons to dine at the
+Athenaeum with Henry Bruce (afterwards Lord Aberdare) and another
+friend, Coleridge said: "There is a trial coming on which will be one of
+the most remarkable _causes celebres_ that has ever been heard of." This
+was the Tichborne case, which led to proceedings in the criminal courts
+rising almost to the dignity of a political event. The Tichborne trial
+was the most conspicuous feature of Coleridge's later years at the bar,
+and tasked his powers as an advocate to the uttermost, though he was
+assisted by the splendid abilities and industry of Charles (afterwards
+Lord) Bowen. In November 1873 Coleridge succeeded Sir W. Bovill as chief
+justice of the common pleas, and was immediately afterwards raised to
+the peerage as Baron Coleridge of Ottery St Mary. In 1880 he was made
+lord chief justice of England on the death of Sir Alexander Cockburn.
+
+In jury cases his quickness in apprehending facts and his lucidity in
+arranging them were very remarkable indeed. He was not one of the most
+learned of lawyers, but he was a great deal more learned than many
+people believed him to be, and as an ecclesiastical lawyer had perhaps
+few or no superiors. His fault--a natural fault in one who had been so
+successful as an advocate--was that of being too apt to take one side.
+He allowed, also, certain political or personal prepossessions to colour
+the tone of his remarks from the bench. A game-preserving landlord had
+not to thank the gods when his case, however buttressed by generally
+accepted claims, came before Coleridge. Towards the end of his life his
+health failed, and he became somewhat indolent. On the whole, he was not
+so strong a man in his judicial capacity as Campbell or Cockburn; but it
+must be admitted that his scholarship, his refinement, his power of
+oratory, and his character raised the tone of the bench while he sat
+upon it, and that if it has been adorned by greater judicial abilities,
+it has hardly ever known a greater combination of varied merits. It is
+curious to observe that of all judges the man whom he put highest was
+one very unlike himself, the great master of the rolls, Sir William
+Grant. Coleridge died in harness on the 14th of June 1894.
+
+Coleridge's work, first as a barrister, and then as a judge, prevented
+his publishing as much as he otherwise would have done, but his
+addresses and papers would, if collected, fill a substantial volume and
+do much honour to his memory. One of the best, and one most eminently
+characteristic of the man, was his inaugural address to the
+Philosophical Institution at Edinburgh in 1870; another was a paper on
+Wordsworth (1873). He was an exceptionally good letter-writer. Of travel
+he had very little experience. He had hardly been to Paris; once, quite
+near the end of his career, he spent a few days in Holland, and came
+back a willing slave to the genius of Rembrandt; but his longest absence
+from England was a visit, which had something of a representative legal
+character, to the United States. It is strange that a man so steeped in
+Greek and Roman poetry, so deeply interested in the past, present and
+future of Christianity, never saw Rome, or Athens, or the Holy Land. A
+subsidiary cause, no doubt, was the fatal custom of neglecting modern
+languages at English schools. He felt himself at a disadvantage when he
+passed beyond English-speaking lands, and cordially disliked the
+situation. No notice of Coleridge should omit to make mention of his
+extraordinary store of anecdotes, which were nearly always connected
+with Eton, Oxford, the bar or the bench. His exquisite voice,
+considerable power of mimicry, and perfect method of narration added
+greatly to the charm. He once told, at the table of Dr Jowett, master of
+Balliol, anecdotes through the whole of dinner on Saturday evening,
+through the whole of breakfast, lunch and dinner the next day, through
+the whole journey on Monday morning from Oxford to Paddington, without
+ever once repeating himself. He was frequently to be seen at the
+Athenaeum, was a member both of Grillion's and The Club, as well as of
+the Literary Society, of which he was president, and whose meetings he
+very rarely missed. Bishop Copleston is said to have divided the human
+race into three classes,--men, women and Coleridges. If he did so, he
+meant, no doubt, to imply that the family of whom the poet of
+_Christabel_ was the chief example regarded themselves as a class to
+themselves, the objects of a special dispensation. John Duke Coleridge
+was sarcastic and critical, and at times over-sensitive. But his
+strongest characteristics were love of liberty and justice. By birth and
+connexions a Conservative, he was a Liberal by conviction, and loyal to
+his party and its great leader, Mr Gladstone.
+
+Coleridge had three sons and a daughter by his first wife, Jane
+Fortescue, daughter of the Rev. George Seymour of Freshwater. She was an
+artist of real genius, and her portrait of Cardinal Newman was
+considered much better than the one by Millais. She died in February
+1878; a short notice of her by Dean Church of St Paul's was published in
+the _Guardian_, and was reprinted in her husband's privately printed
+collection of poems. Coleridge remained for some years a widower, but
+married in 1885 Amy Augusta Jackson Lawford, who survived him. He was
+succeeded in the peerage by his eldest son, Bernard John Seymour (b.
+1851), who went to the bar and became a K.C. in 1892. In 1907 he was
+appointed a judge of the Supreme Court. The two other sons were Stephen
+(b. 1854), a barrister, secretary to the Anti-Vivisection Society, and
+Gilbert James Duke (b. 1859).
+
+  His _Life and Correspondence_, edited by E. H. Coleridge, was
+  published in 1904; see further E. Manson, _Builders of our Law_
+  (1904); and for the history of the Coleridge family see Lord
+  Coleridge, _The Story of a Devonshire House_ (1907).     (M. G. D.)
+
+
+
+
+COLERIDGE, SIR JOHN TAYLOR (1790-1876), English judge, the second son of
+Captain James Coleridge and nephew of the poet S. T. Coleridge, was born
+at Tiverton, Devon, and was educated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
+where he had a brilliant career. He graduated in 1812 and was soon after
+made a fellow of Exeter; in 1819 he was called to the bar at the Middle
+Temple and practised for some years on the western circuit. In 1824, on
+Gifford's retirement, he assumed the editorship of the _Quarterly
+Review_, resigning it a year afterwards in favour of Lockhart. In 1825
+he published his excellent edition of _Blackstone's Commentaries_, and
+in 1832 he was made a serjeant-at-law and recorder of Exeter. In 1835 he
+was appointed one of the judges of the king's bench. In 1852 his
+university created him a D.C.L., and in 1858 he resigned his judgeship,
+and was made a member of the privy council. In 1869, although in extreme
+old age, he produced his pleasant _Memoir of the Rev. John Keble_, whose
+friend he had been since their college days, a third edition of which
+was issued within a year. He died on the 11th of February 1876 at Ottery
+St Mary, Devon, leaving two sons and a daughter; the eldest son, John
+Duke, 1st Baron Coleridge (q.v.), became lord chief justice of England;
+the second son, Henry James (1822-1893), left the Anglican for the Roman
+Catholic church in 1852, and became well-known as a Jesuit divine,
+editor of _The Month_, and author of numerous theological works. Sir
+John Taylor Coleridge's brothers, James Duke and Henry Nelson (husband
+of Sara Coleridge), are referred to in other articles; his brother
+Francis George was the father of Arthur Duke Coleridge (b. 1830), clerk
+of assizes on the midland circuit and author of _Eton in the Forties_,
+whose daughter Mary E. Coleridge (1861-1907) became a well-known writer
+of fiction.
+
+
+
+
+COLERIDGE, SAMUEL TAYLOR (1772-1834), English poet and philosopher, was
+born on the 21st of October 1772, at his father's vicarage of Ottery St
+Mary's, Devonshire. His father, the Rev. John Coleridge (1719-1781), was
+a man of some mark. He was known for his great scholarship, simplicity
+of character, and affectionate interest in the pupils of the grammar
+school, of which he was appointed master a few months before becoming
+vicar of the parish (1760), reigning in both capacities till his death.
+He had married twice. The poet was the youngest child of his second
+wife, Anne Bowdon (d. 1809), a woman of great good sense, and anxiously
+ambitious for the success of her sons. On the death of his father, a
+presentation to Christ's Hospital was procured for Coleridge by the
+judge, Sir Francis Buller, an old pupil of his father's. He had already
+begun to give evidence of a powerful imagination, and he has described
+in a letter to his valued friend, Tom Poole, the pernicious effect which
+the admiration of an uncle and his circle of friends had upon him at
+this period. For eight years he continued at Christ's Hospital. Of these
+school-days Charles Lamb has given delightful glimpses in the _Essays of
+Elia_. The headmaster, Bowyer (as he was called, though his name was
+Boyer), was a severe disciplinarian, but respected by his pupils.
+Middleton, afterwards known as a Greek scholar, and bishop of Calcutta,
+reported Coleridge to Bowyer as a boy who read Virgil for amusement, and
+from that time Bowyer began to notice him and encouraged his reading.
+Some compositions in English poetry, written at sixteen, and not without
+a touch of genius, give evidence of the influence which Bowles, whose
+poems were then in vogue, had over his mind at this time. Before he left
+school his constitutional delicacy of frame, increased by swimming the
+New River in his clothes, began to give him serious discomfort.
+
+In February 1791 he was entered at Jesus College, Cambridge. A
+school-fellow who followed him to the university has described in
+glowing terms evenings in his rooms, "when Aeschylus, and Plato, and
+Thucydides were pushed aside, with a pile of lexicons and the like, to
+discuss the pamphlets of the day. Ever and anon a pamphlet issued from
+the pen of Burke. There was no need of having the book before
+us;--Coleridge had read it in the morning, and in the evening he would
+repeat whole pages verbatim." William Frend, a fellow of Jesus, accused
+of sedition and Unitarianism, was at this time tried and expelled from
+Cambridge. Coleridge had imbibed his sentiments, and joined the ranks of
+his partisans. He grew discontented with university life, and in 1793,
+pressed by debt, went to London. Perhaps he was also influenced by his
+passion for Mary Evans, the sister of one of his school-fellows. A poem
+in the _Morning Chronicle_ brought him a guinea, and when that was spent
+he enlisted in the 15th Dragoons under the name of Silas Tomkyn
+Comberbache. One of the officers of the dragoon regiment, finding a
+Latin sentence inscribed on a wall, discovered the condition of the very
+awkward recruit. Shortly afterwards an old school-fellow (G. L. Tuckett)
+heard of his whereabouts, and by the intervention of his brother,
+Captain James Coleridge, his discharge was procured. He returned for a
+short time to Cambridge, but quitted the university without a degree in
+1794. In the same year he visited Oxford, and after a short tour in
+Wales went to Bristol, where he met Southey. The French Revolution had
+stirred the mind of Southey to its depths. Coleridge received with
+rapture his new friend's scheme of Pantisocracy. On the banks of the
+Susquehanna was to be founded a brotherly community, where selfishness
+was to be extinguished, and the virtues were to reign supreme. No funds
+were forthcoming, and in 1795, to the chagrin of Coleridge, the scheme
+was dropped. In 1794 _The Fall of Robespierre_, of which Coleridge wrote
+the first act and Southey the other two, appeared. At Bristol Coleridge
+formed the acquaintance of Joseph Cottle, the bookseller, who offered
+him thirty guineas for a volume of poems. In October of 1795 Coleridge
+married Sarah Fricker, and took up his residence at Clevedon on the
+Bristol Channel. A few weeks afterwards Southey married a sister of Mrs
+Coleridge, and on the same day quitted England for Portugal.
+
+Coleridge began to lecture in Bristol on politics and religion. He
+embodied the first two lectures in his first prose publication,
+_Conciones ad Populum_ (1795). The book contained much invective against
+Pitt, and in after life Coleridge declared that, with this exception, and
+a few pages involving philosophical tenets which he afterwards rejected,
+there was little or nothing he desired to retract. The first volume of
+_Poems_ was published by Cottle early in 1796. Coleridge projected a
+periodical called _The Watchman_, and in 1796 undertook a journey, well
+described in the _Biographic Literaria_, to enlist subscribers. _The
+Watchman_ had a brief life of two months, but at this time Coleridge
+began to think of becoming a Unitarian preacher, and abandoning
+literature for ever. Hazlitt has recorded his very favourable impression
+of a remarkable sermon delivered at Shrewsbury; but there are other
+accounts of Coleridge's preaching not so enthusiastic. In the summer of
+1795 he met for the first time the brother poet with whose name his own
+will be for ever associated. Wordsworth and his sister had established
+themselves at Racedown in the Dorsetshire hills, and here Coleridge
+visited them in 1797. There are few things in literary history more
+remarkable than this friendship. The gifted Dorothy Wordsworth described
+Coleridge as "thin and pale, the lower part of the face not good, wide
+mouth, thick lips, not very good teeth, longish, loose, half-curling,
+rough, black hair,"--but all was forgotten in the magic charm of his
+utterance. Wordsworth, who declared, "The only wonderful man I ever knew
+was Coleridge," seems at once to have desired to see more of his new
+friend. He and his sister removed in July 1797 to Alfoxden, near Nether
+Stowey, to be in Coleridge's neighbourhood, and in the most delightful
+and unrestrained intercourse the friends spent many happy days. It was
+the delight of each one to communicate to the other the productions of
+his mind, and the creative faculty of both poets was now at its best. One
+evening, at Watchett on the British Channel, _The Ancient Mariner_ first
+took shape. Coleridge was anxious to embody a dream of a friend, and the
+suggestion of the shooting of the albatross came from Wordsworth, who
+gained the idea from Shelvocke's _Voyage_ (1726). A joint volume was
+planned. Wordsworth was to show the real poetry that lies hidden in
+commonplace subjects, while Coleridge was to treat supernatural subjects
+to illustrate the common emotions of humanity. From this sprang the
+_Lyrical Ballads_, to which Coleridge contributed _The Ancient Mariner_,
+the _Nightingale_ and two scenes from _Osorio_, and after much cogitation
+the book was published in 1798 at Bristol by Cottle, to whose
+reminiscences, often indulging too much in detail, we owe the account of
+this remarkable time. A second edition of the _Lyrical Ballads_ in 1800
+included another poem by Coleridge--_Love_, to which subsequently the
+sub-title was given of _An Introduction to the Tale of the Dark Ladie_.
+To the Stowey period belong also the tragedy of _Osorio_ (afterwards
+known as _Remorse_), _Kubla Khan_ and the first part of _Christabel_. In
+1798 an annuity, granted him by the brothers Wedgwood, led Coleridge to
+abandon his reluctantly formed intention of becoming a Unitarian
+minister. For many years he had desired to see the continent, and in
+September 1798, in company with Wordsworth and his sister, he left
+England for Hamburg. _Satyrane's Letters_ (republished in _Biog. Lit._
+1817) give an account of the tour.
+
+A new period in Coleridge's life now began. He soon left the Wordsworths
+to spend four months at Ratzeburg, whence he removed to Gottingen to
+attend lectures. A great intellectual movement had begun in Germany.
+Coleridge was soon in the full whirl of excitement. He learnt much from
+Blumenbach and Eichhorn, and took interest in all that was going on
+around him. During his stay of nine months in Germany, he made himself
+master of the language to such purpose that the translation of
+_Wallenstein_--his first piece of literary work after his return to
+England--was actually accomplished in six weeks. It was published in
+1800, and, although it failed to make any impression on the general
+public, it became at once prized by Scott and others as it deserved. It
+is matter for regret that a request to Coleridge that he should
+undertake to translate _Faust_ never received serious attention from
+him. During these years Coleridge wrote many newspaper articles and some
+poems, among them "Fire, Famine and Slaughter," for the _Morning Post_
+(January 8, 1798). He had vehemently opposed Pitt's policy, but a change
+came over his way of thought, and he found himself separated from Fox on
+the question of a struggle with Napoleon. He had lost his admiration for
+the Revolutionists, as his "Ode to France" shows (_Morning Post_, April
+16, 1798). Like many other Whigs, he felt that all questions of domestic
+policy must at a time of European peril be postponed. From this time,
+however, his value for the ordered liberty of constitutional government
+increased; and though never exactly to be found among the ranks of
+old-fashioned Constitutionalists, during the remainder of his life he
+kept steadily in view the principles which received their full
+exposition in his well-known work on _Church and State_. In the year
+1800 Coleridge left London for the Lakes. Here in that year he wrote the
+second part of _Christabel_. In 1803 Southey became a joint lodger with
+Coleridge at Greta Hall, Keswick, of which in 1812 Southey became sole
+tenant and occupier.
+
+In 1801 begins the period of Coleridge's life during which, in spite of
+the evidence of work shown in his compositions, he sank more and more
+under the dominion of opium, in which he may have first indulged at
+Cambridge. Few things are so sad to read as the letters in which he
+details the consequences of his transgression. He was occasionally seen
+in London during the first years of the century, and wherever he
+appeared he was the delight of admiring circles. He toured in Scotland
+with the Wordsworths in 1803, visited Malta in 1804, when for ten months
+he acted as secretary to the governor, and stayed nearly eight months at
+Naples and Rome in 1805-1806. In Rome he received a hint that his
+articles in the _Morning Post_ had been brought to Napoleon's notice,
+and he made the voyage from Leghorn in an American ship. On a visit to
+Somersetshire in 1807 he met De Quincey for the first time, and the
+younger man's admiration was shown by a gift of L300, "from an unknown
+friend." In 1809 he started a magazine called _The Friend_, which
+continued only for eight months. At the same time Coleridge began to
+contribute to the _Courier_. In 1808 he lectured at the Royal
+Institution, but with little success, and two years later he gave his
+lectures on Shakespeare and other poets. These lectures attracted great
+attention and were followed by two other series. In 1812 his income from
+the Wedgwoods was reduced, and he settled the remainder on his wife. His
+friends were generous in assisting him with money. Eventually Mackintosh
+obtained a grant of L100 a year for him in 1824 during the lifetime of
+George IV., as one of the royal associates of the Society of Literature,
+and at different times he received help principally from Stuart, the
+publisher, Poole, Sotheby, Sir George Beaumont, Byron and Wordsworth,
+while his children shared Southey's home at Keswick. But between 1812
+and 1817 Coleridge made a good deal by his work, and was able to send
+money to his wife in addition to the annuity she received. The tragedy
+of _Remorse_ was produced at Drury Lane in 1813, and met with
+considerable success. Three years after this, having failed to conquer
+the opium habit, he determined to enter the family of Mr James Gillman,
+who lived at Highgate. The letter in which he discloses his misery to
+this kind and thoughtful man gives a real insight into his character.
+Under judicious treatment the hour of mastery at last arrived. The shore
+was reached, but the vessel had been miserably shattered in its passage
+through the rocks. For the rest of his life he hardly ever left his home
+at Highgate. During his residence there, _Christabel_, written many
+years before, and known to a favoured few, was first published in a
+volume with _Kubla Khan_ and the _Pains of Sleep_ in 1816. He read
+widely and wisely, in poetry, philosophy and divinity. In 1816 and the
+following year, he gave his _Lay Sermons_ to the world. _Sibylline
+Leaves_ appeared in 1817; the _Biographia Literaria_ and a revised
+edition of _The Friend_ soon followed. Seven years afterwards his most
+popular prose work--_The Aids to Reflection_--first appeared. His last
+publication, in 1830, was the work on _Church and State_. It was not
+till 1840 that his _Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit_, by far his most
+seminal work, was posthumously published. In 1833 he appeared at the
+meeting of the British Association at Cambridge, but he died in the
+following year (25th of July 1834), and was buried in the churchyard
+close to the house of Mr Gillman, where he had enjoyed every consolation
+which friendship and love could render. Coleridge died in the communion
+of the Church of England, of whose polity and teaching he had been for
+many years a loving admirer. An interesting letter to his god-child,
+written twelve days before his death, sums up his spiritual experience
+in a most touching form.
+
+Of the extraordinary influence which he exercised in conversation it is
+impossible to speak fully here. Many of the most remarkable among the
+younger men of that period resorted to Highgate as to the shrine of an
+oracle, and although one or two disparaging judgments, such as that of
+Carlyle, have been recorded, there can be no doubt that since Samuel
+Johnson there had been no such power in England. His nephew, Henry
+Nelson Coleridge, gathered together some specimens of the _Table Talk_
+of the few last years. But remarkable as these are for the breadth of
+sympathy and extent of reading disclosed, they will hardly convey the
+impressions furnished in a dramatic form, as in Boswell's great work.
+Four volumes of _Literary Remains_ were published after his death, and
+these, along with the chapters on the poetry of Wordsworth in the
+_Biographia Literaria_, may be said to exhibit the full range of
+Coleridge's power as a critic of poetry. In this region he stands
+supreme. With regard to the preface, which contains Wordsworth's theory,
+Coleridge has honestly expressed his dissent:--"With many parts of this
+preface, in the sense attributed to them, and which the words
+undoubtedly seem to authorize, I never concurred; but, on the contrary,
+objected to them as erroneous in principle, and contradictory (in
+appearance at least) both to other parts of the same preface, and to the
+author's own practice in the greater number of the poems themselves."
+This disclaimer of perfect agreement renders the remaining portion of
+what he says more valuable. Coleridge was in England the creator of that
+higher criticism which had already in Germany accomplished so much in
+the hands of Lessing and Goethe. It is enough to refer here to the
+fragmentary series of his Shakespearian criticisms, containing evidence
+of the truest insight, and a marvellous appreciation of the judicial
+"sanity" which raises the greatest name in literature far above even the
+highest of the poets who approached him.
+
+As a poet Coleridge's own place is safe. His niche in the great gallery
+of English poets is secure. Of no one can it be more emphatically said
+that at his highest he was "of imagination all compact." He does not
+possess the fiery pulse and humaneness of Burns, but the exquisite
+perfection of his metre and the subtle alliance of his thought and
+expression must always secure for him the warmest admiration of true
+lovers of poetic art. In his early poems may be found traces of the
+fierce struggle of his youth. The most remarkable is the _Monody on the
+Death of Chatterton_ and the _Religious Musings_. In what may be called
+his second period, the ode entitled _France_, considered by Shelley the
+finest in the language, is most memorable. The whole soul of the poet is
+reflected in the _Ode to Dejection_. The well-known lines--
+
+  "O Lady! we receive but what we give,
+   And in our life alone does nature live;
+   Ours is her wedding garment, ours her shroud,"
+
+with the passage which follows, contain more vividly, perhaps, than
+anything which Coleridge has written, the expression of the shaping and
+colouring function which he assigns, in the _Biographia Literaria_, to
+imagination. _Christabel_ and the _Ancient Mariner_ have so completely
+taken possession of the highest place, that it is needless to do more
+than allude to them. The supernatural has never received such treatment
+as in these two wonderful productions of his genius, and though the
+first of them remains a torso, it is the loveliest torso in the gallery
+of English literature. Although Coleridge had, for many years before his
+death, almost entirely forsaken poetry, the few fragments of work which
+remain, written in later years, show little trace of weakness, although
+they are wanting in the unearthly melody which imparts such a charm to
+_Kubla Khan_, _Love_ and _Youth and Age_.     (G. D. B.; H. CH.)
+
+In the latter part of his life, and for the generation which followed,
+Coleridge was ranked by many young English churchmen of liberal views as
+the greatest religious thinker of their time. As Carlyle has told in his
+_Life of Sterling_, the poet's distinction, in the eyes of the younger
+churchmen with philosophic interests, lay in his having recovered and
+preserved his Christian faith after having passed through periods of
+rationalism and Unitarianism, and faced the full results of German
+criticism and philosophy. His opinions, however, were at all periods
+somewhat mutable, and it would be difficult to state them in any form
+that would hold good for the whole even of his later writings. He was,
+indeed, too receptive of thought impressions of all kinds to be a
+consistent systematizer. As a schoolboy, by his own account, he was for
+a time a Voltairean, on the strength of a perusal of the _Philosophical
+Dictionary_. At college, as we have seen, he turned Unitarian. From that
+position he gradually moved towards pantheism, a way of thought to which
+he had shown remarkable leanings when, as a schoolboy, he discoursed of
+Neo-Platonism to Charles Lamb, or--if we may trust his
+recollection--translated the hymns of Synesius. Early in life, too, he
+met with the doctrines of Jacob Behmen, of whom, in the _Biographia
+Literaria_, he speaks with affection and gratitude as having given him
+vital philosophic guidance. Between pantheism and Unitarianism he seems
+to have balanced till his thirty-fifth year, always tending towards the
+former in virtue of the recoil from "anthropomorphism" which originally
+took him to Unitarianism. In 1796, when he named his first child David
+Hartley, but would not have him baptized, he held by the "Christian
+materialism" of the writer in question, whom in his _Religious Musings_
+he terms "wisest of mortal kind."
+
+When, again, he met Wordsworth in 1797, the two poets freely and
+sympathetically discussed Spinoza, for whom Coleridge always retained a
+deep admiration; and when in 1798 he gave up his Unitarian preaching, he
+named his second child Berkeley, signifying a new allegiance, but still
+without accepting Christian rites otherwise than passively. Shortly
+afterwards he went to Germany, where he began to study Kant, and was
+much captivated by Lessing. In the _Biographia_ he avows that the
+writings of Kant "more than any other work, at once invigorated and
+disciplined my understanding"; yet the gist of his estimate there is
+that Kant left his system undeveloped, as regards his idea of the
+Noumenon, for fear of orthodox persecution--a judgment hardly compatible
+with any assumption of Kant's Christian orthodoxy, which was notoriously
+inadequate. But after his stay at Malta, Coleridge announced to his
+friends that he had given up his "Socinianism" (of which ever afterwards
+he spoke with asperity), professing a return to Christian faith, though
+still putting on it a mystical construction, as when he told Crabb
+Robinson that "Jesus Christ was a Platonic philosopher." At this stage
+he was much in sympathy with the historico-rationalistic criticism of
+the Old Testament, as carried on in Germany; giving his assent, for
+instance, to the naturalistic doctrine of Schiller's _Die Sendung
+Moses_. From about 1810 onwards, however, he openly professed Christian
+orthodoxy, while privately indicating views which cannot be so
+described. And even his published speculations were such as to draw from
+J. H. Newman a protest that they took "a liberty which no Christian can
+tolerate," and carried him to "conclusions which were often heathen
+rather than Christian." This would apply to some of his positions
+concerning the Logos and the Trinity. After giving up Unitarianism he
+claimed that from the first he had been a Trinitarian on Platonic lines;
+and some of his latest statements of the doctrine are certainly more
+pantheistic than Christian.
+
+The explanation seems to be that while on Christian grounds he
+repeatedly denounced pantheism as being in all its forms equivalent to
+atheism, he was latterly much swayed by the thought of Schelling in the
+pantheistic direction which was natural to him. To these conflicting
+tendencies were probably due his self-contradictions on the problem of
+original sin and the conflicting claims of feeling and reason. It would
+seem that, in the extreme spiritual vicissitudes of his life, conscious
+alternately of personal weakness and of the largest speculative grasp,
+he at times threw himself entirely on the consolations of evangelical
+faith, and at others reconstructed the cosmos for himself in terms of
+Neo-Platonism and the philosophy of Schelling. So great were his
+variations even in his latter years, that he could speak to his friend
+Allsop in a highly latitudinarian sense, declaring that in Christianity
+"the miracles are supererogatory," and that "the law of God and the
+great principles of the Christian religion would have been the same had
+Christ never assumed humanity."
+
+From Schelling, whom he praised as having developed Kant where Fichte
+failed to do so, he borrowed much and often, not only in the
+metaphysical sections of the _Biographia_ but in his aesthetic lectures,
+and further in the cosmic speculations of the posthumous _Theory of
+Life_. On the first score he makes but an equivocal acknowledgment,
+claiming to have thought on Schelling's lines before reading him; but it
+has been shown by Hamilton and Ferrier that besides transcribing much
+from Schelling without avowal he silently appropriated the learning of
+Maass on philosophical history. In other directions he laid under
+tribute Herder and Lessing; yet all the while he cast severe imputations
+of plagiarism upon Hume and others. His own plagiarisms were doubtless
+facilitated by the physiological effects of opium.
+
+Inasmuch as he finally followed in philosophy the mainly poetical or
+theosophic movement of Schelling, which satisfied neither the logical
+needs appealed to by Hegel nor the new demand for naturalistic
+induction, Coleridge, after arousing a great amount of philosophic
+interest in his own country in the second quarter of the century, has
+ceased to "make a school." Thus his significance in intellectual history
+remains that of a great stimulator. He undoubtedly did much to deepen
+and liberalize Christian thought in England, his influence being
+specially marked in the school of F. D. Maurice, and in the lives of men
+like John Sterling. And even his many borrowings from the German were
+assimilated with a rare power of development, which bore fruit not only
+in a widening of the field of English philosophy but in the larger
+scientific thought of a later generation.     (J. M. RO.)
+
+  Of Coleridge's four children, two (Hartley and Sara) are separately
+  noticed. His second child, Berkeley, died when a baby. The third,
+  Derwent (1800-1883), a distinguished scholar and author, was master of
+  Helston school, Cornwall (1825-1841), first principal of St Mark's
+  College, Chelsea (1841-1864), and rector of Hanwell (1864-1880); and
+  his daughter Christabel (b. 1843) and son Ernest Hartley (b. 1846)
+  both became well known in the world of letters, the former as a
+  novelist, the latter as a biographer and critic.
+
+  After Coleridge's death several of his works were edited by his
+  nephew, Henry Nelson Coleridge, the husband of Sara, the poet's only
+  daughter. In 1847 Sara Coleridge published the _Biographia Literaria_,
+  enriched with annotations and biographical supplement from her own
+  pen. Three volumes of political writings, entitled _Essays on his Own
+  Times_, were also published by Sara Coleridge in 1850. The standard
+  life of Coleridge is that by J. Dykes Campbell (1894); his letters
+  were edited by E. H. Coleridge.
+
+
+
+
+COLERIDGE, SARA (1802-1852), English author, the fourth child and only
+daughter of Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his wife Sarah Fricker of
+Bristol, was born on the 23rd of December 1802, at Greta Hall, Keswick.
+Here, after 1803, the Coleridges, Southey and his wife (Mrs Coleridge's
+sister), and Mrs Lovell (another sister), widow of Robert Lovell, the
+Quaker poet, all lived together; but Coleridge was often away from home;
+and "Uncle Southey" was a _pater familias_. The Wordsworths at Grasmere
+were their neighbours. Wordsworth, in his poem, the _Triad_, has left us
+a description, or "poetical glorification," as Sara Coleridge calls it,
+of the three girls--his own daughter Dora, Edith Southey and Sara
+Coleridge, the "last of the three, though eldest born." Greta Hall was
+Sara Coleridge's home until her marriage; and the little Lake colony
+seems to have been her only school. Guided by Southey, and with his
+ample library at her command, she read by herself the chief Greek and
+Latin classics, and before she was five-and-twenty had learnt French,
+German, Italian and Spanish.
+
+In 1822 Sara Coleridge published _Account of the Abipones_, a
+translation in three large volumes of Dobrizhoffer, undertaken in
+connexion with Southey's _Tale of Paraguay_, which had been suggested to
+him by Dobrizhoffer's volumes; and Southey alludes to his niece, the
+translator (canto iii. stanza 16), where he speaks of the pleasure the
+old missionary would have felt if
+
+  ".... he could in Merlin's glass have seen
+   By whom his tomes to speak our tongue were taught."
+
+In less grandiloquent terms, Charles Lamb, writing about the _Tale of
+Paraguay_ to Southey in 1825, says, "How she Dobrizhoffered it all out,
+puzzles my slender Latinity to conjecture." In 1825 her second work
+appeared, a translation from the medieval French of the "Loyal
+Serviteur," _The Right Joyous and Pleasant History of the Feats, Jests,
+and Prowesses of the Chevalier Bayard, the Good Knight without Fear and
+without Reproach: By the Loyal Servant_.
+
+In September 1829 at Crosthwaite church, Keswick, after an engagement of
+seven years' duration, Sara Coleridge was married to her cousin, Henry
+Nelson Coleridge (1798-1843), younger son of Captain James Coleridge
+(1760-1836). He was then a chancery barrister in London. The first eight
+years of her married life were spent in a little cottage in Hampstead.
+There four of her children were born, of whom two survived. In 1834 Mrs
+Coleridge published her _Pretty Lessons in Verse for Good Children; with
+some Lessons in Latin in Easy Rhyme_. These were originally written for
+the instruction of her own children, and became very popular. In 1837
+the Coleridges removed to Chester Place, Regent's Park; and in the same
+year appeared _Phantasmion, a Fairy Tale_, Sara Coleridge's longest
+original work. The songs in _Phantasmion_ were much admired at the time
+by Leigh Hunt and other critics. Some of them, such as "Sylvan Stay" and
+"One Face Alone," are extremely graceful and musical, and the whole
+fairy tale is noticeable for the beauty of the story and the richness of
+its language.
+
+In 1843 Henry Coleridge died, leaving to his widow the unfinished task
+of editing her father's works. To these she added some compositions of
+her own, among which are the _Essay on Rationalism, with a special
+application to the Doctrine of Baptismal_ _Regeneration_, appended to
+Coleridge's _Aids to Reflection_, a Preface to the _Essays on his Own
+Times, by S. T. Coleridge_, and the Introduction to the _Biographia
+Literaria_. During the last few years of her life Sara Coleridge was a
+confirmed invalid. Shortly before she died she amused herself by writing
+a little autobiography for her daughter. This, which reaches only to her
+ninth year, was completed by her daughter, and published in 1873,
+together with some of her letters, under the title _Memoirs and Letters
+of Sara Coleridge_. The letters show a cultured and highly speculative
+mind. They contain many apt criticisms of known people and books, and
+are specially interesting for their allusions to Wordsworth and the Lake
+Poets. Sara Coleridge died in London on the 3rd of May 1852.
+
+Her son, Herbert Coleridge (1830-1861), won a double first class in
+classics and mathematics at Oxford in 1852. He was secretary to a
+committee appointed by the Philological Society to consider the project
+of a standard English dictionary, a scheme of which the _New English
+Dictionary_, published by the Clarendon Press, was the ultimate outcome.
+His personal researches into the subject were contained in his
+_Glossarial Index to the Printed English Literature of the Thirteenth
+Century_ (1859).
+
+
+
+
+COLET, JOHN (1467?-1510), English divine and educationist, the eldest
+son of Sir Henry Colet (lord mayor of London 1486 and 1495), was born in
+London about 1467. He was educated at St Anthony's school and at
+Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took the M.A. degree in 1490. He
+already held the non-resident rectory of Dennington, Suffolk, and the
+vicarage of St Dunstan's, Stepney, and was now collated rector of
+Thurning, Hunts. In 1493 he went to Paris and thence to Italy, studying
+canon and civil law, patristics and the rudiments of Greek. During his
+residence abroad he became acquainted with Budaeus (Guillaume Bude) and
+Erasmus, and with the teaching of Savonarola. On his return to England
+in 1496 he took orders and settled at Oxford, where he lectured on the
+epistles of St Paul, replacing the old scholastic method of
+interpretation by an exegesis more in harmony with the new learning. His
+methods did much to influence Erasmus, who visited Oxford in 1498, and
+in after years Erasmus received an annuity from him. Since 1494 he had
+been prebendary of York, and canon of St Martin le Grand, London. In
+1502 he became prebendary of Salisbury, in 1505 prebendary of St Paul's,
+and immediately afterwards dean of the same cathedral, having previously
+taken the degree of doctor of divinity. Here he continued his practice
+of lecturing on the books of the Bible; and he soon afterwards
+established a perpetual divinity lecture, on three days in each week, in
+St Paul's church. About the year 1508, having inherited his father's
+large wealth, Colet formed his plan for the re-foundation of St Paul's
+school, which he completed in 1512, and endowed with estates of an
+annual value of L122 and upwards. The celebrated grammarian William
+Lilly was the first master, and the company of mercers were (in 1510)
+appointed trustees, the first example of non-clerical management in
+education. The dean's religious opinions were so much more liberal than
+those of the contemporary clergy (whose ignorance and corruption he
+denounced) that they deemed him little better than a heretic; but
+William Warham, the archbishop, refused to prosecute him. Similarly
+Henry VIII. held him in high esteem despite his sermons against the
+French wars. In 1514 he made the Canterbury pilgrimage, and in 1515
+preached at Wolsey's installation as cardinal. Colet died of the
+sweating sickness on the 16th of September 1519. He was buried on the
+south side of the choir of St Paul's, where a stone was laid over his
+grave, with no other inscription than his name. Besides the preferments
+above mentioned, he was rector of the gild of Jesus at St Paul's and
+chaplain to Henry VIII.
+
+Colet, though never dreaming of a formal breach with the Roman Church,
+was a keen reformer, who disapproved of auricular confession, and of the
+celibacy of the clergy. Though no great scholar or writer, he was a
+powerful force in the England of his day, and helped materially to
+disintegrate the medieval conditions still obtaining, and to introduce
+the humanist movement. Among his works, which were first collectively
+published in 1867-1876, are _Absolutissimus de octo orationis partium
+constructione libellus_ (Antwerp, 1530), _Rudimenta Grammatices_
+(London, 1539), _Daily Devotions_, _Monition to a Godly Life_,
+_Epistolae ad Erasmum_, and commentaries on different parts of the
+Bible.
+
+  See F. Seebohm, _The Oxford Reformers_; J. H. Lupton, _Life of John
+  Colet_ (1887); art. in _The Times_, July 7, 1909.
+
+
+
+
+COLET, LOUISE (1810-1876), French poet and novelist, was born at Aix of
+a Provencal family named Revoil, on the 15th of September 1810. In 1835
+she came to Paris with her husband Hippolyte Colet (1808-1851), a
+composer of music and professor of harmony and counterpoint at the
+conservatoire. In 1836 appeared her _Fleurs du Midi_, a volume of verse,
+of liberal tendency, followed by _Penserosa_ (1839), a second volume of
+verse; by _La Jeunesse de Goethe_ (1839), a one-act comedy; by _Les
+Coeurs brises_ (1843), a novel; _Les Funerailles de Napoleon_ (1840),
+a poem, and _La Jeunesse de Mirabeau_ (1841), a novel. Her works were
+crowned five or six times by the Institute, a distinction which she
+owed, however, to the influence of Victor Cousin rather than to the
+quality of her work. The criticisms on her books and on the prizes
+conferred on her by the Academy exasperated her; and in 1841 Paris was
+diverted by her attempted reprisals on Alphonse Karr for certain notices
+in _Les Guepes_. In 1849 she had to defend an action brought against her
+by the heirs of Madame Recamier, whose correspondence with Benjamin
+Constant she had published in the columns of the _Presse_. She produced
+a host of writings in prose and verse, but she is perhaps best known for
+her intimate connexion with some of her famous contemporaries, Abel
+Villemain, Gustave Flaubert and Victor Cousin. Only one of her books is
+now of interest--_Lui: roman contemporain_ (1859), the novel in which
+she told the story of her life. She died on the 8th of March 1876.
+
+
+
+
+COLEUS, a genus of herbaceous or shrubby plants belonging to the natural
+order Labiatae, chiefly natives of the tropics. They are very ornamental
+plants, the colour of their leaves being exceedingly varied, and often
+very brilliant. They are of the easiest culture. The cuttings of young
+shoots should be propagated every year, about March, being planted in
+thumb pots, in sandy loam, and placed in a close temperature of 70 deg.
+After taking root shift into 6-in. pots, using ordinary light loamy
+compost, containing abundance of leaf-mould and sand, and keeping them
+near the light. They may be passed on into larger pots as often as
+required, but 8-in. pots will be large enough for general purposes, as
+they can be fed with liquid manure. The young spring-struck plants like
+a warm growing atmosphere, but by midsummer they will bear more air and
+stand in a greenhouse or conservatory. They should be wintered in a
+temperature of 60 deg. to 65 deg. The stopping of the young shoots must
+be regulated by the consideration whether bushy or pyramidal plants are
+desired. Some of the varieties are half-hardy and are used for summer
+bedding.
+
+
+
+
+COLFAX, SCHUYLER (1823-1885), American political leader, vice-president
+of the United States from 1869 to 1873, was born in New York city on the
+23rd of March 1823. His father died before the son's birth, and his
+mother subsequently married a Mr Matthews. The son attended the public
+schools of New York until he was ten, and then became a clerk in his
+step-father's store, removing in 1836 with his mother and step-father to
+New Carlisle, Indiana. In 1841 he removed to South Bend, where for eight
+years he was deputy auditor (his step-father being auditor) of St Joseph
+county; in 1842-1844 he was assistant enrolling clerk of the state
+senate and senate reporter for the _Indiana State Journal_. In 1845 he
+established the _St Joseph Valley Register_, which he published for
+eighteen years and made an influential Whig and later Republican
+journal. In 1850 he was a member of the state constitutional convention,
+and in 1854 took an active part in organizing the "Anti-Nebraska men"
+(later called Republicans) of his state, and was by them sent to
+Congress. Here he served with distinction from 1855 until 1869, the last
+six years as speaker of the House. At the close of the Civil War he was
+a leading member of the radical wing of the Republican party, advocating
+the disfranchisement of all who had been prominent in the service of
+the Confederacy, and declaring that "loyalty must govern what loyalty
+has preserved." In 1868 he had presidential aspirations, and was not
+without supporters. He accepted, however, the Republican nomination as
+vice-president on a ticket headed by General Grant, and was elected; but
+he failed in 1872 to secure renomination. During the political campaign
+of 1872 he was accused, with other prominent politicians, of being
+implicated in corrupt transactions with the Credit Mobilier, and a
+congressional investigation brought out the fact that he had agreed to
+take twenty shares from this concern, and had received dividends
+amounting to $1200. It also leaked out during the investigation that he
+had received in 1868, as a campaign contribution, a gift of $4000 from a
+contractor who had supplied the government with envelopes while Colfax
+was chairman of the post office committee of the House. At the close of
+his term Colfax returned to private life under a cloud, and during the
+remainder of his lifetime earned a livelihood by delivering popular
+lectures. He died at Mankato, Minnesota, on the 13th of January 1885.
+
+  See J. C. Hollister's _Life of Schuyler Colfax_ (New York, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+COLIC (from the Gr. [Greek: kolon] or [Greek: kolon], the large
+intestine), a term in medicine of very indefinite meaning, used by
+physicians outside England for any paroxysmal abdominal pain, but
+generally limited in England to a sudden sharp pain having its origin in
+the pelvis of the kidney, the ureter, gall-bladder, bile-ducts or
+intestine. Thus it is customary to speak of renal, biliary or intestinal
+colic. There is a growing tendency, however, among professional men of
+to-day, to restrict the use of the word to a pain produced by the
+contraction of the muscular walls of any of the hollow viscera of which
+the aperture has become more or less occluded, temporarily or otherwise.
+For renal and biliary colic, see the articles KIDNEY DISEASES and LIVER,
+only intestinal colic being treated in this place.
+
+In infants, usually those who are "bottle-fed," colic is exceedingly
+common, and is shown by the drawing up of their legs, their restlessness
+and their continuous cries.
+
+Among adults one of the most serious causes is that due to
+lead-poisoning and known as lead colic (_Syn._ painters' colic, _colica
+Pictonum_, Devonshire colic), from its having been clearly ascertained
+to be due to the absorption of lead into the system (see
+LEAD-POISONING). This disease had been observed and described long
+before its cause was discovered. Its occurrence in an epidemic form
+among the inhabitants of Poitou was recorded by Francois Citois
+(1572-1652) in 1617, under the title of _Novus et popularis apud
+Pictones dolor colicus biliosus_. The disease was thereafter termed
+_colica Pictonum_. It was supposed to be due to the acidity of the
+native wines, but it was afterwards found to depend on lead contained in
+them. A similar epidemic broke out in certain parts of Germany in the
+end of the 17th century, and was at the time believed by various
+physicians to be caused by the admixture of acid wines with litharge to
+sweeten them.
+
+About the middle of the 18th century this disease, which had long been
+known to prevail in Devonshire, was carefully investigated by Sir George
+Baker (1722-1809), who succeeded in tracing it unmistakably to the
+contamination of the native beverage, cider, with lead, either
+accidentally from the leadwork of the vats and other apparatus for
+preparing the liquor, or from its being sweetened with litharge.
+
+In Germany a similar colic resulting from the absorption of copper
+occurs, but it is almost unknown in England.
+
+The simplest form of colic is that arising from habitual constipation,
+the muscular wall of the intestines contracting painfully to overcome
+the resistance of hardened scybalous masses of faeces, which cause more
+or less obstruction to the onward passage of the intestinal contents.
+Another equally common cause is that due to irritating or indigestible
+food such as apples, pears or nuts, heavy pastry, meat pies and
+puddings, &c. It may then be associated with either constipation or
+diarrhoea, though the latter is the more common. It may result from any
+form of enteritis as simple, mucous and ulcerative colitis, or an
+intestinal malignant growth. The presence of _ascaris lumbricoides_
+may, by reflex action, set up a very painful nervous spasm; and certain
+forms of influenza (q.v.) are ushered in by colic of a very pronounced
+type. Many physicians describe a rheumatic colic due to cold and damp,
+and among women disease of the pelvic organs may give rise to an exactly
+similar pain. There are also those forms of colic which must be classed
+as functional or neuralgic, though this view of the case must never be
+accepted until every other possible cause is found to be untenable. From
+this short account of a few of the commoner causes of the trouble, it
+will be clear that colic is merely a symptom of disease, not a disease
+in itself, and that no diagnosis has been made until the cause of the
+pain has been determined.
+
+Intestinal colic is paroxysmal, usually both beginning and ending
+suddenly. The pain is generally referred to the neighbourhood of the
+umbilicus, and may radiate all over the abdomen. It varies in intensity
+from a slight momentary discomfort to a pain so severe as to cause the
+patient to shriek or even to break out into a cold clammy sweat. It is
+usually relieved by pressure, and this point is one which aids in the
+differential diagnosis between a simple colic and peritonitis, the pain
+of the latter being increased by pressure. But should the colic be due
+to a malignant growth, or should the intestines be distended with gas,
+pressure will probably increase the pain. The temperature is usually
+subnormal, but may be slightly raised, and the pulse is in proportion.
+
+In the treatment of simple colic the patient must be confined to bed,
+hot fomentations applied to the abdomen and a purge administered, a few
+drops of laudanum being added when the pain is exceptionally severe. But
+the whole difficulty lies in making the differential diagnosis. Acute
+intestinal obstruction (ileus) begins just as an attack of simple colic,
+but the rapid increase of illness, frequent vomiting, anxious
+countenance, and still more the condition of the pulse, warn a trained
+observer of the far more serious state. Appendicitis and peritonitis, as
+also the gastric crises of locomotor ataxy, must all be excluded.
+
+
+
+
+COLIGNY, GASPARD DE (1519-1572), admiral of France and Protestant
+leader, came of a noble family of Burgundy, who traced their descent
+from the 11th century, and in the reign of Louis XI. were in the service
+of the king of France. His father, Gaspard de Coligny, known as the
+marechal de Chatillon (d. 1522), served in the Italian wars from 1495 to
+1515, and was created marshal of France in 1516. By his wife, Louise de
+Montmorency, sister of the future constable, he had three sons: Odet,
+cardinal de Chatillon; Gaspard, the admiral; and Francis, seigneur
+d'Andelot; all of whom played an important part in the first period of
+the wars of religion. At twenty-two young Gaspard came to court, and
+there contracted a friendship with Francis of Guise. In the campaign of
+1543 Coligny distinguished himself greatly, and was wounded at the
+sieges of Montmedy and Bains. In 1544 he served in the Italian campaign
+under the duke of Enghien, and was knighted on the field of Ceresole.
+Returning to France, he took part in different military operations; and
+having been made colonel-general of the infantry (April 1547), exhibited
+great capacity and intelligence as a military reformer. He was made
+admiral on the death of d'Annebaut (1552). In 1557 he was entrusted with
+the defence of Saint Quentin. In the siege he displayed great courage,
+resolution, and strength of character; but the place was taken, and he
+was imprisoned in the stronghold of L'Ecluse. On payment of a ransom of
+50,000 crowns he recovered his liberty. But he had by this time become a
+Huguenot, through the influence of his brother, d'Andelot--the first
+letter which Calvin addressed to him is dated the 4th of September
+1558--and he busied himself secretly with protecting his
+co-religionists, a colony of whom he sent to Brazil, whence they were
+afterwards expelled by the Portuguese.
+
+On the death of Henry II. he placed himself, with Louis, prince of
+Conde, in the front of his sect, and demanded religious toleration and
+certain other reforms. In 1560, at the Assembly of Notables at
+Fontainebleau, the hostility between Coligny and Francis of Guise broke
+forth violently. When the civil wars began in 1562, Coligny decided to
+take arms only after long hesitation, and he was always ready to
+negotiate. In none of these wars did he show superior genius, but he
+acted throughout with great prudence and extraordinary tenacity; he was
+"le heros de la mauvaise fortune." In 1569 the defeat and death of the
+prince of Conde at Jarnac left him sole leader of the Protestant armies.
+Victorious at Arnay-le-Duc, he obtained in 1570 the pacification of St
+Germain. Returning to the court in 1571, he grew rapidly in favour with
+Charles XI. As a means of emancipating the king from the tutelage of his
+mother and the faction of the Guises, the admiral proposed to him a
+descent on Spanish Flanders, with an army drawn from both sects and
+commanded by Charles in person. The king's regard for the admiral, and
+the bold front of the Huguenots, alarmed the queen-mother; and the
+massacre of St Bartholomew was the consequence. On the 22nd of August
+1572 Coligny was shot in the street by Maurevel, a bravo in the pay of
+the queen-mother and Guise; the bullets, however, only tore a finger
+from his right hand and shattered his left elbow. The king visited him,
+but the queen-mother prevented all private intercourse between them. On
+the 24th of August, the night of the massacre, he was attacked in his
+house, and a servant of the duke of Guise, generally known as Besme,
+slew him and cast him from a window into the courtyard at his master's
+feet. His papers were seized and burned by the queen-mother; among them,
+according to Brantome, was a history of the civil war, "tres-beau et
+tres-bien faict, et digne d'estre imprime."
+
+By his wife, Charlotte de Laval, Coligny had several children, among
+them being Louise, who married first Charles de Teligny and afterwards
+William the Silent, prince of Orange, and Francis, admiral of Guienne,
+who was one of the devoted servants of Henry IV. Gaspard de Coligny
+(1584-1646), son of Francis, was marshal of France during the reign of
+Louis XIII.
+
+  See Jean du Bouchet, _Preuves de l'histoire genealogique de l'illustre
+  maison de Coligny_ (Paris, 1661); biography by Francois Hotman, 1575
+  (French translation, 1665); L. J. Delaborde, _Gaspard de Coligny_
+  (1879-1882); Erich Marcks, _Gaspard von Coligny, sein Leben und das
+  Frankreich seiner Zeit_ (Stuttgart, 1892); H. Patry, "Coligny et la
+  Papaute," in the _Bulletin du protestantisme francais_ (1902); A. W.
+  Whitehead, _Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France_ (1904); and C.
+  Merki, _L'Amiral de Coligny_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+COLIMA, a small Pacific coast state of Mexico, lying between Jalisco on
+the N.W. and N., and Michoacan on the E. Including the Revilla Gigedo
+islands its area is only 2272 sq. m., which thus makes it the second
+smallest of the Mexican states. Pop. (1895) 55,264; (1900) 65,115. The
+larger part of its territory is within the narrow, flat coastal plain,
+beyond which it rises toward the north-east into the foothills of the
+Sierra Madre, the higher masses of the range, including the Colima
+volcano, lying outside the state. It is drained by the Ameria and
+Coahuayana rivers and their affluents, which are largely used for
+irrigation. There are tidewater lagoons and morasses on the coast which
+accentuate its malarious character. One of the largest of these,
+Cuitlan, immediately south of Manzanillo, is the centre of a large
+salt-producing industry. The soil is generally fertile and productive,
+but lack of transportation facilities has been a serious obstacle to any
+production greatly exceeding local demands. The dry and rainy seasons
+are sharply defined, the rainfall being abundant in the latter. The
+climate is hot, humid and malarious, becoming drier and healthier on the
+higher mountain slopes of the interior. Stock-raising is an important
+industry in the higher parts of the state, but the horses, mules and
+cattle raised have been limited to local demands. Agriculture, however,
+is the principal occupation of the state, the more important products
+being sugar, rice, Indian corn, palm oil, coffee, indigo, cotton and
+cacao. The production of cacao is small, and that of indigo and cotton
+is declining, the latter being limited to the requirements of small
+local mills. There are two crops of Indian corn a year, but sugar and
+rice are the principal crops. The "Caracolillo" coffee, produced on the
+slopes of the mountains culminating in the volcano of Colima, is reputed
+the best in Mexico, and the entire crop (about 506,000 lb. in 1906) is
+consumed in the country at a price much above other grades. There are
+important mineral deposits in the state, including iron, copper and
+lead, but mining enterprise has made no progress through lack of
+transportation facilities. Salt is made on the coast and shipped inland,
+and palm-leaf hats are manufactured and exported. Hides and deerskins
+are also exported in large quantities. A narrow-gauge railway has been
+in operation between the capital and Manzanillo for many years, and in
+1907 a branch of the Mexican Central was completed between Guadalajara
+and the capital, and the narrow-gauge line to the coast was widened to
+the standard gauge. The chief cities of the state are the capital
+Colima, Manzanillo, Comala (the second largest town in the state), 5 m.
+from the capital, with which it is connected by an electric railway,
+Ixtlahuacan Coquimatlan and Almoloyan.
+
+
+
+
+COLIMA, a city of Mexico and capital of a state of the same name, 570 m.
+(direct) W. by S. of Mexico City and about 36 m. inland from the Pacific
+coast. Pop. (1895) 18,977; (1900) 20,698. Colima is picturesquely
+situated on the Colima river, in a large fertile valley about 1650 ft.
+above the sea, and lies in the midst of fine mountain-scenery. About 30
+m. to the north-east the volcano of Colima, in the state of Jalisco,
+rises to an elevation of 12,685 ft.; it is the most westerly of the
+active volcanoes of Mexico. Colima enjoys a moderately cool and healthy
+climate, especially in the dry season (November to June). The city is
+regularly laid out and is in great part well built, with good public
+buildings, several churches, a theatre, two hospitals, and a handsome
+market completed in 1905. Tramways connect the central plaza with the
+railway station, cemetery, and the suburb of Villa de Alvarez, 2-1/2 m.
+distant, and an extension of 5 m. was projected in 1906 to Comala. The
+local industries include two old-fashioned cotton mills, an ice plant,
+corn-grinding mill, and five cigarette factories. Colima is the
+commercial centre for a large district, but trade has been greatly
+restricted by lack of transportation facilities. A railway connects with
+the port of Manzanillo, and the Mexican Central railway serves Colima
+itself. Colima was founded in 1522 by Gonzalo de Sandoval. It has not
+played a very prominent part in Mexican history because of its
+inaccessibility, and for the same reason has suffered less from
+revolutionary violence.
+
+
+
+
+COLIN, ALEXANDRE (1526-1612), Flemish sculptor, was born at Malines. In
+1563 he went, at the invitation of the emperor Ferdinand I., to
+Innsbruck, to work on the magnificent monument which was being erected
+to Maximilian I. in the nave of the Franciscan church. Of the
+twenty-four marble alti-rilievi, representing the emperor's principal
+acts and victories, which adorn the sides of this tomb, twenty were
+executed by Colin, apparently in three years. The work displays a
+remarkable combination of liveliness and spirit with extreme care and
+finish, its delicacy rivalling that of a fine cameo. Thorwaldsen is said
+to have pronounced it the finest work of its kind. Colin, who was
+sculptor in ordinary both to the emperor and to his son, the archduke
+Ferdinand of Tirol, did a great deal of work for his patrons at
+Innsbruck and in its neighbourhood; particular mention may be made of
+the sepulchres of the archduke and his first wife, Philippine Welser,
+both in the same church as the Maximilian monument, and of Bishop Jean
+Nas. His tomb in the cemetery at Innsbruck bears a fine bas-relief
+executed by one of his sons.
+
+
+
+
+COLL, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1901) 432. It is situated about 7 m. west of Caliach Point in Mull, and
+measures 12 m. from N.E. to S.W., with a breadth varying from 3/4 m. to 4
+m. It is composed of gneiss, is generally rather flat, save in the west
+where Ben Hogh reaches a height of 339 ft., and has several lakes. The
+pasturage is good and the soil fairly fertile. Much dairy produce is
+exported, besides sheep and cattle. The antiquities include stone
+circles, duns, the ruins of Breachacha Castle, once a fortress of the
+Lords of the Isles. A steamer from Oban calls regularly at Arinagour.
+
+
+
+
+COLLAERT, HANS, Flemish engraver, son of Adrian Collaert, a draughtsman
+and engraver of repute, was born at Antwerp about 1545. After working
+some years in his father's studio, he went to Rome to perfect himself in
+his art. His engravings after Rubens are very highly esteemed. He left
+many works; among the best may be mentioned a "Life of Saint Francis,"
+16 prints; a "Last Judgment," folio; "Monilium, Bullarum, Inauriumque
+Artificiosissimae Icones," 10 prints, 1581; "The Dead Christ in his
+Mother's Lap"; "Marcus Curtius"; "Moses Striking the Rock," and "The
+Resurrection of Lazarus," after Lambert Lombard; "The Fathers of the
+Desert"; and "Biblia Sacra and the History of the Church," after Rubens.
+
+
+
+
+COLLAR, something worn or fastened round the neck (Lat. _collare_, from
+_collum_, neck), particularly a band of linen, lace or other material,
+which, under various shapes at different periods, has been worn by men
+and women to serve as a completion or finish to the neckband of a
+garment (see COSTUME); also a chain, worn as a personal ornament, a
+badge of livery, a symbol of office, or as part of the insignia of an
+order of knighthood, an application of the term with which the present
+article deals. The word is also applied to that part of the
+draught-harness of a horse which fits over the animal's neck, to which
+the traces are attached, and against which the strain of the drawing of
+the vehicle is exercised, and to a circular piece of metal passed round
+the joints of a rod or pipe, to prevent movement or to make the joint
+steam- or water-tight.
+
+Necklaces with beads and jewels threaded thereon or the plain laces with
+a hanging ornament are among the common braveries of all times and
+countries. From these come the collar and the neck-chain. Torques or
+twisted collars of metal are found in burying-places of the barbarous
+people of northern Europe. British chiefs wore them, and gold torques
+were around the necks of the leaders of the first of the Saxon invaders
+of Britain, among whose descendants, however, the fashion seems to have
+languished. Edward the Confessor was buried with a neck-chain of gold 2
+ft. long, fastened with a jewelled locket and carrying an enamelled
+crucifix.
+
+The extravagant age of Richard II. saw a great revival of the
+neck-chain, heavy links twisted of gold or silver. From this time onward
+neck chains, with or without pendant devices, were commonly worn by men
+and women of the richer sort. The men abandoned them in the time of
+Charles I.
+
+Closely allied to the chain are the livery collars which appeared in the
+14th century, worn by those who thus displayed their alliances or their
+fealty. Thus Charles V. of France in 1378 granted to his chamberlain
+Geoffrey de Belleville the right of bearing in all feasts and in all
+companies the collar of the _Cosse de Geneste_ or Broomcod, a collar
+which was accepted and worn even by the English kings, Charles VI.
+sending such collars to Richard II. and to his three uncles. This French
+collar, a chain of couples of broom-cods linked by jewels, is seen in
+the contemporary portrait of Richard II. at Wilton. The like collar was
+worn by Henry IV. on the way to his crowning. During the sitting of the
+English parliament in 1394 the complaints of the earl of Arundel against
+Richard II. are recorded, one of his grievances being that the king was
+wont to wear the livery of the collar of the duke of Lancaster, his
+uncle, and that people of the king's following wore the same livery. To
+which the king answered that soon after the return from Spain (in 1389)
+of his uncle, the said duke, he himself took the collar from his uncle's
+neck, putting it on his own, which collar the king would wear and use
+for a sign of the good and whole-hearted love between them, even as he
+wore the liveries of his other uncles. Livery collars of the king of
+France, of Queen Anne and of the dukes of York and Lancaster are
+numbered with the royal plate and jewels which in the first year of
+Henry IV. had come to the king's hands. The inventory shows that Queen
+Anne's collar was made up of sprigs of rosemary garnished with pearls.
+The York collar had falcons and fetterlocks, and the Lancaster collar
+was doubtless that collar of Esses (or S S) used by the duke's son,
+Henry of Bolingbroke, as an earl, duke and king. This famous livery
+collar, which has never passed out of use, takes many forms, its Esses
+being sometimes linked together chainwise, and sometimes, in early
+examples, bestowed as the ornamental bosses of a garter-shaped
+strap-collar. The oldest effigy bearing it is that in Spratton church of
+Sir John Swinford, who died in 1371. Swinford was a follower of John of
+Gaunt, and the date of his death easily disposes of the fancy that the
+Esses were devised by Henry IV. to stand for his motto or "word" of
+_Soverayne_. Many explanations are given of the origin of these letters,
+but none has as yet been established with sufficient proof. During the
+reigns of Henry IV., his son and grandson, the collar of Esses was a
+royal badge of the Lancastrian house and party, the white swan being its
+pendant. In one of Henry VI.'s own collars the S was joined to the
+Broomcod of the French device, thus symbolizing the king's claim to the
+two kingdoms.
+
+The kings of the house of York and their chief followers wore the
+Yorkist collar of suns and roses, with the white lion of March, the
+Clare bull, or Richard's white boar for a pendant device. Henry VII.
+brought back the collar of Esses, a portcullis or a rose hanging from
+it, although in a portrait of this king, now possessed by the Society of
+Antiquaries, his neck bears the _rose en soleil_ alternating with knots,
+and his son, when young, had a collar of roses red and white. Besides
+these royal collars, the 14th and 15th centuries show many of private
+devices. A brass at Mildenhall shows a knight whose badge of a dog or
+wolf circled by a crown hangs from a collar with edges suggesting a
+pruned bough or the ragged staff. Thomas of Markenfield (d. c. 1415) on
+his brass at Ripon has a strange collar of park palings with a badge of
+a hart in a park, and the Lord Berkeley (d. 1392) wears one set with
+mermaids.
+
+Collars of various devices are now worn by the grand crosses of the
+European orders of knighthood. The custom was begun by Philip of
+Burgundy, who gave his knights of the Golden Fleece, an order founded on
+the 10th of February 1429-1430, badges of a golden fleece hung from that
+collar of flints, steels and sparks which is seen in so many old Flemish
+portraits. To this day it remains the most beautiful of all the collars,
+keeping in the main the lines of its Flemish designer, although a vulgar
+fancy sometimes destroys the symbolism of the golden fleece by changing
+it for an unmeaning fleece of diamonds. Following this new fashion,
+Louis XI. of France, when instituting his order of St Michael in 1469,
+gave the knights collars of scallop shells linked on a chain. The chain
+was doubled by Charles VIII., and the pattern suffered other changes
+before the order lapsed in 1830. Until the reign of Henry VIII., the
+Garter, most ancient of the great knightly orders, had no collar. But
+the Tudor king must needs match in all things with continental
+sovereigns, and the present collar of the Garter knights, with its
+golden knots and its buckled garters enclosing white roses set on red
+roses, has its origin in the Tudor age. An illustration in colours of
+the Garter collar is given on Plate I. in the article KNIGHTHOOD AND
+CHIVALRY, while descriptions of the collars of the other principal
+orders are also given. The collar of the Thistle with the thistles and
+rue-sprigs is as old as the reign of James II. The Bath collar, in its
+first form of white knots linking closed crowns to roses and thistles
+issuing from sceptres, dates from 1725, up to which time the knights of
+the Bath had hung their medallion from a ribbon.
+
+Founding the order of the Saint Esprit in 1578, Henry III. of France
+devised a collar of enflamed fleur-de-lis and cyphers of H and L, a
+fashion which was soon afterwards varied by Henry his successor.
+Elephants have been always borne on the collar of the Elephant founded
+in Denmark in 1478, the other links of which have taken many shapes.
+Another Danish order, the Dannebrog, said to be "re-instituted" by
+Christian V. in 1671, has a collar of crosses formy alternating with the
+crowned letters C and W, the latter standing for Waldemar the
+Victorious, whom a legend of no value described as founding the order in
+1219. Of other European orders, that of St Andrew, founded by Peter of
+Russia in 1698, has eagles and Andrew crosses and cyphers, while the
+Black Eagle of Prussia has the Prussian eagle with thunderbolts in its
+claws beside roundels charged with cyphers of the letters F.R.
+
+Plain collars of Esses are now worn in the United Kingdom by
+kings-of-arms, heralds and serjeants-at-arms. Certain legal dignitaries
+have worn them since the 16th century, the collar of the lord
+chief-justice having knots and roses between the letters. Henry IV.'s
+parliament in his second year restricted the free use of the king's
+livery collar to his sons and to all dukes, earls, barons and bannerets,
+while simple knights and squires might use it when in the royal presence
+or in going to and from the hostel of the king. The giving of a livery
+collar by the king made a squire of a man even as the stroke of the
+royal sword made him a knight. Collars of Esses are sometimes seen on
+the necks of ladies. The queen of Henry IV. wears one. So do the wife of
+a 16th century Knightley on her tomb at Upton, and Penelope, Lady
+Spencer (d. 1667), on her Brington monument.
+
+Since 1545 the lord mayor of London has worn a royal livery collar of
+Esses. This collar, however, has its origin in no royal favour, Sir John
+Alen, thrice a lord mayor, having bequeathed it to the then lord mayor
+and his successors "to use and occupie yerely at and uppon principall
+and festivall dayes." It was enlarged in 1567, and in its present shape
+has 28 Esses alternating with knots and roses and joined with a
+portcullis. Lord mayors of York use a plain gold chain of a triple row
+of links given in 1670; this chain, since the day when certain links
+were found wanting, is weighed on its return by the outgoing mayor. In
+Ireland the lord mayor of Dublin wears a collar given by Charles II.,
+while Cork's mayor has another which the Cork council bought of a
+silversmith in 1755, stipulating that it should be like the Dublin one.
+The lady mayoress of York wears a plain chain given with that of the
+lord mayor in 1670, and, like his, weighed on its return to official
+keeping. For some two hundred and thirty years the mayoress of
+Kingston-on-Hull enjoyed a like ornament until a thrifty council in 1835
+sold her chain as a useless thing.
+
+Of late years municipal patriotism and the persuasions of enterprising
+tradesmen have notably increased the number of English provincial mayors
+wearing collars or chains of office. Unlike civic maces, swords and caps
+of maintenance, these gauds are without significance. The mayor of Derby
+is decorated with the collar once borne by a lord chief-justice of the
+king's bench, and his brother of Kingston-on-Thames uses without
+authority an old collar of Esses which once hung over a herald's tabard.
+By a modern custom the friends of the London sheriffs now give them
+collars of gold and enamel, which they retain as mementoes of their year
+of office.     (O. BA.)
+
+
+
+
+COLLATERAL (from Med. Lat. _collateralis_,--_cum_, with, and _latus_,
+_lateris_, side,--side by side, hence parallel or additional), a term
+used in law in several senses. _Collateral relationship_ means the
+relationship between persons who are descended from the same stock or
+ancestor, but in a different line; as opposed to _lineal_, which is the
+relationship between ascendants and descendants in a direct line, as
+between father and son, grandfather and grandson. A _collateral
+agreement_ is an agreement made contemporaneously with a written
+contract as part of the transaction, but without being incorporated with
+it. _Collateral facts_, in evidence, are those facts which do not bear
+directly on the matters in dispute. _Collateral security_ is an
+additional security for the better safety of the mortgagee, i.e.
+property or right of action deposited to secure the fulfilment of an
+obligation.
+
+
+
+
+COLLATIA, an ancient town of Latium, 10 m. E. by N. of Rome by the Via
+Collatina. It appears in the legendary history of Rome as captured by
+Tarquinius Priscus. Livy tells us it was taken from the Sabines, while
+Virgil speaks of it as a Latin colony. In the time of Cicero it had lost
+all importance; Strabo names it as a mere village, in private hands,
+while for Pliny it was one of the lost cities of Latium. The site is
+undoubtedly to be sought on the hill now occupied by the large medieval
+fortified farmhouse of Lunghezza, immediately to the south of the Anio,
+which occupies the site of the citadel joined by a narrow neck to the
+tableland to the south-east on which the city stood: this is protected
+by wide valleys on each side, and is isolated at the south-east end by a
+deep narrow valley enlarged by cutting. No remains are to be seen, but
+the site is admirably adapted for an ancient settlement. The road may be
+traced leading to the south end of this tableland, being identical with
+the modern road to Lunghezza for the middle part of its course only.
+The current indentification with Castellaccio, 2 m. to the south-east,
+is untenable.
+
+  See T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i. 138 seq.,
+  iii. 201.     (T. AS.)
+
+
+
+
+COLLATION (Lat. _collatio_, from _conferre_, to bring together or
+compare), the bringing together of things for the special purpose of
+comparison, and thus, particularly, the critical examination of the
+texts of documents or MSS. and the result of such comparison. The word
+is also a term in printing and bookbinding for the register of the
+"signatures," the number of quires and leaves in each quire of a book or
+MS. In Roman and Scots law "collation" answers to the English law term
+"hotch-pot" (q.v.). From another meaning of the Latin word, a
+consultation or conference, and so a treatise or homily, comes the title
+of a work of Johannes Cassianus (q.v.), the _Conferences of the Fathers_
+(_Collationes Patrum_). Readings from this and similar works were
+customary in monasteries; by the _regula_ of St Benedict it is ordered
+that on rising from supper there should be read _collationes_, passages
+from the lives of the Fathers and other edifying works; the word is then
+applied to the discussions arising from such readings. On fast days it
+was usual in monasteries to have a very light meal after the _Collatio_,
+and hence the meal itself came to be called "collation," a meaning which
+survives in the modern use of the word for any light or quickly prepared
+repast.
+
+
+
+
+COLLE, CHARLES (1709-1783), French dramatist and song-writer, the son of
+a notary, was born at Paris in 1709. He was early interested in the
+rhymes of Jean Heguanier, then the most famous maker of couplets in
+Paris. From a notary's office Colle was transferred to that of M. de
+Neulan, the receiver-general of finance, and remained there for nearly
+twenty years. When about seventeen, however, he made the acquaintance of
+Alexis Piron, and afterwards, through Gallet (d. 1757), of Panard. The
+example of these three masters of the vaudeville, while determining his
+vocation, made him diffident; and for some time he composed nothing but
+_amphigouris_--verses whose merit was measured by their
+unintelligibility. The friendship of the younger Crebillon, however,
+diverted him from this by-way of art, and the establishment in 1729 of
+the famous "Caveau" gave him a field for the display of his fine talent
+for popular song. In 1739 the Society of the Caveau, which numbered
+among its members Helvetius, Charles Duclos, Pierre Joseph Bernard,
+called Gentil-Bernard, Jean Philippe Rameau, Alexis Piron, and the two
+Crebillons, was dissolved, and was not reconstituted till twenty years
+afterwards. His first and his best comedy, _La Verite dans le vin_,
+appeared in 1747. Meanwhile, the Regent Orleans, who was an excellent
+comic actor, particularly in representations of low life, and had been
+looking out for an author to write suitable parts for him, made Colle
+his reader. It was for the duke and his associates that Colle composed
+the greater part of his _Theatre de societe_. In 1763 Colle produced at
+the Theatre Francais _Dupuis et Desronais_, a successful sentimental
+comedy, which was followed in 1771 by _La Veuve_, which was a complete
+failure. In 1774 appeared _La Partie de chasse de Henri Quatre_ (partly
+taken from Dodsley's _King and the Miller of Mansfield_), Colle's last
+and best play. From 1748 to 1772, besides these and a multitude of
+songs, Colle was writing his _Journal_, a curious collection of literary
+and personal strictures on his boon companions as well as on their
+enemies, on Piron as on Voltaire, on La Harpe as on Corneille. Colle
+died on the 3rd of November 1783. His lyrics are frank and jovial,
+though often licentious. The subjects are love and wine; occasionally,
+however, as in the famous lyric (1756) on the capture of Port Mahon, for
+which the author received a pension of 600 livres, the note of
+patriotism is struck with no unskilful hand, while in many others Colle
+shows himself possessed of considerable epigrammatic force.
+
+  See also H. Bonhomme's edition (1868) of his _Journal et Memoires_
+  (1748-1772); Grimm's _Correspondance_; and C. A. Sainte-Beuve,
+  _Nouveaux lundis_, vol. vii.
+
+
+
+
+COLLECTIVISM, a term used to denote the economic principle of the
+ownership by a community of all the means of production in order to
+secure to the people collectively an equitable distribution of the
+produce of their associated labour. Though often used in a narrow sense
+to express the economic basis of Socialism, the latter term is so
+generally employed in the same sense that collectivism is best discussed
+in connexion with it (see SOCIALISM).
+
+
+
+
+COLLECTOR, a term technically used for various officials, and
+particularly in India for the chief administrative official of a
+district. The word was in this case originally a translation of
+_tahsildar_, and indicates that the special duty of the office is the
+collection of revenue; but the collector has also magisterial powers and
+is a species of autocrat within the bounds of his district. The title is
+confined to the regulation provinces, especially Madras; in the
+non-regulation provinces the same duties are discharged by the
+deputy-commissioner (see COMMISSIONER).
+
+
+
+
+COLLE DI VAL D' ELSA, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province
+of Siena, 5 m. by rail S. of Poggibonsi, which is 16 m. N.W. of Siena.
+Pop. (1901) town 1987; commune 9879. The old (upper) town (732 ft. above
+sea-level), contains the cathedral, dating from the 13th century, with a
+pulpit partly of this period; the facade has been modernized. There are
+also some old palaces of good architecture, and the old house where
+Arnolfo di Cambio, the first architect of the cathedral at Florence
+(1232-1301) was born. The lower town (460 ft.) contains glass-works; the
+paper and iron industries (the former as old as 1377) are less
+important.
+
+
+
+
+COLLEGE (_Collegium_), in Roman law, a number of persons associated
+together by the possession of common functions,--a body of colleagues.
+Its later meaning applied to any union of persons, and _collegium_ was
+the equivalent of [Greek: hetaireia]. In many respects, e.g. in the
+distinction between the responsibilities and rights of the society and
+those of individual members thereof, the collegium was what we should
+now call a corporation (q.v.). Collegia might exist for purposes of
+trade like the English gilds, or for religious purposes (e.g. the
+college of augurs, of pontifices, &c.), or for political purposes, e.g.
+_tribunorum plebis collegia_. By the Roman law a collegium must have at
+least three members. The name is now usually applied to educational
+corporations, such as the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, with which,
+in the numerous English statutes relating to colleges, the colleges of
+Winchester and Eton are usually associated. These colleges are in the
+eye of the law eleemosynary corporations. In some of the earlier
+statutes of Queen Elizabeth they are spoken of as having an
+ecclesiastical character, but the doctrine of the common law since the
+Reformation has been that they are purely lay corporations,
+notwithstanding that most or all of their members may be persons in
+priest's orders. This is said to have been settled by Dr Patrick's case
+(_Raymond's Reports_, p. 101).
+
+Colleges appear to have grown out of the voluntary association of
+students and teachers at the university. According to some accounts
+these must at one time have been numerous and flourishing beyond
+anything we are now acquainted with. We are told, for example, of 300
+halls or societies at Oxford, and 30,000 students. In early times there
+seems to have been a strong desire to confine the scholars to certain
+licensed houses beyond the influence of the townspeople. Men of wealth
+and culture, and notably the political bishops and chancellors of
+England, obtained charters from the crown for the incorporation of
+societies of scholars, and these in time became exclusively the places
+of abode for students attending the university. At the same time the
+corporations thus founded were not necessarily attached to the locality
+of the university. The early statutes of Merton College, for example,
+allow the residence of the college to be shifted as occasion required;
+and the foundations of Wolsey at Oxford and Ipswich seem to have been
+the same in intention. In later times (until the introduction of
+non-collegiate students) the university and the colleges became
+coextensive; every member of the university had to attach himself to
+some college or hall, and every person admitted to a college or hall was
+obliged to matriculate himself in the university.
+
+In Ayliffe's _Ancient and Present State of the University of Oxford_ it
+is stated that a college must be "made up of three persons (at least)
+joined in community. And the reason of this almost seems to speak its
+own necessity, without the help of any express law to countenance it:
+because among two persons only there cannot be, in fact, a major part;
+and then if any disagreement should happen to arise between them it
+cannot be, in fact, brought to a conclusion by such a number alone in
+case both the parties should firmly adhere to their dissenting opinions;
+and thus it is declared by the civil law. But by the canon law it is
+known to be otherwise; for by that law two persons in number may make
+and constitute a college, forasmuch as according to this law two persons
+make and constitute an assembly or congregation. The common law of
+England, or rather the constant usage of our princes in erecting
+aggregate bodies, which has established this rule among us as a law, has
+been herein agreeable to the method and doctrine of the civil law, for
+that in all their grants and charters of incorporation of colleges they
+have not framed any aggregate body consisting of less than three in
+number." Another principle, apparently derived from the civil law, is
+that a man cannot be a fellow in two colleges at the same time. The law
+of England steadily resisted any attempt to introduce the principle of
+inequality into colleges. An act of 1542, reciting that divers founders
+of colleges have given in their statutes a power of veto to individual
+members, enacts that every statute made by any such founder, whereby the
+grant or election of the governor or ruler with the assent of the most
+part of such corporation should be in any wise hindered by any one or
+more being the lesser number (contrary to the common law), shall be
+void.
+
+The corporation consists of a head or master, fellows and scholars.
+Students, not being on the foundation, residing in the college, are not
+considered to be members of the corporation. The governing body in all
+cases is the head and fellows.
+
+It is considered essential to corporations of an ecclesiastical or
+educational character that they should have a Visitor whose duty it is
+to see that the statutes of the founder are obeyed. The duties of this
+officer have been ascertained by the courts of law in a great variety of
+decided cases. Subject to such restrictions as may be imposed on him by
+the statutes of the college, his duties are generally to interpret the
+statutes of the college in disputed cases, and to enforce them where
+they have been violated. For this purpose he is empowered to "visit" the
+society--usually at certain stated intervals. In questions within his
+jurisdiction his judgment is conclusive, but his jurisdiction does not
+extend to any cases under the common laws of the country, or to trusts
+attached to the college. Generally the visitorship resides in the
+founder and his heirs unless he has otherwise appointed, and in default
+of him in the crown.
+
+The fellowships, scholarships, &c., of colleges were until a
+comparatively recent date subject to various restrictions. Birth in a
+particular county, education at a particular school, relationship to the
+founder and holy orders, are amongst the most usual of the conditions
+giving a preferential or conclusive claim to the emoluments. Most of
+these restrictions have been or are being swept away. (See UNIVERSITIES;
+OXFORD; CAMBRIDGE; &C.)
+
+The term "college" (like "academy") is also applied to various
+institutions, e.g. to colleges of physicians and surgeons, and to the
+electoral college in the United States presidential elections, &c. For
+the Sacred College see CARDINAL.
+
+
+
+
+COLLEONI, BARTOLOMMEO (1400-1475), Italian soldier of fortune, was born
+at Bergamo. While he was still a child his father was attacked and
+murdered in his castle of Trezzo by Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of
+Milan. After wandering about Italy he entered the service of various
+_condottieri_, such as Braccio da Montone and Carmagnola. At the age of
+thirty-two he was serving the Venetian republic, and although Francesco
+Maria Gonzaga was commander-in-chief, Colleoni was the life and soul of
+the army. He recaptured many towns and districts for Venice from the
+Milanese, and when Gonzaga went over to the enemy he continued to serve
+the Venetians under Erasmo da Narni (known as Gattamelata) and Francesco
+A. Sforza, winning battles at Brescia, Verona and on the lake of Garda.
+When peace was made between Milan and Venice in 1441 Colleoni went over
+to the Milanese, together with Sforza in 1443. But although well
+treated at first, he soon fell under the suspicion of the treacherous
+Visconti and was imprisoned at Monza, where he remained until the duke's
+death in 1447. Milan then fell under the lordship of Sforza, whom
+Colleoni served for a time, but in 1448 he took leave of Sforza and
+returned to the Venetians. Disgusted at not having been elected
+captain-general, he went over to Sforza once more, but Venice could not
+do without him and by offering him increased emoluments induced him to
+return, and in 1455 he was appointed captain-general of the republic for
+life. Although he occasionally fought on his own account, when Venice
+was at peace, he remained at the disposal of the republic in time of war
+until his death.
+
+Colleoni was perhaps the most respectable of all the Italian
+_condottieri_, and although he often changed sides, no act of treachery
+is imputed to him, nor did he subject the territories he passed through
+to the rapine and exactions practised by other soldiers of fortune. When
+not fighting he devoted his time to introducing agricultural
+improvements on the vast estates with which the Venetians had endowed
+him, and to charitable works. At his death in 1475 he left a large sum
+to the republic for the Turkish war, with a request that an equestrian
+statue of himself should be erected in the Piazza San Marco. The statue
+was made by Verrocchio, but as no monument was permitted in the famous
+Piazza it was placed opposite the hospital of St Mark by way of
+compromise.
+
+  See G. M. Bonomi, _Il Castello di Cavernago e i conti Martinengo
+  Colleoni_ (Bergamo, 1884); for an account of his wars see S. Romanin,
+  _Storia documentata di Venezia_, vol. iv. (Venice, 1855), and other
+  histories of Venice.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+COLLETER (Gr. [Greek: kollos], glue), a botanical term for the
+gum-secreting hairs on the buds of certain plants.
+
+
+
+
+COLLETTA, PIETRO (1775-1831), Neapolitan general and historian, entered
+the Neapolitan artillery in 1796 and took part in the campaign against
+the French in 1798. On the entry of the French into Naples and the
+establishment of the Parthenopean republic (1799) he adhered to the new
+government, and when the Bourbon king Ferdinand IV. (q.v.) reconquered
+the city Colletta was thrown into prison and only escaped the death
+penalty by means of judiciously administered bribes. Turned out of the
+army he became a civil engineer, but when the Bourbons were expelled a
+second time in 1806 and Joseph Bonaparte seized the throne of Naples, he
+was reinstated in his rank and served in the expedition against the
+brigands and rebels of Calabria. In 1812 he was promoted general, and
+made director of roads and bridges. He served under Joachim Murat and
+fought the Austrians on the Panaro in 1815. On the restoration of
+Ferdinand Colletta was permitted to retain his rank in the army, and
+given command of the Salerno division. At the outbreak of the revolution
+of 1820 the king called him to his councils, and when the constitution
+had been granted Colletta was sent to put down the separatist rising in
+Sicily, which he did with great severity. He fought in the
+constitutionalist army against the Austrians at Rieti (7th of March
+1821), and on the re-establishment of autocracy he was arrested and
+imprisoned for three months by order of the prince of Canosa, the chief
+of police, his particular enemy. He would have been executed had not the
+Austrians intervened in his favour, and he was exiled instead to Brunn
+in Moravia; in 1823 he was permitted to settle in Florence, where he
+spent the rest of his days engaged on his _Storia del reame di Napoli_.
+He died in 1831. His history (1st ed., Capolago, 1834), which deals with
+the reigns of Charles III. and Ferdinand IV. (1734-1825), is still the
+standard work for that period; but its value is somewhat diminished by
+the author's bitterness against his opponents and the fact that he does
+not give chapter and verse for his statements, many of which are based
+on his recollection of documents seen, but not available at the time of
+writing. Still, having been an actor in many of the events recorded, he
+is on the whole accurate and trustworthy.
+
+  See Gino Capponi's memoir of him published in the _Storia del reame di
+  Napoli_ (2nd ed., Florence, 1848).     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+COLLEY, SIR GEORGE POMEROY (1835-1881), British general, third son of
+George Pomeroy Colley, of Rathangan, Co. Kildare, Ireland, and grandson
+of the fourth Viscount Harberton, was born on the 1st of November 1835,
+and entered the 2nd Queen's Regiment from Sandhurst as ensign in 1852.
+From 1854 to 1860 he served in South Africa, and was employed in
+surveying and as a magistrate in charge of the Bashi river district in
+Kaffraria. Early in 1860 he went with his regiment to China to join the
+Anglo-French expedition, and took part in the capture of the Taku forts
+and the entry into Peking, returning to South Africa to complete his
+work in Kaffraria (brevet-majority). In 1862 he entered the Staff
+College and passed out in one year with honours. After serving as
+brigade-major at Devonport for five years, he went to the War Office in
+1870 to assist in the preparation of (Lord) Cardwell's measures of army
+reform. He was appointed professor of military administration at the
+Staff College in 1871. Early in 1873 he joined Sir Garnet Wolseley at
+the Gold Coast, where he took charge of the transport, and the success
+of the Ashanti expedition was in no small degree due to his exertions.
+He was promoted brevet-colonel and awarded the C.B. In 1875 he
+accompanied Wolseley to Natal (C.M.G.). On his return home he was
+appointed military secretary to Lord Lytton, governor-general of India,
+and in 1877 private secretary (K.C.S.I.). In 1879 he joined Wolseley as
+chief of the staff and brigadier-general in S.E. Africa, but, on the
+murder of Cavagnari at Kabul, returned to India. In 1880 he succeeded
+Wolseley in S.E. Africa as high commissioner and general commanding, and
+conducted the operations against the rebel Boers. He was defeated at
+Laing's Nek and at the Ingogo river, and killed at Majuba Hill on the
+27th of February 1881. He had a very high reputation not only for a
+theoretical knowledge of military affairs, but also as a practical
+soldier.
+
+  See _Life of Sir George Pomeroy Colley_ by Lieut.-Gen. Sir W. F.
+  Butler (London, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+COLLIER, ARTHUR (1680-1732), English philosopher, was born at the
+rectory of Steeple Langford, Wiltshire, on the 12th of October 1680. He
+entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, in July 1697, but in October 1698
+he and his brother William became members of Balliol. His father having
+died in 1697, it was arranged that the family living of Langford Magna
+should be given to Arthur as soon as he was old enough. He was presented
+to the benefice in 1704, and held it till his death. His sermons show no
+traces of his bold theological speculations, and he seems to have been
+faithful in the discharge of his duty. He was often in pecuniary
+difficulties, from which at last he was obliged to free himself by
+selling the reversion of Langford rectory to Corpus Christi College,
+Oxford. His philosophical opinions grew out of a diligent study of
+Descartes and Malebranche. John Norris of Bemerton also strongly
+influenced him by his _Essay on the Ideal World_ (1701-1704). It is
+remarkable that Collier makes no reference to Locke, and shows no sign
+of having any knowledge of his works. As early as 1703 he seems to have
+become convinced of the non-existence of an external world. In 1712 he
+wrote two essays, which are still in manuscript, one on substance and
+accident, and the other called _Clavis Philosophica_. His chief work
+appeared in 1713, under the title _Clavis Universalis_, or a _New
+Inquiry after Truth_, being a _Demonstration of the Non-Existence or
+Impossibility of an External World_ (printed privately, Edinburgh, 1836,
+and reprinted in _Metaphysical Tracts_, 1837, edited by Sam. Parr). It
+was favourably mentioned by Reid, Stewart and others, was frequently
+referred to by the Leibnitzians, and was translated into German by von
+Eschenbach in 1756. Berkeley's _Principles of Knowledge_ and _Theory of
+Vision_ preceded it by three and four years respectively, but there is
+no evidence that they were known to Collier before the publication of
+his book.
+
+  His views are grounded on two presuppositions:--first, the utter
+  aversion of common sense to any theory of representative perception;
+  second, the opinion which Collier held in common with Berkeley, and
+  Hume afterwards, that the difference between imagination and sense
+  perception is only one of degree. The former is the basis of the
+  negative part of his argument; the latter supplies him with all the
+  positive account he has to give, and that is meagre enough. The
+  _Clavis_ consists of two parts. After explaining that he will use the
+  term "external world" in the sense of absolute, self-existent,
+  independent matter, he attempts in the first part to prove that the
+  visible world is not external, by showing--first, that the seeming
+  externality of a visible object is no proof of real externality, and
+  second, that a visible object, as such, is not external. The image of
+  a centaur seems as much external to the mind as any object of sense;
+  and since the difference between imagination and perception is only
+  one of degree, God could so act upon the mind of a person imagining a
+  centaur, that he would perceive it as vividly as any object can be
+  seen. Similar illustrations are used to prove the second proposition,
+  that a visible object, as such, is not external. The first part ends
+  with a reply to objections based on the universal consent of men, on
+  the assurance given by touch of the extra existence of the visible
+  world, and on the truth and goodness of God (Descartes), which would
+  be impugned if our senses deceived us. Collier argues naively that if
+  universal consent means the consent of those who have considered the
+  subject, it may be claimed for his view. He thinks with Berkeley that
+  objects of sight are quite distinct from those of touch, and that the
+  one therefore cannot give any assurance of the other; and he asks the
+  Cartesians to consider how far God's truth and goodness are called in
+  question by their denial of the externality of the secondary
+  qualities. The second part of the book is taken up with a number of
+  metaphysical arguments to prove the impossibility of an external
+  world. The pivot of this part is the logical principle of
+  contradiction. From the hypothesis of an external world a series of
+  contradictions are deduced, such as that the world is both finite and
+  infinite, is movable and immovable, &c.; and finally, Aristotle and
+  various other philosophers are quoted, to show that the external
+  matter they dealt with, as mere potentiality, is just nothing at all.
+  Among other uses and consequences of his treatise, Collier thinks it
+  furnishes an easy refutation of the Romish doctrine of
+  transubstantiation. If there is no external world, the distinction
+  between substance and accidents vanishes, and these become the sole
+  essence of material objects, so that there is no room for any change
+  whilst they remain as before. Sir William Hamilton thinks that the
+  logically necessary advance from the old theory of representative
+  perception to idealism was stayed by anxiety to save this miracle of
+  the church; and he gives Collier credit for being the first to make
+  the discovery.
+
+  His _Clavis Universalis_ is interesting on account of the resemblance
+  between its views and those of Berkeley. Both were moved by their
+  dissatisfaction with the theory of representative perception. Both
+  have the feeling that it is inconsistent with the common sense of
+  mankind, which will insist that the very object perceived is the sole
+  reality. They equally affirm that the so-called representative image
+  is the sole reality, and discard as unthinkable the unperceiving
+  material cause of the philosophers. Of objects of sense, they say,
+  their _esse_ is _percipi_. But Collier never got beyond a bald
+  assertion of the fact, while Berkeley addressed himself to an
+  explanation of it. The thought of a distinction between direct and
+  indirect perception never dawned upon Collier. To the question how all
+  matter exists in dependence on percipient mind his only reply is,
+  "Just how my reader pleases, provided it be somehow." As cause of our
+  sensations and ground of our belief in externality, he substituted for
+  an unintelligible material substance an equally unintelligible
+  operation of divine power. His book exhibits no traces of a scientific
+  development. The most that can be said about him is that he was an
+  intelligent student of Descartes and Malebranche, and had the ability
+  to apply the results of his reading to the facts of his experience. In
+  philosophy he is a curiosity, and nothing more. His biographer
+  attributes the comparative failure of the _Clavis_ to its inferiority
+  in point of style, but the crudeness of his thought had quite as much
+  to do with his failure to gain a hearing. Hamilton (_Discussions_, p.
+  197) allows greater sagacity to Collier than to Berkeley, on the
+  ground that he did not vainly attempt to enlist men's natural belief
+  against the hypothetical realism of the philosophers. But Collier did
+  so as far as his light enabled him. He appealed to the popular
+  conviction that the proper object of sense is the sole reality,
+  although he despaired of getting men to give up their belief in its
+  externality, and asserted that nothing but prejudice prevented them
+  from doing so; and there is little doubt that, if it had ever occurred
+  to him, as it did to Berkeley, to explain the genesis of the notion of
+  externality, he would have been more hopeful of commending his theory
+  to the popular mind.
+
+  In theology Collier was an adherent of the High Church party, though
+  his views were by no means orthodox. In the Jacobite _Mist's Journal_
+  he attacked Bishop Hoadly's defence of sincere errors. His views on
+  the problems of Arianism, and his attempt to reconcile it with
+  orthodox theology, are contained in _A Specimen of True Philosophy_
+  (1730, reprinted in _Metaphysical Tracts_, 1837) and _Logology, or a
+  Treatise on the Logos in Seven Sermons on John i. 1, 2, 3, 14_ (1732,
+  analysed in _Metaph. Tracts_). These may be compared with Berkeley's
+  _Siris_.
+
+  See Robt. Benson, _Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Arthur Collier_
+  (1837); Tennemann, _History of Philosophy_; Hamilton, _Discussions_;
+  A. C. Fraser, edition of _Berkeley's Works_; G. Lyon, "Un Idealiste
+  anglais au XVIII. siecle," in _Rev. philos._ (1880), x. 375.
+
+
+
+
+COLLIER, JEREMY (1650-1726), English nonjuring divine, was born at
+Stow-with-Quy, Cambridgeshire, on the 23rd of September 1650. He was
+educated at Ipswich free school, over which his father presided, and at
+Caius College, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1673 and M.A. in 1676. He
+acted for a short time as a private chaplain, but was appointed in 1679
+to the small rectory of Ampton, near Bury St Edmunds, and in 1685 he was
+made lecturer of Gray's Inn.
+
+At the Revolution he was committed to Newgate for writing in favour of
+James II. a tract entitled _The Desertion discuss'd in a Letter to a
+Country Gentleman_ (1688), in answer to Bishop Burnet's defence of King
+William's position. He was released after some months of imprisonment,
+without trial, by the intervention of his friends. In the two following
+years he continued to harass the government by his publications: and in
+1692 he was again in prison under suspicion of treasonable
+correspondence with James. His scruples forbade him to acknowledge the
+jurisdiction of the court by accepting bail, but he was soon released.
+But in 1696 for his boldness in granting absolution on the scaffold to
+Sir John Friend and Sir William Parkyns, who had attempted the
+assassination of William, he was obliged to flee, and for the rest of
+his life continued under sentence of outlawry.
+
+When the storm had blown over he returned to London, and employed his
+leisure in works which were less political in their tone. In 1697
+appeared the first volume of his _Essays on Several Moral Subjects_, to
+which a second was added in 1705, and a third in 1709. The first series
+contained six essays, the most notable being that "On the office of a
+Chaplain," which throws much light on the position of a large section of
+the clergy at that time. Collier deprecated the extent of the authority
+assumed by the patron and the servility of the poorer clergy.
+
+In 1698 Collier produced his famous _Short View of the Immorality and
+Profaneness of the English Stage..._. He dealt with the immodesty of the
+contemporary stage, supporting his contentions by a long series of
+references attesting the comparative decency of Latin and Greek drama;
+with the profane language indulged in by the players; the abuse of the
+clergy common in the drama; the encouragement of vice by representing
+the vicious characters as admirable and successful; and finally he
+supported his general position by the analysis of particular plays,
+Dryden's _Amphitryon_, Vanbrugh's _Relapse_ and D'Urfey's _Don Quixote_.
+The Book abounds in hypercriticism, particularly in the imputation of
+profanity; and in a useless display of learning, neither intrinsically
+valuable nor conducive to the argument. He had no artistic appreciation
+of the subject he discussed, and he mistook cause for effect in
+asserting that the decline in public morality was due to the flagrant
+indecency of the stage. Yet, in the words of Macaulay, who gives an
+admirable account of the discussion in his essay on the comic dramatists
+of the Restoration, "when all deductions have been made, great merit
+must be allowed to the work." Dryden acknowledged, in the preface to his
+_Fables_, the justice of Collier's strictures, though he protested
+against the manner of the onslaught;[1] but Congreve made an angry
+reply; Vanbrugh and others followed. Collier was prepared to meet any
+number of antagonists, and defended himself in numerous tracts. _The
+Short View_ was followed by a _Defence_ (1699), a _Second Defence_
+(1700), and _Mr Collier's Dissuasive from the Playhouse, in a Letter to
+a Person of Quality_ (1703), and a _Further Vindication_ (1708). The
+fight lasted in all some ten years; but Collier had right on his side,
+and triumphed; his position was, moreover, strengthened by the fact that
+he was known as a Troy and high churchman, and that his attack could
+not, therefore, be assigned to Puritan rancour against the stage.
+
+From 1701 to 1721 Collier was employed on his _Great Historical,
+Geographical, Genealogical and Poetical Dictionary_, founded on, and
+partly translated from, Louis Moreri's _Dictionnaire historique_, and in
+the compilation and issue of the two volumes folio of his own
+_Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain from the first planting of
+Christianity to the end of the reign of Charles II_. (1708-1714). The
+latter work was attacked by Burnet and others, but the author showed
+himself as keen a controversialist as ever. Many attempts were made to
+shake his fidelity to the lost cause of the Stuarts, but he continued
+indomitable to the end. In 1712 George Hickes was the only survivor of
+the nonjuring bishops, and in the next year Collier was consecrated. He
+had a share in an attempt made towards union with the Greek Church. He
+had a long correspondence with the Eastern authorities, his last letters
+on the subject being written in 1725. Collier preferred the version of
+the _Book of Common Prayer_ issued in 1549, and regretted that certain
+practices and petitions there enjoined were omitted in later editions.
+His first tract on the subject, _Reasons for Restoring some Prayers_
+(1717), was followed by others. In 1718 was published a new _Communion
+Office taken partly from Primitive Liturgies and partly from the first
+English Reformed Common Prayer Book,..._ which embodied the changes
+desired by Collier. The controversy that ensued made a split in the
+nonjuring communion. His last work was a volume of _Practical
+Discourses_, published in 1725. He died on the 26th of April 1726.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There is an excellent account of Collier in A. Kippis's
+  _Biographia Britannica_, vol. iv. (1789), where some sensible
+  observations by the editor are added to the original biography. A full
+  list of Collier's writings is given by the Rev. Wm. Hunt in the
+  article in the _Dictionary of National Biography_. For particulars of
+  Collier's history as a nonjuring bishop, see Thomas Lathbury, _A
+  History of the Nonjurors ..._ (1845). There is an excellent account of
+  the _Short View_ and the controversy arising from it in A. Beljame's
+  _Le Public et les hommes de lettres en Angleterre au XVIIIe siecle_
+  (2nd ed., 1897), pp. 244-263.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "He is too much given to horse-play in his raillery, and comes to
+    battle like a dictator from the plough. I will not say, 'the zeal of
+    God's house has eaten him up'; but I am sure it has devoured some
+    part of his good manners and civility." (Dryden, _Works_, ed. Scott,
+    xi. 239).
+
+
+
+
+COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE (1789-1883), English Shakespearian critic, was born
+in London, on the 11th of January 1789. His father, John Dyer Collier
+(1762-1825), was a successful journalist, and his connexion with the
+press obtained for his son a position on the _Morning Chronicle_ as
+leader writer, dramatic critic and reporter, which continued till 1847;
+he was also for some time a reporter for _The Times_. He was summoned
+before the House of Commons in 1819 for giving an incorrect report of a
+speech by Joseph Hume. He entered the Middle Temple in 1811, but was not
+called to the bar until 1829. The delay was partly due to his
+indiscretion in publishing the _Criticisms on the Bar_ (1819) by "Amicus
+Curiae." His leisure was given to the study of Shakespeare and the early
+English drama. After some minor publications he produced in 1825-1827 a
+new edition of Dodsley's _Old Plays_, and in 1833 a supplementary volume
+entitled _Five Old Plays_. In 1831 appeared his _History of English
+Dramatic Poetry and Annals of the Stage to the Restoration_, a badly
+arranged, but valuable work. It obtained for him the post of librarian
+to the duke of Devonshire, and, subsequently, access to the chief
+collections of early English literature throughout the kingdom,
+especially to the treasures of Bridgwater House. These opportunities
+were unhappily misused to effect a series of literary fabrications,
+which may be charitably, and perhaps not unjustly, attributed to
+literary monomania, but of which it is difficult to speak with patience,
+so completely did they for a long time bewilder the chronology of
+Shakespeare's writings, and such suspicion have they thrown upon MS.
+evidence in general. After _New Facts_, _New Particulars_ and _Further
+Particulars_ respecting Shakespeare had appeared and passed muster,
+Collier produced (1852) the famous _Perkins Folio_, a copy of the second
+folio (1632), so called from a name written on the title-page. On this
+book were numerous MS. emendations of Shakespeare said by Collier to be
+from the hand of "an old corrector." He published these corrections as
+_Notes and Emendations to the Text of Shakespeare_ (1852), and boldly
+incorporated them in his edition (1853) of Shakespeare. Their
+authenticity was disputed by S. W. Singer in _The Text of Shakespeare
+Vindicated_ (1853) and by E. A. Brae in _Literary Cookery_ (1855) on
+internal evidence; and when in 1859 the folio was submitted by its
+owner, the duke of Devonshire, to experts at the British Museum, the
+emendations were incontestably proved to be forgeries of modern date.
+Collier was exposed by Mr Nicholas Hamilton in his _Inquiry_ (1860). The
+point whether he was deceiver or deceived was left undecided, but the
+falsifications of which he was unquestionably guilty among the MSS. at
+Dulwich College have left little doubt respecting it. He had produced
+the _Memoirs of Edward Alleyn_ for the Shakespeare Society in 1841. He
+followed up this volume with the _Alleyn Papers_ (1843) and the _Diary
+of P. Henslowe_ (1845). He forged the name of Shakespeare in a genuine
+letter at Dulwich, and the spurious entries in Alleyn's _Diary_ were
+proved to be by Collier's hand when the sale of his library in 1884 gave
+access to a transcript he had made of the _Diary_ with interlineations
+corresponding with the Dulwich forgeries. No statement of his can be
+accepted without verification, and no manuscript he has handled without
+careful examination, but he did much useful work. He compiled a valuable
+_Bibliographical and Critical Account of the Rarest Books in the English
+Language_ (1865); he reprinted a great number of early English tracts of
+extreme rarity, and rendered good service to the numerous antiquarian
+societies with which he was connected, especially in the editions he
+produced for the Camden Society and the Percy Society. His _Old Man's
+Diary_ (1871-1872) is an interesting record, though even here the taint
+of fabrication is not absent. Unfortunately what he did amiss is more
+striking to the imagination than what he did aright, and he will be
+chiefly remembered by it. He died at Maidenhead, where he had long
+resided, on the 17th of September 1883.
+
+  For an account of the discussion raised by Collier's emendations see
+  C.M. Ingleby, _Complete View of the Shakespeare Controversy_ (1861).
+
+
+
+
+COLLIN, HEINRICH JOSEPH VON (1771-1811), Austrian dramatist, was born in
+Vienna, on the 26th of December 1771. He received a legal education and
+entered the Austrian ministry of finance where he found speedy
+promotion. In 1805 and in 1809, when Austria was under the heel of
+Napoleon, Collin was entrusted with important political missions. In
+1803 he was, together with other members of his family, ennobled, and in
+1809 made _Hofrat_. He died on the 28th of July 1811. His tragedy
+_Regulus_ (1801), written in strict classical form, was received with
+enthusiasm in Vienna, where literary taste, less advanced than that of
+North Germany, was still under the ban of French classicism. But in his
+later dramas, _Coriolan_ (1804), _Polyxena_ (1804), _Balboa_ (1806),
+_Bianca della Porta_ (1808), he made some attempt to reconcile the
+pseudo-classic type of tragedy with that of Shakespeare and the German
+romanticists. As a lyric poet (_Gedichte_, collected 1812), Collin has
+left a collection of stirring _Wehrmannslieder_ for the fighters in the
+cause of Austrian freedom, as well as some excellent ballads (_Kaiser
+Max auf der Martinswand_, _Herzog Leupold vor Solothurn_). His younger
+brother Matthaus von Collin (1779-1824), was, as editor of the _Wiener
+Jahrbucher fur Literatur_, an even more potent force in the literary
+life of Vienna. He was, moreover, in sympathy with the Romantic
+movement, and intimate with its leaders. His dramas on themes from
+Austrian national history (_Belas Krieg mit dem Vater_, 1808, _Der Tod
+Friedrichs des Streitbaren_, 1813) may be regarded as the immediate
+precursors of Grillparzer's historical tragedies.
+
+  His _Gesammelte Werke_ appeared in 6 vols. (1812-1814); he is the
+  subject of an excellent monograph by F. Laban (1879). See also A.
+  Hauffen, _Das Drama der klassischen Periode_, ii. 2 (1891), where a
+  reprint of _Regulus_ will be found. M. von Collin's _Dramatische
+  Dichtungen_ were published in 4 vols. (1815-1817); his _Nachgelassene
+  Schriften_, edited by J. von Hammer, in 2 vols. (1827). A study of his
+  life and work by J. Wihan will be found in _Euphorion_,
+  Erganzungsheft, v. (1901).
+
+
+
+
+COLLIN D'HARLEVILLE, JEAN FRANCOIS (1755-1806), French dramatist, was
+born at Mevoisins, near Maintenon (Eure-et-Loire), on the 30th of May
+1755. His first dramatic success was _L'Inconstant_, a comedy accepted
+by the Comedie Francaise in 1780, but not produced there until six years
+later, though it was played elsewhere in 1784. This was followed by
+_L'Optimiste, ou l'homme toujours content_ (1788), and _Chateaux en
+Espagne_ (1789). His best play, _Le Vieux Celibataire_, appeared in
+1793. Among his other plays are--the one-act comedy _Monsieur de Crac
+dans son petit castel_ (1791), _Les Artistes_ (1796), _Les Moeurs du
+jour_ (1800) and _Malice pour malice_ (1803). Collin was one of the
+original members of the Institute of France, and died in Paris on the
+24th of February 1806.
+
+  The 1822 edition of his _Theatre et poesies fugitives_ contains a
+  notice by his friend the dramatist Andrieux. His _Theatre_ was also
+  edited by L. Moland in 1876; and by Edouard Thierry in 1882.
+
+
+
+
+COLLING, ROBERT (1749-1820), and CHARLES (1751-1836), English stock
+breeders, famous for their improvement of the Shorthorn breed of cattle,
+were the sons of Charles Colling, a farmer of Ketton near Darlington.
+Their lives are closely connected with the history of the Shorthorn
+breed. Of the two brothers, Charles is probably the better known, and it
+was his visit to the farm of Robert Bakewell at Dishley that first led
+the brothers to realize the possibilities of scientific cattle breeding.
+Charles succeeded to his father's farm at Ketton. Robert, after being
+first apprenticed to a grocer in Shields, took a farm at Barmpton. An
+animal which he bought at Charles's advice for L8 and afterwards sold to
+his brother, became known as the celebrated "Hubback," a bull which
+formed the basis of both the Ketton and Barmpton herds. The two brothers
+pursued the same system of "in and in" breeding which they had learned
+from Bakewell, and both the Ketton and the Barmpton herds were sold by
+auction in the autumn of 1810. The former with 47 lots brought L7116,
+and the latter with 61 lots L7852. Robert Colling died unmarried at
+Barmpton on the 7th of March 1820, leaving his property to his brother.
+Charles Colling, who is remembered as the owner of the famous bulls
+"Hubback," "Favourite" and "Comet," was more of a specialist and a
+business man than his brother. He died on the 16th of January 1836.
+
+  See the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1899, for a
+  biographical sketch of the brothers Colling, by C. J. Bates.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINGWOOD, CUTHBERT COLLINGWOOD, BARON (1750-1810), British naval
+commander, was born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, on the 26th of September
+1750. He was early sent to school; and when only eleven years of age he
+was put on board the "Shannon," then under the command of Captain
+(afterwards Admiral) Brathwaite, a relative of his own, to whose care
+and attention he was in a great measure indebted for that nautical
+knowledge which shone forth so conspicuously in his subsequent career.
+After serving under Captain Brathwaite for some years, and also under
+Admiral Roddam, he went in 1774 to Boston with Admiral Graves, and
+served in the naval brigade at the battle of Bunker Hill (17th of June
+1775), where he gained his lieutenancy. In 1779 he was made commander of
+the "Badger," and shortly afterwards post-captain of the "Hinchinbroke,"
+a small frigate. In the spring of 1780 that vessel, under the command of
+Nelson, was employed upon an expedition to the Spanish Main, where it
+was proposed to pass into the Pacific by navigating boats along the
+river San Juan and the lakes Nicaragua and Leon. The attempt failed, and
+most of those engaged in it became victims to the deadly influence of
+the climate. Nelson was promoted to a larger vessel, and Collingwood
+succeeded him in the command. It is a fact worthy of record that the
+latter succeeded the former very frequently from the time when they
+first became acquainted, until the star of Nelson set at
+Trafalgar--giving place to that of Collingwood, less brilliant
+certainly, but not less steady in its lustre.
+
+After commanding in another small frigate, Collingwood was promoted to
+the "Sampson" (64); and in 1783 he was appointed to the "Mediator,"
+destined for the West Indies, where, with Nelson, who had a command on
+that station, he remained till the end of 1786. With Nelson he warmly
+co-operated in carrying into execution the provisions of the navigation
+laws, which had been infringed by the United States, whose ships,
+notwithstanding the separation of the countries, continued to trade to
+the West Indies, although that privilege was by law exclusively confined
+to British vessels. In 1786 Collingwood returned to England, where, with
+the exception of a voyage to the West Indies, he remained until 1793, in
+which year he was appointed captain of the "Prince," the flag-ship of
+Rear-Admiral Bowyer. About two years previous to this event he had
+married Miss Sarah Roddam--a fortunate alliance, which continued to be
+a solace to him amidst the privations to which the life of a seaman must
+ever be subject.
+
+As captain of the "Barfleur," Collingwood was present at the naval
+engagement which was fought on the 1st of June 1794; and on that
+occasion he displayed equal judgment and courage. On board the
+"Excellent" he shared in the victory of the 14th of February 1797, when
+Sir John Jervis (Lord St Vincent) humbled the Spanish fleet off Cape St
+Vincent. His conduct in this engagement was the theme of universal
+admiration throughout the fleet, and greatly advanced his fame as a
+naval officer. After blockading Cadiz for some time, he returned for a
+few weeks to Portsmouth to repair. In the beginning of 1799 Collingwood
+was raised to the rank of vice-admiral, and hoisting his flag in the
+"Triumph," he joined the Channel Fleet, with which he proceeded to the
+Mediterranean, where the principal naval forces of France and Spain were
+assembled. Collingwood continued actively employed in watching the
+enemy, until the peace of Amiens restored him once more to the bosom of
+his family.
+
+The domestic repose, however, which he so highly relished, was cut short
+by the recommencement of hostilities with France, and in the spring of
+1803 he quitted the home to which he was never again to return. The duty
+upon which he was employed was that of watching the French fleet off
+Brest, and in the discharge of it he displayed the most unwearied
+vigilance. Nearly two years were spent in this employment; but Napoleon
+had at length matured his plans and equipped his armament, and the grand
+struggle which was to decide the fate of Europe and the dominion of the
+sea was close at hand. The enemy's fleet having sailed from Toulon,
+Admiral Collingwood was appointed to the command of a squadron, with
+orders to pursue them. The combined fleets of France and Spain, after
+spreading terror throughout the West Indies, returned to Cadiz. On their
+way thither they bore down upon Admiral Collingwood, who had only three
+vessels with him; but he succeeded in eluding the pursuit, although
+chased by sixteen ships of the line. Ere one-half of the enemy had
+entered the harbour he drew up before it and resumed the blockade, at
+the same time employing an ingenious artifice to conceal the inferiority
+of his force. But the combined fleet was at last compelled to quit
+Cadiz; and the battle of Trafalgar immediately followed. The brilliant
+conduct of Admiral Collingwood upon this occasion has been much and
+justly applauded. The French admiral drew up his fleet in the form of a
+crescent, and in a double line, every alternate ship being about a
+cable's length to windward of her second, both ahead and astern. The
+British fleet bore down upon this formidable and skilfully arranged
+armament in two separate lines, the one led by Nelson in the "Victory,"
+and the other by Collingwood in the "Royal Sovereign." The latter vessel
+was the swifter sailer, and having shot considerably ahead of the rest
+of the fleet, was the first engaged. "See," said Nelson, pointing to the
+"Royal Sovereign" as she penetrated the centre of the enemy's line, "see
+how that noble fellow Collingwood carries his ship into action!"
+Probably it was at the same instant that Collingwood, as if in response
+to the observation of his great commander, remarked to his captain,
+"What would Nelson give to be here?" The consummate valour and skill
+evinced by Collingwood had a powerful moral influence upon both fleets.
+It was with the Spanish admiral's ship that the "Royal Sovereign"
+closed; and with such rapidity and precision did she pour in her
+broadsides upon the "Santa Anna," that the latter was on the eve of
+striking in the midst of thirty-three sail of the line, and almost
+before another British ship had fired a gun. Several other vessels,
+however, seeing the imminent peril of the Spanish flag-ship, came to her
+assistance, and hemmed in the "Royal Sovereign" on all sides; but the
+latter, after suffering severely, was relieved by the arrival of the
+rest of the British squadron; and not long afterwards the "Santa Anna"
+struck her colours. The result of the battle of Trafalgar, and the
+expense at which it was purchased, are well known. On the death of
+Nelson, Collingwood assumed the supreme command; and by his skill and
+judgment greatly contributed to the preservation of the British ships,
+as well as of those which were captured from the enemy. He was raised to
+the peerage as Baron Collingwood of Coldburne and Heathpool, and
+received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament, with a pension of
+L2000 per annum.
+
+From this period until the death of Lord Collingwood no great naval
+action was fought; but he was much occupied in important political
+transactions, in which he displayed remarkable tact and judgment. Being
+appointed to the command of the Mediterranean fleet, he continued to
+cruise about, keeping a watchful eye upon the movements of the enemy.
+His health, however, which had begun to decline previously to the action
+of Trafalgar in 1805, seemed entirely to give way, and he repeatedly
+requested government to be relieved of his command, that he might return
+home; but he was urgently requested to remain, on the ground that his
+country could not dispense with his services. This conduct has been
+regarded as harsh; but the good sense and political sagacity which he
+displayed afford some palliation of the conduct of the government; and
+the high estimation in which he was held is proved by the circumstance
+that among the many able admirals, equal in rank and duration of
+service, none stood so prominently forward as to command the confidence
+of ministers and of the country to the same extent as he did. After many
+fruitless attempts to induce the enemy to put to sea, as well as to fall
+in with them when they had done so (which circumstance materially
+contributed to hasten his death), he expired on board the "Ville de
+Paris," then lying off Port Mahon, on the 7th of March 1810.
+
+Lord Collingwood's merits as a naval officer were in every respect of
+the first order. In original genius and romantic daring he was inferior
+to Nelson, who indeed had no equal in an age fertile in great
+commanders. In seamanship, in general talent, and in reasoning upon the
+probability of events from a number of conflicting and ambiguous
+statements, Collingwood was equal to the hero of the Nile; indeed, many
+who were familiar with both give him the palm of superiority. His
+political penetration was remarkable; and so high was the opinion
+generally entertained of his judgment, that he was consulted in all
+quarters, and on all occasions, upon questions of general policy, of
+regulation, and even of trade. He was distinguished for benevolence and
+generosity; his acts of charity were frequent and bountiful, and the
+petition of real distress was never rejected by him. He was an enemy to
+impressment and to flogging; and so kind was he to his crew, that he
+obtained amongst them the honourable name of father. Between Nelson and
+Collingwood a close intimacy subsisted, from their first acquaintance in
+early life till the fall of the former at Trafalgar; and they lie side
+by side in the cathedral of St Paul's.
+
+  The selections from the public and private correspondence of Lord
+  Collingwood, published in 2 vols., 8vo, in 1828, contain some of the
+  best specimens of letter-writing in the language. See also _A Fine Old
+  English Gentleman exemplified in the Life and Character of Lord
+  Collingwood, a Biographical Study_, by William Davies (London, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+COLLINGWOOD, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia, suburban to
+Melbourne on the N.E., on the Yarra Yarra river. Pop. (1901) 32,766. It
+was the first town in Victoria incorporated after Melbourne and Geelong.
+It is esteemed one of the healthiest of the metropolitan suburbs.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINGWOOD, a town of Simcoe county, Ontario, Canada, 90 m. N.N.W. of
+Toronto, on Georgian Bay, and on the Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901)
+5755. It is the eastern terminus of two lines of steamers for the ports
+of Lakes Huron and Superior. It contains a large stone dry-dock and
+shipyard, pork factory, and saw and planing mills, and has a large
+lumber, grain and produce export trade, besides a shipbuilding plant and
+steel works.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, ANTHONY (1676-1729), English deist, was born at Heston, near
+Hounslow in Middlesex, on the 21st of June 1676. He was educated at Eton
+and King's College, Cambridge, and was for some time a student at the
+Middle Temple. The most interesting episode of his life was his intimacy
+with Locke, who in his letters speaks of him with affection and
+admiration. In 1715 he settled in Essex, where he held the offices of
+justice of the peace and deputy-lieutenant, which he had before held in
+Middlesex. He died at his house in Harley Street, London, on the 13th
+of December 1729.
+
+His writings are important as gathering together the results of previous
+English Freethinkers. The imperturbable courtesy of his style is in
+striking contrast to the violence of his opponents; and it must be
+remembered that, in spite of his unorthodoxy, he was not an atheist or
+even an agnostic. In his own words, "Ignorance is the foundation of
+atheism, and freethinking the cure of it" (_Discourse of Freethinking_,
+105).
+
+His first work of note was his _Essay concerning the Use of Reason in
+Propositions the Evidence whereof depends on Human Testimony_ (1707), in
+which he rejected the distinction between _above_ reason and _contrary
+to_ reason, and demanded that revelation should conform to man's natural
+ideas of God. Like all his works, it was published anonymously, although
+the identity of the author was never long concealed. Six years later
+appeared his chief work, _A Discourse of Freethinking, occasioned by the
+Rise and Growth of a Sect called Freethinkers_ (1713). Notwithstanding
+the ambiguity of its title, and the fact that it attacks the priests of
+all churches without moderation, it contends for the most part, at least
+explicitly, for no more than must be admitted by every Protestant.
+Freethinking is a right which cannot and must not be limited, for it is
+the only means of attaining to a knowledge of truth, it essentially
+contributes to the well-being of society, and it is not only permitted
+but enjoined by the Bible. In fact the first introduction of
+Christianity and the success of all missionary enterprise involve
+freethinking (in its etymological sense) on the part of those converted.
+In England this essay, which was regarded and treated as a plea for
+deism, made a great sensation, calling forth several replies, among
+others from William Whiston, Bishop Hare, Bishop Hoadly, and Richard
+Bentley, who, under the signature of _Phileleutherus Lipsiensis_,
+roughly handles certain arguments carelessly expressed by Collins, but
+triumphs chiefly by an attack on trivial points of scholarship, his own
+pamphlet being by no means faultless in this very respect. Swift also,
+being satirically referred to in the book, made it the subject of a
+caricature.
+
+In 1724 Collins published his _Discourse of the Grounds and Reasons of
+the Christian Religion_, with _An Apology for Free Debate and Liberty of
+Writing_ prefixed. Ostensibly it is written in opposition to Whiston's
+attempt to show that the books of the Old Testament did originally
+contain prophecies of events in the New Testament story, but that these
+had been eliminated or corrupted by the Jews, and to prove that the
+fulfilment of prophecy by the events of Christ's life is all "secondary,
+secret, allegorical, and mystical," since the original and literal
+reference is always to some other fact. Since, further, according to him
+the fulfilment of prophecy is the only valid proof of Christianity, he
+thus secretly aims a blow at Christianity as a revelation. The
+canonicity of the New Testament he ventures openly to deny, on the
+ground that the canon could be fixed only by men who were inspired. No
+less than thirty-five answers were directed against this book, the most
+noteworthy of which were those of Bishop Edward Chandler, Arthur Sykes
+and Samuel Clarke. To these, but with special reference to the work of
+Chandler, which maintained that a number of prophecies were literally
+fulfilled in Christ, Collins replied by his _Scheme of Literal Prophecy
+Considered_ (1727). An appendix contends against Whiston that the book
+of _Daniel_ was forged in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes (see DEISM).
+
+In philosophy, Collins takes a foremost place as a defender of
+Necessitarianism. His brief _Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty_ (1715)
+has not been excelled, at all events in its main outlines, as a
+statement of the determinist standpoint. One of his arguments, however,
+calls for special criticism,--his assertion that it is self-evident that
+nothing that has a beginning can be without a cause is an unwarranted
+assumption of the very point at issue. He was attacked in an elaborate
+treatise by Samuel Clarke, in whose system the freedom of the will is
+made essential to religion and morality. During Clarke's lifetime,
+fearing perhaps to be branded as an enemy of religion and morality,
+Collins made no reply, but in 1729 he published an answer, entitled
+_Liberty and Necessity_.
+
+Besides these works he wrote _A Letter to Mr Dodwell_, arguing that it is
+conceivable that the soul may be material, and, secondly, that if the soul
+be immaterial it does not follow, as Clarke had contended, that it is
+immortal; _Vindication of the Divine Attributes_ (1710); _Priestcraft in
+Perfection_ (1709), in which he asserts that the clause "the Church ...
+Faith" in the twentieth of the Thirty-nine Articles was inserted by fraud.
+
+  See Kippis, _Biographia Britannica_; G. Lechler, _Geschichte des
+  englischen Deismus_ (1841); J. Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_,
+  ii. (1871); Leslie Stephen, _English Thought in the 18th Century_, i.
+  (1881); A. W. Benn, _Hist. of English Rationalism in the 19th Century_
+  (London, 1906), vol. i. ch. iii.; J. M. Robertson, _Short History of
+  Freethought_ (London, 1906); and Deism.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, JOHN CHURTON (1848-1908), English literary critic, was born on
+the 26th of March 1848 at Bourton on the Water, Gloucestershire. From
+King Edward's school, Birmingham, he went to Balliol College, Oxford,
+where he graduated in 1872, and at once devoted himself to a literary
+career, as journalist, essayist and lecturer. His first book was a study
+of Sir Joshua Reynolds (1874), and later he edited various classical
+English writers, and published volumes on _Bolingbroke and Voltaire in
+England_ (1886), a _Study of English Literature_ (1891), a study of
+_Dean Swift_ (1893), _Essays and Studies_ (1895), _Ephemera Critica_
+(1901), _Essays in Poetry and Criticism_ (1905), and _Rousseau and
+Voltaire_ (1908), his original essays being sharply controversial in
+tone, but full of knowledge. In 1904 he became professor of English
+literature at Birmingham University. For many years he was a prominent
+University Extension lecturer, and a constant contributor to the
+principal reviews. On the 15th of September 1908 he was found dead in a
+ditch near Lowestoft, at which place he had been staying with a doctor
+for the benefit of his health. The circumstances necessitated the
+holding of an inquest, the verdict being that of "accidental death."
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, MORTIMER (1827-1876), English writer, was born at Plymouth,
+where his father, Francis Collins, was a solicitor, on the 29th of June
+1827. He was educated at a private school, and after some years spent as
+mathematical master at Queen Elizabeth's College, Guernsey, he went to
+London, where he devoted himself to journalism in the Conservative
+interest. In 1855 he published his _Idyls and Rhymes_; and in 1865
+appeared his first story, _Who is the Heir?_ A second volume of lyrics,
+_The Inn of Strange Meetings_, was issued in 1871; and in 1872 he
+produced his longest and best sustained poem, _The British Birds, a
+communication from the Ghost of Aristophanes_. He also wrote several
+capital novels, the best of which is perhaps _Sweet Anne Page_ (1868).
+Some of his lyrics, in their light grace, their sparkling wit, their
+airy philosophy, are equal to anything of their kind in modern English.
+On his second marriage in 1868 he settled at Knowl Hill, Berkshire.
+Collins was an athlete, an excellent pedestrian, and an enthusiastic
+lover of country life; and from this time he rarely left his home for a
+day. Conservative in his political and literary tastes, an ardent
+upholder of Church and State, he was yet a hater of convention; and his
+many and very varied gifts endeared him to a large circle of friends. He
+died on the 28th of July 1876.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, WILLIAM (1721-1759), English poet, was born on the 25th of
+December 1721. He divides with Gray the glory of being the greatest
+English lyrist of the 18th century. After some childish studies in
+Chichester, of which his father, a rich hatter, was the mayor, he was
+sent, in January 1733, to Winchester College, where Whitehead and Joseph
+Warton were his school-fellows. When he had been nine months at the
+school, Pope paid Winchester a visit and proposed a subject for a prize
+poem; it is legitimate to suppose that the lofty forehead, the brisk
+dark eyes and gracious oval of the childish face, as we know it in the
+only portrait existing of Collins, did not escape the great man's
+notice, then not a little occupied with the composition of the _Essay on
+Man_.
+
+In 1734 the young poet published his first verses, in a sixpenny
+pamphlet on _The Royal Nuptials_, of which, however, no copy has come
+down to us; another poem, probably satiric, called _The Battle of the
+Schoolbooks_, was written about this time, and has also been lost. Fired
+by his poetic fellows to further feats in verse, Collins produced, in
+his seventeenth year, those _Persian Eclogues_ which were the only
+writings of his that were valued by the world during his own lifetime.
+They were not printed for some years, and meanwhile Collins sent, in
+January and October 1739, some verses to the _Gentleman's Magazine_,
+which attracted the notice and admiration of Johnson, then still young
+and uninfluential. In March 1740 he was admitted a commoner of Queen's
+College, Oxford, but did not go up to Oxford until July 1741, when he
+obtained a demyship at Magdalen College. At Oxford he continued his
+affectionate intimacy with the Wartons, and gained the friendship of
+Gilbert White. Early in 1742 the _Persian Eclogues_ appeared in London.
+They were four in number, and formed a modest pamphlet of not more than
+300 lines in all. In a later edition, of 1759, the title was changed to
+_Oriental Eclogues_. Those pieces may be compared with Victor Hugo's
+_Les Orientales_, to which, of course, they are greatly inferior.
+Considered with regard to the time at which they were produced, they are
+more than meritorious, even brilliant, and one at least--the second--can
+be read with enjoyment at the present day. The rest, perhaps, will be
+found somewhat artificial and effete.
+
+In November 1743 Collins was made bachelor of arts, and a few days after
+taking his degree published his second work, _Verses humbly addressed to
+Sir Thomas Hanmer_. This poem, written in heroic couplets, shows a great
+advance in individuality, and resembles, in its habit of personifying
+qualities of the mind, the riper lyrics of its author. For the rest, it
+is an enthusiastic review of poetry, culminating in a laudation of
+Shakespeare. It is supposed that he left Oxford abruptly in the summer
+of 1744 to attend his mother's death-bed, and did not return. He is said
+to have now visited an uncle in Flanders. His indolence, which had been
+no less marked at the university than his genius, combined with a fatal
+irresolution to make it extremely difficult to choose for him a path in
+life. The army and the church were successively suggested and rejected;
+and he finally arrived in London, bent on enjoying a small property as
+an independent man about town. He made the acquaintance of Johnson and
+others, and was urged by those friends to undertake various important
+writings--a _History of the Revival of Learning_, several tragedies, and
+a version of Aristotle's _Poetics_, among others--all of which he began
+but lacked force of will to continue. He soon squandered his means,
+plunged, with most disastrous effects, into profligate excesses, and
+sowed the seed of his untimely misfortune.
+
+It was at this time, however, that he composed his matchless
+_Odes_--twelve in number--which appeared on the 12th of December 1746,
+dated 1747. The original project was to have combined them with the odes
+of Joseph Warton, but the latter proved at that time to be the more
+marketable article. Collins's little volume fell dead from the press,
+but it won him the admiration and friendship of the poet Thomson, with
+whom, until the death of the latter in 1748, he lived on terms of
+affectionate intimacy. In 1749 Collins was raised beyond the fear of
+poverty by the death of his uncle, Colonel Martyn, who left him about
+L2000, and he left London to settle in his native city. He had hardly
+begun to taste the sweets of a life devoted to literature and quiet,
+before the weakness of his will began to develop in the direction of
+insanity, and he hurried abroad to attempt to dispel the gathering gloom
+by travel. In the interval he had published two short pieces of
+consummate grace and beauty--the _Elegy on Thomson_, in 1749, and the
+_Dirge in Cymbeline_, later in the same year. In the beginning of 1750
+he composed the _Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands_,
+which was dedicated to the author of _Douglas_, and not printed till
+long after the death of Collins, and an _Ode on the Music of the Grecian
+Theatre_, which no longer exists, and in which English literature
+probably has sustained a severe loss. With this poem his literary career
+closes, although he lingered in great misery for nearly nine years. From
+Gilbert White, who jotted down some pages of invaluable recollections of
+Collins in 1781, and from other friends, we learn that his madness was
+occasionally violent, and that he was confined for a time in an asylum
+at Oxford. But for the most part he resided at Chichester, suffering
+from extreme debility of body when the mind was clear, and incapable of
+any regular occupation. Music affected him in a singular manner, and it
+is recorded that he was wont to slip out into the cathedral cloisters
+during the services, and moan and howl in horrible accordance with the
+choir. In this miserable condition he passed out of sight of all his
+friends, and in 1756 it was supposed, even by Johnson, that he was dead;
+in point of fact, however, his sufferings did not cease until the 12th
+of June 1759. No journal or magazine recorded the death of the forgotten
+poet, though Goldsmith, only two months before, had begun the laudation
+which was soon to become universal.
+
+No English poet so great as Collins has left behind him so small a bulk
+of writings. Not more than 1500 lines of his have been handed down to
+us, but among these not one is slovenly, and few are poor. His odes are
+the most sculpturesque and faultless in the language. They lack fire,
+but in charm and precision of diction, exquisite propriety of form, and
+lofty poetic suggestion they stand unrivalled. The ode named _The
+Passions_ is the most popular; that _To Evening_ is the classical
+example of perfect unrhymed verse. In this, and the _Ode to Simplicity_,
+one seems to be handling an antique vase of matchless delicacy and
+elegance. In his descriptions of nature it is unquestionable that he
+owed something to the influence of Thomson. Distinction may be said to
+be the crowning grace of the style of Collins; its leading peculiarity
+is the incessant personification of some quality of the character. In
+the _Ode on Popular Superstitions_ he produced a still nobler work; this
+poem, the most considerable in size which has been preserved, contains
+passages which are beyond question unrivalled for rich melancholy
+fulness in the literature between Milton and Keats.
+
+  The life of Collins was written by Dr Johnson; he found an
+  enthusiastic editor in Dr Langhorne in 1765, and in 1858 a kindly
+  biographer in Mr Moy Thomas.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, WILLIAM (1787-1847), English painter, son of an Irish picture
+dealer and man of letters, the author of a _Life of George Morland_, was
+born in London. He studied under Etty in 1807, and in 1809 exhibited his
+first pictures of repute--"Boys at Breakfast," and "Boys with a Bird's
+Nest." In 1815 he was made associate of the Royal Academy, and was
+elected R. A. in 1820. For the next sixteen years he was a constant
+exhibitor; his fishermen, shrimp-catchers, boats and nets, stretches of
+coast and sand, and, above all, his rustic children were universally
+popular. Then, however, he went abroad on the advice of Wilkie, and for
+two years (1837-1838) studied the life, manners and scenery of Italy. In
+1839 he exhibited the first fruits of this journey; and in 1840, in
+which year he was appointed librarian to the Academy, he made his first
+appearance as a painter of history. In 1842 he returned to his early
+manner and choice of subject, and during the last years of life enjoyed
+greater popularity than ever. Collins was a good colourist and an
+excellent draughtsman. His earlier pictures are deficient in breadth and
+force, but his later work, though also carefully executed, is rich in
+effects of tone and in broadly painted masses. His biography by his son,
+W. Wilkie Collins, the novelist, appeared in 1848.
+
+
+
+
+COLLINS, WILLIAM WILKIE (1824-1889), English novelist, elder son of
+William Collins, R.A., the landscape painter, was born in London on the
+8th of January 1824. He was educated at a private school in Highbury,
+and when only a small boy of twelve was taken by his parents to Italy,
+where the family lived for three years. On their return to England
+Wilkie Collins was articled to a firm in the tea trade, but four years
+later he abandoned that business for the law, and was entered at
+Lincoln's Inn in 1846, being called to the bar three years later. He
+found little pleasure in his new career, however; though what he learned
+in it was exceedingly valuable to him later. On his father's death in
+1847 young Collins made his first essay in literature, publishing the
+_Life of William Collins_, in two volumes, in the following year. In
+1850 he put forth his first work of fiction, _Antonina, or the Fall of
+Rome_, which was clearly inspired by his life in Italy. _Basil_ appeared
+in 1852, and _Hide and Seek_ in 1854. About this time he made the
+acquaintance of Charles Dickens, and began to contribute to _Household
+Words_, where _After Dark_ (1856) and _The Dead Secret_ (1857) ran
+serially. His great success was achieved in 1860 with the publication of
+_The Woman in White_, which was first printed in _All the Year Round_.
+From that time he enjoyed as much popularity as any novelist of his day,
+_No Name_ (1862), _Armadale_ (1866), and _The Moonstone_, a capital
+detective story (1868), being among his most successful books. After
+_The New Magdalen_ (1873) his ingenuity became gradually exhausted, and
+his later stories were little more than faint echoes of earlier
+successes. He died in Wimpole Street, London, on the 23rd of September
+1889. Collins's gift was of the melodramatic order, and while many of
+his stories made excellent plays, several of them were actually
+reconstructed from pieces designed originally for stage production. But
+if his colours were occasionally crude and his methods violent, he was
+at least a master of situation and effect. His trick of telling a story
+through the mouths of different characters is sometimes irritatingly
+disconnected; but it had the merit of giving an air of actual evidence
+and reality to the elucidation of a mystery. He possessed in the highest
+degree the gift of absorbing interest; the turns and complexities of his
+plots are surprisingly ingenious, and many of his characters are not
+only real, but uncommon. Count Fosco in _The Woman in White_ is perhaps
+his masterpiece; the character has been imitated again and again, but no
+imitation has ever attained to the subtlety and humour of the original.
+
+
+
+
+COLLODION (from the Gr. [Greek: kolla], glue), a colourless, viscid
+fluid, made by dissolving gun-cotton and the other varieties of
+pyroxylin in a mixture of alcohol and ether. It was discovered in 1846
+by Louis Nicolas Menard in Paris, and independently in 1848 by Dr J.
+Parkers Maynard in Boston. The quality of collodion differs according to
+the proportions of alcohol and ether and the nature of the pyroxylin it
+contains. Collodion in which there is a great excess of ether gives by
+its evaporation a very tough film; the film left by collodion containing
+a large quantity of alcohol is soft and easily torn; but in hot climates
+the presence of an excess of alcohol is an advantage, as it prevents the
+rapid evaporation of the ether. Under the microscope, the film produced
+by collodion of good quality appears translucent and colourless. To
+preserve collodion it should be kept cool and out of the action of the
+light; iodized collodion that has been discoloured by the development of
+free iodine may be purified by the immersion in it of a strip of silver
+foil. For the iodizing of collodion, ammonium bromide and iodide, and
+the iodides of calcium and cadmium are the agents employed (see
+PHOTOGRAPHY). Collodion is used in surgery since, when painted on the
+skin, it rapidly dries and covers the skin with a thin film which
+contracts as it dries and therefore affords both pressure and
+protection. Flexible collodion, containing Canada balsam and castor oil,
+does not crack, but, on the other hand, does not contract. It is
+therefore of less value. Collodion is applied to small aseptic wounds,
+to small-pox pustules, and occasionally to the end of the urethra in
+boys in order to prevent nocturnal incontinence. Collodion and crystals
+of carbolic acid, taken in equal parts, are useful in relieving
+toothache due to the presence of a carious cavity. _Vesicating_ or
+_Blistering Collodion_ contains cantharidin as one of its constituents.
+The styptic colloid of Richardson is a strong solution of tannin in
+gun-cotton collodion. Similarly collodion may be impregnated with
+salicylic acid, carbolic acid, iodine and other substances. Small
+balloons are manufactured from collodion by coating the interior of
+glass globes with the liquid; the film when dry is removed from the
+glass by applying suction to the mouth of the vessel. M. E. Gripon found
+(_Compt. rend._, 1875) that collodion membranes, like glass, reflect
+light and polarize it both by refraction and reflection; they also
+transmit a very much larger proportion of radiant heat, for the study of
+which they are preferable to mica.
+
+
+
+
+COLLOT D'HERBOIS, JEAN MARIE (1750-1796), French revolutionist, was a
+Parisian by birth and an actor by profession. After figuring for some
+years at the principal provincial theatres of France and Holland, he
+became director of the playhouse at Geneva. He had from the first a
+share in the revolutionary tumult; but it was not until 1791 that he
+became a figure of importance. Then, however, by the publication of
+_L'Almanach du Pere Gerard_,[1] a little book setting forth, in homely
+style, the advantages of a constitutional monarchy, he suddenly acquired
+great popularity. His renown was soon increased by his active
+interference on behalf of the Swiss of the Chateau-Vieux Regiment,
+condemned to the galleys for mutiny at Nancy. His efforts resulted in
+their liberation; he went himself to Brest in search of them; and a
+civic feast was decreed on his behalf and theirs, which gave occasion
+for one of the few poems published during his life by Andre Chenier. But
+his opinions became more and more radical. He was a member of the
+Commune of Paris on the 10th of August 1792, and was elected deputy for
+Paris to the Convention, where he was the first to demand the abolition
+of royalty (on the 21st of September 1792), and he voted the death of
+Louis XVI. "_sans sursis_." In the struggle between the Mountain and the
+Girondists he displayed great energy; and after the _coup d'etat_ of the
+31st of May 1793 he made himself conspicuous by his pitiless pursuit of
+the defeated party. In June he was made president of the Convention; and
+in September he was admitted to the Committee of Public Safety, on which
+he was very active. After having entrusted him with several missions,
+the Convention sent him, on the 30th of October 1793, to Lyons to punish
+the revolt of that city. There he introduced the Terror in its most
+terrible form.
+
+In May 1794 an attempt was made to assassinate Collot; but it only
+increased his popularity, and this won him the hatred of Robespierre,
+against whom he took sides on the 9th Thermidor, when he presided over
+the Convention during a part of the session. During the Thermidorian
+reaction he was one of the first to be accused of complicity with the
+fallen leader, but was acquitted. Denounced a second time, he defended
+himself by pleading that he had acted for the cause of the Revolution,
+but was condemned with Barere and Billaud-Varenne to transportation to
+Cayenne (March 1795), where he died early in 1796.
+
+Collot d'Herbois wrote and adapted from the English and Spanish many
+plays, one of which, _Le Paysan magistrat_, kept the stage for several
+years. _L'Almanach du Pere Gerard_ was reprinted under the title of
+_Etrennes aux amis de la Constitution francaise, ou entretiens du Pere
+Gerard avec ses concitoyens_ (Paris, 1792).
+
+  See F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention_
+  (Paris, 1885-1886), t. ii. pp. 501-512. The principal documents
+  relative to the trial of Collot d'Herbois, Barere and Billaud-Varenne
+  are indicated in Aulard, _Recueil des actes du comite de salut
+  public_, t. i. pp. 5 and 6.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Michel Gerard was a popular Breton peasant deputy (see JACOBINS).
+
+
+
+
+COLLUSION (from Lat. _colludere_, strictly, to play with), a secret
+agreement or compact for some improper purpose. In judicial proceedings,
+and particularly in matrimonial causes (see DIVORCE), collusion is a
+deceitful agreement between two or more persons, or between one of them
+and a third party, to bring an action against the other in order to
+obtain a judicial decision, or some remedy which would not have been
+obtained unless the parties had combined for the purpose or suppressed
+material facts or otherwise.
+
+
+
+
+COLLYER, ROBERT (1823-   ), American Unitarian clergyman, was born in
+Keighley, Yorkshire, England, on the 8th of December 1823. At the age of
+eight he was compelled to leave school and support himself by work in a
+linen factory. He was naturally studious, however, and supplemented his
+scant schooling by night study. At fourteen he was apprenticed to a
+blacksmith, and for several years worked at this trade at Ilkley. In
+1849 he became a local Methodist minister, and in the following year
+emigrated to the United States, where he obtained employment as a hammer
+maker at Shoemakersville, Pennsylvania. Here he soon began to preach on
+Sundays while still employed in the factory on week-days. His earnest,
+rugged, simple style of oratory made him extremely popular, and at once
+secured for him a wide reputation. His advocacy of anti-slavery
+principles, then frowned upon by the Methodist authorities, aroused
+opposition, and eventually resulted in his trial for heresy and the
+revocation of his licence. He continued, however, as an independent
+preacher and lecturer, and in 1859, having joined the Unitarian Church,
+became a missionary of that church in Chicago, Illinois. In 1860 he
+organized and became pastor of the Unity Church, the second Unitarian
+church in Chicago. Under his guidance the church grew to be one of the
+strongest of that denomination in the West, and Mr Collyer himself came
+to be looked upon as one of the foremost pulpit orators in the country.
+During the Civil War he was active in the work of the Sanitary
+Commission. In 1879 he left Chicago and became pastor of the church of
+the Messiah in New York city, and in 1903 he became pastor emeritus. He
+published: _Nature and Life_ (1867); _A Man in Earnest: Life of A. H.
+Conant_ (1868); _The Life That Now is_ (1871); _The Simple Truth_
+(1877); _Talks to Young Men: With Asides to Young Women_ (1888); _Things
+New and Old_ (1893); _Father Taylor_ (1906); and _A History of the Town
+and Parish of Ilkley_ (with Horsefall Turner, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+COLMAN, SAINT (d. 676), bishop of Lindisfarne, was probably an Irish
+monk at Iona. Journeying southwards he became bishop of Lindisfarne in
+661, and a favoured friend of Oswio, king of Northumbria. He was at the
+synod of Whitby in 664, when the great dispute between the Roman and the
+Celtic parties in the church was considered; as spokesman of the latter
+party he upheld the Celtic usages, but King Oswio decided against him
+and his cause was lost. After this event Colman and some monks went to
+Iona and then to Ireland. He settled on the island of Inishbofin, where
+he built a monastery and where he died on the 8th of August 676.
+
+Colman must be distinguished from St Colman of Cloyne (c. 522-600), an
+Irish saint, who became a Christian about 570; and also from another
+Irishman, St Colman Ela (553-610), a kinsman of St Columba. The word
+Colman is derived from the Latin _columbus_, a dove, and the _Book of
+Leinster_ mentions 209 saints of this name.
+
+
+
+
+COLMAN, GEORGE (1732-1794), English dramatist and essayist, usually
+called "the Elder," and sometimes "George the First," to distinguish him
+from his son, was born in 1732 at Florence, where his father was
+stationed as resident at the court of the grand duke of Tuscany.
+Colman's father died within a year of his son's birth, and the boy's
+education was undertaken by William Pulteney, afterwards Lord Bath,
+whose wife was Mrs Colman's sister. After attending a private school in
+Marylebone, he was sent to Westminster School, which he left in due
+course for Christ Church, Oxford. Here he made the acquaintance of
+Bonnell Thornton, the parodist, and together they founded _The
+Connoisseur_ (1754-1756), a periodical which, although it reached its
+140th number, "wanted weight," as Johnson said. He left Oxford after
+taking his degree in 1755, and, having been entered at Lincoln's Inn
+before his return to London, he was called to the bar in 1757. A
+friendship formed with David Garrick did not help his career as a
+barrister, but he continued to practise until the death of Lord Bath,
+out of respect for his wishes.
+
+In 1760 he produced his first play, _Polly Honeycomb_, which met with
+great success. In 1761 _The Jealous Wife_, a comedy partly founded on
+_Tom Jones_, made Colman famous. The death of Lord Bath in 1764 placed
+him in possession of independent means. In 1765 appeared his metrical
+translation of the plays of Terence; and in 1766 he produced _The
+Clandestine Marriage_, jointly with Garrick, whose refusal to take the
+part of Lord Ogleby led to a quarrel between the two authors. In the
+next year he purchased a fourth share in the Covent Garden Theatre, a
+step which is said to have induced General Pulteney to revoke a will by
+which he had left Colman large estates. The general, who died in that
+year, did, however, leave him a considerable annuity. Colman was acting
+manager of Covent Garden for seven years, and during that period he
+produced several "adapted" plays of Shakespeare. In 1768 he was elected
+to the Literary Club, then nominally consisting of twelve members. In
+1774 he sold his share in the great playhouse, which had involved him in
+much litigation with his partners, to Leake; and three years later he
+purchased of Samuel Foote, then broken in health and spirits, the little
+theatre in the Haymarket. He was attacked with paralysis in 1785; in
+1789 his brain became affected, and he died on the 14th of August 1794.
+Besides the works already cited, Colman was author of adaptations of
+Beaumont and Fletcher's _Bonduca_, Ben Jonson's _Epicoene_, Milton's
+_Comus_, and of other plays. He also produced an edition of the works of
+Beaumont and Fletcher (1778), a version of the _Ars Poetica_ of Horace,
+an excellent translation from the _Mercator_ of Plautus for Bonnell
+Thornton's edition (1769-1772), some thirty plays, many parodies and
+occasional pieces. An incomplete edition of his dramatic works was
+published in 1777 in four volumes.
+
+His son, GEORGE COLMAN (1762-1836), known as "the Younger," English
+dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was born on the 21st of October
+1762. He passed from Westminster school to Christ Church, Oxford, and
+King's College, Aberdeen, and was finally entered as a student of law at
+Lincoln's Inn, London. While in Aberdeen he published a poem satirizing
+Charles James Fox, called _The Man of the People_; and in 1782 he
+produced, at his father's playhouse in the Haymarket, his first play,
+_The Female Dramatist_, for which Smollett's _Roderick Random_ supplied
+the materials. It was unanimously condemned, but _Two to One_ (1784) was
+entirely successful. It was followed by _Turk and no Turk_ (1785), a
+musical comedy; _Inkle and Yarico_ (1787), an opera; _Ways and Means_
+(1788); _The Iron Chest_ (1796), taken from William Godwin's _Adventures
+of Caleb Williams_; _The Poor Gentleman_ (1802); _John Bull, or an
+Englishman's Fireside_ (1803), his most successful piece; _The Heir at
+Law_ (1808), which enriched the stage with one immortal character, "Dr
+Pangloss," and numerous other pieces, many of them adapted from the
+French.
+
+The failing health of the elder Colman obliged him to relinquish the
+management of the Haymarket theatre in 1789, when the younger George
+succeeded him, at a yearly salary of L600. On the death of the father
+the patent was continued to the son; but difficulties arose in his way,
+he was involved in litigation with Thomas Harris, and was unable to pay
+the expenses of the performances at the Haymarket. He was forced to take
+sanctuary within the Rules of the King's Bench. Here he resided for many
+years continuing to direct the affairs of his theatre. Released at last
+through the kindness of George IV., who had appointed him exon of the
+Yeomen of the Guard, a dignity disposed of by Colman to the highest
+bidder, he was made examiner of plays by the duke of Montrose, then lord
+chamberlain. This office, to the disgust of all contemporary dramatists,
+to whose MSS. he was as illiberal as he was severe, he held till his
+death. Although his own productions were open to charges of indecency
+and profanity, he was so severe a censor of others that he would not
+pass even such words as "heaven," "providence" or "angel." His comedies
+are a curious mixture of genuine comic force and sentimentality. A
+collection of them was published (1827) in Paris, with a life of the
+author, by J. W. Lake.
+
+Colman, whose witty conversation made him a favourite, was also the
+author of a great deal of so-called humorous poetry (mostly coarse,
+though much of it was popular)--_My Night Gown and Slippers_ (1797),
+reprinted under the name of _Broad Grins_, in 1802; and _Poetical
+Vagaries_ (1812). Some of his writings were published under the assumed
+name of Arthur Griffinhood of Turnham Green. He died in Brompton,
+London, on the 17th of October 1836. He had, as early as 1784,
+contracted a runaway marriage with an actress, Clara Morris, to whose
+brother David Morris, he eventually disposed of his share in the
+Haymarket theatre. Many of the leading parts in his plays were written
+especially for Mrs Gibbs (_nee_ Logan), whom he was said to have
+secretly married after the death of his first wife.
+
+  See the second George Colman's memoirs of his early life, entitled
+  _Random Records_ (1830), and R. B. Peake, _Memoirs of the Colman
+  Family_ (1842).
+
+
+
+
+COLMAN, SAMUEL (1832-   ), American landscape painter, was born at
+Portland, Maine, on the 4th of March 1832. He was a pupil of Ashur B.
+Durand in New York, and in 1860-1862 studied in Spain, Italy, France and
+England. In 1871-1876 he was again in Europe. In 1860, with James D.
+Smilie, he founded the American Water Color Society, and became its
+first president (1866-1867), his own water-colour paintings being
+particularly fine. He was elected a member of the National Academy of
+Design in 1862. Among his works are "The Ships of the Western Plains,"
+in the Union League Club, New York; and "The Spanish Peaks, Colorado,"
+in the Metropolitan Museum, New York.
+
+
+
+
+COLMAR, or KOLMAR, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of
+Alsace-Lorraine, formerly the capital of the department of Haut-Rhin in
+France, on the Logelbach and Lauch, tributaries of the Ill, 40 m. S.S.W.
+from Strassburg on the main line of railway to Basel. Pop. (1905)
+41,582. It is the seat of the government for Upper Alsace, and of the
+supreme court of appeal for Alsace-Lorraine. The town is surrounded by
+pleasant promenades, on the site of the old fortifications, and has
+numerous narrow and picturesque streets. Of its edifices the most
+remarkable are the Roman Catholic parish church of St Martin, known also
+as the _Munster_, dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, the Lutheran
+parish church (15th century), the former Dominican monastery
+(1232-1289), known as "Unterlinden" and now used as a museum, the
+Kaufhaus (trade-hall) of the 15th century, and the handsome government
+offices (formerly the Prefecture). Colmar is the centre of considerable
+textile industries, comprising wool, cotton and silk-weaving, and has
+important manufactures of sewing thread, starch, sugar and machinery.
+Bleaching and brewing are also carried on, and the neighbourhood is rich
+in vineyards and fruit-gardens. The considerable trade of the place is
+assisted by a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Imperial Bank
+(Reichsbank).
+
+Colmar (probably the _columbarium_ of the Romans) is first mentioned, as
+a royal _villa_, in a charter of Louis the Pious in 823, and it was here
+that Charles the Fat held a diet in 884. It was raised to the status of
+a town and surrounded with walls by Wolfelin, advocate (_Landvogt_) of
+the emperor Frederick II. in Alsace, a masterful and ambitious man,
+whose accumulated wealth was confiscated by the emperor in 1235, and who
+is said to have been murdered by his wife lest her portion should also
+be seized. In 1226 Colmar became an imperial city, and the civic rights
+(_Stadtrecht_) conferred on it in 1274 by Rudolph of Habsburg became the
+model for those of many other cities. Its civic history is much the same
+as that of other medieval towns: a struggle between the democratic gilds
+and the aristocratic "families," which ended in 1347 in the inclusion of
+the former in the governing body, and in the 17th century in the
+complete exclusion of the latter. In 1255 Colmar joined the league of
+Rhenish cities, and in 1476 and 1477 took a vigorous share in the
+struggle against Charles the Bold. In 1632, during the Thirty Years'
+War, it was taken by the Swedes, and in 1635 by the French, who held it
+till after the Peace of Westphalia (1649). In 1673 the French again
+occupied it and dismantled the fortifications. In 1681 it was formally
+annexed to France by a decree of Louis XIV.'s _Chambre de Reunion_, and
+remained French till 1871, when it passed with Alsace-Lorraine to the
+new German empire.
+
+  See "Annalen und Chronik von Kolmar," German translation, G. H. Pabst,
+  in _Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit_ (2nd ed., G.
+  Wattenbach, Leipzig, 1897); Sigmund Billing, _Kleine Chronik der Stadt
+  Kolmar_ (Colmar, 1891); Hund, _Kolmar vor und wahrend seiner
+  Entwickelung zur Reichsstadt_ (Strassburg, 1899); J. Liblin,
+  _Chronique de Colmar_, 58-1400 (Mulhausen, 1867-1868); T. F. X.
+  Hunkler, _Gesch. der Stadt Kolmar_ (Colmar, 1838). For further
+  references see Ulysse Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources.
+  Topobibliographie_ (Montbeliard, 1894-1899); and Waltz, _Bibliographie
+  de la ville de Colmar_ (Mulhausen, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+COLNE, a market town and municipal borough in the Clitheroe
+parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 34-1/2 m. N. by E. from
+Manchester by the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway; it is served also by a
+branch of the Midland railway from Skipton. Pop. (1901) 23,000. It
+stands on a hilly site above a small affluent of the river Calder. The
+church of St Bartholomew retains some Norman work, but is chiefly of
+various later periods. There is a cloth hall or piece hall, originally
+used as an exchange when woollens were the staple of the town. The
+grammar school is of interest as the place where John Tillotson
+(1630-1694), archbishop of Canterbury, received early education. Colne
+is a place of great antiquity, and many Roman coins have been found on
+the site. As early as the 14th century it was the seat of a woollen
+manufacture; but its principal manufactures now are cottons, printed
+calicoes and muslin. In the neighbourhood are several limestone and
+slate quarries. The town was incorporated in 1895, and the corporation
+consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 5063 acres.
+
+
+
+
+COLOCYNTH, COLOQUINTIDA or BITTER APPLE, _Citrullus Colocynthis_, a
+plant of the natural order Cucurbitaceae. The flowers are unisexual; the
+male blossoms have five stamens with sinuous anthers, the female have
+reniform stigmas, and an ovary with three large fleshy placentas. The
+fruit is round, and about the size of an orange; it has a thick
+yellowish rind, and a light, spongy and very bitter pulp, which yields
+the colocynth of druggists. The seeds, which number from 200 to 300, and
+are disposed in vertical rows on the three parietal placentas of the
+fruit, are flat and ovoid and dark-brown; they are used as food by some
+of the tribes of the Sahara, and a coarse oil is expressed from them.
+The pulp contains only about 3.5% of fixed oil, whilst the seeds
+contains about 15%. The foliage resembles that of the cucumber, and the
+root is perennial. The plant has a wide range, being found in Ceylon,
+India, Persia, Arabia, Syria, North Africa, the Grecian Archipelago, the
+Cape Verd Islands, and the south-east of Spain. The term _pakkuoth_,
+translated "wild gourds" in 2 Kings iv. 39, is thought to refer to the
+fruit of the colocynth; but, according to Dr Olaf Celsius (1670-1756), a
+Swedish theologian and naturalist, it signifies a plant known as the
+squirting cucumber, _Ecbalium Elaterium_.
+
+The commercial colocynth consists of the peeled and dried fruits. In the
+preparation of the drug, the seeds are always removed from the pulp. Its
+active principle is an intensely bitter amorphous or crystalline
+glucoside, colocynthin, C56H84O23, soluble in water, ether and
+alcohol, and decomposable by acids into glucose and a resin,
+colocynthein, C40H54O13. Colocynthein also occurs as such in
+the drug, together with at least two other resins, citrullin and
+colocynthiden. Colocynthin has been used as a hypodermic purgative--a
+class of drugs practically nonexistent, and highly to be desired in
+numberless cases of apoplexy. The dose recommended for hypodermic
+injection is fifteen minims of a 1% solution in glycerin.
+
+The British Pharmacopeia contains a compound extract of colocynth, which
+no one ever uses; a compound pill--dose 4 to 8 grains--in which oil of
+cloves is included in order to relieve the griping caused by the drug;
+and the Pilula Colocynthidis et Hyoscyami, which contains 2 parts of the
+compound pill to 1 of extract of hyoscyamus. This is by far the best
+preparation, the hyoscyamus being added to prevent the pain and griping
+which is attendant on the use of colocynth alone. The official dose of
+this pill is 4 to 8 grains, but the most effective and least
+disagreeable manner in which to obtain its action is to give four
+two-grain pills at intervals of an hour or so.
+
+In minute doses colocynth acts simply as a bitter, but is never given
+for this purpose. In ordinary doses it greatly increases the secretion
+of the small intestine and stimulates its muscular coat. The
+gall-bladder is also stimulated, and the biliary function of the liver,
+so that colocynth is both an excretory and a secretory cholagogue. The
+action which follows hypodermic injection is due to the excretion of the
+drug from the blood into the alimentary canal. Though colocynth is a
+drastic hydragogue cathartic, it is desirable, as a rule, to supplement
+its action by some drug, such as aloes, which acts on the large
+intestine, and a sedative must always be added. Owing to its irritant
+properties, the drug must not be used habitually, but it is very
+valuable in initiating the treatment of simple chronic constipation, and
+its pharmacological properties obviously render it especially useful in
+cases of hepatitis and congestion of the liver.
+
+Colocynth was known to the ancient Greek, Roman and Arabic physicians;
+and in an Anglo-Saxon herbal of the 11th century (Cockayne, _Leechdoms_,
+&c., vol. i. p. 325, London, 1864), the following directions are given
+as to its use:--"For stirring of the inwards, take the inward neshness
+of the fruit, without the kernels, by weight of two pennies; give it,
+pounded in lithe beer to be drunk, it stirreth the inwards."
+
+
+
+
+COLOGNE (Ger. _Koln_, or officially, since 1900, _Coln_), a city and
+archiepiscopal see of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, a
+fortress of the first rank, and one of the most important commercial
+towns of the empire. Pop. (1885) 239,437; (1900) 370,685; (1905)
+428,503, of which about 80% are Roman Catholics. It lies in the form of
+a vast semicircle on the left bank of the Rhine, 44 m. by rail
+north-east from Aix-la-Chapelle, 24 south-east from Dusseldorf and 57
+north-north-west from Coblenz. Its situation on the broad and navigable
+Rhine, and at the centre of an extensive network of railways, giving it
+direct communication with all the important cities of Europe, has
+greatly fostered its trade, while its close proximity to the beautiful
+scenery of the Rhine, has rendered it a favourite tourist resort. When
+viewed from a distance, especially from the river, the city, with its
+medieval towers and buildings, the whole surmounted by the majestic
+cathedral, is picturesque and imposing. The ancient walls and ditches,
+which formerly environed the city, were dismantled between 1881 and
+1885, and the site of the old fortifications, bought from the government
+by the municipality, were converted into a fine boulevard, the Ring,
+nearly 4 m. long. Beyond the Ring, about 1/2 m. farther out, a new
+continuous line of wall fortifications, with outlying clusters of
+earthworks and forts, has since been erected; 1000 acres, now occupied
+by handsome streets, squares and two public parks, were thus added to
+the inner town, almost doubling its area.
+
+Cologne is connected by bridges with the suburb of Deutz. Within the
+outer municipal boundary are included (besides Deutz) the suburbs of
+Bayenthal, Lindenthal, Ehrenfeld, Nippes, Sulz, Bickendorf, Niehl and
+Poll, protected by another widely extended circle of detached forts on
+both banks of the Rhine. Of the former city gates four have been
+retained, restored and converted into museums: the Severin gate, on the
+south, contains the geological section of the natural history museum;
+the Hahnen gate, on the west, is fitted as the historical and
+antiquarian museum of the city; and the Eigelstein gate, on the north,
+accommodates the zoological section of the natural history museum.
+
+Cologne, with the tortuous, narrow and dark streets and lanes of the old
+inner town, is still regarded as one of the least attractive capital
+cities of Germany; but in modern times it has been greatly improved, and
+the evil smells which formerly characterized it have yielded to proper
+sanitary arrangements. The most important squares are the Domhof, the
+Heumarkt, Neumarkt, Alte Markt and Waidmarkt in the old inner, and the
+Hansa-platz in the new inner town. The long Hohe-strasse of the old town
+is the chief business street.
+
+The cathedral or Dom, the principal edifice and chief object of interest
+in Cologne, is one of the finest and purest monuments of Gothic
+architecture in Europe (for plan, &c. see ARCHITECTURE: _Romanesque and
+Gothic in Germany_). It stands on the site of a cathedral begun about
+the beginning of the 9th century by Hildebold, metropolitan of Cologne,
+and finished under Willibert in 873. This structure was ruined by the
+Normans, was rebuilt, but in 1248 was almost wholly destroyed by fire.
+The foundation of the present cathedral was then laid by Conrad of
+Hochstaden (archbishop from 1238 to 1261). The original plan of the
+building has been attributed to Gerhard von Rile (d. c. 1295). In 1322
+the new choir was consecrated, and the bones of the Three Kings were
+removed to it from the place they had occupied in the former cathedral.
+After Conrad's death the work of building advanced but slowly, and at
+the time of the Reformation it ceased entirely. In the early part of the
+19th century the repairing of the cathedral was taken in hand, in 1842
+the building of fresh portions necessary for the completion of the whole
+structure was begun, and on the 15th of October 1880 the edifice,
+finally finished, was opened in the presence of the emperor William I.
+and all the reigning German princes. The cathedral, which is in the form
+of a cross, has a length of 480, and a breadth of 282 ft.; the height of
+the central aisle is 154 ft.; that of each of the towers 511 ft. The
+heaviest of the seven bells (_Kaiserglocke_), cast in 1874 from the
+metal of French guns, weighs 543 cwt., and is the largest and heaviest
+bell that is rung. In the choir the heart of Marie de' Medici is buried;
+and in the adjoining side-chapels are monuments of the founder and other
+archbishops of Cologne, and the shrine of the Three Kings, which is
+adorned with gold and precious stones. The three kings of Cologne
+(Kaspar, Melchior and Balthazar) were supposed to be the three wise men
+who came from the East to pay adoration to the infant Christ; according
+to the legend, the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa brought their bones
+from Milan in 1162, and had them buried in Cologne cathedral, and
+miraculous powers of healing were attributed to these relics. The very
+numerous and richly-coloured windows, presented at various times to the
+cathedral, add greatly to the imposing effect of the interior. The view
+of the cathedral has been much improved by a clearance of the old houses
+on the Domhof, including the archiepiscopal palace, but the new Hof,
+though flanked by many fine buildings, is displeasing owing to the
+intrusion of numerous modern palatial hotels and shops.
+
+Among the other churches of Cologne, which was fondly styled in the
+middle ages the "holy city" (_heilige Stadt_) and "German Rome," and,
+according to legend, possessed as many sacred fanes as there are days in
+the year, are several of interest both for their age and for the
+monuments and works of art they contain. In St Peter's are the famous
+altar-piece by Rubens, representing the Crucifixion of St Peter, several
+works by Lucas van Leyden, and some old German glass-paintings. St
+Martin's, built between the 10th and 12th centuries, has a fine
+baptistery; St Gereon's, built in the 11th century on the site of a
+Roman rotunda, is noted for its mosaics, and glass and oil-paintings;
+the Minorite church, begun in the same year as the cathedral, contains
+the tomb of Duns Scotus. Besides these may be mentioned the church of St
+Pantaleon, a 13th-century structure, with a monument to Theophano, wife
+of the emperor Otto II.; St Cunibert, in the Byzantine-Moorish style,
+completed in 1248; St Maria im Capitol, the oldest church in Cologne,
+dedicated in 1049 by Pope Leo IX., noted for its crypt, organ and
+paintings; St Cecilia, St Ursula, containing the bones of that saint
+and, according to legend, of the 11,000 English virgins massacred near
+Cologne while on a pilgrimage to Rome; St Severin, the church of the
+Apostles, and that of St Andrew (1220 and 1414), which contains the
+remains of Albertus Magnus in a gilded shrine. Most of these, and also
+many other old churches, have been completely restored. Among newer
+ecclesiastical buildings must be mentioned the handsome Roman Catholic
+church in Deutz, completed in 1896, and a large synagogue, in the new
+town west of the Ring, finished in 1899.
+
+Among the more prominent secular buildings are the Gurzenich, a former
+meeting-place of the diets of the Holy Roman Empire, built between 1441
+and 1447, of which the ground floor was in 1875 converted into a stock
+exchange, and the upper hall, capable of accommodating 3000 persons, is
+largely utilized for public festivities, particularly during the time of
+the Carnival: the Rathaus, dating from the 13th century, with beautiful
+Gobelin tapestries; the Tempelhaus, the ancestral seat of the patrician
+family of the Overstolzens, a beautiful building dating from the 13th
+century, and now the chamber of commerce; the Wallraf-Richartz Museum,
+in which is a collection of paintings by old Italian and Dutch masters,
+together with some works by modern artists; the Zeughaus, or arsenal,
+built on Roman foundations; the Supreme Court for the Rhine provinces;
+the post-office (1893); the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank); and the
+municipal library and archives. The Wolkenburg, a fine Gothic house of
+the 15th century, originally a patrician residence, was restored in
+1874, and is now the headquarters of the famous men's choral society of
+Cologne (Kolner Mannergesangverein).
+
+A handsome central railway station (high level), on the site of the old
+station, and close to the cathedral, was built in 1889-1894. The railway
+to Bonn and the Upper Rhine now follows the line of the _ceinture_ of
+the new inner fortifications, and on this section there are three city
+stations in addition to the central. Like all important German towns,
+Cologne contains many fine monuments. The most conspicuous is the
+colossal equestrian statue (22-1/2 ft. high) of Frederick William III. of
+Prussia in the Heumarkt. There are also monuments to Moltke (1881), to
+Count Johann von Werth (1885), the cavalry leader of the Thirty Years'
+War, and to Bismarck (1879). Near the cathedral is an archiepiscopal
+museum of church antiquities. Cologne is richly endowed with literary
+and scientific institutions. It has an academy of practical medicine, a
+commercial high school, a theological seminary, four Gymnasia (classical
+schools), numerous lower-grade schools, a conservatory of music and
+several high-grade ladies' colleges. Of its three theatres, the
+municipal theatre (Stadttheater) is famed for its operatic productions.
+
+Commercially, Cologne is one of the chief centres on the Rhine, and has
+a very important trade in corn, wine, mineral ores, coals, drugs, dyes,
+manufactured wares, groceries, leather and hides, timber, porcelain and
+many other commodities. A large new harbour, with spacious quays, has
+been constructed towards the south of the city. In 1903, the traffic of
+the port amounted to over one million tons. Industrially, also, Cologne
+is a place of high importance. Of the numerous manufactures, among which
+may be especially mentioned sugar, chocolate, tobacco and cigars, the
+most famous is the perfume known as _eau de Cologne_ (q.v.) (_Kolnisches
+Wasser_, i.e. Cologne-water).
+
+Of the newspapers published at Cologne the most important is the
+_Kolnische Zeitung_ (often referred to as the "Cologne Gazette"), which
+has the largest circulation of any paper in Germany, and great weight
+and influence. It must be distinguished from the _Kolnische
+Volkszeitung_, which is the organ of the Clerical party in the Prussian
+Rhine provinces.
+
+_History._--Cologne occupies the site of _Oppidum Ubiorum_, the chief
+town of the Ubii, and here in A.D. 50 a Roman colony, _Colonia_, was
+planted by the emperor Claudius, at the request of his wife Agrippina,
+who was born in the place. After her it was named Colonia Agrippina or
+Agrippinensis. Cologne rose to be the chief town of Germania Secunda,
+and had the privilege of the Jus Italicum. Both Vitellius and Trajan
+were at Cologne when they became emperors. About 330 the city was taken
+by the Franks but was not permanently occupied by them till the 5th
+century, becoming in 475 the residence of the Frankish king Childeric.
+It was the seat of a _pagus_ or _gau_, and counts of Cologne are
+mentioned in the 9th century.
+
+The succession of bishops in Cologne is traceable, except for a gap
+covering the troubled 5th century, from A.D. 313, when the see was
+founded. It was made the metropolitan see for the bishoprics of the
+Lower Rhine and part of Westphalia by Charlemagne, the first archbishop
+being Hildebold, who occupied the see from 785 to his death in 819. Of
+his successors one of the most illustrious was Bruno (q.v.), brother of
+the emperor Otto I., archbishop from 953 to 965, who was the first of
+the archbishops to exercise temporal jurisdiction, and was also
+"archduke" of Lorraine. The territorial power of the archbishops was
+already great when, in 1180, on the partition of the Saxon duchy, the
+duchy of Westphalia was assigned to them. In the 11th century they
+became _ex-officio_ arch-chancellors of Italy (see ARCHCHANCELLOR), and
+by the Golden Bull of 1356 they were finally placed among the electors
+(_Kurfursten_) of the Empire. With Cologne itself, a free imperial city,
+the archbishop-electors were at perpetual feud; in 1262 the
+archiepiscopal see was transferred to Bruhl, and in 1273 to Bonn; it was
+not till 1671 that the quarrel was finally adjusted. The archbishopric
+was secularized in 1801, all its territories on the left bank of the
+Rhine being annexed to France; in 1803 those on the right bank were
+divided up among various German states; and in 1815 by the congress of
+Vienna, the whole was assigned to Prussia. The last archbishop-elector,
+Maximilian of Austria, died in 1801.
+
+In Archbishop Hildebold's day Cologne was still contained by the square
+of its Roman walls, within which stood the cathedral and the
+newly-founded church of St Maria (known later as "im Capitol"); the city
+was, however, surrounded by a ring of churches, among which those of St
+Gereon, St Ursula, St Severin and St Cunibert were conspicuous. In 881
+Norman pirates, sailing up the Rhine, took and sacked the city; but it
+rapidly recovered, and in the 11th century had become the chief trading
+centre of Germany. Early in the 12th century the city was enlarged by
+the inclusion of suburbs of Oversburg; Niederich and St Aposteln; in
+1180 these were enclosed in a permanent rampart which, in the 13th
+century, was strengthened with the walls and gates that survived till
+the 19th century.
+
+The municipal history of Cologne is of considerable interest. In general
+it follows the same lines as that of other cities of Lower Germany and
+the Netherlands. At first the bishop ruled through his burgrave,
+advocate, and nominated jurats (_scabini_, _Schoffen_). Then, as the
+trading classes grew in wealth, his jurisdiction began to be disputed;
+the _conjuratio pro libertate_ of 1112 seems to have been an attempt to
+establish a commune (see Commune, Medieval). Peculiar to Cologne,
+however, was the _Richerzeche_ (_rigirzegheide_), a corporation of all
+the wealthy patricians, which gradually absorbed in its hands the
+direction of the city's government (the first record of its active
+interference is in 1225). In the 13th century the archbishops made
+repeated efforts to reassert their authority, and in 1259 Archbishop
+Conrad of Hochstaden, by appealing to the democratic element of the
+population, the "brotherhoods" (_fraternitates_) of the craftsmen,
+succeeded in overthrowing the Richerzeche and driving its members into
+exile. His successor, Engelbert II., however, attempted to overthrow the
+democratic constitution set up by him, with the result that in 1262 the
+brotherhoods combined with the patricians against the archbishop, and
+the Richerzeche returned to share its authority with the elected "great
+council" (_Weiter Rat_). As yet, however, none of the trade or craft
+gilds, as such, had a share in the government, which continued in the
+hands of the patrician families, membership of which was necessary even
+for election to the council and to the parochial offices. This continued
+long after the battle of Worringen (1288) had finally secured for the
+city full self-government, and the archbishops had ceased to reside
+within its walls. In the 14th century a narrow patrician council
+selected from the Richerzeche, with two burgomasters, was supreme. In
+1370 an insurrection of the weavers was suppressed; but in 1396, the
+rule of the patricians, having been weakened by internal dissensions, a
+bloodless revolution led to the establishment of a comparatively
+democratic constitution, based on the organization of the trade and
+craft gilds, which lasted with but slight modification till the French
+Revolution.
+
+The greatness of Cologne, in the middle ages as now, was due to her
+trade. Wine and herrings were the chief articles of her commerce; but
+her weavers had been in repute from time immemorial, and exports of
+cloth were large, while her goldsmiths and armourers were famous. So
+early as the 11th century her merchants were settled in London, their
+colony forming the nucleus of the Steelyard. When, in 1201, the city
+joined the Hanseatic League (q.v.) its power and repute were so great
+that it was made the chief place of a third of the confederation.
+
+In spite of their feuds with the archbishops, the burghers of Cologne
+were stanch Catholics, and the number of the magnificent medieval
+churches left is evidence at once of their piety and their wealth. The
+university, founded in 1389 by the sole efforts of the citizens, soon
+gained a great reputation; in the 15th century its students numbered
+much more than a thousand, and its influence extended to Scotland and
+the Scandinavian kingdoms. Its decline began, however, from the moment
+when the Catholic sentiment of the city closed it to the influence of
+the Reformers; the number of its students sank to vanishing point, and
+though, under the influence of the Jesuits, it subsequently revived, it
+never recovered its old importance. A final blow was dealt it when, in
+1777, the enlightened archbishop Maximilian Frederick (d. 1784) founded
+the university of Bonn, and in 1798, amid the confusion of the
+revolutionary epoch, it ceased to exist.
+
+The same intolerance that ruined the university all but ruined the city
+too. It is difficult, indeed, to blame the burghers for resisting the
+dubious reforming efforts of Hermann of Wied, archbishop from 1515 to
+1546, inspired mainly by secular ambitions; but the expulsion of the
+Jews in 1414, and still more the exclusion, under Jesuit influence, of
+Protestants from the right to acquire citizenship, and from the
+magistracy, dealt severe blows at the prosperity of the place. A variety
+of other causes contributed to its decay: the opening up of new trade
+routes, the gradual ossification of the gilds into close and corrupt
+corporations, above all the wars in the Netherlands, the Thirty Years'
+War, and the Wars of the Spanish and Austrian Succession. When in 1794
+Cologne was occupied by the French, it was a poor and decayed city of
+some 40,000 inhabitants, of whom only 6000 possessed civic rights. When,
+in 1801, by the treaty of Luneville, it was incorporated in France, it
+was not important enough to be more than the chief town of an
+arrondissement. On the death of the last elector in 1801 the
+archiepiscopal see was left vacant. With the assignment of the city to
+Prussia by the congress of Vienna in 1815 a new era of prosperity began.
+The university, indeed, was definitively established at Bonn, but the
+archbishopric was restored (1821) as part of the new ecclesiastical
+organization of Prussia, and the city became the seat of the president
+of a governmental district. Its prosperity now rapidly increased; when
+railways were introduced it became the meeting-place of several lines,
+and in 1881 its growth necessitated the pushing outward of the circle of
+fortifications.
+
+  See L. Ennen, _Gesch. der Stadt Koln_ (5 vols., Cologne, 1863-1880) to
+  1648, and _Frankreich und der Niederrhein_ (2 vols., ib., 1855, 1856),
+  a history of the city and electorate of Cologne since the Thirty
+  Years' War; R. Schultze and C. Steuernagel, _Colonia Agrippinensis_
+  (Bonn, 1895); K. Heldmann, _Der Kolngau und die Civitas Koln_ (Halle,
+  1900); L. Korth, _Koln im Mittelalter_ (Cologne, 1890); F. Lau,
+  _Entwickelung der kommunalen Verfassung der Stadt Koln bis zum Jahre
+  1396_ (Bonn, 1898); K. Hegel, _Stadte und Gilden der germanischen
+  Volker im Mittelalter_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1891), ii. p. 323; H.
+  Keussen, _Historische Topographie der Stadt Koln im Mittelalter_
+  (Bonn, 1906); W. Behnke, _Aus Kolns Franzosenzeit_ (Cologne, 1901);
+  Helmken, _Koln und seine Sehenswurdigkeiten_ (20th ed., Cologne,
+  1903). For sources see L. Ennen and G. Eckertz, _Quellen zur
+  Geschichte der Stadt Koln_ (6 vols., Cologne, 1860-1879); later
+  sources will be found in U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources hist.
+  Topo-bibliographie_ (Montbeliard, 1894-1899), s.v. Cologne, which
+  gives also a full list of works on everything connected with the city;
+  also in Dahlmann-Waitz, _Quellenkunde_ (ed. Leipzig, 1906), p. 17,
+  Nos. 252, 253. For the archdiocese and electorate of Cologne see
+  Binterim and Mooren, _Die Erzdiozese Koln bis zur franzosischen
+  Staatsumwalzung_, new ed. by A. Mooren in 2 vols. (Dusseldorf, 1892,
+  1893).
+
+
+
+
+COLOMAN (1070-1116), king of Hungary, was the son of King Geza of
+Hungary by a Greek concubine. King Ladislaus would have made the
+book-loving youth a monk, and even designated him for the see of Eger;
+but Coloman had no inclination for an ecclesiastical career, and, with
+the assistance of his friends, succeeded in escaping to Poland. On the
+death of Ladislaus (1095), he returned to Hungary and seized the crown,
+passing over his legitimately born younger brother Almos, the son of the
+Greek princess Sinadene. Almos did not submit to this usurpation, and
+was more or less of an active rebel till 1108, when the emperor Henry V.
+espoused his cause and invaded Hungary. The Germans were unsuccessful;
+but Coloman thought fit to be reconciled with his kinsman and restored
+to him his estates. Five years later, however, fearing lest his brother
+might stand in the way of his heir, the infant prince Stephen, Coloman
+imprisoned Almos and his son Bela in a monastery and had them blinded.
+Despite his adoption of these barbarous Byzantine methods, Coloman was a
+good king and a wise ruler. In foreign affairs he preserved the policy
+of St Ladislaus by endeavouring to provide Hungary with her greatest
+need, a suitable seaboard. In 1097 he overthrew Peter, king of Croatia,
+and acquired the greater part of Dalmatia, though here he encountered
+formidable rivals in the Greek and German emperors, Venice, the pope and
+the Norman-Italian dukes, all equally interested in the fate of that
+province, so that Coloman had to proceed cautiously in his expansive
+policy. By 1102, however, Zara, Trau, Spalato and all the islands as far
+as the Cetina were in his hands. But it was as a legislator and
+administrator that Coloman was greatest (see HUNGARY: _History_). He was
+not only one of the most learned, but also one of the most statesmanlike
+sovereigns of the earlier middle ages. Coloman was twice married, (1)
+in 1097 to Buzella, daughter of Roger, duke of Calabria, the chief
+supporter of the pope, and (2) in 1112 to the Russian princess,
+Euphemia, who played him false and was sent back in disgrace to her
+kinsfolk the following year. Coloman died on the 3rd of February 1116.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD (1831-1899), British vice-admiral, historian,
+critic and inventor, the son of General G. T. Colomb, was born in
+Scotland, on the 29th of May 1831. He entered the navy in 1846, and
+served first at sea off Portugal in 1847; afterwards, in 1848, in the
+Mediterranean, and from 1848 to 1851 as midshipman of the "Reynard" in
+operations against piracy in Chinese waters; as midshipman and mate of
+the "Serpent" during the Burmese War of 1852-53; as mate of the
+"Phoenix" in the Arctic Expedition of 1854; as lieutenant of the
+"Hastings" in the Baltic during the Russian War, taking part in the
+attack on Sveaborg. He became what was known at that time as a "gunner's
+lieutenant" in 1857, and from 1859 to 1863 he served as flag-lieutenant
+to rear-admiral Sir Thomas Pasley at Devonport. Between 1858 and 1868 he
+was employed in home waters on a variety of special services, chiefly
+connected with gunnery, signalling and the tactical characteristics and
+capacities of steam warships. From 1868 to 1870 he commanded the
+"Dryad," and was engaged in the suppression of the slave trade. In 1874,
+while captain of the "Audacious," he served for three years as
+flag-captain to vice-admiral Ryder in China; and finally he was
+appointed, in 1880, to command the "Thunderer" in the Mediterranean.
+Next year he was appointed captain of the steam reserve at Portsmouth;
+and after serving three years in that capacity, he remained at
+Portsmouth as flag-captain to the commander-in-chief until 1886, when he
+was retired by superannuation before he had attained flag rank.
+Subsequently he became rear-admiral, and finally vice-admiral on the
+retired list.
+
+Few men of his day had seen more active and more varied service than
+Colomb. But the real work on which his title to remembrance rests is the
+influence he exercised on the thought and practice of the navy. He was
+one of the first to perceive the vast changes which must ensue from the
+introduction of steam into the navy, which would necessitate a new
+system of signals and a new method of tactics. He set himself to devise
+the former as far back as 1858, but his system of signals was not
+adopted by the navy until 1867.
+
+What he had done for signals Colomb next did for tactics. Having first
+determined by experiment--for which he was given special facilities by
+the admiralty--what are the manoeuvring powers of ships propelled by
+steam under varying conditions of speed and helm, he proceeded to devise
+a system of tactics based on these data. In the sequel he prepared a new
+evolutionary signal-book, which was adopted by the royal navy, and still
+remains in substance the foundation of the existing system of tactical
+evolutions at sea. The same series of experimental studies led him to
+conclusions concerning the chief causes of collisions at sea; and these
+conclusions, though stoutly combated in many quarters at the outset,
+have since been generally accepted, and were ultimately embodied in the
+international code of regulations adopted by the leading maritime
+nations on the recommendation of a conference at Washington in 1889.
+
+After his retirement Colomb devoted himself rather to the history of
+naval warfare, and to the large principles disclosed by its intelligent
+study, than to experimental inquiries having an immediate practical aim.
+As in his active career he had wrought organic changes in the ordering,
+direction and control of fleets, so by his historic studies, pursued
+after his retirement, he helped greatly to effect, if he did not
+exclusively initiate, an equally momentous change in the popular, and
+even the professional, way of regarding sea-power and its conditions. He
+did not invent the term "sea-power,"--it is, as is shown elsewhere (see
+SEA-POWER), of very ancient origin,--nor did he employ it until Captain
+Mahan had made it a household word with all. But he thoroughly grasped
+its conditions, and in his great work on naval warfare (first published
+in 1891) he enunciated its principles with great cogency and with keen
+historic insight. The central idea of his teaching was that naval
+supremacy is the condition precedent of all vigorous military offensive
+across the seas, and, conversely, that no vigorous military offensive
+can be undertaken across the seas until the naval force of the enemy has
+been accounted for--either destroyed or defeated and compelled to
+withdraw to the shelter of its own ports, or at least driven from the
+seas by the menace of a force it dare not encounter in the open. This
+broad and indefeasible principle he enunciated and defended in essay
+after essay, in lecture after lecture, until what at first was rejected
+as a paradox came in the end to be accepted as a commonplace. He worked
+quite independently of Captain Mahan, and his chief conclusions were
+published before Captain Mahan's works appeared.
+
+He died quite suddenly and in the full swing of his literary activity on
+the 13th of October 1899, at Steeple Court, Botley, Hants. His latest
+published work was a biography of his friend Sir Astley Cooper Key, and
+his last article was a critical examination of the tactics adopted at
+Trafalgar, which showed his acumen and insight at their best.
+
+His younger brother, SIR JOHN COLOMB (1838-1909), was closely associated
+in the pioneer work done for British naval strategy and Imperial
+defence, and his name stands no less high among those who during this
+period promoted accurate thinking on the subject of sea-power. Entering
+the Royal Marines in 1854, he rose to be captain in 1867, retiring in
+1869; and thenceforth he devoted himself to the study of naval and
+military problems, on which he had already published some excellent
+essays. His books on _Colonial Defence and Colonial Opinions_ (1873),
+_The Defence of Great and Greater Britain_ (1879), _Naval Intelligence
+and the Protection of Commerce_ (1881), _The Use and the Application of
+Marine Forces_ (1883), _Imperial Federation: Naval and Military_ (1887),
+followed later by other similar works, made him well known among the
+rising school of Imperialists, and he was returned to parliament
+(1886-1892) as Conservative member for Bow, and afterwards (1895-1906)
+for Great Yarmouth. In 1887 he was created C.M.G., and in 1888 K.C.M.G.
+He died in London on the 27th of May 1909. In Kerry, Ireland, he was a
+large landowner, and became a member of the Irish privy council (1903),
+and in 1906 he sat on the Royal Commission dealing with congested
+districts.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBES, a town of France in the department of Seine, arrondissement of
+St Denis, 7 m. N.N.W. of Paris. Pop. (1906) 28,920. It has a
+16th-century church with 12th-century tower, a race-course, and numerous
+villa residences and boarding-schools. Manufactures include oil, vinegar
+and measuring-instruments. A castle formerly stood here, in which died
+Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. of England.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBEY, a village of Lorraine, 4 m. E. of Metz, famous as the scene of
+a battle between the Germans and the French fought on the 14th of August
+1870. It is often called the battle of Borny, from another village 2-1/2 m.
+E. of Metz. (See METZ and FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.)
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBIA, a republic of South America occupying the N.W. angle of that
+continent and bounded N. by the Caribbean Sea and Venezuela, E. by
+Venezuela and Brazil, S. by Brazil, Peru and Ecuador, and W. by Ecuador,
+the Pacific Ocean, Panama and the Caribbean Sea. The republic is very
+irregular in outline and has an extreme length from north to south of
+1050 m., exclusive of territory occupied by Peru on the north bank of
+the upper Amazon, and an extreme width of 860 m. The approximate area of
+this territory, according to official calculations, is 481,979 sq. m.,
+which is reduced to 465,733 sq. m. by Gotha planimetrical measurements.
+This makes Colombia fourth in area among the South American states.
+
+The loss of the department of Panama left the republic with unsettled
+frontiers on every side, and some of the boundary disputes still
+unsolved in 1909 concern immense areas of territory. The boundary with
+Costa Rica was settled in 1900 by an award of the President of France,
+but the secession of Panama in 1903 gave Colombia another unsettled line
+on the north-west. If the line which formerly separated the Colombian
+departments of Cauca and Panama is taken as forming the international
+boundary, this line follows the water-parting between the streams which
+flow eastward to the Atrato, and those which flow westward to the Gulf
+of San Miguel, the terminal points being near Cape Tiburon on the
+Caribbean coast, and at about 7 deg. 10' N. lat. on the Pacific coast.
+The boundary dispute with Venezuela was referred in 1883 to the king of
+Spain, and the award was made in 1891. Venezuela, however, refused to
+accept the decision. The line decided upon, and accepted by Colombia,
+starts from the north shore of Calabozo Bay on the west side of the Gulf
+of Maracaibo, and runs west and south-west to and along the
+water-parting (Sierra de Perija) between the drainage basins of the
+Magdalena and Lake Maracaibo as far as the source in lat. 8 deg. 50' N.
+of a small branch of the Catatumbo river, thence in a south-easterly
+direction across the Catatumbo and Zulia rivers to a point in 72 deg.
+30' W. long., 8 deg. 12' N. lat., thence in an irregular southerly
+direction across the Cordillera de Merida to the source of the Sarare,
+whence it runs eastward along that river, the Arauca, and the Meta to
+the Orinoco. Thence the line runs south and south-east along the
+Orinoco, Atabapo and Guainia to the Pedra de Cucuhy, which serves as a
+boundary mark for three republics. Of the eastern part of the territory
+lying between the Meta and the Brazilian frontier, Venezuela claims as
+far west as the meridian of 69 deg. 10'. Negotiations for the settlement
+of the boundary with Brazil (q.v.) were resumed in 1906, and were
+advanced in the following year to an agreement providing for the
+settlement of conflicting claims by a mixed commission. With Ecuador and
+Peru the boundary disputes are extremely complicated, certain parts of
+the disputed territory being claimed by all three republics. Colombia
+holds possession as far south as the Napo in lat. 2 deg. 47' S., and
+claims territory occupied by Peru as far south as the Amazon. On the
+other hand Peru claims as far north as La Chorrera in 0 deg. 49' S.
+lat., including territory occupied by Colombia, and the eastern half of
+the Ecuadorean department of Oriente, and Ecuador would extend her
+southern boundary line to the Putumayo, in long. 71 deg. 1' S., and make
+that river her northern boundary as far north as the Peruvian claim
+extends. The provisional line starts from the Japura river (known as the
+Caqueta in Colombia) in lat. 1 deg. 30' S., long. 69 deg. 24' W., and
+runs south-west to the 70th meridian, thence slightly north of west to
+the Igaraparana river, thence up that stream to the Peruvian military
+post of La Chorrera, in 0 deg. 49' S. lat., thence west of south to
+Huiririmachico, on the Napo. Thence the line runs north-west along the
+Napo, Coca and San Francisco rivers to the Andean watershed, which
+becomes the dividing line northward for a distance of nearly 80 m.,
+where the line turns westward and reaches the Pacific at the head of
+Panguapi Bay, into which the southern outlet of the Mira river
+discharges (about 1 deg. 34' N. lat.).
+
+  _Physical Geography._--Colombia is usually described as an extremely
+  mountainous country, which is true of much less than half its total
+  area. Nearly one half its area lies south-east of the Andes and
+  consists of extensive _llanos_ and forested plains, traversed by
+  several of the western tributaries of the Amazon and Orinoco. These
+  plains slope gently toward the east, those of the Amazon basin
+  apparently lying in great terraces whose escarpments have the
+  character of low, detached ranges of hills forming successive rims to
+  the great basin which they partly enclose. The elevation and slope of
+  this immense region, which has an approximate length of 640 m. and
+  average width of 320 m., may be inferred from the elevations of the
+  Caqueta, or Japura river, which was explored by Crevaux in 1878-1879.
+  At Santa Maria, near the Cordillera (about 75 deg. 30' W. long.), the
+  elevation is 613 ft. above sea-level, on the 73rd meridian it is 538
+  ft., and near the 70th meridian 426 ft.--a fall of 187 ft. in a
+  distance of about 400 m. The northern part of this great region has a
+  somewhat lower elevation and gentler slope, and consists of open
+  grassy plains, which are within the zone of alternating wet and dry
+  seasons. In the south and toward the great lower basin of the Amazon,
+  where the rainfall is continuous throughout the year, the plains are
+  heavily forested. The larger part of this territory is unexplored
+  except along the principal rivers, and is inhabited by scattered
+  tribes of Indians. Near the Cordilleras and along some of the larger
+  rivers there are a few small settlements of whites and mestizos, but
+  their aggregate number is small and their economic value to the
+  republic is inconsiderable. There are some cattle ranges on the open
+  plains, however, but they are too isolated to have much importance. A
+  small part of the northern Colombia, on the lower courses of the
+  Atrato and Magdalena, extending across the country from the Eastern
+  to the Western Cordilleras with a varying width of 100 to 150 m., not
+  including the lower river basins which penetrate much farther inland,
+  also consists of low, alluvial plains, partly covered with swamps and
+  intricate watercourses, densely overgrown with vegetation, but in
+  places admirably adapted to different kinds of tropical agriculture.
+  These plains are broken in places by low ranges of hills which are
+  usually occupied by the principal industrial settlements of this part
+  of the republic, the lower levels being for the most part swampy and
+  unsuited for white occupation.
+
+  [Illustration: COLOMBIA]
+
+  The other part of the republic, which may be roughly estimated at
+  two-fifths of its total area, consists of an extremely rugged
+  mountainous country, traversed from south to north by the parallel
+  river valleys of the Magdalena, Cauca and Atrato. The mountain chains
+  which cover this part of Colombia are the northern terminal ranges of
+  the great Andean system. In northern Ecuador the Andes narrows into a
+  single massive range which has the character of a confused mass of
+  peaks and ridges on the southern frontier of Colombia. There are
+  several lofty plateaus in this region which form a huge central
+  watershed for rivers flowing east to the Amazon, west to the Pacific,
+  and north to the Caribbean Sea. The higher plateaus are called
+  _paramos_, cold, windswept, mist-drenched deserts, lying between the
+  elevations of 10,000 and 15,000 ft., which are often the only passes
+  over the Cordilleras, and yet are almost impassable because of their
+  morasses, heavy mists, and cold, piercing winds. The _paramos_ of Cruz
+  Verde (11,695 ft.) and Pasto, and the volcanoes of Chiles (15,900
+  ft.), Chumbul (15,715 ft.), and Pasto (13,990 ft.) are prominent
+  landmarks of this desolate region. North of this great plateau the
+  Andes divides into three great ranges, the Western, Central and
+  Eastern Cordilleras. The Central is the axis of the system, is
+  distinguished by a line of lofty volcanoes and _paramos_, some of
+  which show their white mantles 2000 to 3000 ft. above the line of
+  perpetual snow (approx. 15,000 ft. in this latitude), and is sometimes
+  distinguished with the name borne by the republic for the time being.
+  This range runs in a north-north-east direction and separates the
+  valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca, terminating in some low hills
+  south-west of El Banco, a small town on the lower Magdalena. The
+  principal summits of this range are Tajumbina (13,534 ft.), Pan de
+  Azucar (15,978 ft.), Purace (15,420 ft.), Sotara (15,420 ft.), Huila
+  (over 18,000 ft.), Tolima (18,432 ft.), Santa Isabel (16,700 ft.),
+  Ruiz (18,373 ft.), and Mesa de Herveo (18,300 ft.). The last named
+  affords a magnificent spectacle from Bogota, its level top which is 5
+  or 6 m. across, and is formed by the rim of an immense crater, having
+  the appearance of a table, down the sides of which for more than 3000
+  ft. hangs a spotless white drapery of perpetual snow. The Western
+  Cordillera branches from the main range first and follows the coast
+  very closely as far north as the 4th parallel, where the San Juan and
+  Atrato rivers, though flowing in opposite directions and separated
+  near the 5th parallel by a low transverse ridge, combine to interpose
+  valleys between it and the Cordillera de Baudo, which thereafter
+  becomes the true coast range. It then forms the divide between the
+  Cauca and Atrato valleys, and terminates near the Caribbean coast. The
+  general elevation of this range is lower than that of the others, its
+  culminating points being the volcano Munchique (11,850 ft.)and Cerro
+  Leon (10,847 ft.). The range is covered with vegetation and its
+  Pacific slopes are precipitous and humid. The Cordillera de Baudo,
+  which becomes the coast range above lat. 4 deg. N., is the southern
+  extension of the low mountainous chain forming the backbone of the
+  Isthmus of Panama, and may be considered the southern termination of
+  the great North American system. Its elevations are low and heavily
+  wooded. It divides on the Panama frontier, the easterly branch forming
+  the watershed between the Atrato and the rivers of eastern Panama, and
+  serving as the frontier between the two republics. The passes across
+  these ranges are comparatively low, but they are difficult because of
+  the precipitous character of their Pacific slopes and the density of
+  the vegetation on them. The Eastern Cordillera is in some respects the
+  most important of the three branches of the Colombian Andes. Its
+  general elevation is below that of the Central Cordillera, and it has
+  few summits rising above the line of perpetual snow, the highest being
+  the Sierra Nevada de Cocui, in lat. 6 deg. 30' N. Between Cocui and the
+  southern frontier of Colombia there are no noteworthy elevations
+  except the so-called Paramo de Suma Paz near Bogota, the highest point
+  of which is 14,146 ft. above sea-level, and the Chita _paramo_, or
+  range, north-east of Bogota (16,700 ft.). Between the 5th and 6th
+  parallels the range divides into two branches, the eastern passing
+  into Venezuela, where it is called the Cordillera de Merida, and the
+  northern continuing north and north-east as the Sierra de Perija and
+  the Sierra de Oca, to terminate at the north-eastern extremity of the
+  Goajira peninsula. The culminating point in the first-mentioned range
+  is the Cerro Pintado (11,800 ft.). West of this range, and lying
+  between the 10th parallel and the Caribbean coast, is a remarkable
+  group of lofty peaks and knotted ranges known as the Sierra Nevada de
+  Santa Marta, the highest snow-crowned summit of which rises 17,389 ft.
+  above the sea according to some, and 16,728 according to other
+  authorities. This group of mountains, covering an approximate area of
+  6500 sq. m., lies immediately on the coast, and its highest summits
+  were long considered inaccessible. It stands detached from the lower
+  ranges of the Eastern Cordillera, and gives the impression that it is
+  essentially independent. The eastern Cordillera region is noteworthy
+  for its large areas of plateau and elevated valley within the limits
+  of the vertical temperate zone. In this region is to be found the
+  greater part of the white population, the best products of Colombian
+  civilization, and the greatest industrial development. The "sabana" of
+  Bogota is a good illustration of the higher of these plateaus (8563
+  ft., according to Stieler's _Hand-Atlas_), with its mild temperature,
+  inexhaustible fertility and numerous productions of the temperate
+  zone. It has an area of about 2000 sq. m. The lower valleys, plateaus
+  and mountain slopes of this range are celebrated for their coffee,
+  which, with better means of transportation, would be a greater source
+  of prosperity for the republic than the gold-mines of Antioquia. The
+  mountainous region of Colombia is subject to volcanic disturbances and
+  earthquake shocks are frequent, especially in the south. These shocks,
+  however, are less severe than in Venezuela or in Ecuador.
+
+
+    Islands.
+
+  There are few islands on the coast of Colombia, and the great majority
+  of these are too small to appear on the maps in general use. Gorgona
+  is one of the larger islands on the Pacific coast, and is situated
+  about 25 m. from the mainland in lat. 3 deg. N. It is 5-3/4 m. long by
+  1-3/4 m. wide, and rises to an extreme elevation of 1296 ft. above
+  sea-level. It is a beautiful island, and is celebrated as one of
+  Pizarro's stopping places. It has been used by the Colombian
+  government for political offenders. Malpelo island, 282 m. west by
+  south of Charambira point, in lat. 3 deg. 40' N., long. 81 deg. 24'
+  W., nominally belongs to Colombia. It is a small, rocky, uninhabited
+  island, rising to an elevation of 846 ft. above the sea, and has no
+  ascertained value. The famous Pearl islands of the Gulf of Panama are
+  claimed by Colombia, and their pearl oyster fisheries are considered a
+  rentable asset by the government. The group covers an area of about
+  450 sq. m., and consists of 16 islands and several rocks. The largest
+  is Rey Island, which is about 17 m. long, north to south, and 8 m.
+  broad, with an extreme elevation of 600 ft. The other larger islands
+  are San Jose, Pedro Gonzales, Casaya, Saboga and Pacheca. There are
+  several fishing villages whose inhabitants are largely engaged in the
+  pearl fisheries, and a number of cocoa-nut plantations. The islands
+  belong chiefly to Panama merchants. There are several groups of small
+  islands on the northern coast, and a few small islands so near the
+  mainland as to form sheltered harbours, as at Cartagena. The largest
+  of these islands is Baru, lying immediately south of the entrance to
+  Cartagena harbour. North-west of Colombia in the Caribbean Sea are
+  several small islands belonging to the republic, two of which (Great
+  and Little Corn Is.) lie very near the coast of Nicaragua. The largest
+  and most important of these islands is Vieja Providencia (Old
+  Providence), 120 m. off the Mosquito Coast, 4-1/2 m. long, which
+  supports a small population.
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  The rivers of Colombia may be divided, for convenience of description,
+  into three general classes according to the destination of their
+  waters, the Pacific, Caribbean and Atlantic--the last reaching their
+  destination through the Amazon and Orinoco. Of these, the Caribbean
+  rivers are of the greatest economic importance to the country, though
+  those of the eastern plains may at some time become nearly as
+  important as transportation routes in a region possessing forest
+  products of great importance and rich in agricultural and pastoral
+  possibilities. It is worthy of note that the principal rivers of these
+  three classes--the Patia, Cauca, Magdalena, Caqueta and Putumayo--all
+  have their sources on the high plateaus of southern Colombia and
+  within a comparatively limited area. The Pacific coast rivers are
+  numerous, and discharge a very large volume of water into the ocean in
+  proportion to the area of their drainage basins, because of the heavy
+  rainfall on the western slopes of the Coast range. The proximity of
+  this range to the coast limits them to short, precipitous courses,
+  with comparatively short navigable channels. The principal rivers of
+  this group, starting from the southern frontier, are the Mira, Patia,
+  Iscuande, Micai, Buenaventura or Dagua, San Juan and Baudo. The Mira
+  has its principal sources in Ecuador, and for a short distance forms
+  the boundary line between the two republics, but its outlets and
+  navigable channel are within Colombia. It has a large delta in
+  proportion to the length of the river, which is visible evidence of
+  the very large quantity of material brought down from the neighbouring
+  mountain slopes. The Patia is the longest river of the Pacific group,
+  and is the only one having its sources on the eastern side of the
+  Western Cordillera. It is formed by the confluence of the Sotara and
+  Guaitara at the point where the united streams turn westward to cut
+  their way through the mountains to the sea. The Sotara or upper Patia
+  rises on the southern slope of a transverse ridge or dyke, between the
+  Central and Western Cordilleras, in the vicinity of Popayan, and flows
+  southward about 120 m. to the point of confluence with the Guaitara.
+  The latter has its sources on the elevated plateau of Tuquerres and
+  flows north-west to meet the Sotara. The canyon of the Patia through
+  the Western Cordillera is known as the "Minima gorge," and has been
+  cut to a depth of 1676 ft., above which the perpendicular mountain
+  sides rise like a wall some thousands of feet more. The upper course
+  of the Guaitara is known as the Carchi, which for a short distance
+  forms the boundary line between Colombia and Ecuador. At one point in
+  its course it is crossed by the Rumichaca arch, a natural arch of
+  stone, popularly known as the "Inca's bridge," which with the Minima
+  gorge should be classed among the natural wonders of the world. There
+  is a narrow belt of low, swampy country between the Cordillera and the
+  coast, traversed at intervals by mountain spurs, and across this the
+  river channels are usually navigable. The San Juan has built a large
+  delta at its mouth, and is navigable for a distance of 140 m. inland,
+  the river flowing parallel with the coast for a long distance instead
+  of crossing the coastal plain. It rises in the angle between the
+  Western Cordillera and a low transverse ridge connecting it with the
+  Baudo coast range, and flows westward down to the valley between the
+  two ranges, and then southward through this valley to about lat. 4 deg.
+  15' N., where it turns sharply westward and crosses a narrow belt of
+  lowland to the coast. It probably has the largest discharge of water
+  of the Pacific group, and has about 300 m. of navigable channels,
+  including its tributaries, although the river itself is only 190 m.
+  long and the sand-bars at its mouth have only 7 or 8 ft. of water on
+  them. The San Juan is distinguished for having been one of the
+  proposed routes for a ship canal between the Caribbean and Pacific.
+  At one point in its upper course it is so near the Atrato that,
+  according to a survey by Captain C. S. Cochrane, R.N., in 1824, a
+  canal 400 yds. long with a maximum cutting of 70 ft., together with
+  some improvements in the two streams, would give free communication.
+  His calculations were made, of course, for the smaller craft of that
+  time.
+
+  The rivers belonging to the Caribbean system, all of which flow in a
+  northerly direction, are the Atrato, Bacuba, Sinu, Magdalena and
+  Zulia. The Bacuba, Suriquilla or Leon, is a small stream rising on the
+  western slopes of the Cordillera and flowing into the upper end of the
+  Gulf of Uraba. Like the Atrato it brings down much silt, which is
+  rapidly filling that depression. There are many small streams and one
+  important river, the Sinu, flowing into the sea between this gulf and
+  the mouth of the Magdalena. The Sinu rises on the northern slopes of
+  the Alto del Viento near the 7th parallel, and flows almost due north
+  across the coastal plain for a distance of about 286 m. to the Gulf of
+  Morosquillo. It has a very sinuous channel which is navigable for
+  small steamers for some distance, but there is no good port at its
+  outlet, and a considerable part of the region through which it flows
+  is malarial and sparsely settled. The most important rivers of
+  Colombia, however, are the Magdalena and its principal tributary, the
+  Cauca. They both rise on the high table-land of southern Colombia
+  about 14,000 ft. above sea-level--the Magdalena in the Laguna del Buey
+  (Ox Lake) on the Las Papas plateau, and the Cauca a short distance
+  westward in the Laguna de Santiago on the Paramo de Guanacas--and flow
+  northward in parallel courses with the great Central Cordillera,
+  forming the water-parting between their drainage basins. The principal
+  tributaries of the Magdalena are the Suaza, Neiva, Cabrera, Prado,
+  Fusagasaga, Funza or Bogota, Carare, Opon, Sogamoso, Lebrija and
+  Cesar, and the western the La Plata, Paez, Saldana, Cuello, Guali,
+  Samana or Miel, Nare or Negro and Cauca. There are also many smaller
+  streams flowing into the Magdalena from both sides of the valley. Of
+  those named, the Funza drains the "sabana" of Bogota and is celebrated
+  for the great fall of Tequendama, about 480 ft. in height; the
+  Sogamoso passes through some of the richest districts of the republic;
+  and the Cesar rises on the elevated slopes of the Sierra Nevada de
+  Santa Marta and flows southward across a low plain, in which are many
+  lakes, to join the Magdalena where it bends westward to meet the
+  Cauca. The course of the Magdalena traverses nine degrees of latitude
+  and is nearly 1000 m. long. It is navigable for steamers up to La
+  Dorada, near Honda, 561 m. above its mouth, which is closed by
+  sand-bars to all but light-draught vessels, and for 93 m. above the
+  rapids at Honda, to Girardot. The river is also navigable at high
+  water for small steamers up to Neiva, 100 m. farther and 1535 ft.
+  above sea-level, beyond which point it descends precipitously from the
+  plateaus of southern Colombia. The Honda rapids have a fall of only 20
+  ft. in a distance of 2 m., but the current is swift and the channel
+  tortuous for a distance of 20 m., which make it impossible for the
+  light-draught, flat-bottomed steamers of the lower river to ascend
+  them. The Cauca differs much from the Magdalena, although its
+  principal features are the same. The latter descends 12,500 ft. before
+  it becomes navigable, but at 10,000 ft. below its source the Cauca
+  enters a long narrow valley with an average elevation of 3500 ft.,
+  where it is navigable for over 200 m., and then descends 2500 ft.
+  through a series of impetuous rapids for a distance of about 250 m.,
+  between Cartago and Caceres, with a break of 60 m. above Antioquia,
+  where smooth water permits isolated navigation. While, therefore, the
+  Magdalena is navigable throughout the greater part of its course, or
+  from Girardot to the coast, with an abrupt break of only 20 ft. at
+  Honda which could easily be overcome, the Cauca has only 200 m. of
+  navigable water in the upper valley and another 200 m. on its lower
+  course before it joins the Magdalena in lat. 9 deg. 30', the two being
+  separated by 250 m. of canyon and rapids. So difficult is the country
+  through which the Cauca has cut its tortuous course that the fertile
+  upper valley is completely isolated from the Caribbean, and has no
+  other practicable outlet than the overland route from Cali to
+  Buenaventura, on the Pacific. The upper sources of the Cauca flow
+  through a highly volcanic region, and are so impregnated with
+  sulphuric and other acids that fish cannot live in them. This is
+  especially true of the Rio Vinagre, which rises on the Purace volcano.
+  The principal tributaries are the Piendamo, Ovejas, Palo, Amaime and
+  Nechi, from the central Cordillera, of which the last named is the
+  most important, and the Jamundi and a large number of small streams
+  from the Western. The largest branch of the Cauca on its western side,
+  however, is the San Jorge, which, though rising in the Western
+  Cordillera on the northern slopes of the Alto del Viento, in about
+  lat. 7 deg. N., and not far from the sources of the Sinu and Bacuba, is
+  essentially a river of the plain, flowing north-east across a level
+  country filled with small lakes and subject to inundations to a
+  junction with the Cauca just before it joins the Magdalena. Both the
+  San Jorge and Nechi are navigable for considerable distances. The
+  valley of the Cauca is much narrower than that of the Magdalena, and
+  between Cartago and Caceres the mountain ranges on both sides press
+  down upon the river and confine it to a narrow canyon. The Cauca
+  unites with the Magdalena about 200 m. from the sea through several
+  widely separated channels, which are continually changing through the
+  wearing away of the alluvial banks. These changes in the channel are
+  also at work in the Lower Magdalena. The remaining rivers of the
+  Caribbean system, exclusive of the smaller ones rising in the Sierra
+  Nevada de Santa Marta, are the Zulia and Catatumbo, which rise in the
+  mountains of northern Santander and flow across the low plains of the
+  Venezuelan state of Zulia into Lake Maracaibo.
+
+  Of the rivers of the great eastern plains, whose waters pass through
+  the Orinoco and Amazon to the Atlantic, little can be said beyond the
+  barest geographical description. The size and courses of many of their
+  affluents are still unknown, as this great region has been only
+  partially explored. The largest of these rivers flow across the plains
+  in an easterly direction, those of the Orinoco system inclining
+  northward, and those of the Amazon system southward. The first include
+  the Guaviare or Guayabero, the Vichada, the Meta, and the upper course
+  of the Arauca. The Guaviare was explored by Crevaux in 1881. It rises
+  on the eastern slopes of the Eastern Cordillera between the 3rd and
+  4th parallels, about 75 m. south of Bogota, and flows with a slight
+  southward curve across the llanos to the Orinoco, into which it
+  discharges at San Fernando de Atabapo in lat. 4 deg. N. Its largest
+  tributary is the Inirida, which enters from the south. The Guaviare
+  has about 600 m. of navigable channel. The Meta rises on the opposite
+  side of the Cordillera from Bogota, and flows with a sluggish current
+  east-north-east across the llanos to the Orinoco, into which it
+  discharges below the Atures rapids, in lat. 6 deg. 22' N. It is navigable
+  throughout almost its whole length, small steamers ascending it to a
+  point within 100 m. of Bogota. Its principal tributaries, so far as
+  known, are the Tuca, Chire and Casanare. The principal rivers of the
+  Amazon system are the Napo, the upper part of which forms the
+  provisional boundary line with Ecuador, the Putumayo or Ica, and the
+  Caqueta or Japura (Yapura), which flow from the Andes entirely across
+  the eastern plains, and the Guainia, which rises on the northern
+  slopes of the Serra Tunaji near the provisional Brazilian frontier,
+  and flows with a great northward curve to the Venezuelan and Brazilian
+  frontiers, and is thereafter known as the Rio Negro, one of the
+  largest tributaries of the Amazon. There are many large tributaries of
+  these rivers in the unexplored regions of south-eastern Colombia, but
+  their names as well as their courses are still unsettled.
+
+
+    Coasts.
+
+  The coast of Colombia faces on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean
+  Sea, and is divided by the Isthmus of Panama into two completely
+  separated parts. The Pacific coast-line, omitting minor convolutions,
+  has a length of about 500 m., while that of the Caribbean is about 700
+  m. The former has been of slight service in the development of the
+  country because of the unsettled and unhealthy character of the coast
+  region, and the high mountain barriers between its natural ports and
+  the settled parts of the republic. There are only two commercial ports
+  on the coast, Tumaco and Buenaventura, though there are several
+  natural harbours which would be of great service were there any demand
+  for them. The rivers Mira, Patia and San Juan permit the entrance of
+  small steamers, as also some of the smaller rivers. The larger bays on
+  this coast are Tumaco, Choco, Magdalena, Cabita, Coqui, Puerto Utria,
+  Solano, Cupica and Octavia--some of them affording exceptionally safe
+  and well-sheltered harbours. The Caribbean coast of Colombia has only
+  four ports engaged in international trade--Barranquilla, Cartagena,
+  Santa Marta and Rio Hacha. There are some smaller ports on the coast,
+  but they are open only to vessels of light draft and have no trade
+  worth mention. Barranquilla, the principal port of the republic, is
+  situated on the Magdalena, and its seaport, or landing-place, is
+  Puerto Colombia at the inner end of Savanilla Bay, where a steel pier
+  4000 ft. long has been built out to deep water, alongside which
+  ocean-going vessels can receive and discharge cargo. The bay is slowly
+  filling up, however, and two other landing-places--Salgar and
+  Savanilla--had to be abandoned before Puerto Colombia was selected.
+  The pier-head had 24 ft. of water alongside in 1907, but the silt
+  brought down by the Magdalena is turned westward by the current along
+  this coast, and may at any time fill the bay with dangerous shoals.
+  The oldest and best port on the coast is Cartagena, 65 m. south-west
+  of Barranquilla, which has a well-sheltered harbour protected by
+  islands, and is connected with the Magdalena at Calamar by railway.
+  The next best port is that of Santa Marta, about 46 m. east-north-east
+  of Barranquilla (in a straight line), with which it is connected by 23
+  m. of railway and 50 m. of inland navigation on the Cienaga de Santa
+  Marta and eastern outlets of the Magdalena. Santa Marta is situated on
+  a small, almost landlocked bay, well protected from prevailing winds
+  by high land on the north and north-east, affording excellent
+  anchorage in waters free from shoaling through the deposit of silt.
+  The depth of the bay ranges from 4-1/2 to 19 fathoms. The town stands at
+  the foot of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, which restricts the area
+  of cultivatable land in its immediate vicinity, and the enclosing high
+  lands make the climate hot and somewhat dangerous for foreigners.
+  Since the development of the fruit trade on the shores of the
+  Caribbean sea and Gulf of Mexico by an important American company,
+  which owns a large tract of land near Santa Marta devoted to banana
+  cultivation, and has built a railway 50 m. inland principally for the
+  transportation of fruit, the trade of the port has greatly increased.
+  The population of this region, however, is sparse, and its growth is
+  slow. The fourth port on this coast is Rio Hacha, an open roadstead,
+  about 93 m. east of Santa Marta, at the mouth of the small river
+  Rancheira descending from the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada de
+  Santa Marta. It has little trade, and the undeveloped, unpopulated
+  state of the country behind it affords no promise of immediate growth.
+  There are other small towns on the coast which are ports for the small
+  vessels engaged in the coasting and river trade, but they have no
+  international importance because of their inaccessibility to
+  ocean-going steamers, or the extremely small volume of their trade.
+  The Gulf of Uraba is a large bight or southerly extension of the Gulf
+  of Darien. It receives the waters of the Atrato, Bacuba, and a number
+  of small rivers, and penetrates the land about 50 m., but has very
+  little commercial importance because of the unhealthy and unsettled
+  character of the neighbouring country, and because of the bar across
+  its entrance formed by silt from the Atrato. The Gulf of Morosquillo,
+  a broad shallow indentation of the coast south of Cartagena, receives
+  the waters of the Rio Sinu, at the mouth of which is the small port of
+  Cispata. Between the mouth of the Magdalena and Santa Marta is the
+  Cienaga de Santa Marta, a large marshy lagoon separated from the sea
+  by a narrow sand spit, having its "boca" or outlet at its eastern
+  side. There is some traffic in small steamers on its shallow waters,
+  which is increasing with the development of fruit cultivation on its
+  eastern and southern sides. It extends inland about 31 m., and marks a
+  deep indentation of the coast like the Gulf of Uraba.
+
+  _Geology._--The geology of Colombia is very imperfectly known, and it
+  is only by a comparison with the neighbouring regions that it is
+  possible to form any clear idea of the geological structure and
+  succession. The oldest rocks are gneisses and schists, together with
+  granite and other eruptive rocks. These are overlaid by sandstones,
+  slates and limestones, alternating with porphyries and porphyrites
+  sometimes in the form of sheets, sometimes as breccias and
+  conglomerates. Cretaceous fossils have been found abundantly in this
+  series, but it is still possible that earlier systems may be
+  represented. Coal-bearing beds, possibly of Tertiary age, occur in
+  Antioquia and elsewhere. Structurally, the four main chains of
+  Colombia differ considerably from one another in geological
+  constitution. The low Cordilleras of the Chocos, on the west coast,
+  are covered by soft Quaternary sandstones and marls containing shells
+  of extant species, such as still inhabit the neighbouring ocean. The
+  Western Cordillera is the direct continuation of the Western
+  Cordillera of Ecuador, and, like the latter, to judge from the
+  scattered observations which are all that are available, consists
+  chiefly of sandstones and porphyritic rocks of the Cretaceous series.
+  Between the Western and the Central Cordilleras is a longitudinal
+  depression along which the river Cauca finds its way towards the sea.
+  On the western side of this depression there are red sandstones with
+  coal-seams, possibly Tertiary; the floor and the eastern side consist
+  chiefly of ancient crystalline and schistose rocks. The Central
+  Cordillera is the direct continuation of the Eastern Cordillera of
+  Ecuador, and is formed chiefly of gneiss and other crystalline rocks,
+  but sedimentary deposits of Cretaceous age also occur. Finally the
+  Eastern branch, known as the Cordillera of Bogota, is composed almost
+  entirely of Cretaceous beds thrown into a series of regular
+  anticlinals and synclinals similar to those of the Jura Mountains. The
+  older rocks occasionally appear in the centre of the anticlinals. In
+  all these branches of the Andes the folds run approximately in the
+  direction of the chains, but the Sierra de Santa Marta appears to
+  belong to a totally distinct system of folding, the direction of the
+  folds being from west to east, bending gradually towards the
+  south-east. Although volcanoes are by no means absent, they are much
+  less important than in Ecuador, and their products take a far smaller
+  share in the formation of the Andes. In Ecuador the depression between
+  the Eastern and Western Cordilleras is almost entirely filled with
+  modern lavas and agglomerates; in Colombia the corresponding Cauca
+  depression is almost free from such deposits. In the Central
+  Cordillera volcanoes extend to about 5 deg. N.; in the Western Cordillera
+  they barely enter within the limits of Colombia; in the Cordillera of
+  Bogota they are entirely absent.[1]
+
+  _Climate._--Were it not for the high altitudes of western Colombia,
+  high temperatures would prevail over the whole country, except where
+  modified by the north-east trade winds and the cold ocean current
+  which sweeps up the western coast. The elevated plateaus and summits
+  of the Andes are responsible, however, for many important and profound
+  modifications in climate, not only in respect to the lower
+  temperatures of the higher elevations, but also in respect to the
+  higher temperatures of the sheltered lowland valleys and the varying
+  climatic conditions of the neighbouring plains. The republic lies
+  almost wholly within the north torrid zone, a comparatively small part
+  of the forested Amazonian plain extending beyond the equator into the
+  south torrid zone. The great Andean barrier which crosses the republic
+  from the south to north acts as a condenser to the prevailing easterly
+  winds from the Atlantic, and causes a very heavy rainfall on their
+  eastern slopes and over the forested Amazon plain. High temperatures
+  as well as excessive humidity prevail throughout this region. Farther
+  north, on the open llanos of the Orinoco tributaries, the year is
+  divided into equal parts, an alternating wet and dry season, the sun
+  temperatures being high followed by cool nights, and the temperatures
+  of the rainy season being even higher. The rainfall is heavy in the
+  wet season, causing many of the rivers to spread over extensive areas,
+  but in the dry season the inundated plains become dry, the large
+  rivers fed by the snows and rainfall of the Andes return within their
+  banks, the shallow lagoons and smaller streams dry up, vegetation
+  disappears, and the level plain becomes a desert. The northern plains
+  of the republic are swept by the north-east trades, and here, too, the
+  mountain barriers exercise a strongly modifying influence. The low
+  ridges of the Sierra de Perija do not wholly shut out these
+  moisture-laden winds, but they cause a heavy rainfall on their eastern
+  slopes, and create a dry area on their western flanks, of which the
+  Vale of Upar is an example. The higher masses of the Sierra Nevada de
+  Santa Marta cover a very limited area, leaving the trade winds a
+  comparatively unbroken sweep across the northern plains until checked
+  by the Western Cordillera, the Panama ranges and the Sierra de Baudo,
+  where a heavy precipitation follows. Farther south the coast ranges
+  cause a very heavy rainfall on their western slopes, which are quite
+  as uninhabitable because of rain and heat as are the coasts of
+  southern Chile through rain and cold. The rainfall on this coast is
+  said to average 73 in., though it is much higher at certain points and
+  in the Atrato Valley. As a result the coastal plain is covered with
+  swamps and tangled forests, and is extremely unhealthy, except at a
+  few favoured points on the coast. High temperatures prevail throughout
+  the greater part of the Magdalena and Cauca valleys, because the
+  mountain ranges which enclose them shut out the prevailing winds. At
+  Honda, on the Magdalena, 664 ft. above sea-level, the mean temperature
+  for the year is 82 deg. F., and the mercury frequently rises to 102
+  deg. in the shade. These lowland plains and valleys comprise the
+  climatic tropical zone of Colombia, which is characterized by high
+  temperatures, and by excessive humidity and dense forests, an
+  exception to the last-named characteristic being the open llanos where
+  dry summers prevail. Above this tropical zone in the mountainous
+  regions are to be found all the varying gradations of climate which we
+  are accustomed to associate with changes in latitude. There are the
+  subtropical districts of the valleys and slopes between 1500 and 7500
+  ft. elevation, which include some of the most fertile and productive
+  areas in Colombia; the temperate districts between 7500 and 10,000
+  ft., the cold, bleak and inhospitable _paramos_ between 10,000 and
+  15,000 ft., and above these the arctic wastes of ice and snow. The
+  temperate and subtropical regions cover the greater part of the
+  departments traversed by the Eastern Cordillera, the northern end of
+  the Central Cordillera, the Santa Marta plateaus, and the Upper Cauca
+  Valley. They include the larger part of the white population and the
+  chief productive industries of the country. There is no satisfactory
+  record of temperatures and rainfall in these widely different climatic
+  zones from which correct averages can be drawn and compared.
+  Observations have been made and recorded at Bogota and at some other
+  large towns, but for the greater part of the country we have only
+  fragmentary reports. The mean annual temperature on the eastern
+  plains, so far as known, ranges from 87 deg. F. on the forested slopes
+  to 90 deg. and 91 deg. on the llanos of the Meta and Arauca. On the
+  Caribbean coastal plain it ranges from 80 deg. to 84 deg., but at
+  Tumaco, on the Pacific coast, within two degrees of the equator, it is
+  only 79 deg.. At Medellin, in the mountainous region of Antioquia,
+  4950 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual temperature is 70 deg., and
+  the yearly rainfall 55 in., while at Bogota, 8563 ft., the former is
+  57 deg. and the latter 44 in. At Tuquerres, near the frontier of
+  Ecuador, 10,200 ft. elevation, the mean annual temperature is said to
+  be 55 deg.. The changes of seasons are no less complicated and
+  confusing. A considerable part of the republic is covered by the
+  equatorial belt of calms, whose oscillations divide the year into a
+  wet and dry season. This division is modified, however, by the
+  location of mountain ranges and by elevation. In the Amazon region
+  there is no great change during the year, and on the northern plains
+  the so-called dry season is one of light rains except where mountain
+  ranges break the sweep of the north-east trades. The alternating wet
+  and dry seasons are likewise to be found on the Pacific coastal plain,
+  though this region is not entirely dry and vegetation never dries up
+  as on the _llanos_. Above the lowland plains the seasons vary in
+  character according to geographical position and elevation. The
+  two-season division rules in the departments of Santander and
+  Antioquia, but without the extremes of humidity and aridity
+  characteristic of the eastern plains. Farther south, at elevations
+  between 800 and 9500 ft., the year is divided into four distinct
+  seasons--two wet and two dry--the former called _inviernos_ (winters)
+  and the latter _veranos_ (summers). These seasons are governed by the
+  apparent movements of the sun, the winters occurring at the equinoxes
+  and the summers at the solstices. The _sabana_ of Bogota and
+  neighbouring districts are subject to these changes of season. At
+  higher altitudes long, cold, wet winters are experienced, with so
+  short and cold a summer between them that the bleak _paramos_ are
+  left uninhabited except by a few shepherds in the short dry season.
+
+  _Fauna._--The geographical position of Colombia gives to it a fauna
+  and flora largely characteristic of the great tropical region of the
+  Amazon on the south-east, and of the mountainous regions of Central
+  America on the north-west. At the same time it is rich in animal and
+  plant types of its own, especially the latter, and is considered one
+  of the best fields in South America for the student and collector. The
+  fauna is essentially tropical, though a few species characteristic of
+  colder regions are to be found in the higher Andes. Of the Quadrumana
+  there are at least seventeen distinct species, and this number may be
+  increased after a thorough exploration of the forested eastern plains.
+  They are all arboreal in habit, and are to be found throughout the
+  forested lowlands and lower mountain slopes. The carnivora are
+  represented by seven or eight species of the Felidae, the largest of
+  which are the puma (_Felis concolor_) and the jaguar (_F. onca_).
+  These animals, together with the smaller ocelot, have a wide
+  geographical range, and are very numerous in the valley of the
+  Magdalena. Two species of bear and the "coati" (_Nasua_) represent the
+  plantigrades and inhabit the mountain slopes, and, of Pachydermata,
+  the peccary (_Dicotyles_) and "danta" or tapir (_Tapirus_) have a wide
+  distribution throughout the lowland and lower plateau forests. The
+  Colombian tapir is known as the _Tapirus Roulini_, and is slightly
+  smaller than the Brazilian species (_T. americanus_). There are deer
+  in the forests and on the open savannahs, the rabbit and squirrel are
+  to be seen on the eastern slopes of the Andes, and partly amphibious
+  rodents, the "capybara" (_Hydrochoerus_) and "guagua" (_Coelogenys
+  subniger_), are very numerous along the wooded watercourses. The
+  sloth, armadillo, opossum, skunk and a species of fox complete the
+  list of the more common quadrupeds so far as known, though it is
+  certain that a careful biological survey would discover many others.
+  The large rivers of Colombia and the lakes of the lowlands are filled
+  with alligators, turtles, and fish, and several species of fish are
+  highly esteemed by the natives as food. The saurians are represented
+  on land by several species of lizard, some of them conspicuous for
+  their brilliant colouring, and by the large "iguana," whose flesh is
+  considered a great delicacy. Among the ophidians, which include many
+  harmless species, are the boa-constrictor, rattlesnake, the dreaded
+  _Lachesis_ and the coral snake. The "manatee" (_Manatus americanus_)
+  is found in the Atrato and other large Colombian rivers.
+
+  In bird and insect life Colombia is second only to Brazil. The condor,
+  which inhabits the higher Cordilleras, is peculiar to the whole Andean
+  region, and is the largest of the Raptores. Among other members of
+  this order are the eagle, osprey, vulture, buzzard, kite and hawk,
+  with about a dozen species in all. Parrots and paroquets are numerous
+  everywhere in the tropical and subtropical regions, as also the
+  gorgeously coloured macaw and awkward toucan. The largest class,
+  perhaps, is that formed by the astonishing number of water-fowl which
+  throng the shallow lagoons and river beaches at certain seasons of the
+  year. They are mostly migratory in habit, and are to be found in many
+  other countries. Among these are the large white crane and small
+  crane, the blue heron, the snowy-white egret, the roseate spoonbill
+  (_Platalea ajaja_), stork, bittern and many species of ducks. The
+  largest and most conspicuous member of this interesting family is the
+  _Mycteria americana_, the gigantic stork so frequently seen in the
+  Amazon valley, and even more numerous about the lagoons of northern
+  Colombia. One of the best game-birds of the forest is the "crested
+  curassow" (_Crax alector_), sometimes weighing 12lb, which feeds on
+  arboreal fruits and rarely comes to the ground. Colombia also
+  possesses many species of the beautiful little humming-bird, among
+  which are the tiny _Steganura Underwoodi_ and the sword-bill,
+  _Docimastes ensiferus_, which were found by Mr Albert Millican on a
+  bleak _paramo_ 12,000 ft. above sea-level. One of the most interesting
+  birds found in the country is the "weaver-bird" (_Cassicus persicus_),
+  which lives in colonies and suspends its long, pouch-like nest from
+  the end of a horizontal branch of some high, isolated tree. In regard
+  to insects, what has been said of Brazil will apply very closely to
+  Colombia. Mosquitoes, butterflies, spiders, beetles and ants are
+  infinitely numerous, and some of the species are indescribably
+  troublesome.
+
+  _Flora._--The Colombian flora is richer in species and individual
+  characteristics than the fauna, owing in part to its greater
+  dependence on climatic conditions. It ranges from the purely tropical
+  types of the lowlands to the Alpine species of the more elevated
+  _paramos_. It should be remembered, however, that large areas of the
+  lowland plains have only a very limited arboreal growth. These plains
+  include the extensive llanos of the Orinoco tributaries where coarse,
+  hardy grasses and occasional clumps of palms are almost the only
+  vegetation to be seen. There are other open plains in northern
+  Colombia, sometimes covered with a shrubby growth, and the "mesas"
+  (flat-topped mountains) and plateaus of the Cordilleras are frequently
+  bare of trees. Farther up, on the cold, bleak _paramos_, only stunted
+  and hardy trees are to be found. On the other hand, a luxuriant forest
+  growth covers a very large part of the republic, including the
+  southern plains of the Amazon tributaries, the foothills, slopes and
+  valleys of the Cordilleras, a larger part of the northern plains, and
+  the whole surface of the Western Cordillera and coast. The most
+  conspicuous and perhaps the most universal type in all these regions,
+  below an approximate elevation of 10,000 ft., is the palm, whose
+  varieties and uses are incredibly numerous. On the eastern plains are
+  to be found the "miriti" (_Mauritia flexuosa_) and the "pirijao" or
+  peach palm (_Guilielma speciosa_), called the "pupunha" on the Amazon,
+  whose fruit, fibre, leaf, sap, pith and wood meet so large a part of
+  the primary needs of the aborigines. A noteworthy palm of the eastern
+  Andean slopes is the "corneto" (_Deckeria_), whose tall, slender trunk
+  starts from the apex of a number of aerial roots, rising like a cone 6
+  to 8 ft. above the ground. It is one of the most fruitful of palms,
+  its clusters weighing from 120 to 200 lb each. Extensive groves of the
+  coco-nut palm are to be found on the Caribbean coast, the fruit and
+  fibre of which figure among the national exports. In north-eastern
+  Colombia, where a part of the year is dry, the "curuas" form the
+  prevailing species, but farther south, on the slopes of the
+  Cordilleras up to an elevation of 10,000 ft., the wax-palm, or "palma
+  de cera" (_Ceroxylon andicola_), is said to be the most numerous. It
+  is a tall slender palm, and is the source of the vegetable wax so
+  largely used in some parts of the country in the manufacture of
+  matches, a single stem sometimes yielding 16-20 lb. Another widely
+  distributed species in central Colombia is known as the "palmita del
+  Azufral" in some localities, and as the "palma real" and "palma dolce"
+  in others. Humboldt says it is not the "palma real" of Cuba (_Oreodoxa
+  regia_), but in the Rio Sinu region is the _Cocos butyracea_, or the
+  "palma dolce," from which palm wine is derived. Another palm of much
+  economic importance in Colombia is the "tagua" (_Phytelephas
+  macrocarpa_), which grows abundantly in the valleys of the Magdalena,
+  Atrato and Patia, and produces a large melon-shaped fruit in which are
+  found the extremely hard, fine-grained nuts or seeds known in the
+  commercial world as vegetable ivory. The Colombian "Panama hat" is
+  made from the fibres extracted from the ribs of the fan-shaped leaves
+  of still another species of palm, _Carludovica palmata_, while in the
+  Rio Sinu region the natives make a kind of butter ("manteca de
+  Corozo") from the _Elaeis melanococca_, Mart., by peeling the nuts in
+  water and then purifying the oil extracted in this way by boiling.
+  This oil was formerly used for illuminating purposes. The forests are
+  never made up wholly of palms, but are composed of trees of widely
+  different characters, including many common to the Amazon region,
+  together with others found in Central American forests, such as
+  mahogany and "vera" or lignum vitae (_Zygophyllum arboreum_).
+  Brazilwood (_Caesalpinia echinata_), valuable for its timber and
+  colouring extract, and "roco" (_Bixa orellana_), the "urucu" of Brazil
+  which furnishes the anatto of commerce, are widely distributed in
+  central and southern Colombia, and another species of the first-named
+  genus, the _C. coariaria_, produces the "divi-divi" of the Colombian
+  export trade--a peculiarly shaped seed-pod, rich in tannic and gallic
+  acids, and used for tanning leather. The rubber-producing _Hevea
+  guayanensis_ is found in abundance on the Amazon tributaries, and the
+  _Castilloa elastica_ is common to all the Caribbean river valleys.
+  Southern Colombia, especially the eastern slopes of the Andes,
+  produces another valuable tree, the _Cinchona calisaya_, from the bark
+  of which quinine is made. These are but a few of the valuable cabinet
+  woods, dye-woods, &c., which are to be found in the forests, but have
+  hardly been reached by commerce because of their inaccessibility and
+  the unsettled state of the country. The adventurous orchid-hunter,
+  however, has penetrated deeply into their recesses in search of choice
+  varieties, and collectors of these valuable plants are largely
+  indebted to Colombia for their specimens of _Cattleya Mendelli_,
+  _Warscewiczii_ and _Trianae_; _Dowiana aurea_; _Odontoglossum
+  crispum_, _Pescatorei_, _vexillarium_, _odoratum_, _coronarium_,
+  _Harryanum_, and _blandum_; _Miltonia vexillaria_; _Oncidium
+  carthaginense_ and _Kramerianum_; _Masdevalliae_, _Epidendra_,
+  _Schomburgkiae_ and many others. Colombia is also the home of the
+  American "Alpine rose" (_Befaria_), which is to be found between 9000
+  and 11,000 ft. elevation, and grows to a height of 5-6 ft. Tree ferns
+  have a remarkable growth in many localities, their stems being used in
+  southern Cundinamarca to make corduroy roads. The South American
+  bamboo (_Bambusa guadia_) has a very wide range, and is found nearly
+  up to the limit of perpetual snow. The cactus is also widely
+  distributed, and is represented by several well-known species. Among
+  the more common fruit-trees, some of which are exotics, may be
+  mentioned cacao (_Theobroma_), orange, lemon, lime, pine-apple,
+  banana, guava (_Psidium_), breadfruit (_Artocarpus_), cashew
+  (_Anacardium_), alligator pear (_Persea_), with the apple, peach,
+  pear, and other fruits of the temperate zone on the elevated plateaus.
+  Other food and economic plants are coffee, rice, tobacco, sugar-cane,
+  cotton, indigo, vanilla, cassava or "yucca," sweet and white potatoes,
+  wheat, maize, rye, barley, and vegetables of both tropical and
+  temperate climates. It is claimed in Colombia that a species of wild
+  potato found on the _paramos_ is the parent of the cultivated potato.
+
+_Population._--The number of the population of Colombia is very largely
+a matter of speculation. A census was taken in 1871, when the population
+was 2,951,323. What the vegetative increase has been since then (for
+there has been no immigration) is purely conjectural, as there are no
+available returns of births and deaths upon which an estimate can be
+based. Civil war has caused a large loss of life, and the withdrawal
+from their homes of a considerable part of the male population, some of
+them for military service and a greater number going into concealment to
+escape it, and it is certain that the rate of increase has been small.
+Some statistical authorities have adopted 1-1/2% as the rate, but this is
+too high for such a period. All things considered, an annual increase of
+1% for the thirty-five years between 1871 and 1906 would seem to be more
+nearly correct, which would give a population in the latter
+year--exclusive of the population of Panama--of a little over 3,800,000.
+The _Statesman's Year Book_ for 1907 estimates it at 4,279,674 in 1905,
+including about 150,000 wild Indians, while Supan's _Die Bevolkerung der
+Erde_ (1904) places it at 3,917,000 in 1899. Of the total only 10% is
+classed as white and 15% as Indian, 40% as _mestizos_ (white and Indian
+mixture), and 35% negroes and their mixtures with the other two races.
+The large proportion of mestizos, if these percentages are correct, is
+significant because it implies a persistence of type that may largely
+determine the character of Colombia's future population, unless the more
+slowly increasing white element can be reinforced by immigration.
+
+The white contingent in the population of Colombia is chiefly composed
+of the descendants of the Spanish colonists who settled there during the
+three centuries following its discovery and conquest. Mining enterprises
+and climate drew them into the highlands of the interior, and there they
+have remained down to the present day, their only settlements on the
+hot, unhealthy coast being the few ports necessary for commercial and
+political intercourse with the mother country. The isolation of these
+distant inland settlements has served to preserve the language, manners
+and physical characteristics of these early colonists with less
+variation than in any other Spanish-American state. They form an
+intelligent, high-spirited class of people, with all the defects and
+virtues of their ancestry. Their isolation has made them ignorant to
+some extent of the world's progress, while a supersensitive patriotism
+blinds them to the discredit and disorganization which political strife
+and misrule have brought upon them. A very small proportion of the white
+element consists of foreigners engaged in commercial and industrial
+pursuits, but they very rarely become permanently identified with the
+fortunes of the country. The native whites form the governing class, and
+enjoy most of the powers and privileges of political office.
+
+Of the original inhabitants there remain only a few scattered tribes in
+the forests, who refuse to submit to civilized requirements, and a much
+larger number who live in organized communities and have adopted the
+language, customs and habits of the dominant race. Their total number is
+estimated at 15% of the population, or nearly 600,000, including the
+120,000 to 150,000 credited to the uncivilized tribes. Many of the
+civilized Indian communities have not become wholly Hispanicized and
+still retain their own dialects and customs, their attitude being that
+of a conquered race submitting to the customs and demands of a social
+organization of which they form no part. According to Uricoechea there
+are at least twenty-seven native languages spoken in the western part of
+Colombia, fourteen in Tolima, thirteen in the region of the Caqueta,
+twelve in Panama, Bolivar and Magdalena, ten in Bogota and Cundinamarca,
+and thirty-four in the region of the Meta, while twelve had died out
+during the preceding century. The tribes of the Caribbean seaboard, from
+Chiriqui to Goajira, are generally attached to the great Carib stock;
+those of the eastern plains show affinities with the neighbouring
+Brazilian races; those of the elevated Tuquerres district are of the
+Peruvian type; and the tribes of Antioquia, Cauca, Popayan and Neiva
+preserve characteristics more akin to those of the Aztecs than to any
+other race. At the time of the Spanish Conquest the most important of
+these tribes was the Muyscas or Chibchas, who inhabited the tablelands
+of Bogota and Tunja, and had attained a considerable degree of
+civilization. They lived in settled communities, cultivated the soil to
+some extent, and ascribed their progress toward civilization to a
+legendary cause remarkably similar to those of the Aztecs of Mexico and
+the Incas of Peru. They are represented by some tribes living on the
+head-waters of the Meta, and their blood flows in the veins of the
+_mestizos_ of the Bogota plateau. Their ancient language has been partly
+preserved through the labours of Gonzalo Bermudez, Jose Dadei, Bernardo
+de Lugo, and Ezequiel Uricoechea, the last having made it the subject of
+a special study. According to this author the Chibchas were composed of
+three loosely united nationalities governed by three independent
+chiefs--the _Zipa_ of Muequeta (the present Funza), the _Zaque_ of Hunsa
+(now Tunja), and the _Jeque_ of Iraca, who was regarded as the successor
+of the god Nemterequeteba, whom they worshipped as the author of their
+civilization. The latter had his residence at Suamoz, or Sogamoso.
+
+The Tayronas, of the Santa Marta highlands, who have totally
+disappeared, were also remarkable for the progress which they had made
+toward civilization. Evidence of this is to be found in the excellent
+roads which they constructed, and in the skilfully made gold ornaments
+which have been found in the district which they occupied, as well as in
+the contemporary accounts of them by their conquerors. Among the tribes
+which are still living in a savage state are the Mesayas, Caquetas,
+Mocoas, Amarizanos, Guipanabis and Andaquies of the unsettled eastern
+territories; the Goajiros, Motilones, Guainetas, and Cocinas of the Rio
+Hacha, Upar and Santa Marta districts; and the Dariens, Cunacunas, and
+Chocos of the Atrato basin. These tribes have successfully resisted all
+efforts to bring them under political and ecclesiastical control, and
+their subjection is still a matter of no small concern to the Colombian
+government. As late as the year 1900 Mr Albert Millican, while
+collecting orchids on the Opon river, a tributary of the Magdalena
+between Bogota and the Caribbean coast, was attacked by hostile Indians,
+and one of his companions was killed by a poisoned arrow. These hostile
+tribes are usually too small to make much trouble, but they are able to
+make exploration and settlement decidedly dangerous in some districts.
+
+The _mestizos_, like the whites and Indians, chiefly inhabit the more
+elevated regions of the interior. They are of a sturdy, patient type,
+like their Indian ancestors, and are sufficiently industrious to carry
+on many of the small industries and occupations, and to meet the labour
+requirements of the inhabited plateau districts. Those of the urban
+middle classes are shopkeepers and artizans, and those of the lower
+class are domestics and day labourers. The whites of Spanish descent
+object to manual labour, and this places all such occupations in the
+hands of the coloured races. In the country the _mestizos_ are small
+agriculturists, herders, labourers and fishermen; but there are many
+educated and successful merchants and professional men among them. There
+are no social barriers in their intercourse with the whites, nor race
+barriers against those who have political aspirations. The negroes of
+pure blood are to be found principally on the coastal plains and in the
+great lowland river valleys, where they live in great part on the
+bounties of nature. A small percentage of them are engaged in trade and
+other occupations; a few are small agriculturists.
+
+Bogota was reputed to be a centre of learning in colonial times, but
+there was no great breadth and depth to it, and it produced nothing of
+real value. By nature the Spanish-American loves art and literature, and
+the poetic faculty is developed in him to a degree rarely found among
+the Teutonic races. Writing and reciting poetry are universal, and fill
+as important a place in social life as instrumental music. In Colombia,
+as elsewhere, much attention has been given to belles-lettres among the
+whites of Spanish descent, but as yet the republic has practically
+nothing of a permanent character to show for it. The natural sciences
+attracted attention very early through the labours of Jose Celestino
+Mutis, who was followed by a number of writers of local repute, such as
+Zea, Cabal, Caldas, Pombo, Cespedes, Camacho and Lozano. We are indebted
+to Humboldt for our earliest geographical descriptions of the northern
+part of the continent, but to the Italian, Augustin Codazzi, who became
+a Colombian after the War of Independence, Colombia is indebted for the
+first systematic exploration of her territory. Geographical description
+has had a peculiar fascination for Colombian writers, and there have
+been a number of books issued since the appearance of Codazzi's
+_Resumen_ and _Atlas_. Historical writing has also received much
+attention, beginning with the early work of Jose Manuel Restrepo (1827),
+and a considerable number of histories, compendiums and memoirs have
+been published, but none of real importance. Some good work has been
+done in ethnography and archaeology by some writers of the colonial
+period, and by Ezequiel Uricoechea and Ernesto Restrepo.
+
+_Territorial Divisions and Towns._--Previously to 1903 the republic was
+divided into nine departments, which were then reduced to eight by the
+secession of Panama. This division of the national territory was
+modified in 1905, by creating seven additional departments from detached
+portions of the old ones, and by cutting up the unsettled districts of
+Goajira and the great eastern plains into four _intendencias_. The
+fifteen departments thus constituted, with the official estimates of
+1905 regarding their areas and populations, are as follows:--
+
+                       Area      Estimated                   Estimated
+  Department.         sq. m.     Population.   Capital.      Population.
+
+  Antioquia            24,400     750,000     Medellin        60,000
+  Atlantico             1,080     104,674     Barranquilla    40,115
+  Bolivar              23,940     250,000     Cartagena       14,000
+  Boyaca                4,630     350,000     Tunja           10,000
+  Caldas                7,920     150,000     Manizales       20,000
+  Cauca                26,030     400,000     Popayan         10,000
+  Cundinamarca          5,060     225,000     Facatativa      12,000
+  Galan                 6,950     300,000     San Gil         15,000
+  Huila                 8,690     150,000     Neiva           10,000
+  Magdalena            20,460     100,000     Santa Marta      6,000
+  Narino               10,040     200,000     Pasto            6,000
+  Quesada               2,900     300,000     Zipaquira       12,000
+  Santander            11,970     300,000     Bucaramanga     20,000
+  Tolima               10,900     200,000     Ibague          12,000
+  Tundama               2,390     300,000     Santa Rosa       6,000
+  Federal District       ..       200,000     Bogota         120,000
+  Intendencias (4)    277,620       ..          ..             ..
+                      -------   ---------     ------         ------
+        Totals        444,980   4,279,674       ..             ..
+
+Of these departments the original eight are Antioquia, Bolivar, Boyaca
+(or Bojaca), Cauca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Santander and Tolima. The
+four intendencias are called Goajira, Meta, Alto Caqueta and Putumayo,
+and their aggregate area is estimated to be considerably more than half
+of the republic. The first covers the Goajira peninsula, which formerly
+belonged to the department of Magdalena, and the other three roughly
+correspond to the drainage basins of the three great rivers of the
+eastern plains whose names they bear. These territories formerly
+belonged to the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca and Cauca. The seven
+new departments are: Atlantico, taken from the northern extremity of
+Bolivar; Caldas, the southern part of Antioquia; Galan, the southern
+districts of Santander, including Charala, Socorro, Velez, and its
+capital San Gil; Huila, the southern part of Tolima, including the
+headwaters of the Magdalena and the districts about Neiva and La Plata;
+Narino, the southern part of Cauca extending from the eastern Cordillera
+to the Pacific coast; Quesada, a cluster of small, well-populated
+districts north of Bogota formerly belonging to Cundinamarca, including
+Zipaquira, Guatavita, Ubate and Pacho; and Tundama, the northern part of
+Boyaca lying on the frontier of Galan in the vicinity of its capital
+Santa Rosa. The Federal District consists of a small area surrounding
+the national capital taken from the department of Cundinamarca. These
+fifteen departments are subdivided into provinces, 92 in all, and these
+into municipalities, of which there are 740.
+
+The larger cities and towns of the republic other than the department
+capitals, with their estimated populations in 1904, are:--
+
+  Aguadas (Antioquia)              13,000
+  Antioquia    "                   13,000
+  Barbacoas (Narino)               16,000
+  Buga (Cauca)                     12,500
+  Cali (Cauca)                     16,000
+  Chiquinquira (Boyaca)            18,000
+  La Mesa (Cundinamarca)           10,000
+  Pamplona (Santander)             11,000
+  Palmira (Cauca)                  15,000
+  Pie de Cuesta (Santander)        12,000
+  Puerto Nacional                  16,000
+  Rio Negro (Antioquia)            12,000
+  Santa Rosa de Osos (Antioquia)   11,000
+  Sonson                           15,000
+  San Jose de Cucuta (Santander)   13,000
+  Soata (Boyaca)                   16,000
+  Socorro (Galan)                  20,000
+  Velez     "                      15,000
+
+Among the smaller towns which deserve mention are Ambalema on the upper
+Magdalena, celebrated for its tobacco and cigars; Buenaventura (q.v.);
+Chaparral (9000), a market town of Tolima in the valley of the Saldana,
+with coal, iron and petroleum in its vicinity; Honda (6000), an
+important commercial centre at the head of navigation on the lower
+Magdalena; Girardot, a railway centre on the upper Magdalena; and
+Quibdo, a small river town at the head of navigation on the Atrato.
+
+_Communications._--The railway problem in Colombia is one of peculiar
+difficulty. The larger part of the inhabited and productive districts of
+the republic is situated in the mountainous departments of the interior,
+and is separated from the coast by low, swampy, malarial plains, and by
+very difficult mountain chains. These centres of production are also
+separated from each other by high ridges and deep valleys, making it
+extremely difficult to connect them by a single transportation route.
+The one common outlet for these districts is the Magdalena river, whose
+navigable channel penetrates directly into the heart of the country.
+From Bogota the Spaniards constructed two partially-paved highways, one
+leading down to the Magdalena in the vicinity of Honda, while the other
+passed down into the upper valley of the same river in a south-westerly
+direction, over which communication was maintained with Popayan and
+other settlements of southern Colombia and Ecuador. This highway was
+known as the _camino real_. Political independence and misrule led to
+the abandonment of these roads, and they are now little better than the
+bridle-paths which are usually the only means of communication between
+the scattered communities of the Cordilleras. In some of the more
+thickly settled and prosperous districts of the Eastern Cordillera these
+bridle paths have been so much improved that they may be considered
+reasonably good mountain roads, the traffic over them being that of pack
+animals and not of wheeled vehicles. Navigation on the lower Magdalena
+closely resembles that of the Mississippi, the same type of light-draft,
+flat-bottomed steamboat being used, and similar obstacles and dangers to
+navigation being encountered. There is also the same liability to change
+its channel, as shown in the case of Mompox, once an important and
+prosperous town of the lower plain situated on the main channel, now a
+decaying, unimportant place on a shallow branch 20 m. east of the main
+river. Small steamers also navigate the lower Cauca and Nechi rivers,
+and a limited service is maintained on the upper Cauca.
+
+With three exceptions all the railway lines of the country lead to the
+Magdalena, and are dependent upon its steamship service for
+transportation to and from the coast. In 1906, according to an official
+statement, these lines were: (1) The Barranquilla and Savanilla (Puerto
+Colombia), 17-1/2 m. in length; (2) the Cartagena and Calamar, 65 m.;
+(3) the La Dorada & Arancaplumas (around the Honda rapids), 20-1/2 m.;
+(4) the Colombian National, from Girardot to Facatativa, 80 m., of which
+48-1/2 m. were completed in 1906; (5) the Girardot to Espinal, 13-1/2
+m., part of a projected line running south-west from Girardot; (6) the
+Sabana railway, from Bogota to Facatativa, 25 m.; (7) the Northern, from
+Bogota to Zipaquira, 31 m.; (8) the Southern, from Bogota to Sibate, 18
+m.; and (9) the Puerto Berrio & Medellin, about 78 m. long, of which 36
+are completed. The three lines which do not connect with the Magdalena
+are: (1) the Cucuta and Villamazar, 43-1/2 m., the latter being a port
+on the Zulia river near the Venezuelan frontier; (2) the Santa Marta
+railway, running inland from that port through the banana-producing
+districts, with 41-1/2 m. in operation in 1907; and (3) the Buenaventura
+and Cali, 23 m. in operation inland from the former. This gives a total
+extension of 383 m. in 1906, of which 226 were built to connect with
+steamship transportation on the Magdalena, 49 to unite Bogota with
+neighbouring localities, and 108 to furnish other outlets for productive
+regions. There is no system outlined in the location of these detached
+lines, though in 1905-1908 President Reyes planned to connect them in
+such a way as to form an extensive system radiating from the national
+capital. Tramway lines were in operation in Bogota, Barranquilla and
+Cartagena in 1907.
+
+The telegraph and postal services are comparatively poor, owing to the
+difficulty of maintaining lines and carrying mails through a rugged and
+uninhabited tropical country. The total length of telegraph lines in
+1903 was 6470 m., the only cable connexion being at Buenaventura, on the
+Pacific coast. All the principal Caribbean ports and department capitals
+are connected with Bogota, but interruptions are frequent because of the
+difficulty of maintaining lines through so wild a country.
+
+There are only five ports, Buenaventura, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa
+Marta and Rio Hacha, which are engaged in foreign commerce, though
+Tumaco and Villamazar are favourably situated for carrying on a small
+trade with Ecuador and Venezuela. Colombia has no part in the carrying
+trade, however, her merchants marine in 1905 consisting of only one
+steamer of 457 tons and five sailing vessels of 1385 tons. Aside from
+these, small steamers are employed on some of the small rivers with
+barges, called "bongoes," to bring down produce and carry back
+merchandise to the inland trading centres. The coasting trade is
+insignificant, and does not support a regular service of even the
+smallest boats. The foreign carrying trade is entirely in the hands of
+foreigners, in which the Germans take the lead, with the British a close
+second. The Caribbean ports are in frequent communication with those of
+Europe and the United States.
+
+  _Agriculture._--The larger part of the Colombian population is engaged
+  in agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Maize, wheat and other cereals
+  are cultivated on the elevated plateaus, with the fruits and
+  vegetables of the temperate zone, and the European in Bogota is able
+  to supply his table very much as he would do at home. The plains and
+  valleys of lower elevation are used for the cultivation of coffee and
+  other sub-tropical products, the former being produced in nearly all
+  the departments at elevations ranging from 3500 to 6500 ft. This
+  industry has been greatly prejudiced by civil wars, which not only
+  destroyed the plantations and interrupted transportation, but deprived
+  them of the labouring force essential to their maintenance and
+  development. It is estimated that the revolutionary struggle of
+  1899-1903 destroyed 10% of the able-bodied agricultural population of
+  the Santa Marta district, and this estimate, if true, will hold good
+  for all the inhabited districts of the Eastern Cordillera. The best
+  coffee is produced in the department of Cundinamarca in the almost
+  inaccessible districts of Fusagasaga and La Palma. Tolima coffee is
+  also considered to be exceptionally good. The department of Santander,
+  however, is the largest producer, and much of its output in the past
+  has been placed upon the market as "Maracaibo," the outlet for this
+  region being through the Venezuelan port of that name. Coffee
+  cultivation in the Santa Marta region is receiving much attention on
+  account of its proximity to the coast.
+
+  The tropical productions of the lower plains include, among others,
+  many of the leading products of the world, such as cacao, cotton,
+  sugar, rice, tobacco, and bananas, with others destined wholly for
+  home consumption, as yams, cassava and arracacha. Potatoes are widely
+  cultivated in the temperate and sub-tropical regions, and sweet
+  potatoes in the sub-tropical and tropical. Although it is found
+  growing wild, cacao is cultivated to a limited extent, and the product
+  is insufficient for home consumption. Cotton is cultivated only on a
+  small scale, although there are large areas suitable for the plant.
+  The staple product is short, but experiments have been initiated in
+  the Santa Marta region to improve it. Sugar cane is another plant
+  admirably adapted to the Colombian lowlands, but it is cultivated to
+  so limited an extent that the sugar produced is barely sufficient for
+  home consumption. Both cultivation and manufacture have been carried
+  on in the old time way, by the rudest of methods, and the principal
+  product is a coarse brown sugar, called _panela_, universally used by
+  the poorer classes as an article of food and for making a popular
+  beverage. Antiquated refining processes are also used in the
+  manufacture of an inferior white sugar, but the quantity produced is
+  small, and it is unable to compete with beet-sugar from Germany. A
+  considerable part of the sugar-cane produced is likewise devoted to
+  the manufacture of _chicha_ (rum), the consumption of which is common
+  among the Indians and half-breeds of the Andean regions.
+
+  Rice is grown to a very limited extent, though it is a common article
+  of diet and the partially submerged lowlands are naturally adapted to
+  its production. Tobacco was cultivated in New Granada and Venezuela in
+  colonial times, when its sale was a royal monopoly and its cultivation
+  was restricted to specified localities. The Colombian product is best
+  known through the Ambalema, Girardot, and Palmira tobacco, especially
+  the Ambalema cigars, which are considered by some to be hardly
+  inferior to those of Havana, but the plant is cultivated in other
+  places and would probably be an important article of export were it
+  possible to obtain labourers for its cultivation. Banana cultivation
+  for commercial purposes is a comparatively modern industry, dating
+  from 1892 when the first recorded export of fruit was made. Its
+  development is due to the efforts of an American fruit-importing
+  company, which purchased lands in the vicinity of Santa Marta for the
+  production of bananas and taught the natives that the industry could
+  be made profitable. A railway was built inland for the transportation
+  of fruit to Santa Marta, and is being extended toward the Magdalena as
+  fast as new plantations are opened. The growth of the industry is
+  shown in the export returns, which were 171,891 bunches for 1892, and
+  1,397,388 bunches for 1906, the area under cultivation being about
+  7000 acres in the last-mentioned year. Yams, sweet potatoes, cassava
+  and arracacha are chiefly cultivated for domestic needs, but in common
+  with other fruits and vegetables they give occupation to the small
+  agriculturalists near the larger towns.
+
+  The pastoral industry dates from colonial times and engages the
+  services of a considerable number of people, but its comparative
+  importance is not great. The open plains, "mesas," and plateaus of the
+  north support large herds of cattle, and several cattle ranches have
+  been established on the Meta and its tributaries. Live cattle, to a
+  limited extent, are exported to Cuba and other West Indian markets,
+  but the chief produce from this industry is hides. The department of
+  Santander devotes considerable attention to horse-breeding. Goats are
+  largely produced for their skins, and in some localities, as in Cauca,
+  sheep are raised for their wool. Swine are common to the whole
+  country, and some attention has been given to the breeding of mules.
+
+  _Minerals._--The mineral resources of Colombia are commonly believed
+  to be the principal source of her wealth, and this because of the
+  precious metals extracted from her mines since the Spanish invasion.
+  The estimate aggregate for three and a half centuries is certainly
+  large, but the exact amount will probably never be known, because the
+  returns in colonial times were as defective as those of disorderly
+  independence have been. Humboldt and Chevalier estimated the total
+  output down to 1845 at L1,200,000, which Professor Soetbeer
+  subsequently increased to L169,422,750. A later Colombian authority,
+  Vicente Restrepo, whose studies of gold and silver mining in Colombia
+  have been generally accepted as conclusive and trustworthy, after a
+  careful sifting of the evidence on which these two widely diverse
+  conclusions were based and an examination of records not seen by
+  Humboldt and Soetbeer, reaches the conclusion that the region
+  comprised within the limits of the republic, including Panama, had
+  produced down to 1886 an aggregate of L127,800,000 in gold and
+  L6,600,000 in silver. This aggregate he distributes as follows:--
+
+    16th century      L10,600,000
+    17th    "          34,600,000
+    18th    "          41,000,000
+    19th    "          41,600,000
+
+  According to his computations the eight Colombian departments,
+  omitting Panama, had produced during this period in gold and silver:--
+
+    Antioquia         L50,000,000
+    Cauca              49,800,000
+    Tolima             10,800,000
+    Santander           3,000,000
+    Bolivar             1,400,000
+    Cundinamarca          360,000
+    Magdalena             200,000
+    Boyaca                 40,000
+                     ------------
+                     L115,600,000
+
+  Three-fourths of the gold production, he estimates, was derived from
+  alluvial deposits. Large as these aggregates are, it will be seen that
+  the annual production was comparatively small, the highest average,
+  that for the 19th century, being less than L500,000 a year. Toward the
+  end of the 19th century, after a decline in production due to the
+  abolition of slavery and to civil wars, increased interest was shown
+  abroad in Colombian mining operations. Medellin, the capital of
+  Antioquia, is provided with an electrolytic refining establishment,
+  several assaying laboratories, and a mint. The department of Cauca is
+  considered to be the richest of the republic in mineral deposits, but
+  it is less conveniently situated for carrying on mining operations.
+  Besides this, the extreme unhealthiness of its most productive
+  regions, the Choco and Barbacoas districts on the Pacific slope, has
+  been a serious obstacle to foreign enterprise. Tolima is also
+  considered to be rich in gold and (especially) silver deposits. East
+  of the Magdalena the production of these two metals has been
+  comparatively small. In compensation the famous emerald mines of Muzo
+  and Coscuez are situated in an extremely mountainous region north of
+  Bogota and near the town of Chiquinaquira, in the department of
+  Boyaca. The gems are found in a matrix of black slate in what appears
+  to be the crater of a volcano, and are mined in a very crude manner.
+  The mines are owned by the government. The revenue was estimated at
+  L96,000 for 1904. Platinum is said to have been discovered in Colombia
+  in 1720, and has been exported regularly since the last years of the
+  18th century. It is found in many parts of the country, but chiefly in
+  the Choco and Barbacoas districts, the annual export from the former
+  being about 10,000 in value. Of the bulkier and less valuable minerals
+  Colombia has copper, iron, manganese, lead, zinc and mercury. Coal is
+  also found at several widely-separated places, but is not mined. There
+  are also indications of petroleum in Tolima and Bolivar. These
+  minerals, however, are of little value to the country because of their
+  distance from the seaboards and the costs of transportation. Salt is
+  mined at Zipaquira, near Bogota, and being a government monopoly, is a
+  source of revenue to the national treasury.
+
+  _Manufactures._--The Pradera iron works, near Bogota, carry on some
+  manufacturing (sugar boilers, agricultural implements, &c.) in
+  connexion with their mining and reducing operations. Pottery and
+  coarse earthenware are made at Espinal, in Tolima, where the natives
+  are said to have had a similar industry before the Spanish conquest.
+  There are woollen mills at Popayan and Pasto, and small cigar-making
+  industries at Ambalema and Palmira. Hat-making from the "jipijapa"
+  fibre taken from the _Carludovica_ palm is a domestic industry in many
+  localities, and furnishes an article of export. Friction matches are
+  made from the vegetable wax extracted from the _Ceroxylon_ palm, and
+  are generally used throughout the interior. Rum and sugar are products
+  of a crude manufacturing industry dating from colonial times. A modern
+  sugar-mill and refinery at Sincerin, 28 m. from Cartagena, was the
+  first of its kind erected in the republic. It is partially supported
+  by the government, and the concession provides that the production of
+  sugar shall not be less than 2,600,000 lb per annum.
+
+  _Commerce._--In the Barranquilla customs returns for 1906 the imports
+  were valued at $6,787,055 (U.S. gold), on which the import duties were
+  $4,333,028, or an average rate of 64%. According to a statistical
+  summary issued in 1906 by the U.S. Bureau of Statistics, entitled
+  "Commercial America in 1905," the latest official return to the
+  foreign trade of Colombia was said to be that of 1898, which was:
+  imports 11,083,000 _pesos_, exports 19,158,000 _pesos_. Uncertainty in
+  regard to the value of the _peso_ led the compiler to omit the
+  equivalents in U.S. gold, but according to foreign trade returns these
+  totals represent gold values, which at 4s. per peso are: imports
+  L2,216,600, exports L3,831,600. In his annual message to congress on
+  the 1st of April 1907, President Reyes stated that the imports for
+  1904 were $14,453,000, and the exports $12,658,000, presumably U.S.
+  gold, as the figures are taken from the _Monthly Bulletin_ of the
+  Bureau cf American Republics (July 1907). An approximate equivalent
+  would be: imports L3,011,000, exports L2,637,000; which shows a small
+  increase in the first and a very large decrease in the second. The
+  imports include wheat flour, rice, barley, prepared foods, sugar,
+  coal, kerosene, beer, wines and liquors, railway equipment, machinery
+  and general hardware, fence wire, cotton and other textiles, drugs,
+  lumber, cement, paper, &c., while the exports comprise coffee,
+  bananas, hides and skins, tobacco, precious metals, rubber, cabinet
+  woods, divi-divi, dye-woods, vegetable ivory, Panama hats, orchids,
+  vanilla, &c.
+
+_Government._--The government of Colombia is that of a centralized
+republic composed of 15 departments, 1 federal district, and 4
+intendencias (territories). It is divided into three co-ordinate
+branches, legislative, executive and judicial, and is carried on under
+the provisions of the constitution of 1886, profoundly modified by the
+amendments of 1905. Previous to 1886, the departments were practically
+independent, but under the constitution of that year the powers of the
+national government were enlarged and strengthened, while those of the
+departments were restricted to purely local affairs. The departments are
+provided with biennial departmental assemblies, but their governors are
+appointees of the national executive.
+
+The legislative branch consists of a senate and chamber of deputies,
+which meets at Bogota biennially (after 1908) on February 1st for an
+ordinary session of ninety days. The Senate is composed of 48 members--3
+from each department chosen by the governor and his departmental
+council, and 3 from the federal district chosen by the president himself
+and two of his cabinet ministers. Under this arrangement the president
+practically controls the choice of senators. Their term of office is
+four years, and is renewed at the same time and for the same period as
+those of the lower house. The chamber is composed of 67 members, elected
+by popular suffrage in the departments, on the basis of one
+representative for each 50,000 of population. The intendencias are
+represented by one member each, who is chosen by the intendant, his
+secretary, and 3 citizens elected by the municipal council of the
+territorial capital. As the constituent assembly which amended the
+constitution, according to the president's wishes in 1905, was to
+continue in office until 1908 and to provide laws for the regulation of
+elections and other public affairs, it appeared that the president would
+permit no expression of popular dissent to interfere with his purpose to
+establish a dictatorial regime in Colombia similar to the one in Mexico.
+
+The executive power is vested in a president chosen by Congress for a
+period of four years. The first presidential period, dating from the 1st
+of January 1905, was for ten years, and no restriction was placed upon
+the choice of President Rafael Reyes to succeed himself. The constituent
+assembly gave the president exceptional powers to deal with all
+administrative matters. He is assisted by a cabinet of six ministers,
+interior, foreign affairs, finance, war, public instruction and public
+works, who are chosen and may be removed by himself. The office of
+vice-president is abolished, and the president is authorized to choose a
+temporary substitute from his cabinet, and in case of his death or
+resignation his successor is chosen by the cabinet or the governor of a
+department who happens to be nearest Bogota at the time. The president
+is authorized to appoint the governors of departments, the intendants of
+territories, the judges of the supreme and superior courts, and the
+diplomatic representatives of the republic. His salary, as fixed by the
+1905 budget, is L3600 a year, and his cabinet ministers receive L1200
+each. The council of state is abolished and the senate is charged with
+the duty of confirming executive appointments.
+
+The judicial branch of the government, like the others, has been in
+great measure reorganized. It consists of a supreme court of seven
+members at Bogota, and a superior court in each judicial district. There
+are various inferior courts also, including magistrates or _jueces de
+paz_, but their organization and functions are loosely defined and not
+generally understood outside the republic. The supreme court has
+appellate jurisdiction in judicial matters, and original jurisdiction in
+impeachment trials and in matters involving constitutional
+interpretation. Under the constitution of 1886 the judges of the higher
+courts were appointed for life, but the reforms of 1905 changed their
+tenure to five years for the supreme court and four years for the
+superior courts, the judges being eligible for re-appointment.
+
+The departments, which are administered by governors representing the
+national executive, are permitted to exercise restricted legislative
+functions relating to purely local affairs. Municipal councils are also
+to be found in the larger towns. The governor is assisted by a
+departmental council consisting of his secretaries and the president of
+the Corte de Cuentas, which places the political administration of the
+department under the direct control of the president at Bogota.
+
+The strength of the army is determined annually by congress, but every
+able-bodied citizen is nominally liable to military service. Its peace
+footing in 1898 was 1000 men. After the war of 1899-1903 its strength
+was successively reduced to 10,000 and 5000, a part of this force being
+employed in the useful occupation of making and repairing public roads.
+The navy in 1906 consisted of only three small cruisers on the Caribbean
+coast, and two cruisers, two gunboats, one troopship and two steam
+launches on the Pacific. There was also one small gunboat on the
+Magdalena.
+
+  _Education._--Although Bogota was reputed to be an educational centre
+  in colonial times, so slight an influence did this exert upon the
+  country that Colombia ended the 19th century with no effective public
+  school system, very few schools and colleges, and fully 90% of
+  illiteracy in her population. This is due in great measure to the long
+  reign of political disorder, but there are other causes as well. As in
+  Chile, the indifference of the ruling class to the welfare of the
+  common people is a primary cause of their ignorance and poverty, to
+  which must be added the apathy, if not opposition, of the Church.
+  Under such conditions primary schools in the villages and rural
+  districts were practically unknown, and the parish priest was the only
+  educated person in the community. Nominally there was a school system
+  under the supervision of the national and departmental governments,
+  but its activities were limited to the larger towns, where there were
+  public and private schools of all grades. There were universities in
+  Bogota and Medellin, the former having faculties of letters and
+  philosophy, jurisprudence and political science, medicine and natural
+  sciences, and mathematics and engineering, with an attendance of 1200
+  to 1500 students. The war of 1899-1903 so completely disorganized this
+  institution that only one faculty, medicine and natural sciences, was
+  open in 1907. There were also a number of private schools in the
+  larger towns, usually maintained by religious organizations. The
+  reform programme of President Reyes included a complete reorganization
+  of public instruction, to which it is proposed to add normal schools
+  for the training of teachers, and agricultural and technical schools
+  for the better development of the country's material resources. The
+  supreme direction of this branch of the public service is entrusted to
+  the minister of public instruction, and state aid is to be extended to
+  the secondary, as well as to the normal, technical and professional
+  schools. The secondary schools receiving public aid, however, have
+  been placed in charge of religious corporations of the Roman Catholic
+  Church. The expenditure on account of public instruction, which
+  includes schools of all grades and descriptions, is unavoidably small,
+  the appropriation for the biennium 1905-1906 being only L167,583. The
+  school and college attendance for 1906, according to the president's
+  review of that year, aggregated 218,941, of whom 50,691 were in
+  Antioquia, where the whites are more numerous than in any other
+  department; 4916 in Atlantico, which includes the city of
+  Barranquilla, and in which the negro element preponderates; and only
+  12,793 in the federal district and city of Bogota where the _mestizo_
+  element is numerous. Although primary instruction is gratuitous it is
+  not compulsory, and these figures clearly demonstrate that school
+  privileges have not been extended much beyond the larger towns. The
+  total attendance, however, compares well with that of 1897, which was
+  143,096, although it shows that only 5% of the population,
+  approximately, is receiving instruction.
+
+  _Religion._--The religious profession of the Colombian people is Roman
+  Catholic, and is recognized as such by the constitution, but the
+  exercise is permitted of any other form of worship which is not
+  contrary to Christian morals or to the law. There is one Protestant
+  church in Bogota, but the number of non-Catholics is small and
+  composed of foreign residents. There has been a long struggle between
+  liberals and churchmen in Colombia, and at one time the latter
+  completely lost their political influence over the government, but the
+  common people remained loyal to the Church, and the upper classes
+  found it impossible to sever the ties which bound them to it. The
+  constitution of 1861 disestablished the Church, confiscated a large
+  part of its property, and disfranchised the clergy, but in 1886
+  political rights were restored to the latter and the Roman Catholic
+  religion was declared to be the faith of the nation. The rulers of the
+  Church have learned by experience, however, that they can succeed best
+  by avoiding partisan conflicts, and the archbishop of Bogota gave
+  effect to this in 1874 by issuing an edict instructing priests not to
+  interfere in politics. The Church influence with all classes is
+  practically supreme and unquestioned, and it still exercises complete
+  control in matters of education. The Colombian hierarchy consists of
+  an archbishop, residing at Bogota, 10 bishops, 8 vicars-general, and
+  2170 priests. There were also in 1905 about 750 members of 10 monastic
+  and religious orders. There were 270 churches and 312 chapels in the
+  republic. Each diocese has its own seminary for the training of
+  priests.
+
+  _Finance._--In financial matters Colombia is known abroad chiefly
+  through repeated defaults in meeting her bonded indebtedness, and
+  through the extraordinary depreciation of her paper currency. The
+  public revenues are derived from import duties on foreign merchandise,
+  from export duties on national produce, from internal taxes and
+  royalties on liquors, cigarettes and tobacco, matches, hides and salt,
+  from rentals of state emerald mines and pearl fisheries, from stamped
+  paper, from port dues and from postal and telegraph charges. The
+  receipts and expenditure are estimated for biennial periods, but it
+  has not been customary to publish detailed results. Civil wars have of
+  course been a serious obstacle, but it was announced by President
+  Reyes in 1907 that the revenues were increasing. For the two years
+  1905 and 1906 the revenues were estimated to produce (at $5 to the L1
+  sterling) L4,203,823, the expenditures being fixed at the same amount.
+  The expenditures, however, did not include a charge of L424,000,
+  chiefly due on account of war claims and requisitions. During the
+  first year of this period the actual receipts, according to the
+  council of the corporation of foreign bondholders, were $9,149,591
+  gold (L1,829,918) and the payments $7,033,317 gold (L1,406,663). It
+  was expected by the government that the 1906 revenues would largely
+  exceed 1905, but the expectation was not fully realized, chiefly, it
+  may be assumed, because of the inability of an impoverished people to
+  meet an increase in taxation. An instance of this occurred in the
+  promising export of live cattle to Cuba and Panama, which was
+  completely suppressed in 1906 because of a new export tax of $3 gold
+  per head. Of the expenditures about one-fourth is on account of the
+  war department.
+
+  The foreign debt, according to the 1896 arrangement with the
+  bondholders which was renewed in 1905, is L2,700,000, together with
+  unpaid interest since 1896 amounting to L351,000 more. Under the 1905
+  arrangement the government undertook to pay the first coupons at 2-1/2%
+  and succeeding ones at 3%, pledging 12 to 15% of the customs receipts
+  as security. The first payments were made according to agreement, and
+  it was believed in 1907 that the succeeding ones, together with
+  one-half of the unpaid interest since 1896, would also be met. It is
+  worthy of note that this debt, principal and accumulated interest,
+  exceeded six and a half millions sterling in 1873, and that the
+  bondholders surrendered about 60% of the claim in the hope of securing
+  the payment of the balance. It is also worthy of note that Panama
+  refused to assume any part of this debt without a formal recognition
+  of her independence by Colombia, and even then only a sum
+  proportionate to her population. The internal debt of Colombia in June
+  1906 was as follows:--
+
+    Consolidated   5,476,887 dollars silver,
+    Floating       2,345,658   "     gold.
+
+  Whether or not this included the unpaid war claims was not stated.
+
+  _Money._---The monetary system, which has been greatly complicated by
+  the use of two depreciated currencies, silver and paper, has been
+  undergoing a radical reform since 1905, the government proposing to
+  redeem the depreciated paper and establish a new uniform currency on a
+  gold basis. The paper circulation in 1905 exceeded 700,000,000
+  _pesos_. The issue began in 1881 through the Banco Nacional de
+  Colombia, its value then being equal to that of the silver coinage.
+  Political troubles in 1884-1885 led to a suspension of cash payments
+  in 1885, and in 1886 Congress made the notes inconvertible and of
+  forced circulation. In 1894 the Banco Nacional ceased to exist as a
+  corporation, and thenceforward the currency was issued for account of
+  the national treasury. On October 16, 1899--the outstanding
+  circulation then amounting to 46,000,000 _pesos_,--the government
+  decreed an unlimited issue to meet its expenditures in suppressing the
+  revolution, and later on the departments of Antioquia, Bolivar, Cauca,
+  and Santander were authorized to issue paper money for themselves.
+  This suicidal policy continued until February 28, 1903, when,
+  according to an official statement, the outstanding paper circulation
+  was:--
+
+                                 Pesos.
+    National government issues   600,398,581
+    Department of Antioquia       35,938,495.60
+         "     "  Bolivar         18,702,100
+         "     "  Cauca           44,719,688.70
+         "     "  Santander          750,000
+                                 --------------
+                                 700,598,865.30
+
+  So great was the depreciation of this currency that before the end of
+  the war 100 American gold dollars were quoted at 22,500 _pesos_. The
+  declaration of peace brought the exchange rate down to the
+  neighbourhood of 10,000, where it remained, with the exception of a
+  short period during the Panama Canal negotiations, when it fell to
+  6000. This depreciation (10,000) was equivalent to a loss of 99% of
+  the nominal value of the currency, a paper _peso_ of 100 _centavos_
+  being worth only one centavo gold. International commercial
+  transactions were based on the American gold dollar, which was usually
+  worth 100 _pesos_ of this depreciated currency. Even at this
+  valuation, the recognized outstanding circulation (for there had been
+  fraudulent issues as well) amounted to more than L1,400,000. In 1903
+  Congress adopted a gold dollar of 1.672 grammes weight .900 fine
+  (equal to the U.S. gold dollar) as the monetary standard created a
+  redemption bureau for the withdrawal of the paper circulation,
+  prohibited the further issue of such currency, and authorized free
+  contracts in any currency. Previous to that time the law required all
+  contracts to specify payments in paper currency. Certain rents and
+  taxes were set aside for the use of the redemption bureau, and a
+  nominally large sum has been withdrawn from circulation through this
+  channel. On the 1st of January 1906, another monetary act came into
+  operation, with additional provisions for currency redemption and
+  improvement of the monetary system. A supplementary act of 1906 also
+  created a new national banking institution, called the Banco Central,
+  which is made a depository of the public revenues and is charged with
+  a considerable part of their administration, including payments on
+  account of the foreign debt and the conversion of the paper currency
+  into coin. The new law likewise reaffirmed the adoption of a gold
+  dollar of 1.672 grammes .900 fine as the unit of the new coinage,
+  which is:--
+
+    _Gold_:--
+        Double condor      =  20 dollars.
+        Condor             =  10   "
+        Half condor        =   5   "
+        Dollar (mon. unit) = 100 cents.
+    _Silver_:--
+        Half dollar        =  50 cents.
+        Peseta             =  20   "
+        Real               =  10   "
+    _Nickel_:--5 cents.
+    _Bronze_:--2 cents and 1 cent.
+
+  The silver coinage (.900 fine) is limited to 10%, and the nickel and
+  bronze coins to 2% of the gold coinage. The new customs tariff, which
+  came into force at the same time, was an increase of 70% on the rates
+  of 1904, and provided that the duties should be paid in gold, or in
+  paper at the current rate of exchange. This measure was designed to
+  facilitate the general resumption of specie payments.
+
+  _Weights and Measures._--The metric system of weights and measures has
+  been the legal standard in Colombia since 1857, but its use is
+  confined almost exclusively to international trade. In the interior
+  and in all domestic transactions the old Spanish weights and measures
+  are still used--including the Spanish _libra_ of 1.102 lb avoirdupois,
+  the _arroba_ of 25 _libras_ (12-1/2 kilogrammes), the quintal of 100
+  _libras_ (50 kilog.), the _carga_ of 250 _libras_ (125 kilogs.), the
+  _vara_ of 80 centimetres, and the _fanega_. The litre is the standard
+  liquid measure.     (A. J. L.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+The coast of Colombia was one of the first parts of the American
+continent visited by the Spanish navigators. Alonso de Ojeda touched at
+several points in 1499 and 1501; and Columbus himself visited Veragua,
+Portobello, and other places in his last voyage in 1502. In 1508 Ojeda
+obtained from the Spanish crown a grant of the district from Cape Vela
+westward to the Gulf of Darien, while the rest of the country from the
+Gulf of Darien to Cape Gracias-a-Dios was bestowed on his
+fellow-adventurer, Nicuessa. The two territories designated respectively
+Nueva Andalucia and Castella de Oro were united in 1514 into the
+province of Tierra-firma, and entrusted to Pedro Arias de Avila. In
+1536-1537 an expedition under Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada made their way
+from Santa Marta inland by the river Magdalena, and penetrated to
+Bogota, the capital of the Muiscas or Chibchas. Quesada gave to the
+country the name of New Granada.
+
+By the middle of the century the Spanish power was fairly established,
+and flourishing communities arose along the coasts, and in the
+table-lands of Cundinamarca formerly occupied by the Muiscas. For the
+better government of the colony the Spanish monarch erected a presidency
+of New Granada in 1564, which continued till 1718, when it was raised to
+the rank of a viceroyalty. In the following year, however, the second
+viceroy, D. Jorge Villalonga, Count de la Cueva, expressing his opinion
+that the maintenance of this dignity was too great a burden on the
+settlers, the viceroyalty gave place to a simple presidency. In 1740 it
+was restored, and it continued as long as the Spanish authority,
+including within its limits not only the present Colombia, but also
+Venezuela and Ecuador. An insurrection against the home government was
+formally commenced in 1811, and an incessant war against the Spanish
+forces was waged till 1824.
+
+In 1819 the great national hero, Bolivar (q.v.), effected a union
+between the three divisions of the country, to which was given the title
+of the Republic of Colombia; but in 1829 Venezuela withdrew, and in
+1830, the year of Bolivar's death, Quito or Ecuador followed her
+example. The Republic of New Granada was founded on the 21st of November
+1831; and in 1832 a constitution was promulgated, and the territory
+divided into eighteen provinces, each of which was to have control of
+its local affairs. The president was to hold office for four years; and
+the first on whom the dignity was bestowed was General Francisco de
+Paula Santander. His position, however, was far from enviable; for the
+country was full of all the elements of unrest and contention. One of
+his measures, by which New Granada became responsible for the half of
+the debts of the defunct republic of Colombia, gave serious offence to a
+large party, and he was consequently succeeded not, as he desired, by
+Jose Maria Obando, but by a member of the opposition, Jose Ignacio de
+Marquez. This gave rise to a civil war, which lasted till 1841, and not
+only left the country weak and miserable, but afforded an evil precedent
+which has since been too frequently followed. The contest terminated in
+favour of Marquez, and he was succeeded in May 1841 by Pedro Alcantara
+Herran, who had assisted to obtain the victory. In 1840 the province of
+Cartagena had seceded, and the new president had hardly taken office
+before Panama and Veragua also declared themselves independent, under
+the title of the State of the Isthmus of Panama. Their restoration was,
+however, soon effected; the constitution was reformed in 1843; education
+was fostered, and a treaty concluded with the English creditors of the
+republic. Further progress was made under General Tomas de Mosquera from
+1845 to 1848; a large part of the domestic debt was cleared off,
+immigration was encouraged, and free trade permitted in gold and
+tobacco. The petty war with Ecuador, concluded by the peace of Santa
+Rosa de Carchi, is hardly worthy of mention. From 1849 to 1852 the reins
+were in the hands of General Jose Hilario Lopez, a member of the
+democratic party, and under him various changes were effected of a
+liberal tendency. In January 1852 slavery was entirely abolished. The
+next president was Jose Maria Obando, but his term of office had to be
+completed by vice-presidents Obaldia and Mallarino.
+
+In 1853 an important alteration of the constitution took place, by which
+the right was granted to every province to declare itself independent,
+and to enter into merely federal connexion with the central republic,
+which was now known as the Granadine Confederation. In 1856 and 1857
+Antioquia and Panama took advantage of the permission. The Conservative
+party carried their candidate in 1857, Mariano Ospino, a lawyer by
+profession; but an insurrection broke out in 1859, which was fostered by
+the ex-president Mosquera, and finally took the form of a regular civil
+war. Bogota was captured by the democrats in July 1861, and Mosquera
+assumed the chief power. A congress at Bogota established a republic,
+with the name of the United States of Colombia, adopted a new federal
+constitution, and made Mosquera dictator. Meanwhile the opposite party
+was victorious in the west; and their leader, Julio Arboleda, formed an
+alliance with Don Garcia Moreno, the president of Ecuador. He was
+assassinated, however, in 1862; and his successor, Leonardo Canal, came
+to terms with Mosquera at Cali. The dictatorship was resigned into the
+hands of a convention (February 1863) at Rio Negro, in Antioquia; a
+provisional government was appointed, a constitution was drawn up, and
+Mosquera elected president till 1864. An unsuccessful attempt was also
+made to restore the union between the three republics of the former
+federation. The presidency of Manuel Murillo Toro (1864-1866) was
+disturbed by various rebellions, and even Mosquera, who next came to the
+helm, found matters in such a disorganized condition that he offered to
+retire. On the refusal of his resignation, he entered into a struggle
+with the majority in the congress, and ultimately resorted to an
+adjournment and the unconstitutional arrest of 68 of the senators and
+representatives. To the decree of impeachment published by the congress
+he replied by a notice of dissolution and a declaration of war; but he
+soon found that the real power was with his opponents, who effected his
+arrest, and condemned him first to two years' imprisonment, but
+afterwards by commutation to two years' exile. The presidency of Santos
+Gutierrez (1868-1870) was disturbed by insurrections in different parts
+of the republic, the most important of which was that in Panama, where
+the most absolute disorganization prevailed. Under his successor,
+General E. Salgar, a Liberal candidate elected in opposition to General
+Herran, a treaty was finally concluded with the United States in
+connexion with an interoceanic canal, a bank was established at Bogota,
+and educational reforms instituted. Manuel Murillo Toro (1872-1874) and
+Santiago Perez (1874-1876) saw the country apparently acquiring
+constitutional equilibrium, and turning its energies to the development
+of its matchless resources.
+
+The election for the presidential term 1876-1878 resulted in favour of
+Aquiles Parra, who was succeeded in April 1878 by General Julian
+Trujillo. His administration was marked by a strong effort to place the
+financial position of the government on a more satisfactory footing, and
+the internal indebtedness was substantially reduced during his rule. In
+April 1880 Senor Rafael Nunez acceded to the presidency. During his term
+of office revolutionary disturbances occurred in the provinces of Cauca
+and Antioquia, but were suppressed with no great difficulty. Provision
+was made in 1880 for a settlement of the boundary dispute with Costa
+Rica, and in July of that year the federal Congress authorized the
+formation of a naval squadron. A movement was now set afoot in favour of
+a confederation of the three republics of Colombia, Ecuador and
+Venezuela on the basis of the original conditions existing after the
+expulsion of Spanish authority, and a resolution was passed by the
+chamber of deputies to that effect. The opposition shown by Venezuela
+and Ecuador to this project prevented any definite result from being
+achieved. In April 1882 Senor Francisco J. Laldua became president, but
+his death occurring a year later, General Jose Eusebio Otalora was
+nominated to exercise the executive power for the unexpired portion of
+the term. In 1883 the dispute in connexion with the boundary between
+Colombia and Venezuela was submitted by the two governments to the
+arbitration of Alphonso XII., king of Spain, and a commission of five
+members was appointed to investigate the merits of the respective
+claims. The decision in this dispute was finally given by the queen
+regent of Spain on the 16th of March 1891. In April 1884 Senor Rafael
+Nunez was again proclaimed president of the republic in his absence
+abroad. Pending his return the administration was left in the hands of
+General Campo Serrano and General Eliseo Payan. The Liberal party had
+been instrumental in the re-election of Nunez, and looked for a policy
+in conformity with their views and political convictions. President
+Nunez had no sooner returned to Colombia than the Liberals discovered
+that his political opinions had changed and had become strongly
+Conservative. Discontent at this condition of affairs soon spread. Nunez
+from motives of ill-health did not openly assume the presidential
+office, but from his house near Cartagena he practically directed the
+government of the republic. The Liberals now began to foment a series of
+revolutionary movements, and these led in 1885 to a civil war extending
+over the departments of Boyaca, Cundinamarca, Magdalena and Panama.
+General Reyes and General Velez were the two principal leaders of the
+revolt. In order to protect the passage of the traffic across the
+Isthmus of Panama during these disturbed times detachments of United
+States marines were landed at Panama and Colon, in accordance with the
+terms of the concession under which the railway had been constructed.
+After a number of defeats the leaders of the revolt surrendered in
+August 1885, and on the 5th of September following peace was officially
+proclaimed. Nunez, who had meanwhile assumed the presidential duties,
+now brought about a movement in favour of a fresh Act of Constitution
+for Colombia, and a new law to that effect was finally approved and
+promulgated on 4th August 1886. Under the terms of this act the federal
+system of government for Colombia was abolished, the states becoming
+departments, the governors of these political divisions being appointed
+by the president of the republic. Each department has a local
+legislative assembly elected by the people. The national congress is
+constituted of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate
+is composed of twenty-seven members elected for six years, one-third
+retiring every two years, three of whom are nominated by each of the
+nine departments. The House of Representatives comprises members elected
+for four years by universal suffrage, each department forming a
+constituency and returning one member for every 50,000 inhabitants.
+Congress convenes every two years. The presidential term of office under
+the new act was fixed at six years in place of the two years formerly
+prevailing. The judiciary was irremovable, and trial by jury was allowed
+for criminal offences. Capital punishment was re-established, and the
+press was made responsible for matter published. The unlicensed trade in
+arms and ammunition thitherto existing was prohibited. Previous to 1886
+the crime of murder was only punishable by 10 years' imprisonment, a
+sentence which in practice was reduced to two-thirds of that term;
+slander and libel were formerly offences which the law had no power to
+restrain, and no responsibility attached to seditious publications.
+
+After the promulgation of this new Act of Constitution President Nunez
+was proclaimed as president of the republic for the term ending in 1892.
+He was unable, however, in consequence of ill-health, to reside at
+Bogota and discharge the presidential duties, and consequently in August
+1888 Senor Carlos Holguin was designated to act for him. In 1892
+President Nunez was again elected to the presidency for a term of six
+years, his continued ill-health, however, forcing him to place the
+active performance of his duties in the hands of the vice-president,
+Senor Miguel Caro. In 1895 the Liberals made another attempt to seize
+the government of the country, but the movement was suppressed without
+any very great difficulty. In this same year Nunez died, and
+Vice-President Caro became the actual president, an office he had
+practically filled during the three previous years. In 1898 Senor M. A.
+Sanclemente, a strong Conservative, and supported by the Church party,
+was elected to the presidency for the period ending in 1904. In October
+1899 the Liberals organized another revolutionary outbreak for the
+purpose of trying to wrest the power from Conservatives, but this
+attempt had no better success than the movements of 1885 and 1895. In
+January 1900, however, Vice-President Jose Marroquin seized upon the
+government, imprisoned President Sanclemente (who died in prison in
+March 1902), and another period of disturbance began. The rebels were
+defeated in May in a desperate battle at Cartagena; and continuous
+fighting went on about Panama, where British marines had to be landed to
+protect foreign interests. As the year 1900 advanced, the conflict went
+on with varying success, but the government troops were generally
+victorious, and in August Vice-President Marroquin was recognized as the
+acting head of the executive, with a cabinet under General Calderon. In
+1901 the rebellion continued, and severe fighting took place about
+Colon. Further complications arose in August, when trouble occurred
+between Colombia and Venezuela. On the one hand, there were grounds for
+believing that the Clericals and Conservatives in both countries were
+acting together; and, on the other, it was expected that President
+Castro of Venezuela would not be sorry to unite his own countrymen, and
+to divert their attention from internal affairs, by a war against
+Colombia. The Colombian revolutionary leaders had made use of the
+Venezuelan frontier as a base of operations, and the result was an
+invasion of Venezuelan territory by Colombian government troops, an
+incident which at once caused a diplomatic quarrel. The United States
+government in September offered its good offices, but President Castro
+refused them, and the state of affairs became gradually more menacing.
+Meanwhile both Panama and Colon were seriously threatened by the rebel
+forces, who in November succeeded in capturing Colon by surprise. The
+situation was complicated by the fact that the railway traffic on the
+Isthmus was in danger of interruption, and on the capture of Colon it
+became necessary for the American, British and French naval authorities
+to land men for the protection of the railway and of foreign interests.
+
+On the 18th of September the Venezuelans, who had entered Colombia, were
+totally routed near La Hacha, and after fierce fighting the insurgents
+at Colon were compelled to surrender on the 29th of November. But the
+Civil War was not yet ended. For another eight months it was to
+continue, causing immense damage to property and trade, and the loss of
+tens of thousands of lives. In many towns and villages the male
+population was almost entirely destroyed. Not till June 1903 was
+internal peace finally restored. In the autumn of that same year
+Colombia, exhausted and half ruined, was to suffer a further severe loss
+in the secession of Panama.
+
+The abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty in 1901, and the failure of
+the second French company to construct a canal between Colon and Panama
+(see PANAMA CANAL) had, after many hesitations, induced the United
+States government to abandon the Nicaragua route and decide on adopting
+that of Panama. Negotiations were set on foot with Colombia, and an
+arrangement--under what was known as the Hay-Herran treaty--was made to
+the following effect. Colombia agreed (1) to the transfer of the rights,
+under the concession, of the French company to the United States; (2) to
+cede, on a hundred years' lease, a right of way for the canal, and a
+strip of land 5m. broad on either side of the waterway, and the two
+ports of Colon and Panama. The United States agreed to pay Colombia (1)
+L2,000,000 down in cash, and, ten years later, an annual rental of
+L50,000, and further a share of the price paid to the French company,
+_i.e._ L8,000,000, in which Colombia held 50,000 shares. This treaty was
+signed by the plenipotentiaries and ratified by the United States
+Senate. The Colombian Congress, however, refused to ratify the treaty on
+the ground that when the negotiations had taken place the country was in
+a state of siege, really in the hope of securing a larger money payment.
+The adjournment took place on the 31st of October. On the 3rd of
+November a revolution broke out at Panama, and the state seceded from
+Colombia and declared itself to be an independent republic. This
+opportune revolution was no doubt fomented by persons interested in the
+carrying through of the United States scheme for piercing the isthmus,
+but their task was one that presented no difficulties, for the isthmian
+population had been in a state of perennial insurrection against the
+central government for many years. Whoever may have instigated the
+rising, this much is certain, that American warships prevented the
+Colombian troops from landing to suppress the revolt. On the 7th of
+November the United States government formally recognized the
+independence of the republic of Panama (q.v.). The other powers in
+succession likewise recognized the new state; the recognition of Great
+Britain was given on the 26th of December. Colombia thus sacrificed a
+great opportunity of obtaining, by the ratification of the Hay-Herran
+treaty, such a pecuniary recompense for the interest in the territory
+through which the canal was to be constructed as would have gone far to
+re-establish her ruined financial credit.
+
+In 1904 the troubled term of President Marroquin came to an end, and by
+the narrowest of majorities General Rafael Reyes was elected in his
+place. He had been sent as a special envoy to Washington to protest
+against the recognition of Panama, and to attempt to revive the
+Hay-Herran treaty, and to secure favourable terms for Colombia in the
+matter of the canal. He failed to do so, but it was recognized that he
+had discharged his difficult task with great skill and ability. On his
+accession to office as president he found the country exhausted and
+disorganized, more especially in the department of finance, and the
+congress was on the whole hostile to him. Finding himself hampered in
+his efforts to reform abuses, the president dissolved the congress, and
+summoned a national constituent and legislative assembly to meet on the
+15th of March 1905, and with its aid proceeded to modify the
+constitution.
+
+Having personal acquaintance with the success of the rule of President
+Porfirio Diaz in Mexico, General Reyes determined to set about the
+regeneration of Colombia by similar methods. His tenure of the
+presidency was extended to a term of ten years from the 1st of January
+1905, and the restriction as to re-election at the end of that term was
+withdrawn, other alterations being made in the constitution with the
+effect of placing General Reyes really in the position of a dictator. He
+soon proved that he had the ability and the integrity of purpose to use
+his great opportunity for the benefit of his country. His firm and
+masterful government and wise measures did much to allay the spirit of
+unrest which had so long been the bane of Colombia, and though an
+attempt at assassination was made in the spring of 1906, the era of
+revolution appeared to be over.
+
+The chief foreign treaties entered into by Colombia in the last quarter
+of the 19th century were:--(1) A treaty with Great Britain, signed on
+the 27th of October 1888, for the extradition of criminals; (2) a treaty
+of friendship, commerce and navigation with Italy, signed on the 27th of
+October 1892; (3) two protocols with Italy, signed respectively on the
+24th of May and on the 25th of August 1886, in connexion with the affair
+of the Italian subject Cerruti; (4) a consular convention with Holland,
+signed on the 20th of July 1881; (5) a treaty of peace and friendship
+with Spain, signed on the 30th of January 1881; (6) a convention with
+Spain for the reciprocal protection of intellectual property; (7) a
+concordat with the Vatican, signed on the 31st of December 1887; (8) an
+agreement with the Vatican, signed on the 20th of August 1892, in
+connexion with ecclesiastical jurisdiction; (9) an agreement with the
+republic of San Salvador, signed on the 24th of December 1880, in regard
+to the despatch of a delegate to an international congress; (10) a
+treaty of peace, friendship and commerce with Germany, signed on the
+23rd of July 1892; (11) a treaty with the republic of Costa Rica, signed
+in 1880, for the delimitation of the boundary; (12) the postal
+convention, signed at Washington, on the 4th of July 1891; (13) a
+convention with Great Britain, signed on the 31st of July 1896, in
+connexion with the claim of Messrs Punchard, M'Taggart, Lowther & Co.;
+(14) a treaty of friendship, commerce and navigation with Peru, signed
+on the 6th of August 1898; (15) an extradition treaty with Peru, signed
+on the 6th of August 1898; (16) a treaty of peace, friendship and
+defensive alliance with Venezuela, signed on the 21st of November 1896,
+and on the same date a treaty regulating the frontier commerce. (G. E.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--C. E. Akers, _A History of South America, 1854-1904_
+  (New York, 1905); J. J. Borda, _Compendio de historia de Colombia_
+  (Bogota, 1890); Salvador Roldan Camacho, _Notas de viaje_ (Bogota,
+  1890), and _Escritos varios_ (Bogota, 1892); Dr Alfred Hettner,
+  _Reisen in den colombianischen Anden_ (Leipzig, 1888); Angel Lemos,
+  _Compendio de geografia de la Republica de Colombia_ (Medellin, 1894);
+  Albert Millican, _Travels and Adventures of an Orchid Hunter_ (London,
+  1891); J. M. Cordovez Mauro, _Reminiscencias Santafe y Bogota_
+  (Bogota, 1899); Norris and Laird (Bureau of Navigation), _Telegraphic
+  Determination of Longitudes in Mexico, Central America, the West
+  Indies, and on the North Coast of South America_ (Washington, 1891);
+  R. Nunez and H. Jalhay, _La Republique de Colombia, geographie,
+  histoire, &c._ (Bruxelles, 1893); J. M. Q. Otero, _Historia Patria_
+  (Bogota, 1891); Lisimaco Palau, _La Republica de Colombia_ (1893); M.
+  Paz and F. Perez, _Atlas geografico e historico de la Republica de
+  Colombia_ (1893); R. S. Pereira, _Les Etats Unis de Colombia_ (Paris,
+  1883); Felipe Perez, _Geografia general, fisica y politica de los
+  Estados Unidos de Colombia_ (Bogota, 1883); F. Loraine Petrie, _The
+  Republic of Colombia_ (London, 1906); Elisee Reclus, _Geografia de
+  Colombia_ (Bogota, 1893); W. Reiss and A. Stubel, _Reisen in
+  Sudamerika. Geologische Studien in der Republik Colombia_ (Berlin,
+  1893); Ernesto Restrepo, _Ensayo etnografico y arqueologico de la
+  provincia de los Quimbayas_ (Bogota, 1892), and _Estudios sobre los
+  aborigines de Colombia_ (Bogota, 1892); Vicente Restrepo, _Estudio
+  sobre las minas de oro y plata de Colombia_ (Bogota, 1888, translated
+  by C. W. Fisher, New York, 1886); W. L. Scruggs, _The Colombian and
+  Venezuelan Republics_ (London, 1899; Boston, 1900); W. Sievers,
+  _Reisen in der Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta_ (Leipzig, 1887); F. J.
+  Vergara y Velasco, _Nueva geografia de Colombia_ (Bogota, 1892); Frank
+  Vincent, _Around and About South America_ (New York, 1890); R. G.
+  Watson, _Spanish and Portuguese South America during the Colonial
+  Period_ (2 vols., London, 1884).
+
+  See also the diplomatic and consular reports of Great Britain and the
+  United States; publications of the International Bureau of American
+  Republics (Washington, D.C.); Bureau of Statistics, _Commercial
+  America in 1905_ (Washington, 1906).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See A. Hettner and G. Linck, "Beitrage zur Geologie und
+    Petrographie der columbianischen Anden," _Zeits. deutsch. geol. Ges._
+    vol. xl. (1888), pp. 204-230; W. Sievers, "Die Sierra Nevada de Santa
+    Marta und die Sierra de Perija," _Zeits. Ges. Erdk. Berlin_, vol.
+    xxiii. (1888), pp. 1-158 and p. 442, Pls. i. and iii.; A. Hettner,
+    "Die Kordillere von Bogota," _Peterm. Mitt._, Erganzungsheft 104
+    (1892), and "Die Anden des westlichen Columbiens," _Peterm. Mitt._
+    (1893), pp. 129-136; W. Reiss and A. Stubel, _Reisen in Sud America.
+    Geologische Studien in der Republik Colombia_ (Berlin, 1892-1899),--a
+    good geological bibliography will be found in part ii. of this work.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBIER, PIERRE BERTRAND DE (1299-1361), French cardinal and
+diplomatist, was born at Colombier in Ardeche. He was nephew and
+namesake of Cardinal Pierre Bertrand of Annonay. After a careful
+juristic education he was successively advocate at the parlement of
+Paris, intendant of the council of the count of Nevers (1321), and
+counsellor-clerk to the parlement (1329). Having taken holy orders, he
+became dean of St Quentin in 1330, and was employed to negotiate the
+marriage of the duke of Normandy, the future king John the Good of
+France, with the daughter of the king of Bohemia. In 1335 he became
+bishop of Nevers, in 1339 of Arras, and contributed to bring the county
+of Flanders into the kingdom of France. Created cardinal priest of St
+Susanna in 1344, he was employed by the pope on important missions,
+notably to negotiate peace or an armistice between France and England.
+Having become bishop of Ostia in 1353, he was sent next year to Charles
+IV. of Germany, and induced him to come to Italy to be crowned emperor
+at Rome, 1355. In 1356 he went to France to try to arrange a peace with
+England, and died in 1361 at the priory of Montaud near Avignon.
+
+  See A. Mazon, _Essai historique sur l'etat du Vivarais pendant la
+  guerre de cent ans_ (Paris, 1889), with references there.
+
+
+
+
+COLOMBO, the capital and principal seaport of Ceylon, situated on the
+west coast of the island. Pop. (1901) 154,691. Colombo stands to the
+south of the mouth of the river Kelani. The coast-land is here generally
+low-lying, but broken by slight eminences. The great artificial harbour,
+enclosed by breakwaters, is bounded on the south by a slight promontory.
+This is occupied by the quarter of the city known as the Fort, from the
+former existence of a fort founded by the Portuguese and reconstructed
+by the Dutch. In 1869 the governor, Sir Hercules Robinson (afterwards
+Lord Rosmead), obtained authority to demolish the fortifications, which
+were obsolete for purposes of defence, and required 6000 men to man them
+properly. The levelling of the walls and filling up of the moat made the
+Fort much more accessible and healthy, and since then it has become the
+business centre of the city. Here are situated Queen's House, the
+governor's residence; the secretariat or government offices, and other
+government buildings, such as the fine general post office and the
+customs house. Here also are most of the principal hotels, which have a
+peculiarly high reputation among European hotels in the East. A lofty
+tower serves as the principal lighthouse of the port and also as a
+clock-tower. On the south side of the Fort are extensive barracks. The
+old banqueting-hall of the Dutch governors is used as the garrison
+church of St Peter.
+
+To the north-east of the Fort, skirting the harbour, are the Pettah, the
+principal native quarter, the districts of Kotahena and Mutwall, and
+suburbs beyond. In this direction the principal buildings are the
+Wolfendahl church, a massive Doric building of the Dutch (1749); the
+splendid Roman Catholic cathedral of St Lucia (completed in 1904); and
+St Thomas's College (1851), which follows the lines of an English public
+school. Close to this last is the Anglican cathedral of Christ Church.
+The Kotahena temple is the chief Buddhist temple in Colombo.
+
+To the north-east of the Fort is the Lake, a ramifying sheet of fresh
+water, which adds greatly to the beauty of the site of Colombo, its
+banks being clothed with luxuriant foliage and flowers. The narrow
+isthmus between this lake and the sea, south of the Fort, is called
+Galle Face, and is occupied chiefly by promenades and recreation
+grounds. The peninsula enclosed by two arms of the Lake is known as
+Slave Island, having been the site of a slave's prison under the Dutch.
+South-east of this is the principal residential quarter of Colombo, with
+the circular Victoria Park as its centre. To the east of the park a
+series of parallel roads, named after former British governors, are
+lined with beautiful bungalows embowered in trees. This locality is
+generally known as the Cinnamon Gardens, as it was formerly a Dutch
+reserve for the cultivation of the cinnamon bush, many of which are
+still growing here. In the park is the fine Colombo Museum, founded by
+Sir William Gregory; and near the neighbouring Campbell Park are the
+handsome buildings of a number of institutions, such as Wesley College,
+and the General, Victoria Memorial Eye and other hospitals. South of
+Victoria Park is the Havelock racecourse. Among educational
+establishments not hitherto mentioned are the Royal College, the
+principal government institution, the government technical college and
+St Joseph's Roman Catholic college. Most of the town is lighted by gas,
+and certain quarters with electric light, and electric tramways have
+been laid over several miles of the city roads. The water-supply is
+drawn from a hill region 30 m. distant.
+
+Under British rule Colombo has shared in the prosperity brought to the
+island by the successive industries of coffee and tea-planting. At the
+height of the coffee-growing enterprise 20,000 men, women and children,
+chiefly Sinhalese and Tamils, found employment in the large factories
+and stores of the merchants scattered over the town, where the coffee
+was cleaned, prepared, sorted and packed for shipment. Tea, on the
+contrary, is prepared and packed on the estates; but there is a
+considerable amount of work still done in the Colombo stores in sorting,
+blending and repacking such teas as are sold at the local public sales;
+also in dealing with cacao, cardamoms, cinchona bark and the remnant
+still left of the coffee industry. But it is to its position as one of
+the great ports of call of the East that Colombo owes its great and
+increasing importance. A magnificent breakwater, 4200 ft. long, the
+first stone of which was laid by the prince of Wales in 1875, was
+completed in 1884. This breakwater changed an open roadstead into a
+harbour completely sheltered on the most exposed or south-west side; but
+there was still liability in certain months to storms from the
+north-west and south-east. Two additional arms were therefore
+constructed, consisting of a north-east and north-west breakwater,
+leaving two openings, one 800 ft. and the other 700 ft. wide, between
+the various sections. The area enclosed is 660 acres. A first-class
+graving-dock, of which the Admiralty bore half the cost, has also been
+added. These improvements caused Galle to be abandoned as a port of call
+for steamers in favour of Colombo, while Trincomalee has been abandoned
+as a naval station. The port has assumed first-class importance, mail
+steamers calling regularly as well as men-of-war and the mercantile
+marine of all nations; and it is now one of the finest artificial
+harbours in the world. The extension of railways also has concentrated
+the trade of the island upon the capital, and contributed to its rise in
+prosperity.
+
+Colombo was originally known as the Kalantotta or Kalany ferry. By the
+Arabs the name was changed to Kolambu, and the town was mentioned by Ibn
+Batuta in 1346 as the largest and finest in Serendib. In 1517 the
+Portuguese effected a settlement, and in 1520 they fortified their port
+and bade defiance to the native besiegers. In 1586 the town was invested
+by Raja Singh, but without success. On its capture by the Dutch in 1656
+it was a flourishing colony with convents of five religious orders,
+churches and public offices, inhabited by no fewer than 900 noble
+families and 1500 families dependent on mercantile or political
+occupations. In 1796 it was surrendered to the British.
+
+
+
+
+COLON (formerly known as ASPINWALL), a city of the Republic of Panama,
+on the Atlantic coast, in the Bay of Limon, and 47 m. by rail N.W. of
+the city of Panama. Pop. (1908) about 3000, consisting largely of
+Jamaica negroes and natives of mixed Spanish, Indian and African
+descent. It is served by the Panama railway, which crosses the Isthmus
+of Panama from ocean to ocean. Colon has a deep, though poorly sheltered
+harbour, and is either the terminus or a place of call for seven lines
+of steamships. It thus serves as an entrepot for much of the commerce
+between Atlantic and Pacific ports, and between the interior towns of
+Central and South America and the cities of Europe and the United
+States. The city lies on the west side of the low island of Manzanillo,
+is bordered on the landward sides by swamp, and consists mainly of
+unimposing frame houses and small shops. The most attractive parts are
+the American quarter, where the employes of the Panama railway have
+their homes, and the old French quarter, where dwelt the French officers
+during their efforts to build the canal. In this last district, near the
+mouth of the old canal, stands a fine statue of Christopher Columbus,
+the gift of the empress Eugenie in 1870. Here also stands the mansion
+erected and occupied by Ferdinand de Lesseps during his residence on the
+isthmus. With the exception of railway shops, there are no important
+industrial establishments.
+
+Colon dates its origin from the year 1850, when the island of Manzanillo
+was selected as the Atlantic terminus of the Panama railway. The
+settlement was at first called Aspinwall, in honour of William H.
+Aspinwall (1807-1875), one of the builders of the railway; but some
+years afterwards its name was changed by legislative enactment to Colon,
+in honour of Christopher Columbus, who entered Limon Bay in 1502. The
+original name, however, survived among the English-speaking inhabitants
+for many years after this change. With the completion of the railway in
+1855, the town supplanted Chagres (q.v.) as the principal Atlantic port
+of the isthmus. Later it acquired increased importance through its
+selection by de Lesseps as the site for the Atlantic entrance to his
+canal. During the revolution of 1885 it was partly burned and was
+rebuilt on a somewhat larger plan. As the city has always been
+notoriously unhealthful, the United States, on undertaking the
+construction of the Panama Canal (q.v.), became interested in preventing
+its becoming a centre of infection for the Canal Zone, and by the treaty
+of November 1903 secured complete jurisdiction in the city and harbour
+over all matters relating to sanitation and quarantine, and engaged to
+construct a system of waterworks and sewers in the municipality, which
+had been practically completed in 1907. The United States government has
+also opened a port at Cristobal, within the Canal Zone.
+
+
+
+
+COLON, a town of Matanzas province, Cuba, on the railway between
+Matanzas and Santa Clara, and the centre of a rich sugar-planting
+country. Pop. (1907) 7124.
+
+
+
+
+COLON, (1) (Gr. [Greek: kolon], miswritten and mispronounced as [Greek:
+kolon], the term being taken from [Greek: kolos], curtailed), in
+anatomy, that part of the greater intestine which extends from the
+caecum to the rectum (see ALIMENTARY CANAL). (2.) (Gr. [Greek: kolon], a
+member or part), originally in Greek rhetoric a short clause longer
+than the "comma," hence a mark (:), in punctuation, used to show a break
+in construction greater than that marked by the semicolon (;), and less
+than that marked by the period or full stop. The sign is also used in
+psalters and the like to mark off periods for chanting. The word is
+applied in palaeography to a unit of measure in MSS., amounting in
+length to a hexameter line.
+
+
+
+
+COLONEL (derived either from Lat. _columna_, Fr. _colonne_, column, or
+Lat. _corona_, a crown), the superior officer of a regiment of infantry
+or cavalry; also an officer of corresponding rank in the general army
+list. The colonelcy of a regiment formerly implied a proprietary right
+in it. Whether the colonel commanded it directly in the field or not, he
+always superintended its finance and interior economy, and the
+emoluments of the office, in the 18th century, were often the only form
+of pay drawn by general officers. The general officers of the 17th and
+18th centuries were invariably colonels of regiments, and in this case
+the active command was exercised by the lieutenant-colonels. At the
+present day, British general officers are often, though not always,
+given the colonelcy of a regiment, which has become almost purely an
+honorary office. The sovereign, foreign sovereigns, royal princes and
+others, hold honorary colonelcies, as colonels-in-chief or honorary
+colonels of many regiments. In other armies, the regiment being a
+fighting unit, the colonel is its active commander; in Great Britain the
+lieutenant-colonel commands in the field the battalion of infantry and
+the regiment of cavalry. Colonels are actively employed in the army at
+large in staff appointments, brigade commands, &c. extra-regimentally.
+Colonel-general, a rank formerly used in many armies, still survives in
+the German service, a colonel-general (_General-Oberst_) ranking between
+a general of infantry, cavalry or artillery, and a general field marshal
+(_General-Feldmarschall_). Colonels-general are usually given the
+honorary rank of general field marshal.
+
+
+
+
+COLONIAL OFFICE, the department of the administration of the United
+Kingdom which deals with questions affecting the various colonial
+possessions of the British crown. The department as it now exists is of
+comparatively modern creation, dating only from 1854. The affairs of the
+English colonies began to assume importance at the Restoration, and were
+at first entrusted to a committee of the privy council, but afterwards
+transferred to a commission created by letters patent. From 1672 to 1675
+the council for trade was combined with this commission, but in the
+latter year the colonies were again placed under the control of the
+privy council. This arrangement continued until 1695, when a Board of
+Trade and Plantations was created; its duty, however, was confined to
+collecting information and giving advice when required. The actual
+executive work was performed by the secretary of state for the southern
+department, who was assisted, from 1768 to 1782, by a secretary of state
+for the colonies. Both the Board of Trade and Plantations and the
+additional secretary were abolished in 1782, and the executive business
+wholly given over to the home office. In 1794 a third secretary of state
+was reappointed, and in 1801 this secretary was designated as secretary
+of state for war and the colonies. In 1854 the two offices were
+separated, and a distinct office of secretary of state for the colonies
+created.
+
+The secretary of state for the colonies is the official medium of
+communication with colonial governments; he has certain administrative
+duties respecting crown colonies, and has a right of advising the veto
+of an act of a colonial legislature--this veto, however, is never
+exercised in the case of purely local statutes. He is assisted by a
+permanent and a parliamentary under-secretary and a considerable
+clerical staff.
+
+As reorganized in 1907 the colonial office consists of three chief
+departments: (1) the Dominions Department, dealing with the affairs of
+the self-governing over-sea dominions of the British crown, and of
+certain other possessions geographically connected with those dominions;
+(2) the Colonial Department, dealing with the affairs of crown colonies
+and protectorates; (3) the General Department, dealing with legal,
+financial and other general business. In addition to these three
+departments, standing committees exist to take a collective view of
+such matters as contracts, concessions, mineral and other leases, and
+patronage.
+
+
+
+
+COLONNA, a noble Roman family, second only to the Gaetani di Sermoneta
+in antiquity, and first of all the Roman houses in importance. The popes
+Marcellinus, Sixtus III., Stephen IV. and Adrian III. are said to have
+been members of it, but the authentic pedigree of the family begins with
+Pietro, lord of Columna, Palestrina and Paliano (about 1100), probably a
+brother of Pope Benedict IX. His great grandson Giovanni had two sons,
+respectively the founders of the Colonna di Paliano and Colonna di
+Sciarra lines. The third, or Colonna-Romano line, is descended from
+Federigo Colonna (1223). In the 12th century we find the Colonna as
+counts of Tusculum, and the family was then famous as one of the most
+powerful and turbulent of the great Roman clans; its feuds with the
+Orsini and the Gaetani are a characteristic feature of medieval Rome and
+the Campagna; like the other great nobles of the Campagna the Colonna
+plundered travellers and cities, and did not even spare the pope himself
+if they felt themselves injured by him. Boniface VIII. attempted to
+break their power, excommunicated them in 1297, and confiscated their
+estates. He proclaimed a crusade against them and captured Palestrina,
+but they afterwards revenged themselves by besieging him at Anagni, and
+Sciarra Colonna laid violent hands on His Holiness, being with
+difficulty restrained from actually murdering him (1303). In 1347 the
+Colonna, at that time almost an independent power, were defeated by Cola
+di Rienzi, but soon recovered. Pope Martin V. (1417-1431) was a Colonna,
+and conferred immense estates on his family, including Marino, Frascati,
+Rocca di Papa, Nettuno, Palinao, &c., in the Campagna, and other fiefs
+in Romagna and Umbria. Their goods were frequently confiscated and
+frequently given back, and the house was subject to many changes of
+fortune; during the reign of Pope Alexander VI. they were again humbled,
+but they always remained powerful and important, and members of the
+family rose to eminence as generals, prelates and statesmen in the
+service of the Church or other powers. In the war of 1522 between France
+and Spain there were Colonna on both sides, and at the battle of Lepanto
+(1571) Marc Antonio Colonna, who commanded the papal contingent, greatly
+distinguished himself. A detailed record of the Colonna family would be
+a history of Rome. To-day there are three lines of Colonna: (1) Colonna
+di Paliano, with two branches, the princes and dukes of Paliano, and the
+princes of Stigliano; (2) Colonna di Sciarra, with two branches, Colonna
+di Sciarra, princes of Carbagnano, and Barberini-Colonna, princes of
+Palestrina; and (3) Colonna-Romano. The Colonna palace, one of the
+finest in Rome, was begun by Martin V. and contains a valuable picture
+and sculpture gallery.
+
+  See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Berlin, 1868),
+  containing an elaborate account of the family; F. Gregorovius,
+  _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Stuttgart, 1872); _Almanack de Gotha_.
+       (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+COLONNA, GIOVANNI PAOLO (_circa_ 1637-1695), Italian musician, was born
+in Bologna about 1637 and died in the same city on the 28th of November
+1695. He was a pupil of Filippuzzi in Bologna, and of Abbatini and
+Benevoli in Rome, where for a time he held the post of organist at S.
+Apollinare. A dated poem in praise of his music shows that he began to
+distinguish himself as a composer in 1659. In that year he was chosen
+organist at S. Petronio in Bologna, where on the 1st of November 1674 he
+was made chapel-master. He also became president of the Philharmonic
+Academy of Bologna. Most of Colonna's works are for the church,
+including settings of the psalms for three, four, five and eight voices,
+and several masses and motets. He also composed an opera, under the
+title _Amilcare_, and an oratorio, _La Profezia d' Eliseo_. The emperor
+Leopold I. received a copy of every composition of Colonna, so that the
+imperial library in Vienna possesses upwards of 83 church compositions
+by him. Colonna's style is for the most part dignified, but is not free
+from the inequalities of style and taste almost unavoidable at a period
+when church music was in a state of transition, and had hardly learnt
+to combine the gravity of the old style with the brilliance of the new.
+
+
+
+
+COLONNA, VITTORIA (1490-1547), marchioness of Pescara, Italian poet,
+daughter of Fabrizio Colonna, grand constable of the kingdom of Naples,
+and of Anna da Montefeltro, was born at Marino, a fief of the Colonna
+family. Betrothed when four years old at the instance of Ferdinand, king
+of Naples, to Ferrante de Avalos, son of the marquis of Pescara, she
+received the highest education and gave early proof of a love of
+letters. Her hand was sought by many suitors, including the dukes of
+Savoy and Braganza, but at nineteen, by her own ardent desire, she was
+married to de Avalos on the island of Ischia. There the couple resided
+until 1511, when her husband offered his sword to the League against the
+French. He was taken prisoner at the battle of Ravenna (1512) and
+conveyed to France. During the months of detention and the long years of
+campaigning which followed, Vittoria and Ferrante corresponded in the
+most passionate terms both in prose and verse. They saw each other but
+seldom, for Ferrante was one of the most active and brilliant captains
+of Charles V.; but Vittoria's influence was sufficient to keep him from
+joining the projected league against the emperor after the battle of
+Pavia (1525), and to make him refuse the crown of Naples offered to him
+as the price of his treason. In the month of November of the same year
+he died of his wounds at Milan. Vittoria, who was hastening to tend him,
+received the news of his death at Viterbo; she halted and turned off to
+Rome, and after a brief stay departed for Ischia, where she remained for
+several years. She refused several suitors, and began to produce those
+_Rime spirituali_ which form so distinct a feature in her works. In 1529
+she returned to Rome, and spent the next few years between that city,
+Orvieto, Ischia and other places. In 1537 we find her at Ferrara, where
+she made many friends and helped to establish a Capuchin monastery at
+the instance of the reforming monk Bernardino Ochino, who afterwards
+became a Protestant. In 1539 she was back in Rome, where, besides
+winning the esteem of Cardinals Reginald Pole and Contarini, she became
+the object of a passionate friendship on the part of Michelangelo, then
+in his sixty-fourth year. The great artist addressed some of his finest
+sonnets to her, made drawings for her, and spent long hours in her
+society. Her removal to Orvieto and Viterbo in 1541, on the occasion of
+her brother Ascanio Colonna's revolt against Paul III., produced no
+change in their relations, and they continued to visit and correspond as
+before. She returned to Rome in 1544, staying as usual at the convent of
+San Silvestro, and died there on the 25th of February 1547.
+
+Cardinal Bembo, Luigi Alamanni and Baldassare Castiglione were among her
+literary friends. She was also on intimate terms with many of the
+Italian Protestants, such as Pietro Carnesecchi, Juan de Valdes and
+Ochino, but she died before the church crisis in Italy became acute,
+and, although she was an advocate of religious reform, there is no
+reason to believe that she herself became a Protestant. Her life was a
+beautiful one, and goes far to counteract the impression of the
+universal corruption of the Italian Renaissance conveyed by such careers
+as those of the Borgia. Her amatory and elegiac poems, which are the
+fruits of a sympathetic and dainty imitative gift rather than of any
+strong original talent, were printed at Parma in 1538; a third edition,
+containing sixteen of her _Rime Spirituali_, in which religious themes
+are treated in Italian, was published at Florence soon afterwards; and a
+fourth, including a still larger proportion of the pious element, was
+issued at Venice in 1544.
+
+  A great deal has been written about Vittoria Colonna, but perhaps the
+  best account of her life is A. Luzio's _Vittoria Colonna_ (Modena,
+  1885); A. von Reumont's _Vita di Vittoria Colonna_ (Italian corrected
+  edit., Turin, 1883) is also excellent; F. le Fevre's _Vittoria
+  Colonna_ (Paris, 1856) is somewhat inaccurate, but T. Roscoe's
+  _Vittoria Colonna_ (London, 1868) may be recommended to English
+  readers; P. E. Visconti's _Le Rime di Vittoria Colonna_ (Rome, 1846)
+  deals with her poems.     (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+COLONNADE, in architecture, a range of columns (Ital. _colonna_) in a
+row. When extended so as to enclose a temple, it is called a peristyle,
+and the same term applies when round an open court, as in the houses at
+Pompeii. When projecting in front of a building, it is called a portico,
+as in the Pantheon at Rome and the National Gallery in London. When
+enclosed between wings, as in Perrault's facade to the Louvre, it is
+correctly described as a colonnade. Colonnades lined the streets of the
+towns in Syria and Asia Minor, and they were largely employed in Rome.
+
+
+
+
+COLONSAY, an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scotland, 10 m.
+S. of the Ross of Mull. It is 7-1/2 m. long by 3 m. broad. The highest
+point is Carnan Eoin (470 ft.). Towards the middle of the island lies
+Loch Fada, nearly 2 m. long but very narrow, and there are two other
+small lakes and a few streams. The coast-line, with frequent beautiful
+sandy reaches, is much indented, the chief bays being Kiloran,
+Kilchattan and Staosunaig. On the north-western coast the cliffs are
+particularly fine. To the south, separated by a strait that is fordable
+at low water, lies the isle of ORONSAY, 2-1/4 m. long by 2-3/4 m. wide. Both
+islands contain a number of ecclesiastical remains, standing stones, and
+some beautiful sculptured crosses. They are named after Columba and
+Oran, who are said to have stopped here after they left Ireland. There
+is regular communication between Scalasaig and Glasgow and the Clyde
+ports. The golf-course at Kilchattan lends a touch of modernity to these
+remote islands. Near Scalasaig a granite obelisk has been erected to the
+memory of Sir Duncan M'Neill (1794-1874), a distinguished Scottish
+lawyer, who took the title of Lord Colonsay when he became a lord of
+appeal. The soil of both islands is fertile, potatoes and barley being
+raised and cattle pastured. Population: Colonsay (1901), 301; Oronsay
+(1901), 12.
+
+
+
+
+COLONY (Lat. _colonia_, from _colonus_, a cultivator), a term most
+commonly used to denote a settlement of the subjects of a sovereign
+state in lands beyond its boundaries, owning no allegiance to any
+foreign power, and retaining a greater or less degree of dependence on
+the mother country. The founding and the growth of such communities
+furnish matter for an interesting chapter in the history as well of
+ancient as of modern civilization; and the regulation of the relations
+between the parent state and its dependencies abroad gives rise to
+important problems alike in national policy and in international
+economics.
+
+It was mainly the spirit of commercial enterprise that led the
+Phoenicians to plant their colonies upon the islands and along the
+southern coast of the Mediterranean; and even beyond the Pillars of
+Hercules this earliest great colonizing race left enduring traces of its
+maritime supremacy. Carthage, indeed, chief of the Phoenician
+settlements, sent forth colonies to defend her conquests and strengthen
+her military power; and these sub-colonies naturally remained in strict
+subjection to her power, whereas the other young Phoenician states
+assumed and asserted entire independence.
+
+In this latter respect the Greek colonies resembled those of the
+Phoenicians. From a very early period the little civic communities of
+Greece had sent forth numerous colonizing streams. At points so far
+asunder as the Tauric Chersonese, Cyrene and Massilia were found
+prosperous centres of Greek commercial energy; but the regions most
+thickly peopled by settlers of Greek descent were the western seaboard
+of Asia Minor, Sicily and the southern parts of the Italian peninsula.
+Nor were the least prosperous communities those which were sprung from
+earlier colonies. The causes that led to the foundation of the Greek
+colonies were very various. As in Phoenicia, pressure created by the
+narrow limits of the home country coincided with an adventurous desire
+to seek new sources of wealth beyond seas; but very many Greek
+emigrations were caused by the expulsion of the inhabitants of conquered
+cities, or by the intolerable domination of a hated but triumphant
+faction within the native state. The polity of the new community, often
+founded in defiance of the home authorities, might either be a copy of
+that just left behind or be its direct political antithesis. But
+wherever they went, and whether, as apparently in Asia Minor, Greek
+blood was kept free from barbaric mixture, or whether, as in Magna
+Graecia and Sicily, it was mingled with that of the aboriginal races,
+the Greek emigrants carried with them the Hellenic spirit and the
+Hellenic tongue; and the colonies fostered, not infrequently more
+rapidly and more brilliantly than at home, Greek literature, Greek art
+and Greek speculation. The relation to be preserved towards the mother
+states was seldom or never definitely arranged. But filial feeling and
+established custom secured a measure of kindly sympathy, shown by
+precedence yielded at public games, and by the almost invariable
+abstinence of the colony from a hostile share in wars in which the
+mother city was engaged.
+
+The relation of Rome to her colonies was altogether different. No Roman
+colony started without the sanction and direction of the public
+authority; and while the _Colonia Romano_ differed from the _Colonia
+Latina_ in that the former permitted its members to retain their
+political rights intact, the colony, whether planted within the bounds
+of Italy or in provinces such as Gaul or Britain, remained an integral
+part of the Roman state. In the earlier colonies, the state allotted to
+proposing emigrants from amongst the needy or discontented class of
+citizens portions of such lands as, on the subjection of a hostile
+people, the state took into its possession as public property. At a
+later time, especially after the days of Sulla, the distribution of the
+territories of a vanquished Roman party was employed by the victorious
+generals as an easy means of satisfying the claims of the soldiery by
+whose help they had triumphed. The Roman colonies were thus not merely
+valuable as _propugnacula_ of the state, as permanent supports to Roman
+garrisons and armies, but they proved a most effective means of
+extending over wide bounds the language and the laws of Rome, and of
+inoculating the inhabitants of the provinces with more than the
+rudiments of Roman civilization.
+
+The occupation of the fairest provinces of the Roman empire by the
+northern barbarians had little in common with colonization. The Germanic
+invaders came from no settled state; they maintained loosely, and but
+for a short while, any form of brotherhood with the allied tribes. A
+nearer parallel to Greek colonization may be found in Iceland, whither
+the adherents of the old Norse polity fled from the usurpation of Harold
+Haarfager; and the early history of the English pale in Ireland shows,
+though not in orderliness and prosperity, several points of resemblance
+to the Roman colonial system.
+
+Though both Genoese and Venetians in their day of power planted numerous
+trading posts on various portions of the Mediterranean shores, of which
+some almost deserve the name of colonies, the history of modern
+colonization on a great scale opens with the Spanish conquests in
+America. The first Spanish adventurers came, not to colonize, but to
+satisfy as rapidly as possible and by the labour of the enslaved
+aborigines, their thirst for silver and gold. Their conquests were
+rapid, but the extension of their permanent settlements was gradual and
+slow. The terrible cruelty at first exercised on the natives was
+restrained, not merely by the zeal of the missionaries, but by effective
+official measures; and ultimately home-born Spaniards and Creoles lived
+on terms of comparative fairness with the Indians and with the
+half-breed population. Till the general and successful revolt of her
+American colonies, Spain maintained and employed the latter directly and
+solely for what she conceived to be her own advantage. Her commercial
+policy was one of most irrational and intolerable restriction and
+repression; and till the end of Spanish rule on the American continent,
+the whole political power was retained by the court at Madrid, and
+administered in the colonies by an oligarchy of home-bred Spaniards.
+
+The Portuguese colonization in America, in most respects resembling that
+of Spain, is remarkable for the development there given to an
+institution sadly prominent in the history of the European colonies. The
+nearness of Brazil to the coast of Africa made it easy for the
+Portuguese to supply the growing lack of native labour by the wholesale
+importation of purchased or kidnapped Africans.
+
+Of the French it is admitted that in their colonial possessions they
+displayed an unusual faculty for conciliating the prejudices of native
+races, and even for assimilating themselves to the latter. But neither
+this nor the genius of successive governors and commanders succeeded in
+preserving for France her once extensive colonies in Canada or her great
+influence in India. In Algeria and West Africa the French government has
+not merely found practical training schools for her own soldiers, but by
+opening a recruiting field amongst the native tribes it has added an
+available contingent to the French army.
+
+The Dutch took early a leading share in the carrying trade of the
+various European colonies. They have still extensive colonies in the
+East Indian Archipelago, as well as possessions in the West Indies. The
+Danish dependencies in the Antilles are but trifling in extent or
+importance.
+
+It is the English-speaking race, however, that has shown the most
+remarkable energy and capacity for colonization. The English settlements
+in Virginia, New England, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania,
+Delaware, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia had, between the
+first decade of the 17th and the seventh decade of the 18th century,
+developed into a new nation, the United States of America. It is
+unnecessary here to deal with the development of what have since been
+the two great independent branches of the English-speaking people--those
+of the United States (q.v.) and of the British Empire (q.v.), as their
+history is given elsewhere. But the colonizing genius which, with the
+British Isles as centre, has taken up the "white man's burden" in all
+quarters of the globe, is universally recognized. In the problems of
+government raised by the organization of the British dominions beyond
+the seas the system of colonization has been developed to an extent
+unknown under any other national flag.
+
+
+
+
+COLOPHON, an ancient city of Ionia, situated inland about 15 m. N. of
+Ephesus. Its port was at Notium or New Colophon. The site, now called
+_Tracha_ (only recognized towards the end of the 19th century), lies
+near Diermendere, 5 m. S. of Develikeui station on the Smyrna-Aidin
+railway, and about 2 m. from the farms and hamlet of Malkajik. It is
+almost entirely under cultivation, and there is little to be seen but
+remains of the walls and certain tumuli. Rich tombs, however, have been
+found beside the old roads leading to it, and the site is usually
+regarded as a particularly promising one for excavation, since Colophon
+was a very flourishing city in the great period of Ionia and had
+declined and been largely superseded by Notium before the Roman age. The
+common belief, however, that it had no existence after the time of
+Lysimachus is not borne out by the remains on the site. Founded by
+Andracmon of Pylos, it was at the acme of its prosperity in the 8th and
+7th centuries B.C. up to the epoch of its sack by Gyges of Lydia in 665.
+It claimed to have produced Homer, but its greatest genuine literary
+name was Mimnermus. It seems to have been ruled by a rich aristocracy
+which provided a famous troop of horse; and, from the Greek saying,
+usually supposed to refer to the decisive effect of the final charge of
+this troop in battle, the word _colophon_ has come to be used for the
+final note appended to old printed books, containing date, &c. In 287
+Lysimachus transferred a part of the population to his new city at
+Ephesus. Though an Ionian colony Colophon did not share in the common
+festival of the _Apaturia_ and seems to have been isolated for some
+reason among its neighbours, with one of whom, Ephesus, it was
+constantly at enmity. The forts by which Ephesus protected itself
+against Colophonian invasion are still to be seen on the hills north of
+the Caystrus.
+
+Notium or New Colophon contained the important shrine of the Clarian
+Apollo, whose site has recently been identified with probability by Th.
+Makridy Bey during excavations conducted for the Ottoman museum.
+
+  See C. Schuchardt in _Athen. Mitteil._ (1886); W. M. Ramsay, _Hist.
+  Geog. of Asia Minor_ (addenda) (1890).     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+COLOPHON, a final paragraph in some manuscripts and many early printed
+books (see BOOK), giving particulars as to authorship, date and place of
+production, &c. Before the invention of printing, a scribe when he had
+finished copying a book occasionally added a final paragraph at the end
+of the text in which he recorded the fact, and (if he were so minded)
+expressed his thankfulness to God, or asked for the prayers of readers.
+In the famous Bodleian MS. 264 of the _Roman d'Alexandre_ there is an
+unusually full note of this kind recording the completion of the copy on
+the 18th of December 1338 and ending--
+
+  "Explicit iste liber, scriptor sit crimine liber,
+   Christus scriptorem custodiat ac det honorem."
+
+Both in manuscripts and also in early printed books authors made use of
+such a final paragraph for expressing similar feelings. Thus the
+Guillermus who made a famous collection of sermons on the gospels for
+Sundays and saints' days records its completion in 1437 and submits it
+to the correction of charitable readers, and Sir Thomas Malory notes
+that his _Morte d'Arthur_ "was ended the ix yere of the reygne of Kyng
+Edward the fourth," and bids his readers "praye for me whyle I am on
+lyue that God sende me good delyuerance, and whan I am deed I praye you
+all praye for my soule." So again Jacobus Bergomensis records that his
+_Supplementum Chronicarum_ was finished "anno salutis nostre 1483. 3 deg.
+Kalendas Julii in ciuitate Bergomi: mihi vero a natiuitate quadragesimo
+nono," and in the subsequent editions which he revised brings both the
+year and his own age up to date. Before printing was invented, however,
+such paragraphs were exceptional, and many of the early printers,
+notably Gutenberg himself, were content to allow their books to go out
+without any mention of their own names. Fust and Schoeffer, on the other
+hand, printed at the end of their famous psalter of 1457 the following
+paragraph in red ink:--_Presens spalmorum (sic for psalmorum) codex
+venustate capitalium decoratus Rubricationibusque sufficienter
+distinctus, Adinuentione artificiosa imprimendi ac caracterizandi absque
+calami vlla exaracione sic effigiatus, Et ad eusebiam dei industrie est
+consummatus, Per Iohannem fust ciuem maguntinum, Et Petrum Schoffer de
+Gernszheim Anno domini Millesimo. cccc. lvii In vigilia Assumpcionis_.
+Similar paragraphs in praise of printing and of Mainz as the city where
+the art was brought to perfection appear in most of the books issued by
+the partners and after Fust's death by Schoeffer alone, and were widely
+imitated by other printers. In their Latin Bible of 1462 Fust and
+Schoeffer added a device of two shields at the end of the paragraph, and
+this addition was also widely copied. Many of these final paragraphs
+give information of great value for the history of printing; many also,
+especially those to the early editions of the classics printed in Italy,
+are written in verse. As the practice grew up of devoting a separate
+leaf or page to the title of a book at its beginning, the importance of
+these final paragraphs slowly diminished, and the information they gave
+was gradually transferred to the title-page. Complete title-pages
+bearing the date and name of the publishers are found in most books
+printed after 1520, and the final paragraph, if retained at all, was
+gradually reduced to a bare statement of the name of the printer. From
+the use of the word in the sense of a "finishing stroke," such a final
+paragraph as has been described is called by bibliographers a "colophon"
+(Gr. [Greek: kolophon]), but at what period this name for it was first
+used has not been ascertained. It is quite possibly not earlier than the
+18th century. (For origin see COLOPHON [city].)     (A. W. PO.)
+
+
+
+
+COLORADO, a state of the American union, situated between 41 deg. and 37
+deg. N. lat. and 102 deg. and 109 deg. W. long., bounded N. by Wyoming
+and Nebraska, E. by Nebraska and Kansas, S. by Oklahoma and New Mexico,
+and W. by Utah. Its area is 103,948 sq. m. (of which 290 are water
+surface). It is the seventh largest state of the Union.
+
+_Physiography._--Colorado embraces in its area a great variety of
+plains, mountains and plateaus. It lies at the junction of the Great
+Plains--which in their upward slant to the westward attain an average
+elevation of about 4000 ft. along the east boundary of the state--with
+the Rocky Mountains, to the west of which is a portion of the Colorado
+Plateau. These are the three physiographic provinces of the state (see
+also UNITED STATES, section _Geology_, ad fin., for details of
+structure). The last-named includes a number of lofty plateaus--the Roan
+or Book, Uncompahgre, &c., which form the eastern continuation of the
+high plateaus of Utah--and covers the western quarter of the state. Its
+eastern third consists of rich, unbroken plains. On their west edge lies
+an abrupt, massive, and strangely uniform chain of mountains, known in
+the neighbourhood of Colorado Springs as the Rampart Range, and in the
+extreme north as the Front Range, and often denominated as a whole by
+the latter name. The upturning of the rocks of the Great Plains at the
+foot of the Front Range develops an interesting type of topography, the
+harder layers weathering into grotesquely curious forms, as seen in the
+famous Garden of the Gods at the foot of Pike's Peak. Behind this
+barrier the whole country is elevated 2000 ft. or so above the level of
+the plains region. In its lowest portions just behind the front ranges
+are the natural "parks"--great plateaus basined by superb enclosing
+ranges; and to the west of these, and between them, and covering the
+remainder of the state east of the plateau region, is an entanglement of
+mountains, tier above tier, running from north to south, buttressed
+laterally with splendid spurs, dominated by scores of magnificent peaks,
+cut by river valleys, and divided by mesas and plateaus. These various
+chains are known by a multitude of local names. Among the finest of the
+chains are the Rampart, Sangre de Cristo, San Juan, Sawatch (Saguache)
+and Elk ranges. The first, like the other ranges abutting from north to
+south upon the region of the prairie, rises abruptly from the plain and
+has a fine, bold outline. It contains a number of fine summits dominated
+by Pike's Peak (14,108 ft.). Much more beautiful as a whole is the
+Sangre de Cristo range. At its southern end are Blanca Peak (14,390) and
+Old Baldy (14,176, Hayden), both in Costilla county; to the northward
+are Rito Alto Peak (12,989, Wheeler), in Custer county, and many others
+of almost equal height and equal beauty. The mountains of the south-west
+are particularly abrupt and jagged. Sultan Mountain (13,366, Hayden), in
+San Juan county, and Mt. Eolus (14,079), in La Plata county, dominate
+the fine masses of the San Juan ranges; and Mt. Sneffels (14,158,
+Hayden), Ouray county, and Uncompahgre Peak (14,289), Hinsdale county,
+the San Miguel and Uncompahgre ranges, which are actually parts of the
+San Juan. Most magnificent of all the mountains of Colorado, however,
+are the Sawatch and adjoining ranges in the centre of the state. The
+former (the name is used a little loosely) consists of almost a solid
+mass of granite, has an average elevation of probably 13,000 ft.,
+presents a broad and massive outline, and has a mean breadth of 15 to 20
+m. Mt. Ouray (13,956 ft.), in Chaffee county, may be taken as the
+southern end, and in Eagle county, the splendid Mount of the Holy Cross
+(14,170)--so named from the figure of its snow-filled ravines--as the
+northern. Between them lie: in Chaffee county, Mt. Shavano (14,239,
+Hayden), Mt. Princeton (14,196, Hayden), Mt. Yale (14,187, Hayden), Mt.
+Harvard (14,375, Hayden), and La Plata Peak (14,342); in Pitkin county,
+Grizzly Peak (13,956, Hayden); in Lake county, Elbert Peak (14,421), and
+Massive mountain (14,424), the highest peak in the state; on the
+boundary between Summit and Park counties, Mt. Lincoln (14,297, Hayden);
+and, in Summit county, Mt. Fletcher (14,265). The Elk range is
+geologically interesting for the almost unexampled displacement of the
+strata of which it is composed, and the apparent confusion which has
+thence arisen. Among the most remarkable of its separate summits, which
+rise superbly in a crescent about Aspen, are North Italian Peak
+(13,225), displaying the red, white and green of Italy's national
+colours, White Rock Mountain (13,532), Mt. Owen (13,102), Teocalli
+Mountain (13,220), Snow Mass (13,970, Hayden) and Maroon (14,003,
+Hayden) mountains, Castle Peak (14,259), Capitol Mountain (13,997,
+Hayden), Pyramid Peak (13,885, Hayden), Taylor Peak (13,419), and about
+a dozen other summits above 12,000 ft. A few miles to the north and
+north-east of the Mount of the Holy Cross are Red Mountain (13,333,
+Wheeler), in Eagle county, Torrey Peak (14,336, Hayden) and Gray's Peak
+(14,341, Hayden), in Summit county, Mt. Evans (14,330, Hayden), in Clear
+Creek county, and Rosalie Peak (13,575), in Park county; a little
+farther north, in Gilpin, Grand and Clear Creek counties, James Peak
+(13,283, Hayden), and, in Boulder county, Long's Peak (14,271, Hayden).
+Many fine mountains are scattered in the lesser ranges of the state.
+Altogether there are at least 180 summits exceeding 12,000 ft. in
+altitude, more than 110 above 13,000 and about 40 above 14,000.
+
+Cirques, valley troughs, numberless beautiful cascades, sharpened alpine
+peaks and ridges, glacial lakes, and valley moraines offer everywhere
+abundant evidence of glacial action, which has modified profoundly
+practically all the ranges. The Park Range east of Leadville, and the
+Sawatch Range, are particularly fine examples. Much of the grandest
+scenery is due to glaciation.
+
+One of the most remarkable orographical features of the state are the
+great mountain "parks"--North, Estes, Middle, South and San
+Luis--extending from the northern to the southern border of the state,
+and lying (with the exception of Middle Park) just east of the
+continental divide. These "parks" are great plateaus, not all of them
+level, lying below the barriers of surrounding mountain chains. North
+Park, the highest of all, is a lovely country of meadow and forest.
+Middle Park is not level, but is traversed thickly by low ranges like
+the Alleghanies; in the bordering mountain rim are several of the
+grandest mountain peaks and some of the most magnificent scenery of the
+state. Estes Park is small, only 20 m. long and never more than 2 m.
+broad; it is in fact the valley of Thompson Creek. Its surface is one of
+charming slopes, and by many it is accounted among the loveliest of
+Colorado valleys. Seven ranges lie between it and the plains. South Park
+is similarly quiet and charming in character. Much greater than any of
+these is San Luis Park. The surface is nearly as flat as a lake, and it
+was probably at one time the bed of an inland sea. In the centre there
+is a long narrow lake fed by many streams. It has no visible outlet, but
+is fresh. The San Luis Park, which runs into New Mexico, is traversed by
+the Rio Grande del Norte and more than a dozen of its mountain
+tributaries. These parks are frequented by great quantities of large
+game, and--especially the North and Middle--are famous hunting-grounds.
+They are fertile, too, and as their combined area is something like
+13,000 sq. m. they are certain to be of great importance in Colorado's
+agricultural development.
+
+The drainage system of the state is naturally very complicated. Eleven
+topographical and climatic divisions are recognized by the United States
+Weather Bureau within its borders, including the several parks, the
+continental divide, and various river valleys. Of the rivers, the North
+Platte has its sources in North Park, the Colorado (the Gunnison and
+Grand branches) in Middle Park, the Arkansas and South Platte in South
+Park--where their waters drain in opposite directions from Palmer's
+Lake--the Rio Grande in San Luis Park. Three of these flow east and
+south-east to the Missouri, Mississippi and the Gulf; but the waters of
+the Colorado system flow to the south-west into the Gulf of California.
+Among the other streams, almost countless in number among the mountains,
+the systems of the Dolores, White and Yampa, all in the west, are of
+primary importance. The scenery on the head-waters of the White and
+Bear, the upper tributaries of the Gunnison, and on many of the minor
+rivers of the south-west is wonderfully beautiful. The South Platte
+falls 4830 ft. in the 139 m. above Denver; the Grand 3600 ft. in the 224
+m. between the mouth of the Gunnison and the Forks; the Gunnison 6477
+ft. in 200 m. to its mouth (and save for 16 m. never with a gradient of
+less than 10 ft.); the Arkansas 7000 ft. in its 338 m. west of the
+Kansas line. Of the smaller streams the Uncompahgre falls 2700 ft. in
+134 m., the Las Animas 7190 ft. in 113 m., the Los Pinos 4920 ft. in 75
+m., the Roaring Fork 5923 ft. in 64 m., the Mancos 5000 ft. in 62 m.,
+the La Plata 3103 ft. in 43 m., the Eagle 4293 ft. in 62 m., the San
+Juan 3785 in 303, the Lake Fork of the Gunnison 6047 in 59. The canyons
+formed in the mountains by these streams are among the glories of
+Colorado and of America. The grandest are the Toltec Gorge near the
+Southern boundary line, traversed by the railway 1500 ft. above the
+bottom; the Red Gorge and Rouge Canyon of the Upper Grand, and a
+splendid gorge 16 m. long below the mouth of the Eagle, with walls
+2000-2500 ft. in height; the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas (8 m.) above
+Canyon City, with granite walls towering 2600 ft. above the boiling
+river at the Royal Gorge; and the superb Black Canyon (15 m.) of the
+Gunnison and the Cimarron. But there are scores of others which, though
+less grand, are hardly less beautiful. The exquisite colour contrasts of
+the Cheyenne canyons near Colorado Springs, Boulder Canyon near the city
+of the same name, Red Cliff and Eagle River Canyons near Red Cliff,
+Clear Creek Canyon near Denver--with walls at places 1000 ft. in
+height--the Granite Canyon (11 m.) of the South Platte west of
+Florissant, and the fine gorge of the Rio de las Animas (1500 ft.),
+would be considered wonderful in any state less rich in still more
+marvellous scenery. One peculiar feature of the mountain landscapes are
+the mines. In districts like that of Cripple Creek their enormous ore
+"dumps" dot the mountain flanks like scores of vast ant-hills; and in
+Eagle River canyon their mouths, like dormer windows into the granite
+mountain roof, may be seen 2000 ft. above the railway.
+
+Many parts of the railways among the mountains are remarkable for
+altitude, construction or scenery. More than a dozen mountain passes lie
+above 10,000 ft. Argentine Pass (13,000 ft.), near Gray's Peak, is one
+of the highest wagon roads of the world; just east of Silverton is Rio
+Grande Pass, about 12,400 ft. above sea-level, and in the Elk Mountains
+between Gunnison and Pitkin counties is Pearl Pass (12,715 ft.). Many
+passes are traversed by the railways, especially the splendid scenic
+route of the Denver and Rio Grande. Among the higher passes are Hoosier
+Pass (10,309 ft.) in the Park Range, and Hayden Divide (10,780) and Veta
+Pass (9390); both of these across the Sangre de Cristo range; the
+crossing of the San Miguel chain at Lizard Head Pass (10,250) near Rico;
+of the Uncompahgre at Dallas Divide (8977) near Ouray; of the Elk and
+Sawatch ranges at Fremont (11,320), Tennessee (10,229), and Breckenridge
+(11,470) passes, and the Busk Tunnel, all near Leadville; and Marshall
+Pass (10,846) above Salida. Perhaps finer than these for their
+wide-horizoned outlooks and grand surroundings are the Alpine Tunnel
+under the continental divide of the Lower Sawatch chain, the scenery of
+the tortuous line along the southern boundary in the Conejos and San
+Juan mountains, which are crossed at Cumbres (10,003 ft.), and the
+magnificent scenery about Ouray and on the Silverton railway over the
+shoulder of Red Mountain (attaining 11,235 ft.). Notable, too, is the
+road in Clear Creek Canyon--where the railway track coils six times upon
+itself above Georgetown at an altitude of 10,000 ft.
+
+_Climate._--The climate of Colorado is exceptional for regularity and
+salubrity. The mean annual temperature for the state is about 46 deg.
+The mean yearly isothermals crossing the state are ordinarily 35 deg. to
+50 deg. or 55 deg. F. Their course, owing to the complex orography of
+the state, is necessarily extremely irregular, and few climatic
+generalizations can be made. It can be said, however, that the
+south-east is the warmest portion of the state, lying as it does without
+the mountains; that the north-central region is usually coldest; that
+the normal yearly rainfall for the entire state is about 15.5 in., with
+great local variations (rarely above 27 in.). Winds are constant and
+rather high (5 to 10 m.), and for many persons are the most trying
+feature of the climate. Very intense cold prevails of course in winter
+in the mountains, and intense heat (110 deg. F. or more in the shade) is
+often experienced in summer, temperatures above 90 deg. being very
+common. The locality of least annual thermometric range is Lake Moraine
+(10,268 ft. above the sea)--normally 91 deg. F.; at other localities the
+range may be as great as 140 deg., and for the whole state of course
+even greater (155 deg. or slightly more). The lowest monthly mean in 16
+years (1887-1903) was 17.30. Nevertheless, the climate of Colorado is
+not to be judged severe, and that of the plains region is in many ways
+ideal. In the lowlands the snow is always slight and it disappears
+almost immediately, even in the very foothills of the mountains, as at
+Denver or Colorado Springs. However hot the summer day, its night is
+always cool and dewless. Between July and October there is little rain,
+day after day bringing a bright and cloudless sky. Humidity is moderate
+(annual averages for Grand Junction, Pueblo, Denver and Cheyenne, Wyo.,
+for 6 A.M. about 50 to 66; for 6 P.M. 33 to 50); it is supposed to be
+increasing with the increasing settlement of the country. Sunshine is
+almost continuous, and splendidly intense. The maximum number of "rainy"
+days (with a rainfall of more than 0.01 in.) rarely approaches 100 at
+the most unfortunate locality; for the whole state the average of
+perfectly "clear" days is normally above 50%, of "partly cloudy" above
+30, of "cloudy" under 20, of "rainy" still less. At Denver, through 11
+years, the actual sunlight was 70% of the possible; many other points
+are even more favoured; very many enjoy on a third to a half of the days
+of the year above 90% of possible sunshine. All through the year the
+atmosphere is so dry and light that meat can be preserved by the
+simplest process of desiccation. "An air more delicious to breathe,"
+wrote Bayard Taylor, "cannot anywhere be found; it is neither too
+sedative nor too exciting, but has that pure, sweet, flexible quality
+which seems to support all one's happiest and healthiest moods." For
+asthmatic and consumptive troubles its restorative influence is
+indisputable. Along with New Mexico and Arizona, Colorado has become
+more and more a sanitarium for the other portions of the Union. Among
+the secondary hygienic advantages are the numerous mineral wells.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--The life zones of Colorado are simple in
+arrangement. The boreal embraces the highest mountain altitudes; the
+transition belts it on both sides of the continental divide; the upper
+Sonoran takes in about the eastern half of the plains region east of the
+mountains, and is represented further by two small valley penetrations
+from Utah. Timber is confined almost wholly to the high mountain sides,
+the mountain valleys and the parks being for the most part bare. Nowhere
+is the timber large or dense. The timber-line on the mountains is at
+about 10,000 ft., and the snow line at about 11,000. It is supposed that
+the forests were much richer before the settlement of the state, which
+was followed by reckless consumption and waste, and the more terrible
+ravages of fire. In 1872-1876 the wooded area was estimated at 32% of
+the state's area. It is certainly much less now. The principal trees,
+after the yellow and lodgepole pines, are the red-fir, so-called hemlock
+and cedar, the Engelmann spruce, the cottonwood and the aspen (_Populus
+tremuloides_). In 1899 Federal forest reserves had been created,
+aggregating 4849 sq. m. in extent, and by 1910 this had been increased
+to 24,528 sq. m. The reserves cover altitudes of 7000 to 14,000 ft. The
+rainfall is ample for their needs, but no other reserves in the country
+showed in 1900 such waste by fire and pillage. The minor flora of the
+country is exceedingly rich. In the plains the abundance of flowers,
+from spring to autumn, is amazing.
+
+Large game is still very abundant west of the continental divide. The
+great parks are a favourite range and shelter. Deer and elk frequent
+especially the mountains of the north-west, in Routt and Rio Blanco
+counties, adjoining the reservations of the Uncompahgre (White River
+Ute) and Uintah-Ute Indians--from whose depredations, owing to the
+negligence of Federal officials, the game of the state has suffered
+enormous losses. The bison have been exterminated. Considerable bands of
+antelope live in the parks and even descend to the eastern plains, and
+the mule-deer, the most common of large game, is abundant all through
+the mountains of the west. Grizzly or silver-tip, brown and black bears
+are also abundant in the same region. Rarest of all is the magnificent
+mountain sheep. Game is protected zealously, if not successfully, by the
+state, and it was officially estimated in 1898 that there were then
+probably 7000 elk, as many mountain sheep, 25,000 antelope and 100,000
+deer within its borders (by far the greatest part in Routt and Rio
+Blanco counties). Fish are not naturally very abundant, but the mountain
+brooks are the finest home for trout, and these as well as bass,
+cat-fish and some other varieties have been used to stock the streams.
+
+_Soil._--The soils of the lowlands are prevailing sandy loams, with a
+covering of rich mould. The acreage of improved lands in 1900 was
+returned by the federal census as 2,273,968, three times as much being
+unimproved; the land improved constituted 3.4% of the state's area. The
+lands available for agriculture are the lowlands and the mountain parks
+and valleys.
+
+Speaking generally, irrigation is essential to successful cultivation,
+but wherever irrigation is practicable the soil proves richly
+productive. Irrigation ditches having been exempted from taxation in
+1872, extensive systems of canals were soon developed, especially after
+1880. The Constitution of Colorado declares the waters of its streams
+the property of the state, and a great body of irrigation law and
+practice has grown up about this provision. The riparian doctrine does
+not obtain in Colorado. In no part of the semi-arid region of the
+country are the irrigation problems so diverse and difficult. In 1903
+there were, according to the governor, 10 canals more than 50 m. in
+length, 51 longer than 20 m., and hundreds of reservoirs. In 1899 there
+were 7374 m. of main ditches. The average annual cost of water per acre
+was then estimated at about 79 cents. The acres under ditch in 1902 were
+greater (1,754,761) than in any other state; and the construction cost
+of the system was then $14,769,561 (an increase of 25.6% from 1899 to
+1902). There are irrigated lands in every county. Their area increased
+8.9% in 1899-1902, and 80.9% from 1890 to 1900; in the latter year they
+constituted 70.9% of the improved farm-land of the state, as against
+48.8 in 1890. The land added to the irrigated area in the decade was in
+1890 largely worthless public domain; its value in 1900 was about
+$29,000,000. As a result of irrigation the Platte is often dry in
+eastern Colorado in the summer, and the Arkansas shrinks so below Pueblo
+that little water reaches Kansas. The water is almost wholly taken from
+the rivers, but underflow is also utilized, especially in San Luis Park.
+The South Platte is much the most important irrigating stream. Its
+valley included 660,495 acres of irrigated land in 1902, no other valley
+having half so great an area. The diversion of the waters of the
+Arkansas led to the bringing of a suit against Colorado by Kansas in the
+United States Supreme Court in 1902, on the ground that such diversion
+seriously and illegally lessened the waters of the Arkansas in Kansas.
+In 1907 the Supreme Court of the United States declared that Colorado
+had diverted waters of the Arkansas, but, since it had not been shown
+that Kansas had suffered, the case was dismissed, without prejudice to
+Kansas, should it be injured in future by diversion of water from the
+river. The exhaustion, or alleged exhaustion, by irrigation in Colorado
+of the waters of the Rio Grande has raised international questions of
+much interest between Mexico and the United States, which were settled
+in 1907 by a convention pledging the United States to deliver 60,000
+acre-feet of water annually in the bed of the Rio Grande at the Acequia
+Madre, just above Juarez, in case of drought this supply being
+diminished proportionately to the diminution in the United States. As a
+part of the plans of the national government for reclamation of land in
+the arid states, imposing schemes have been formulated for such work in
+Colorado, including a great reservoir on the Gunnison. One of the
+greatest undertakings of the national reclamation service is the
+construction of 77 m. of canal and of a six-mile tunnel, beneath a
+mountain, between the canyon of the Gunnison and the valley of the
+Uncompahgre, designed to make productive some 140,000 acres in the
+latter valley.
+
+Apart from mere watering, cultivation is in no way intensive. One of the
+finest farming regions is the lowland valley of the Arkansas. It is a
+broad, level plain, almost untimbered, given over to alfalfa, grains,
+vegetables and fruits. Sugar-beet culture has been found to be
+exceptionally remunerative in this valley as well as in those of the
+South Platte and Grand rivers. The growth of this interest has been
+since 1899 a marked feature in the agricultural development of the
+state; and in 1905, 1906 and 1907 the state's product of beets and of
+sugar was far greater than that of any other state; in 1907, 1,523,303
+tons of beets were worked--more than two-fifths of the total for the
+United States. There are various large sugar factories (in 1903, 9, and
+in 1907, 16), mainly in the north; also at Grand Junction and in the
+Arkansas valley. The total value of all farm property increased between
+1880 and 1900 from $42,000,000 to $161,045,101 and 45.9% from 1890 to
+1900. In the latter year $49,954,311 of this was in live-stock
+(increase 1890-1900, 121.1%), the remaining value in land with
+improvements and machinery. The total value of farm products in 1899 was
+$33,048,576; of this sum 97% was almost equally divided between crop
+products and animal products, the forests contributing the remainder. Of
+the various elements in the value of all farm produce as shown by the
+federal census of 1900, live-stock, hay and grains, and dairying
+represented 87.2%. The value of cereals ($4,700,271)--of which wheat and
+oats represent four-fifths--is much exceeded by that of hay and forage
+($8,159,279 in 1899). Wheat culture increased greatly from 1890 to 1900.
+Flour made from Colorado wheat ranks very high in the market. As a
+cereal-producing state Colorado is, however, relatively unimportant; nor
+in value of product is its hay and forage crop notable, except that of
+alfalfa, which greatly surpasses that of any other state. In 1906 the
+state produced 3,157,136 bushels of Indian corn, valued at $1,578,568;
+8,266,538 bushels of wheat, valued at $5,373,250; 5,962,394 bushels of
+oats, valued at $2,683,077; 759,771 bushels of barley, valued at
+$410,276; 43,580 bushels of rye, valued at $24,405; and 1,596,542 tons
+of hay, valued at $15,167,149. The value of vegetable products, of
+fruits, and of dairy products was, relatively, equally small (only
+$7,346,415 in 1899). Natural fruits are rare and practically worthless.
+Apples, peaches, plums, apricots, pears, cherries and melons have been
+introduced. The best fruit sections are the Arkansas valley, and in the
+western and south-western parts of the state. Melons are to some extent
+exported, and peaches also; the musk-melons of the Arkansas valley
+(Rocky Ford Canteloupes) being in demand all over the United States. The
+fruit industry dates practically from 1890. The dairy industry is
+rapidly increasing. In the holdings of neat cattle (1,453,971) and sheep
+(2,045,577) it ranked in 1900 respectively seventeenth and tenth among
+the states of the Union; in 1907, according to the _Yearbook_ of the
+Department of Agriculture, there were in the state 1,561,712 neat cattle
+and 1,677,561 sheep. Stock-raising has always been important. The parks
+and mountain valleys are largely given over to ranges. The native
+grasses are especially adapted for fodder. The grama, buffalo and bunch
+varieties cure on the stem, and furnish throughout the winter an
+excellent ranging food. These native grasses, even the thin bunch
+varieties of dry hills, are surprisingly nutritious, comparing very
+favourably with cultivated grasses. Large areas temporarily devoted to
+cultivation with poor success, and later allowed to revert to ranges,
+have become prosperous and even noted as stock country. This is true of
+the sandhill region of eastern Colorado. The grass flora of the lowlands
+is not so rich in variety nor so abundant in quality as that of high
+altitudes. Before the plains were fenced large herds drifted to the
+south in the winter, but now sufficient hay and alfalfa are cut to feed
+the cattle during the storms, which at longest are brief. An account of
+Colorado agriculture would not be complete without mentioning the
+depredations of the grasshopper, which are at times extraordinarily
+destructive, as also of the "Colorado Beetle" (_Doryphora
+decemlineata_), or common potato-bug, which has extended its fatal
+activities eastward throughout the prairie states.
+
+_Minerals._--Colorado is pre-eminently a mineral region, and to this fact
+it owes its colonization. It possesses unlimited supplies, as yet not
+greatly exploited, of fine building stones, some oil and asphalt, and
+related bituminous products, a few precious and semi-precious stones
+(especially tourmalines, beryls and aquamarines found near Canyon near
+the Royal Gorge of the Arkansas river), rare opalized and jasperized wood
+(in the eastern part of the El Paso county), considerable wealth of lead
+and copper, enormous fields of bituminous coal, and enormous wealth of
+the precious metals. In the exploitation of the last there have been
+three periods: that before the discovery of the lead-carbonate silver
+ores of Leadville in 1879, in which period gold-mining was predominant;
+the succeeding years until 1894, in which silver-mining was predominant;
+and the period since 1894, in which gold has attained an overwhelming
+primacy. The two metals are found in more than 50 counties, San Miguel,
+Gilpin, Boulder, Clear Creek, Lake, El Paso and Teller being the leading
+producers. The Cripple Creek field in the last-named county is one of the
+most wonderful mining districts, past or present, of America. Leadville,
+in Lake county, is another. The district about Silverton (product
+1870-1900 about $35,000,000, principally silver and lead, and mostly
+after 1881) has also had a remarkable development; and Creede, in the
+years of its brief prosperity, was a phenomenal silver-field. From 1858
+up to and including 1904 the state produced, according to the State
+Bureau of Mines (whose statistics have since about 1890 been brought into
+practical agreement with those of the national government) a value of no
+less than $889,203,323 in gold, silver, lead, copper and zinc at market
+prices. (If the value of silver be taken at coinage value this total
+becomes vastly greater.) The yield of gold was $353,913,695-$229,236,997
+from 1895 to 1904; of silver, $386,455,463-$115,698,366 from 1889 to
+1893; of lead, $120,742,674--its importance beginning in 1879; of copper,
+$17,879,446-$8,441,783 from 1898 to 1904; and of zinc, $10,212,045--all
+this from 1902 to 1904. Silver-mining ceased to be highly remunerative
+beginning with the closing of the India mints and repeal of the Sherman
+Law in 1893; since 1900 the yield has shown an extraordinary decrease--in
+1905 it was $6,945,581, and in 1907 $7,411,652--and it is said that as a
+result of the great fall in the market value of the metal the mines can
+now be operated only under the most favourable conditions and by exercise
+of extreme economy. In Lake county, for example, very much of the
+argentiferous ore that is too low for remunerative extraction (limit 1903
+about $12.00 per ton) is used for fluxes.[1] The copper output was of
+slight importance until 1889--$1,457,749 in 1905, and $1,544,918 in 1907;
+and that of zinc was nil until 1902, when discoveries made it possible to
+rework for this metal enormous dumps of waste material about the mines,
+and in 1906 the zinc output was valued at $5,304,884. Lead products
+declined with silver, but a large output of low ores has continued at
+Leadville, and in 1905 the product was valued at $5,111,570, and in 1906
+at $5,933,829. Up to 1895 the gold output was below ten million dollars
+yearly; from 1898 to 1904 it ran from 21.6 to 28.7 millions. In 1897 the
+product first exceeded that of California. In 1907 the value was
+$20,826,194. Silver values ran, in the years 1880-1902, from 11.3 to 23.1
+million dollars; and the quantities in the same years from 11.6 to 26.3
+million ounces. In 1907 it was 11,229,776 oz., valued at $7,411,652.
+Regarding again the total combined product of the above five metals, its
+growth is shown by these figures for its value in the successive periods
+indicated: 1858-1879, $77,380,140; 1879-1888, $220,815,709; 1889-1898,
+$322,878,362; 1899-1904, $268,229,112. From 1900 to 1903 Colorado
+produced almost exactly a third of the total gold and silver (market
+value) product of the entire country.
+
+In addition, iron ores (almost all brown hematite) occur abundantly, and
+all material for making steel of excellent quality. But very little iron
+is mined, in 1907 only 11,714 long tons, valued at $21,085. Of much more
+importance are the manganiferous and the silver manganiferous ores,
+which are much the richest of the country. Their product trebled from
+1889 to 1903; and in 1907 the output of manganiferous ores amounted to
+99,711 tons, valued at $251,207. A small amount is used for
+spiegeleisen, and the rest as a flux.
+
+The stratified rocks of the Great Plains, the Parks, and the Plateaus
+contain enormous quantities of coal. The coal-bearing rocks are confined
+to the Upper Cretaceous, and almost wholly to the Laramie formation. The
+main areas are on the two flanks of the Rockies, with two smaller fields
+in the Parks. The east group includes the fields of Canyon City (whose
+product is the ideal domestic coal of the western states), Raton and the
+South Platte; the Park group includes the Cones field and the Middle
+Park; the west group includes the Yampa, La Plata and Grand River
+fields--the last prospectively (not yet actually) the most valuable of
+all as to area and quality. About three-fifths of all the coal produced
+in the state comes from Las Animas and Huerfano counties. In 1901 about
+a third and in 1907 nearly two-fifths of the state's output came from
+Las Animas county. The Colorado fields are superior to those of all the
+other Rocky Mountain states in area, and in quality of product. In 1907
+Colorado ranked seventh among the coal-producing states of the Union,
+yielding 10,790,236 short tons (2.2% of the total for the United
+States). The total includes every variety from typical lignite to
+typical anthracite. The aggregate area of beds is estimated by the
+United States Geological Survey at 18,100 sq. m. (seventh in rank of the
+states of the Union); and the accessible coal, on other authority, at
+33,897,800,000 tons. The industry began in 1864, in which year 500 tons
+were produced. The product first exceeded one million tons in 1882, two
+in 1888, three in 1890, four in 1893, five in 1900. From 1897 to 1902
+the yield almost doubled, averaging 5,267,783 tons (lignite,
+semi-bituminous, bituminous, and a steady average production of 60,038
+tons of anthracite). About one-fifth of the total product is made into
+coke, the output of which increased from 245,746 tons in 1890 to
+1,421,579 tons (including a slight amount from Utah) in 1907; in 1907
+the coke manufactured in Colorado (and Utah) was valued at $4,747,436.
+Colorado holds the same supremacy for coal and coke west of the
+Mississippi that Pennsylvania holds for the country as a whole. The true
+bituminous coal produced, which in 1897 was only equal to that of the
+lignitic and semi-bituminous varieties (1.75 million tons), had come by
+1902 to constitute three-fourths (5.46 million tons) of the entire coal
+output. Much of the bituminous coal, especially that of the Canyon City
+field, is so hard and clean as to be little less desirable than
+anthracite; it is the favoured coal for domestic uses in all the
+surrounding states.
+
+Petroleum occurs in Fremont and Boulder counties. There have been very
+few flowing wells. The product increased from 76,295 barrels in 1887 to
+above 800,000 in the early 'nineties; it fell thereafter, averaging
+about 493,269 barrels from 1899 to 1903; in 1905 the yield was 376,238
+barrels; and in 1907, 331,851 barrels. In 1905 the state ranked
+eleventh, in 1907 twelfth, in production of petroleum. It is mostly
+refined at Florence, the centre of the older field. The Boulder district
+developed very rapidly after 1902; its product is a high-grade
+illuminant with paraffin base. Asphalt occurs in the high north rim of
+Middle Park (c. 10,000 ft.). Tungsten is found in wolframite in Boulder
+county. In 1903 about 37,000 men were employed in the mines of Colorado.
+Labour troubles have been notable in state history since 1890.
+
+Mineral springs have already been mentioned. They are numerous and occur
+in various parts of the state. The most important are at Buena Vista,
+Ouray, Wagon Wheel Gap, Poncha or Poncho Springs (90 deg.-185 deg. F.),
+Canyon City, Manitou, Idaho Springs and Glenwood Springs (120 deg.-140
+deg. F., highly mineralized). The last three places, all beautifully
+situated--the first at the base of Pike's Peak, the second in the Clear
+Creek Canyon, and the third at the junction of the Roaring Fork with the
+Grand river--have an especially high repute. In 1904 it was competently
+estimated that the mineral yield and agricultural yield of the state
+were almost equal--somewhat above $47,000,000 each.[2]
+
+In 1900 only 4.6% of the population were engaged in manufactures. They
+are mainly dependent on the mining industry. There are many large
+smelters and reduction plants in the state, most of them at Denver,
+Leadville, Durango and Pueblo; at the latter place there are also
+blast-furnaces, a steel plant and rolling mills. Use is made of the most
+improved methods of treating the ore. The cyanide process, introduced
+about 1890, is now one of the most important factors in the utilization
+of low-grade and refractory gold and silver ores. The improved dioxide
+cyanide process was adopted about 1895. The iron and steel
+product--mainly at Pueblo--is of great importance, though relatively
+small as compared with that of some other states. Nevertheless, the very
+high rank in coal and iron interests of the state among the states west
+of the Mississippi, the presence of excellent manganiferous ores, a
+central position for distribution, and much the best railway system of
+any mountain state, indicate that Colorado will almost certainly
+eventually entirely or at least largely control the trans-Mississippi
+market in iron and steel. The Federal census of 1900 credited the
+manufacturing establishments of the state with a capital of $62,825,472
+and a product of $102,830,137 (increase 1890-1900, 142.1%); of which
+output the gold, silver, lead and copper smelted amounted to
+$44,625,305. Of the other products, iron and steel ($6,108,295),
+flouring and grist-mill products ($4,528,062), foundry and machine-shop
+products ($3,986,985), steam railway repair and construction work
+($3,141,602), printing and publishing, wholesale slaughtering and meat
+packing, malt liquors, lumber and timber, and coke were the most
+important. The production of beet sugar is relatively important, as more
+of it was produced in Colorado in 1905 than in any other state; in 1906
+334,386,000 lb (out of a grand total for the United States of
+967,224,000 lb) were manufactured here; the value of the product in 1905
+was $7,198,982, being 29.2% of the value of all the beet sugar produced
+in the United States in that year.[3]
+
+_Railways._--On the 1st of January 1909 there were 5403.05 m. of railway
+in operation. The Denver Pacific, built from Cheyenne, Wyoming, reached
+Denver in June 1870, and the Kansas Pacific, from Kansas City, in August
+of the same year. Then followed the building of the Denver & Rio Grande
+(1871), to which the earlier development of the state is largely due.
+The great Santa Fe (1873), Burlington (1882), Missouri Pacific (1887)
+and Rock Island (1888) systems reached Pueblo, Denver and Colorado
+Springs successively from the east. In 1888 the Colorado Midland started
+from Colorado Springs westward, up the Ute Pass, through the South Park
+to Leadville, and thence over the continental divide to Aspen and
+Glenwood Springs. The Colorado & Southern, a consolidation of roads
+connecting Colorado with the south, has also become an important system.
+
+_Population._--The population of the state in 1870 was 39,864; in 1880,
+194,327[4]; in 1890, 413,249; in 1900, 539,700; and in 1910, 799,024. Of
+the 1900 total, males constituted 54.7%, native born 83.1%. The 10,654
+persons of coloured race included 1437 Indians and 647 Chinese and
+Japanese, the rest being negroes. Of 185,708 males twenty-one or more
+years of age 7689 (4.1%) were illiterate (unable to write), including a
+fourth of the Asiatics, a sixth of the Indians, one-nineteenth of the
+negroes, one in twenty-four of the foreign born, and one in 147.4 of the
+native born. Of 165 incorporated cities, towns and villages, 27 had a
+population exceeding 2000, and 7 a population of above 5000. The latter
+were Denver (133,859), Pueblo (28,137), Colorado Springs (21,085),
+Leadville (12,455), Cripple Creek (10,147), Boulder (6150) and Trinidad
+(5345). Creede, county-seat of Mineral county, was a phenomenal silver
+camp from its discovery in 1891 until 1893; in 1892 it numbered already
+7000 inhabitants, but the rapid depreciation of silver soon thereafter
+caused most of its mines to be closed, and in 1910 the population was
+only 741. Grand Junction (pop. in 1910, 7754) derives importance from
+its railway connexions, and from the distribution of the fruit and other
+products of the irrigated valley of the Grand river. Roman Catholics are
+in the majority among church adherents, and Methodists and Presbyterians
+most numerous of the Protestant denominations. The South Ute Indian
+Reservation in the south of the state is the home of the Moache, Capote
+and Wiminuche Utes, of Shoshonean stock.
+
+_Administration._--The first and only state constitution was adopted in
+1876. It requires a separate popular vote on any amendment--though as
+many as six may be (since 1900) voted on at one election. Amendments
+have been rather freely adopted. The General Assemblies are biennial,
+sessions limited to 90 days (45 before 1884); state and county elections
+are held at the same time (since 1902). A declared intention to become a
+United States citizen ceased in 1902 to be sufficient qualification for
+voters, full citizenship (with residence qualifications) being made
+requisite. An act of 1909 provides that election campaign expenses shall
+be borne "only by the state and by the candidates," and authorized
+appropriations for this purpose. Full woman suffrage was adopted in 1893
+(by a majority of about 6000 votes). Women have served in the
+legislature and in many minor offices; they are not eligible as jurors.
+The governor may veto any separate item in an appropriation bill. The
+state treasurer and auditor may not hold office during two consecutive
+terms. Convicts are deprived of the privilege of citizenship only during
+imprisonment. County government is of the commissioner type. There is a
+State Voter's League similar to that of Illinois.
+
+In 1907 the total bonded debt of the state was $393,500; the General
+Assembly in 1906 authorized the issue of $900,000 worth of bonds to fund
+outstanding military certificates of indebtedness incurred in
+suppressing insurrections at Cripple Creek and elsewhere in 1903-1904.
+The question of issuing bonds for all outstanding warrants was decided
+to be voted on by the people in November 1908. Taxation has been very
+erratic. From 1877 to 1893 the total assessment rose steadily from
+$3,453,946 to $238,722,417; it then fell at least partly owing to the
+depreciation in and uncertain values of mining property, and from 1894
+to 1900 fluctuated between 192.2 and 216.8 million dollars; in 1901 it
+was raised to $465,874,288, and fluctuated in the years following; the
+estimated total assessment for 1907 was $365,000,000.
+
+Of charitable and reformatory institutions a soldiers' and sailors' home
+(1889) is maintained at Monte Vista, a school for the deaf and blind
+(1874) at Colorado Springs, an insane asylum (1879) at Pueblo, a home
+for dependent and neglected children (1895) at Denver, an industrial
+school for girls (1887) near Morrison, and for boys (1881) at Golden, a
+reformatory (1889) at Buena Vista, and a penitentiary (1868) at Canyon
+City. Denver was one of the earliest cities in the country to institute
+special courts for juvenile offenders; a reform that is widening in
+influence and promise. The parole system is in force in the state
+reformatory; and in the industrial school at Golden (for youthful
+offenders) no locks, bars or cells are used, the theory being to treat
+the inmates as "students." The state has a parole law and an
+indeterminate-sentence law for convicts.
+
+[Illustration: Colorado map]
+
+The public school system of Colorado dates from 1861, when a school law
+was passed by the Territorial legislation; this law was superseded by
+that of 1876, which with subsequent amendments is still in force. In
+expenditure for the public schools per capita of total population from
+1890 to 1903 Colorado was one of a small group of leading states. In
+1906 there were 187,836 persons of school age (from 6 to 21) in the
+state, and of these 144,007 were enrolled in the schools; the annual
+cost of education was $4.34 per pupil. In 1902-1903, 92.5% of persons
+from 5 to 18 years of age were enrolled in the schools. The institutions
+of the state are: the University of Colorado, at Boulder, opened 1877;
+the School of Mines, at Golden (1873); the Agricultural College, at Fort
+Collins (1870); the Normal School (1891) at Greeley; and the
+above-mentioned industrial schools. All are supported by special taxes
+and appropriations--the Agricultural College receiving also the usual
+aid from the federal government. Experiment stations in connexion with
+the college are maintained at different points. Colorado College (1874)
+at Colorado Springs, Christian but not denominational, and the
+University of Denver, Methodist, are on independent foundations. The
+United States maintains an Indian School at Grand Junction.
+
+_History._--According as one regards the Louisiana purchase as including
+or not including Texas to the Rio Grande (in the territorial meaning of
+the state of Texas of 1845), one may say that all of Colorado east of
+the meridian of the head of the Rio Grande, or only that north of the
+Arkansas and east of the meridian of its head, passed to the United
+States in 1803. At all events the corner between the Rio Grande and the
+Arkansas was Spanish from 1819 to 1845, when it became American
+territory as a part of the state of Texas; and in 1850, by a boundary
+arrangement between that state and the federal government, was
+incorporated in the public domain. The territory west of the divide was
+included in the Mexican cession of 1848. Within Colorado there are
+pueblos and cave dwellings commemorative of the Indian period and
+culture of the south-west. Coronado may have entered Colorado in 1540;
+there are also meagre records of indisputable Spanish explorations in
+the south in the latter half of the 18th century (friars Escallante and
+Dominguez in 1776). In 1806 Zebulon M. Pike, mapping the Arkansas and
+Red rivers of the Louisiana Territory for the government of the United
+States, followed the Arkansas into Colorado, incidentally discovering
+the famous peak that bears his name. In 1819 Major S. H. Long explored
+the valleys of the South Platte and Arkansas, pronouncing them
+uninhabited and uncultivable (as he also did the valley of the Missouri,
+whence the idea of the "Great American Desert"). His work also is
+commemorated by a famous summit of the Rockies. There is nothing more of
+importance in Colorado annals until 1858. From 1804 to 1854 the whole or
+parts of Colorado were included, nominally, under some half-dozen
+territories carved successively out of the Trans-Mississippi country;
+but not one of these had any practical significance for an uninhabited
+land. In 1828 (to 1832) a fortified trading post was established near La
+Junta in the Arkansas valley on the Santa Fe trail; in 1834-1836 several
+private forts were erected on the Platte; in 1841 the first overland
+emigrants to the Pacific coast crossed the state, and in 1846-1847 the
+Mormons settled temporarily at the old Mexican town of Pueblo. John C.
+Fremont had explored the region in 1842-1843 (and unofficially in later
+years for railway routes), and gave juster reports of the country to the
+world than his predecessors. Commerce was tributary in these years to
+the (New) Mexican town of Taos.
+
+Colorado was practically an unknown country when in 1858 gold was
+discovered in the plains, on the tributaries of the South Platte, near
+Denver. In 1859 various discoveries were made in the mountains. The
+history of Denver goes back to this time. Julesburg, in the extreme
+north-east corner, at the intersection of the Platte valley and the
+overland wagon route, became transiently important during the rush of
+settlers that followed. Emigration from the East was stimulated by the
+panic and hard times following 1857. During 1860, 1861 and 1862 there
+was a continuous stream of immigration. Denver (under its present name),
+Black Hawk, Golden, Central City, Mount Vernon and Nevada City were all
+founded in 1859; Breckenridge, Empire, Gold Hill, Georgetown and Mill
+City date from 1860 and 1861. The political development of the next few
+years was very complicated. "Arapahoe County," including all Colorado,
+was organized as a part of Kansas Territory in 1858; but a delegate was
+also sent to Congress to work for the admission of an independent
+territory (called "Jefferson"). At the same time, early in 1860, a
+movement for statehood was inaugurated, a constitution being framed and
+submitted to the people, who rejected it, adopting later in the year a
+constitution of territorial government. Accordingly the Territory of
+Jefferson arose, assuming to rule over six degrees of latitude (37
+deg.-43 deg.) and eight of longitude (102 deg.-110 deg.). Then there was
+the Kansas territorial government also, and under this a full county
+organization was maintained. Finally, peoples' court, acting wholly
+without reference to Kansas, and with no more than suited them (some
+districts refusing taxes) to the local "provisional" legislature,
+secured justice in the mining country. The provisional legislature of
+the Territory of Jefferson maintained a wholly illegal but rather
+creditable existence somewhat precariously and ineffectively until 1861.
+Its acts, owing to the indifference of the settlers, had slight
+importance. Some, such as the first charter of Denver, were later
+re-enacted under the legal territorial government, organized by the
+United States in February 1861. Colorado City was the first capital, but
+was soon replaced by Golden, which was the capital from 1862 until 1868,
+when Denver was made the seat of government (in 1881 permanently, by
+vote of the people). In 1862 some Texas forces were defeated by Colorado
+forces in an attempt to occupy the territory for the Confederacy. From
+1864 to 1870 there was trouble with the Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians. A
+sanguinary attack on an Indian camp in Kiowa county in 1864 is known as
+the Sand Creek Massacre. In 1867 the Republican party had prepared for
+the admission of Colorado as a state, but the enabling act was vetoed by
+President Johnson, and statehood was not gained until 1876. Finally,
+under a congressional enabling act of the 3rd of March 1875, a
+constitution was framed by a convention at Denver (20th of December 1875
+to 14th of March 1876) and adopted by the people on the 1st of July
+1876. The admission of Colorado to the Union was thereupon proclaimed on
+the 1st of August 1876.
+
+From this time on the history of the state was long largely that of her
+great mining camps. After 1890 industrial conditions were confused and
+temporarily set greatly backward by strikes and lockouts in the mines,
+particularly in 1894, 1896-1897 and 1903-1904, several times threatening
+civil war and necessitating the establishment of martial law. Questions
+of railways, of franchises, union scales and the recognition of the
+union in contracts, questions of sheep and cattle interests, politics,
+civic, legal and industrial questions, all entered into the economic
+troubles of these years. The Colorado "labour wars" were among the most
+important struggles between labour and capital, and afforded probably
+the most sensational episodes in the story of all labour troubles in the
+United States in these years. A state board of arbitration was created
+in 1896, but its usefulness was impaired by an opinion of the state
+attorney-general (in 1901) that it could not enforce subpoenas, compel
+testimony or enforce decisions. A law establishing an eight-hour day for
+underground miners and smelter employees (1899) was unanimously voided
+by the state supreme court, but in 1902 the people amended the
+constitution and ordered the general assembly to re-enact the law for
+labourers in mines, smelters and dangerous employments. Following the
+repeal of the Sherman Law and other acts and tendencies unfavourable to
+silver coinage in 1893 and thereafter, the silver question became the
+dominant issue in politics, resulting in the success of the
+Populist-Democratic fusion party in three successive elections, and
+permanently and greatly altering prior party organizations.
+
+The governors of Colorado have been as follows:--
+
+_Territorial._
+
+    W. Gilpin     1861      E. M. McCook  1869
+    J. Evans      1862      S. H. Elbert  1873
+    A. Cummings   1865      E. M. McCook  1874
+    A. C. Hunt    1867      J. L. Routt   1875
+
+_State._
+
+    J. L. Routt          Republican      1876
+    F. W. Pitkin             "           1879
+    J. B. Grant          Democrat        1883
+    B. H. Eaton          Republican      1885
+    A. Adams             Democrat        1887
+    J. A. Cooper         Republican      1890
+    J. L. Routt              "           1891
+    D. H. Waite          Populist        1893
+    A. W. M'Intire       Republican      1895
+    A. Adams             Dem.-Populist   1897
+    C. S. Thomas               "         1899
+    J. B. Orman                "         1901
+    J. H. Peabody        Republican      1903
+    A. Adams             Democrat        1905[5]
+    Jesse F. M'Donald    Republican      1905[5]
+    Henry A. Buchtel           "         1907
+    John H. Shafroth     Democrat        1909
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For _topography and general description_: Hayden and
+  assistants, reports on _Colorado_, U.S. Department of the Interior,
+  Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territories (13 vols.,
+  1867-1878), various reports, especially annual report for 1874;
+  Captain J. C. Fremont, _Report of the Exploring Expedition to the
+  Rocky Mountains in 1842_, published 1845 as Congressional document
+  28th Congress, 2nd Session, House Executive Document No. 166, and
+  various other editions. Other early exploring reports are: _The
+  Expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike ... Through Louisiana Territory
+  and in New Spain in the Years 1805-6-7_, edited by E. Coues (3 vols.,
+  New York, 1895); _Account of an Expedition from Pittsburgh to the
+  Rocky Mountains, 1819-20, under the Command of Major S. H. Long;
+  compiled ... by Edwin James_ (3 vols., London; 2 vols., Philadelphia,
+  1823); Captain H. Stansbury, _Exploration of the Valley of the Great
+  Salt Lake_ (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1852; also as Senate Executive
+  Document No. 3, 32nd Congress Special Session); Francis Parkman, _The
+  California and Oregon Trail_ (New York, 1849; revised ed., Boston,
+  1892),--a narrative of personal experience, as are the two following
+  books: Bayard Taylor, _Colorado; A Summer Trip_ (New York, 1867);
+  Samuel Bowles, _The Switzerland of America, A Summer Vacation in
+  Colorado_ (Springfield, Mass., 1869); F. Fossett, _Colorado; A
+  Historical, Descriptive and Statistical Work on the Rocky Mountain
+  Gold and Silver Region_ (Denver, 1878; New York, 1879, 2nd ed., 1880).
+
+  On _fauna and flora_: United States Biological Survey, _Bulletins_
+  (especially No. 10), &c.; the _Biennial Report_ of the State Game and
+  Fish Commissioner; United States Geological Survey, _10th Annual
+  Report_, pt. v., and 20th A.R., pt. 5, and various publications of the
+  United States Forestry Division for forest and forest reserves; Porter
+  and Coulter, _Synopsis of the Flora of Colorado_ (1879); and scattered
+  papers in scientific periodicals. On _climate_: United States
+  Department of Agriculture, _Colorado Climate and Crop Service_
+  (monthly). On _soil and agriculture_: _Annual Report_ of the State
+  Board of Agriculture (since 1878), of the State Agricultural College,
+  Agricultural Experiment Station (since 1887), and of the State Board
+  of Horticulture; _Biennial Report_ of the State Board of Land
+  Commissioners (since 1879); publications of the United States
+  Department of Agriculture, various bulletins on agrostology, water
+  supply and irrigation, &c. (See Department bibliographies); United
+  States Census, 1900 (States), _Bulletin_ 177, "Agriculture in
+  Colorado" (Special), _Bulletin_ 16, "Irrigation in the United States"
+  (1902), &c.; United States Geological Survey, various materials,
+  consult bibliographies in its Bulletins 100, 177, 215, 301, &c. On
+  _manufactures_: publications of United States Census, 1900, and the
+  special census of manufactures, 1905. On _mineral industries_: United
+  States Geological Survey, _Annual Report_, annual volume on "Mineral
+  Resources"; also the annual _Mineral Industry_ (Rothwell's New
+  York-London); Colorado State Bureau of Mines, _Biennial Report_,
+  Inspector of Coal Mines, _Biennial Report_ (since 1883-1884); and an
+  enormous quantity of information in the publications of the United
+  States Geological Survey. For labour troubles see below. On
+  _railways_, see annual _Statistics of Railways_ of the United States
+  Interstate Commerce Commission, and Poor's Manual (Annual, New York).
+  _Rivers_, see _Index to Reports of the Chief of Engineers_, United
+  States Army (3 vols., 1900, covering 1866-1900); publications United
+  States Geological Survey. On _population_: United States Census, 1900.
+  _Administration_: J. W. Mills' _Annotated Statutes of the State of
+  Colorado ..._ (2 vols., Denver, 1891; vol. iii. 1896); Helen L.
+  Sumner, _Equal Suffrage in Colorado_ (New York, 1909,); J. E. Snook,
+  _Colorado History and Government_ (Denver, 1904), is a reliable school
+  epitome.
+
+  On _history_: F. L. Paxson, "A Preliminary Bibliography of Colorado
+  History," being vol. iii., No. 3, of _University of Colorado Studies_
+  (June 1906); H. H. Bancroft, _History of ... Nevada, Colorado and
+  Wyoming, 1540-1888_ (San Francisco, 1890); on _labour conditions and
+  troubles_ consult: _Reports_ of the State Bureau of Labour Statistics
+  (since 1892); _Annual Reports_ of the State Board of Arbitration
+  (since 1898); publications of United States Bureau of Labour
+  (bibliographies); also especially Senate Document 122, 58th Congress,
+  3rd Session, covering the years 1880-1904. See also CRIPPLE CREEK and
+  LEADVILLE.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The market value of silver varied in the years 1870-1885 from
+    $1.32 to $1.065 an ounce; 1886-1893, $0.995 to $0.782; 1894-1904,
+    $0.630 to $0.5722.
+
+  [2] The mineral yield for 1907, according to _The Mineral Resources
+    of the United States_, 1907, amounted to $71,105,128.
+
+  [3] The special census of manufactures of 1905 was concerned only
+    with the manufacturing establishments of the state conducted under
+    the so-called factory system. The capital invested in such
+    establishments was $107,663,500, and the product was valued at
+    $100,143,999. The corresponding figures for 1900 reduced to the same
+    standard for purposes of comparison were $58,172,865 and $89,067,879.
+    Thus during the five years the capital invested in factories
+    increased 85.1%, and the factory product 12.4%. The increase in
+    product would undoubtedly have been much greater but for the labour
+    disturbances (described later in the article), which occurred during
+    this interval. Of the total product in 1905 more than four-fifths
+    were represented by the smelting of lead, copper and zinc ores, the
+    manufacture of iron and steel, the production of coke, and the
+    refining of petroleum. The value of the flour and grist-mill product
+    was $5,783,421.
+
+  [4] Census figures before 1890 do not include Indians on
+    reservations.
+
+  [5] Adams was inaugurated on the 10th of January, having been elected
+    on the return of the vote, which had been notoriously corrupted in
+    Denver and elsewhere. The Republican legislature, after investigating
+    the election and upon receiving from Peabody a written promise that
+    he would resign in twenty-four hours, declared on the 16th of March
+    that Peabody was elected. His resignation on the 17th of March made
+    Lieutenant-Governor M'Donald governor of the state.
+
+
+
+
+COLORADO RIVER, a stream in the south of the Argentine Republic. It has
+its sources on the eastern slopes of the Andes in the lat. of the
+Chilean volcano Tinguiririca (about 34 deg. 48' S.), and pursues a
+general E.S.E. course to the Atlantic, where it discharges through
+several channels of a delta extending from lat. 39 deg. 30' to 39 deg.
+30' S. Its total length is about 620 m., of which about 200 m. from the
+coast up to Pichemahuida is navigable for vessels of 7 ft. draft. It has
+been usually described as being formed by the confluence of the Grande
+and Barrancas, but as the latter is only a small stream compared with
+the Grande it is better described as a tributary, and the Grande as a
+part of the main river under another name. After leaving the vicinity of
+the Andes the Colorado flows through a barren, arid territory and
+receives no tributary of note except the Curaco, which has its sources
+in the Pampa territory and is considered to be part of the ancient
+outlet of the now closed lacustrine basin of southern Mendoza. The
+bottom lands of the Colorado in its course across Patagonia are fertile
+and wooded, but their area is too limited to support more than a small,
+scattered population.
+
+
+
+
+COLORADO RIVER, a stream in the south-west of the United States of
+America, draining a part of the high and arid plateau between the Rocky
+mountains and the Sierra Nevada in California. The light rainfall
+scarcely suffices over much of the river's course to make good the loss
+by evaporation from the waters drained from mountain snows at its
+source. Its headwaters are known as the Green river, which rises in
+north-west Wyoming and after a course of some 700 m. due south unites in
+south-east Utah with the Grand river, flowing down from Colorado, to
+form the main trunk of the Colorado proper. The Green cuts its way
+through the Uinta mountains of Wyoming; then flowing intermittently in
+the open, it crosses successive uplifts in a series of deep gorges, and
+flows finally at the foot of canyon walls 1500 ft. high near its
+junction with the Grand.
+
+The Colorado in its course below the junction has formed a region that
+is one of the most wonderful of the world, not only for its unique and
+magnificent scenery, but also because it affords the most remarkable
+example known of the work of differential weathering and erosion by wind
+and water and the exposure of geologic strata on an enormous scale.
+Above the Paria the river flows through scenery comparatively tame until
+it reaches the plateau of the Marble Canyon, some 60 m. in length. The
+walls here are at first only a few score of feet in height, but increase
+rapidly to almost 5000 ft. At its southern end is the Little Colorado.
+Above this point eleven rivers with steep mountain gradients have joined
+either the Green or the Grand or their united system. The Little
+Colorado has cut a trench 1800 ft. deep into the plateau in the last 27
+m. as it approaches the Colorado, and empties into it 2625 ft. above the
+sea. Here the Colorado turns abruptly west directly athwart the folds
+and fault line of the plateau, through the Grand Canyon (q.v.) of the
+Colorado, which is 217 m. long and from 4 to 20 m. wide between the
+upper cliffs. The walls, 4000 to 6000 ft. high, drop in successive
+escarpments of 500 to 1600 ft., banded in splendid colours, toward the
+gloomy narrow gorge of the present river. Below the confluence of the
+Virgin river of Nevada the Colorado abruptly turns again, this time
+southward, and flows as the boundary between Arizona and California and
+in part between Arizona and Nevada, and then through Mexican territory,
+some 450 m. farther to the Gulf of California. Below the Black Canyon
+the river lessens in gradient, and in its lower course flows in a broad
+sedimentary valley--a distinct estuarine plain extending northward
+beyond Yuma--and the channel through much of this region is bedded in a
+dyke-like embankment lying above the flood-plain over which the escaping
+water spills in time of flood. This dyke cuts off the flow of the river
+to the remarkable low area in southern California known as the Salton
+Sink, or Coahuila Valley, the descent to which from the river near Yuma
+is very much greater than the fall in the actual river-bed from Yuma to
+the gulf. In the autumn of 1904, the diversion flow from the river into
+a canal heading in Mexican territory a few miles below Yuma, and
+intended for irrigation of California south of the Sink, escaped
+control, and the river, taking the canal as a new channel, recreated in
+California a great inland sea--to the bed of which it had frequently
+been turned formerly, for example, in 1884 and 1891--and for a time
+practically abandoned its former course through Mexican territory to the
+Gulf of California. But it was effectively dammed in the early part of
+1907 and returned to its normal course, from which, however, there was
+still much leakage to Salton Sea; in July 1907 the permanent dam was
+completed. From the Black Canyon to the sea the Colorado normally flows
+through a desert-like basin, to the west of which, in Mexico, is Laguna
+Maquata (or Salada), lying in the so-called Pattie Basin, which was
+formerly a part of the Gulf of California, and which is frequently
+partially flooded (like Coahuila Valley) by the delta waters of the
+Colorado. Of the total length of the Colorado, about 2200 m., 500 m. or
+more from the mouth are navigable by light steamers, but channel
+obstacles make all navigation difficult at low water, and impossible
+about half the year above Mojave. The whole area drained by the river
+and its tributaries is about 225,000 sq. m.; and it has been estimated
+by Major J. W. Powell that in its drainage basin there are fully 200,000
+sq. m. that have been degraded on an average 6000 ft. It is still a
+powerful eroding stream in the canyon portion, and its course below the
+canyons has a shifting bed much obstructed by bars built of sediment
+carried from the upper course. The desert country toward the mouth is
+largely a sandy or gravelly aggradation plain of the river. The regular
+floods are in May and June. Others, due to rains, are rare. The rise of
+the water at such times is extraordinarily rapid. Enormous drift is left
+in the canyons 30 or 40 ft. above the normal level. The valley near Yuma
+is many miles wide, frequently inundated, and remarkably fertile; it is
+often called the "Nile of America" from its resemblance in climate,
+fertility, overflows and crops. These alluvial plains are covered with a
+dense growth of mesquite, cottonwood, willow, arrowwood, quelite and
+wild hemp. Irrigation is essential to regular agriculture. There is a
+fine delta in the gulf. The Colorado is remarkable for exceedingly high
+tides at its mouth and for destructive bores.
+
+In 1540, the second year that Spaniards entered Arizona, they discovered
+the Colorado. Hernando de Alarcon co-operating with F. V. de Coronado,
+explored with ships the Gulf of California and sailed up the lower
+river; Melchior Diaz, marching along the shores of the gulf, likewise
+reached the river; and Captain Garcia Lopez de Cardenas, marching from
+Zuni, reached the Grand Canyon, but could not descend its walls. In 1604
+Juan de Onate crossed Arizona from New Mexico and descended the Santa
+Maria, Bill Williams and Colorado to the gulf. The name Colorado was
+first applied to the present Colorado Chiquito, and probably about 1630
+to the Colorado of to-day. But up to 1869 great portions of the river
+were still unknown. James White, a miner, in 1867, told a picturesque
+story (not generally accepted as true) of making the passage of the
+Grand Canyon on the river. In 1869, and in later expeditions, the feat
+was accomplished by Major J. W. Powell. There have been since then
+repeated explorations and scientific studies.
+
+  See C. E. Dutton, "Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon," _U.S.
+  Geological Survey, Monograph II_. (1882); J. W. Powell, _Exploration
+  of the Colorado River_ (Washington, 1875), and _Canyons of the
+  Colorado_ (Meadville, Pa. 1895); F. S. Dellenbaugh, _Romance of the
+  Colorado River_ (New York, 1902), and _Canyon Voyage_ (1908); G. W.
+  James, _Wonders of the Colorado Desert_ (2 vols., Boston, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+COLORADO SPRINGS, a city and the county-seat of El Paso county,
+Colorado, U.S.A., about 75 m. S. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 11,140; (1900)
+21,085, of whom 2300 were foreign-born; (1910) 29,078. The city is
+served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Denver & Rio Grande, the
+Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific (of which the city is a terminus), the
+Colorado & Southern, the Colorado Springs & Cripple Creek District
+(controlled by the Colorado & Southern), and the Colorado Midland
+railways, of which the first three are continental systems. Continuous
+on the west with Colorado Springs is Colorado City (pop. in 1900, 2914),
+one of the oldest settlements of Colorado, and the first capital (1861).
+Colorado Springs is superbly situated where the Rocky Mountains rise
+from the great plains of the prairie states, surrounded on all sides by
+foothills save in the south-east, where it is open to the prairie. To
+the south of the mesa (tableland) on which it lies is the valley of
+Fountain Creek. To the west is the grand background of the canyon-riven
+Rampart range, with Pike's Peak (q.v.) dominating a half-dozen other
+peaks (among them Cameron Cone, Mt. Rosa, Cheyenne Mt.) 9000 to 12,000
+ft. in height. Monument Creek traverses the city. The streets are of
+generous width (100-140 ft.), and are well shaded by trees. There are
+several fine parks. The city is the seat of a state asylum for the
+deaf, dumb and blind, of a printers' home for union men, which was
+endowed in 1892 by Anthony J. Drexel and George W. Childs, and of
+Colorado College (1874), one of the leading educational institutions of
+the Rocky Mountain states, and the oldest institution for higher
+education in the state. The college is coeducational and non-sectarian.
+In 1908 it had a permanent endowment of about $425,000, a faculty of 46
+and 607 students; the library contained 40,000 bound volumes and as many
+pamphlets. The departments of the institution are a college of arts;
+schools of engineering (1903), music, and (1906) forestry; and the
+Cutler Academy, a preparatory school under the control of the college.
+In 1905 Gen. W. J. Palmer (1836-1909) and W. A. Bell gave to the college
+Manitou Park, a tract of forest land covering about 13,000 acres and
+situated about 20 m. from Colorado Springs.
+
+Bright sunshine and a pleasant climate (mean annual temperature about 48
+deg. F., rainfall 14 in., falling almost wholly from April to September,
+relative humidity 59), combined with beautiful scenery, have made the
+city a favourite health resort and place of residence. Land deeds for
+city property have always excluded saloons. The municipality owns and
+operates the water system, water being drawn from lakes near Pike's
+Peak. The scenery about the city is remarkable. Manitou (6100-6300 ft.)
+a popular summer resort, lies about 6 m. (by rail) north-west of
+Colorado Springs, in a glen at the opening of Ute Pass (so-named because
+it was formerly used by the Ute Indians), with the mountains rising from
+its edge. Its springs of soda and iron belong to the class of weak
+compound carbonated soda waters. In the neighbourhood are the Cave of
+the Winds, the Grand Caverns, charming glens, mountain lakes and
+picturesque canyons; and the Garden of the Gods (owned by the
+city)--approached between two tremendous masses of red rock 330 ft.
+high, and strewn (about 500 acres) with great rocks and ridges of
+brightly coloured sandstone, whose grotesque shapes and fantastic
+arrangement have suggested a playground of superhuman beings. At the
+southern end of the Rampart range is Cheyenne Mt. (9407 ft.), on whose
+slope was buried Helen Hunt Jackson ("H.H."), who has left many pictures
+of this country in her stories. The two Cheyenne Canyons, with walls as
+high as 1000 ft. and beautiful falls, and the road over the mountain
+side toward Cripple Creek, afford exquisite views. Monument Park (10 m.
+N.) is a tract of fantastically eroded sandstone rocks, similar to those
+in the Garden of the Gods.
+
+In 1859 a winter mining party coming upon the sunny valley near the
+present Manitou, near the old Fontaine-qui-Bouille, settled "El Dorado."
+Colorado City is practically on the same site. In 1870, as part of the
+town development work of the Denver & Rio Grande railway, of which
+General W. J. Palmer was the president, a land company founded Colorado
+Springs. In 1872 Manitou (first La Fontaine) was founded. Colorado
+Springs was laid out in 1871, was incorporated in 1872, and was first
+chartered as a city in 1878. A new charter (May 1909) provided for the
+recall of elective officials. A road over the Ute Pass to South Park and
+Leadville was built, and at one time about 12,000 horses and mules were
+employed in freighting to the Leadville camps. The Chicago, Rock Island
+& Pacific railway reached the city in 1888. The greatest part of the
+Cripple Creek mining properties is owned in Colorado Springs, where the
+exchange is one of the greatest in the world.
+
+
+
+
+COLOSSAE, once the great city of south-west Phrygia, was situated on
+rising ground (1150 ft.) on the left bank of the Lycus (_Churuk Su_), a
+tributary of the Maeander, at the upper end of a narrow gorge 2-1/2 m.
+long, where the river runs between cliffs from 50 to 60 ft. high. It
+stood on the great trade route from Sardis to Celaenae and Iconium, and
+was a large, prosperous city (Herod, vii. 30; Xenophon, _Anab._ i. 2, S
+6), until it was ruined by the foundation of Laodicea in a more
+advantageous position. The town was celebrated for its wool, which was
+dyed a purple colour called _colossinus_. Colossae was the seat of an
+early Christian church, the result of St Paul's activity at Ephesus,
+though perhaps actually founded by Epaphras. The church, to which St
+Paul wrote a letter, was mainly composed of mingled Greek and Phrygian
+elements deeply imbued with fantastic and fanatical mysticism. Colossae
+lasted until the 7th and 8th centuries, when it was gradually deserted
+under pressure of the Arab invasions. Its place was taken by Khonae
+(_Khonas_)--a strong fortress on a rugged spur of Mt. Kadmus, 3 m. to
+the south, which became a place of importance during the wars between
+the Byzantines and Turks, and was the birthplace of the historian,
+Nicetas Khoniates. The worship of angels alluded to by St Paul (Col. ii.
+18), and condemned in the 4th century by a council at Laodicea,
+reappears in the later worship of St Michael, in whose honour a
+celebrated church, destroyed by the Seljuks in the 12th century, was
+built on the right bank of the Lycus.
+
+  See Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+COLOSSAL CAVERN, a cave in Kentucky, U.S.A., the main entrance of which
+is at the foot of a steep hill beyond Eden Valley, and 1-1/2 m. from
+Mammoth Cave. It is connected with what has long been known as the Bed
+Quilt Cave. Several entrances found by local explorers were rough and
+difficult. They were closed when the property was bought in 1896 by the
+Louisville & Nashville railway and a new approach made as indicated on
+the accompanying map. From the surface to the floor is 240 ft.; under
+Chester Sandstone and in the St Louis Limestone. Fossil corals fix the
+geological age of the rock. The temperature is uniformly 54 deg. Fahr.,
+and the atmosphere is optically and chemically pure. Lovely
+incrustations alternate with queer and grotesque figures. There are
+exquisite gypsum rosettes and intricately involved helictites.
+
+[Illustration: map of Colossal Cavern.]
+
+Tremendous forces have been at work, suggesting earthquakes and
+eruptions; but really all is due to the chemical and mechanical action
+of water. The so-called "Ruins of Carthage" fill a hall 400 ft. long by
+100 ft. wide and 30 ft. high, whose flat roof is a vast homogeneous
+limestone block. Isolated detached blocks measure from 50 to 100 ft. in
+length. Edgar Vaughan and W. L. Marshall, civil engineers, surveyed
+every part of the cave. Vaughan's Dome is 40 ft. wide, 300 ft. long, and
+79 ft. high. Numerous other domes exist, and many deep pits. The
+grandest place of all is the Colossal Dome, which used to be entered
+only from the apex by windlass and a rope reaching 135 ft. to the floor.
+This is now used only for illumination by raising and lowering a
+fire-basket. The present entrance is by a gateway buttressed by
+alabaster shafts, one of which, 75 ft. high, is named Henry Clay's
+Monument. The dome walls arise in a series of richly tinted rings, each
+8 or 10 ft. thick, and each fringed by stalactites. The symmetry is
+remarkable, and the reverberations are strangely musical. The Pearly
+Pool, in a chamber near a pit 86 ft. deep, glistens with countless cave
+pearls. The route beyond is between rows of stately shafts, and ends in
+a copious chalybeate spring. Blind flies, spiders, beetles and crickets
+abound; and now and then a blind crawfish darts through the waters; but
+as compared with many caverns the fauna and flora are not abundant. It
+is conjectured, not without some reason, that there is a connexion, as
+yet undiscovered, between the Colossal and the Mammoth caves. It seems
+certain that Eden Valley, which now lies between them, is a vast
+"tumble-down" of an immense cavern that formerly united them into one.
+     (H. C. H.)
+
+
+
+
+COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, the twelfth book of the New Testament, the
+authorship of which is ascribed to the Apostle Paul. Colossae, like the
+other Phrygian cities of Laodicea and Hierapolis, had not been visited
+by Paul, but owed its belief in Jesus Christ to Epaphras, a Colossian,
+who had been converted by Paul, perhaps in Ephesus, and had laboured not
+only in his native city but also in the adjacent portions of the Lycus
+valley,--a Christian in whom Paul reposed the greatest confidence as one
+competent to interpret the gospel of whose truth Paul was convinced (i.
+7; iv. 12, 13). This Epaphras, like the majority of the Colossians, was
+a Gentile. It is probable, however, both from the letter itself and from
+the fact that Colossae was a trade centre, that Jews were there with
+their synagogues (cf. also Josephus, _Ant._ xii. 149). And it is further
+probable that some of the Gentiles, who afterwards became Christians,
+were either Jewish proselytes or adherents who paid reverence to the God
+of the Jews. At all events, the letter indicates a sensitiveness on the
+part of the Christians not only to oriental mysticism and theosophy (cf.
+Sir W. M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, and _Church in the
+Roman Empire_), but also to the Judaism of the Diaspora.
+
+Our first definite knowledge of the Colossian Church dates from the
+presence of Epaphras in Rome in A.D. 62-64 (or A.D. 56-58), when Paul
+was a prisoner. He arrived with news, perhaps with a letter (J. R.
+Harris, _Expositor_, Dec. 1898, pp. 404 ff.), touching the state of
+religion in Colossae. Paul learns, to his joy, of their faith, hope and
+love; of the order and stability of their faith; and of their reception
+of Christ Jesus the Lord (i. 4, 8; ii. 5-7). He sees no sign of an
+attack upon him or his gospel. On the contrary, loyalty to him and
+sympathy with him in his sufferings are everywhere manifest (i. 9, 24;
+ii. 2; iv. 8); and the gospel of Christ is advancing here as elsewhere
+(i. 6). At the same time he detects a lack of cheerfulness and a lack of
+spiritual understanding in the Church. The joy of the gospel, expressing
+itself in songs and thanksgivings, is damped (iii. 15, 16), and, above
+all, the message of Christ does not dwell richly enough in them. Though
+the believers know the grace of God they are not filled with a knowledge
+of his will, so that their conduct is lacking in that strength and joy
+and perfection, that richness of the fulness of knowledge expected of
+those who had been made full in Christ (i. 6, 9-11, 28; ii. 2, 7, 10).
+The reason for this, Paul sees, is the influence of the claim made by
+certain teachers in Colossae that the Christians, in order to attain
+unto and be assured of _full_ salvation, must supplement Paul's message
+with their own fuller and more perfect wisdom, and must observe certain
+rites and practices (ii. 16, 21, 23) connected with the worship of
+angels (ii. 18, 23) and elementary spirits (ii. 8, 20).
+
+The origin and the exact nature of this religious movement are alike
+uncertain. (1) If it represents a type of syncretism as definite as that
+known to have existed in the developed gnostic systems of the 2nd
+century, it is inconceivable that Paul should have passed it by as
+easily as he did. (2) As there is no reference to celibacy, communism
+and the worship of the sun, it is improbable that the movement is
+identical with that of the Essenes. (3) The phenomena might be explained
+solely on the basis of Judaism (von Soden, Peake). Certainly the
+asceticism and ritualism might so be interpreted, for there was among
+the Jews of the Dispersion an increasing tendency to asceticism, by way
+of protest against the excesses of the Gentiles. The reference in ii. 23
+to severity of the body may have to do with fasting preparatory to
+seeing visions (cf. _Apoc. Baruch_, xxi. 1, ix. 2, v. 7). Even the
+worship of angels, not only as mediators of revelation and visions, but
+also as cosmical beings, is a well-known fact in late Judaism (_Apoc.
+Bar._ lv. 3; _Ethiopic Enoch_, lx. 11, lxi. 10; Col. ii. 8, 20; Gal. iv.
+3). As for the word "philosophy" (ii. 8), it is not necessary to take it
+in the technical Greek sense when the usage of Philo and Josephus
+permits a looser meaning. Finally the references to circumcision,
+_paradosis_ (ii. 8) and _dogmata_ (ii. 20), directly suggest a Jewish
+origin. If we resort solely to Judaism for explanation, it must be a
+Judaism of the Diaspora type. (4) The difficulty with the last-mentioned
+position is that it under-estimates the speculative tendencies of the
+errorists and ignores the direct influence of oriental theosophy. It is
+quite true that Paul does not directly attack the speculative position,
+but rather indicates the practical dangers inherent therein (the denial
+of the supremacy of Christ and of full salvation through Him); he does
+not say that the errorists hold Christ to be a mere angel or an aeon, or
+that words like _pleroma_ (borrowed perhaps from their own vocabulary)
+involve a rigorous dualism. Yet his characterization of the movement as
+an arbitrary religion (ii. 23), a philosophy which is empty deceit (ii.
+8), according to elemental spirits and not according to Christ, and a
+higher knowledge due to a mind controlled by the flesh (ii. 18); his
+repeated emphasis on Christ, as supreme over all things, over men and
+angels, agent in creation as well as in redemption, in whom dwelt bodily
+the fulness of the Godhead; and his constant stress upon knowledge,--all
+these combine to reveal a speculation real and dangerous, even if naive
+and regardless of consequences, and to suggest (with Julicher and
+McGiffert) that in addition to Jewish influence there is also the direct
+influence of Oriental mysticism.
+
+To meet the pressing need in Colossae, Paul writes a letter and entrusts
+it to Tychichus, who is on his way to Colossae with Onesimus, Philemon's
+slave (iv. 7, 9). (On the relation of this letter to Ephesians and to
+the letter to be sent from Laodicea to Colossae, see EPHESIANS, EPISTLE
+TO THE.) His attitude is prophylactic, rather than polemic, for the
+"philosophy" has not as yet taken deep root. His purpose is to restore
+in the hearts of the readers the joy of the Spirit, by making them see
+that Christ fulfils every need, and that through faith in Him and love
+from faith, the advance is made unimpeded unto the perfect man. He will
+eliminate foreign accretions, that the gospel of Christ may stand forth
+in its native purity, and that Christ Himself may in all things have the
+pre-eminence.
+
+The letter begins with a thanksgiving to God for the spiritual growth of
+the Colossians, and continues with a prayer for their fuller knowledge
+of the divine will, for a more perfect Christian life, and for a spirit
+of thanksgiving, seeing that it is God who guarantees their salvation in
+Christ (i. 1-14). It is Christ who is supreme, not angels, for He is the
+agent in creation; and it is solely on the basis of faith in Him, a
+faith expressing itself in love, that redemption is appropriated, and
+not on the basis of any further requirements such as ascetic practices
+and the worship of angels (i. 15-23). It is with a full message that
+Paul has been entrusted, the message of Christ, who alone can lead to
+all the riches of fulness of knowledge. And for this adequate knowledge
+the readers should be thankful (i. 23--ii. 7). Again he urges, that
+since redemption is in Christ alone, and that, too, full redemption and
+on the basis of faith alone, the demand for asceticism and meaningless
+ceremonies is folly, and moreover robs Christ, in whom dwells the divine
+fulness, of His rightful supremacy (ii. 8-23). And he exhorts them as
+members of the Body of Christ to manifest their faith in Christian love,
+particularly in their domestic relations and in their contact with
+non-Christians (iii. i-iv. 6). He closes by saying that Tychichus will
+give them the news. Greetings from all to all (iv. 7-18).
+
+A letter like this, clear cut in its thought, teeming with ideas
+emanating from an unique religious experience, and admirably adjusted to
+known situations, bears on the face of it the marks of genuineness even
+without recourse to the unusually excellent external attestation. It is
+not strange that there is a growing consensus of opinion that Paul is
+the author. With the critical renaissance of the early part of the 19th
+century, doubts were raised as to the genuineness of the letter (e.g. by
+E. T. Mayerhoff, 1838). Quite apart from the difficulties created by the
+Tubingen theory, legitimate difficulties were found in the style of the
+letter, in the speculation of the errorists, and in the theology of the
+author. (1) As to style, it is replied that if there are peculiarities
+in _Colossians_, so also in the admittedly genuine letters, _Romans_,
+_Corinthians_, _Galatians_. Moreover, if _Philippians_ is Pauline, so
+also the stylistically similar _Colossians_ (cf. von Soden). (2) As to
+the speculation of the errorists, it is replied that it is explicable in
+the lifetime of Paul, that some of the elements of it may have their
+source in pre-Christian Jewish theories, and that recourse to the
+developed gnosticism of the 2nd century is unnecessary. (3) As to the
+Christology of the author, it is replied that it does not go beyond what
+we have already in Paul except in emphasis, which itself is occasioned
+by the circumstances. What is implicit in _Corinthians_ is explicit in
+_Colossians_. H. J. Holtzmann (1872) subjected both _Colossians_ and
+_Ephesians_ to a rigorous examination, and found in _Colossians_ at
+least a nucleus of Pauline material. H. von Soden (1885), with
+well-considered principles of criticism, made a similar examination and
+found a much larger nucleus, and later still, (1893), in his commentary,
+reduced the non-Pauline material to a negligible minimum. Harnack,
+Julicher and McGiffert, however, agree with Lightfoot, Weiss, Zahn (and
+early tradition) in holding that the letter is wholly Pauline--a
+position which is proving more and more acceptable to contemporary
+scholarship.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the literature already mentioned, see the
+  articles of Sanday on "Colossians" and Robertson on "Ephesians" in
+  Smith's _Bible Dictionary_ (2nd ed., 1893), and the article of A.
+  Julicher on "Colossians and Ephesians" in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_
+  (1899); the Introductions of H. J. Holtzmann (1892), B. Weiss (1897),
+  Th. Zahn (1900) and Julicher (1906); the histories of the apostolic
+  age by C. von Weizsacker (1892), A. C. M'Giffert (1897) and O.
+  Pfleiderer (_Urchristentum_, 1902); and the commentaries of J. B.
+  Lightfoot (1875), H. von Soden (1893) T. K. Abbott (1897), E. Haupt
+  (1902), Peake (1903) and P. Ewald (1905).     (J. E. F.)
+
+
+
+
+COLOSSUS, in antiquity a term applied generally to statues of great size
+(hence the adjective "colossal"), and in particular to the bronze statue
+of the sun-god Helios in Rhodes, one of the wonders of the world, made
+from the spoils left by Demetrius Poliorcetes when he raised the siege
+of the city. The sculptor was Chares, a native of Lindus, and of the
+school of Lysippus, under whose influence the art of sculpture was led
+to the production of colossal figures by preference. The work occupied
+him twelve years, it is said, and the finished statue stood 70 cubits
+high. It stood near the harbour ([Greek: epi limeni]), but at what point
+is not certain. When, and from what grounds, the belief arose that it
+had stood across the entrance to the harbour, with a beacon light in its
+hand and ships passing between its legs, is not known, but the belief
+was current as early as the 16th century. The statue was thrown down by
+an earthquake about the year 224 B.C.; then, after lying broken for
+nearly 1000 years, the pieces were bought by a Jew from the Saracens,
+and probably reconverted into instruments of war.
+
+Other Greek colossi were the Apollo of Calamis; the Zeus and Heracles of
+Lysippus; the Zeus at Olympia, the Athena in the Parthenon, and the
+Athena Promachos on the Acropolis--all the work of Pheidias.
+
+The best-known Roman colossi are: a statue of Jupiter on the Capitol; a
+bronze statue of Apollo in the Palatine library; and the colossus of
+Nero in the vestibule of his Golden House, afterwards removed by Hadrian
+to the north of the Colosseum, where the basement upon which it stood is
+still visible (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiv. 18).
+
+
+
+
+COLOUR (Lat. _color_, connected with _celare_, to hide, the root
+meaning, therefore, being that of a covering). The visual apparatus of
+the eye enables us to distinguish not only differences of form, size and
+brilliancy in the objects looked upon, but also differences in the
+character of the light received from them. These latter differences,
+familiar to us as differences in _colour_, have their physical origin in
+the variations in wave-length (or frequency) which may exist in light
+which is capable of exciting the sensation of vision. From the physical
+point of view, light of a _pure colour_, or homogeneous light, means
+light whose undulations are mathematically of a simple character and
+which cannot be resolved by a prism into component parts. All the
+visible pure colours, as thus defined, are to be found in the spectrum,
+and there is an infinite number of them, corresponding to all the
+possible variations of wave-length within the limits of the visible
+spectrum (see SPECTROSCOPY). On this view, there is a strict analogy
+between variations of _colour_ in light and variations of _pitch_ in
+sound, but the visible spectrum contains a range of frequency extending
+over about one octave only, whereas the range of audibility embraces
+about eleven octaves.
+
+Of all the known colours it might naturally be thought that white is the
+simplest and purest, and, till Sir Isaac Newton's time, this was the
+prevailing opinion. Newton, however, showed that white light could be
+decomposed by a prism into the spectral colours red, orange, yellow,
+green, blue, indigo and violet; the colours appearing in this order and
+passing gradually into each other without abrupt transitions. White is
+therefore not a simple colour, but is merely the colour of sunlight, and
+probably owes its apparently homogeneous character to the fact that it
+is the average colour of the light which fills the eye when at rest. The
+colours of the various objects which we see around us are not due (with
+the exception of self-luminous and fluorescent bodies) to any power
+possessed by these objects of creating the colours which they exhibit,
+but merely to the exercise of a selective action on the light of the
+sun, some of the constituent rays of the white light with which they are
+illuminated being absorbed, while the rest are reflected or scattered in
+all directions, or, in the case of transparent bodies, transmitted.
+White light is thus the basis of all other colours, which are derived
+from it by the suppression of some one or more of its parts. A red
+flower, for instance, absorbs the blue and green rays and most of the
+yellow, while the red rays and usually some yellow are scattered. If a
+red poppy is illuminated successively by red, yellow, green and blue
+light it will appear a brilliant red in the red light, yellow in the
+yellow light, but less brilliant if the red colour is pure; and black in
+the other colours, the blackness being due to the almost complete
+absorption of the corresponding colour.
+
+Bodies may be classified as regards colour according to the nature of
+the action they exert on white light. In the case of ordinary opaque
+bodies a certain proportion of the incident light is irregularly
+reflected or scattered from their surfaces. A white object is one which
+reflects nearly all the light of all colours; a black object absorbs
+nearly all. A body which reflects only a portion of the light, but which
+exhibits no predominance in any particular hue, is called _grey_. A
+white surface looks grey beside a similar surface more brilliantly
+illuminated.
+
+The next class is that of most transparent bodies, which owe their
+colour to the light which is transmitted, either directly through, or
+reflected back again at the farther surface. A body which transmits all
+the visible rays equally well is said to be colourless; pure water, for
+example, is nearly quite colourless, though in large masses it appears
+bluish-green. A translucent substance is one which partially transmits
+light. Translucency is due to the light being scattered by minute
+embedded particles or minute irregularities of structure. Some fibrous
+specimens of tremolite and gypsum are translucent in the direction of
+the fibres, and practically opaque in a transverse direction. Coloured
+transparent objects vary in shade and hue according to their size; thus,
+a conical glass filled with a red liquid commonly appears yellow at the
+bottom, varying through orange up to red at the upper part. A coloured
+powder is usually of a much lighter tint than the substance in bulk, as
+the light is reflected back after transmission through only a few thin
+layers. For the same reason the powders of transparent substances are
+opaque.
+
+Polished bodies, whether opaque or transparent, when illuminated with
+white light and viewed at the proper angle, reflect the incident light
+regularly and appear white, without showing much of their distinctive
+colours.
+
+Some bodies reflect light of one colour and transmit that of another;
+such bodies nearly always possess the properties of _selective_ or
+_metallic reflection_ and _anomalous dispersion_. Most of the coal-tar
+dyes belong to this category. Solid eosin, for example, reflects a
+yellowish-green and transmits a red light. Gold appears yellow under
+ordinary circumstances, but if the light is reflected many times from
+the surface it appears a ruby colour. On the other hand, a powerful beam
+of light transmitted through a thin gold-leaf appears green.
+
+Some solutions exhibit the curious phenomenon of _dichromatism_ (from
+[Greek: di-], double, and [Greek: chroma], colour), that is, they appear
+of one colour when viewed in strata of moderate thickness, but of a
+different colour in greater thicknesses (see Absorption of Light).
+
+The blue colour of the sky (q.v.) has been explained by Lord Rayleigh as
+due to the scattering of light by small suspended particles and air
+molecules, which is most effective in the case of the shorter waves
+(blue). J. Tyndall produced similar effects in the laboratory. The green
+colour of sea-water near the shore is also due to a scattering of light.
+
+The colours of bodies which are gradually heated to white incandescence
+occur in the order--red, orange, yellow, white. This is because the
+longer waves of red light are first emitted, then the yellow as well, so
+that orange results, then so much green that the total effect is yellow,
+and lastly all the colours, compounding to produce white. Fluorescent
+bodies have the power of converting light of one colour into that of
+another (see FLUORESCENCE).
+
+Besides the foregoing kinds of colorization, a body may exhibit, under
+certain circumstances, a colouring due to some special physical
+conditions rather than to the specific properties of the material; such
+as the colour of a white object when illuminated by light of some
+particular colour; the colours seen in a film of oil on water or in
+mother-of-pearl, or soap-bubbles, due to interference (q.v.); the
+colours seen through the eyelashes or through a thin handkerchief held
+up to the light, due to diffraction (q.v.); and the colours caused by
+ordinary refraction, as in the rainbow, double refraction and
+polarization (qq.v.).
+
+_Composition of Colours._--It has been already pointed out that white
+light is a combination of all the colours in the spectrum. This was
+shown by Newton, who recombined the spectral colours and produced white.
+Newton also remarks that if a froth be made on the surface of water
+thickened a little with soap, and examined closely, it will be seen to
+be coloured with all the colours of the spectrum, but at a little
+distance it looks white owing to the combined effect on the eye of all
+the colours.
+
+The question of the composition of colours is largely a physiological
+one, since it is possible, by mixing colours, say red and yellow, to
+produce a new colour, orange, which appears identical with the pure
+orange of the spectrum, but is physically quite different, since it can
+be resolved by a prism into red and yellow again. There is no doubt that
+the sensation of colour-vision is threefold, in the sense that any
+colour can be produced by the combination, in proper proportions, of
+three standard colours. The question then arises, what are the three
+primary colours? Sir David Brewster considered that they were red,
+yellow and blue; and this view has been commonly held by painters and
+others, since all the known brilliant hues can be derived from the
+admixture of red, yellow and blue pigments. For instance, vermilion and
+chrome yellow will give an orange, chrome yellow and ultramarine a
+green, and vermilion and ultramarine a purple mixture. But if we
+superpose the pure spectral colours on a screen, the resulting colours
+are quite different. This is especially the case with yellow and blue,
+which on the screen combine to produce white, generally with a pink
+tint, but cannot be made to give green. The reason of this difference in
+the two results is that in the former case we do not get a true
+combination of the colours at all. When the mixed pigments are
+illuminated by white light, the yellow particles absorb the red and blue
+rays, but reflect the yellow along with a good deal of the neighbouring
+green and orange. The blue particles, on the other hand, absorb the red,
+orange and yellow, but reflect the blue and a good deal of green and
+violet. As much of the light is affected by several particles, most of
+the rays are absorbed except green, which is reflected by both pigments.
+Thus, the colour of the mixture is not a mixture of the colours yellow
+and blue, but the remainder of white light after the yellow and blue
+pigments have absorbed all they can. The effect can also be seen in
+coloured solutions. If two equal beams of white light are transmitted
+respectively through a yellow solution of potassium bichromate and a
+blue solution of copper sulphate in proper thicknesses, they can be
+compounded on a screen to an approximately white colour; but a single
+beam transmitted through both solutions appears green. Blue and yellow
+pigments would produce the effect of white only if very sparsely
+distributed. This fact is made use of in laundries, where cobalt blue is
+used to correct the yellow colour of linen after washing.
+
+Thomas Young suggested red, green and violet as the primary colours, but
+the subsequent experiments of J. Clerk Maxwell appear to show that they
+should be red, green and blue. Sir William Abney, however, assigns
+somewhat different places in the spectrum to the primary colours, and,
+like Young, considers that they should be red, green and violet. All
+other hues can be obtained by combining the three primaries in proper
+proportions. Yellow is derived from red and green. This can be done by
+superposition on a screen or by making a solution which will transmit
+only red and green rays. For this purpose Lord Rayleigh recommends a
+mixture of solutions of blue litmus and yellow potassium chromate. The
+litmus stops the yellow and orange light, while the potassium chromate
+stops the blue and violet. Thus only red and green are transmitted, and
+the result is a full compound yellow which resembles the simple yellow
+of the spectrum in appearance, but is resolved into red and green by a
+prism. The brightest yellow pigments are those which give both the pure
+and compound yellow. Since red and green produce yellow, and yellow and
+blue produce white, it follows that red, green and blue can be
+compounded into white. H. von Helmholtz has shown that the only pair of
+simple spectral colours capable of compounding to white are a
+greenish-yellow and blue.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+Just as musical sounds differ in pitch, loudness and quality, so may
+colours differ in three respects, which Maxwell calls _hue_, _shade_ and
+_tint_. All hues can be produced by combining every pair of primaries in
+every proportion. The addition of white alters the tint without
+affecting the hue. If the colour be darkened by adding black or by
+diminishing the illumination, a variation in shade is produced. Thus the
+hue red includes every variation in tint from red to white, and every
+variation in shade from red to black, and similarly for other hues. We
+can represent every hue and tint on a diagram in a manner proposed by
+Young, following a very similar suggestion of Newton's. Let RGB (fig. 1)
+be an equilateral triangle, and let the angular points be coloured red,
+green and blue of such intensities as to produce white if equally
+combined; and let the colour of every point of the triangle be
+determined by combining such proportions of the three primaries, that
+three weights in the same proportion would have their centre of gravity
+at the point. Then the centre of the triangle will be a neutral tint,
+white or grey; and the middle points of the sides Y, S, P will be
+yellow, greenish-blue and purple. The hue varies all round the
+perimeter. The tint varies along any straight line through W. To vary
+the shade, the whole triangle must be uniformly darkened.
+
+The simplest way of compounding colours is by means of Maxwell's colour
+top, which is a broad spinning-top over the spindle of which coloured
+disks can be slipped (fig. 2). The disks are slit radially so that they
+can be slipped partially over each other and the surfaces exposed in any
+desired ratio. Three disks are used together, and a match is obtained
+between these and a pair of smaller ones mounted on the same spindle. If
+any five colours are taken, two of which may be black and white, a match
+can be got between them by suitable adjustment. This shows that a
+relation exists between any four colours (the black being only needed to
+obtain the proper intensity) and that consequently the number of
+independent colours is three. A still better instrument for combining
+colours is Maxwell's colour box, in which the colours of the spectrum
+are combined by means of prisms. Sir W. Abney has also invented an
+apparatus for the same purpose, which is much the same in principle as
+Maxwell's colour box. Several methods of colour photography depend on
+the fact that all varieties of colour can be compounded from red, green
+and blue in proper proportions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: (After Muller-Pouillet's _Lehrbuch der Physik_, 1897.)
+FIG. 3.]
+
+Any two colours which together give white are called _complementary_
+colours. Greenish-yellow and blue are a pair of complementaries, as
+already mentioned. Any number of pairs may be obtained by a simple
+device due to Helmholtz and represented in fig. 3. A beam of white
+light, decomposed by the prism P, is recompounded into white light by
+the lens l and focussed on a screen at f. If the thin prism p is
+inserted near the lens, any set of colours may be deflected to another
+point n, thus producing two coloured and complementary images of the
+source of light.
+
+_Nature of White Light._--The question as to whether white light
+actually consists of trains of waves of regular frequency has been
+discussed in recent years by A. Schuster, Lord Rayleigh and others, and
+it has been shown that even if it consisted of a succession of somewhat
+irregular impulses, it would still be resolved, by the dispersive
+property of a prism or grating, into trains of regular frequency. We may
+still, however, speak of white light as compounded of the rays of the
+spectrum, provided we mean only that the two systems are mathematically
+equivalent, and not that the homogeneous trains exist as such in the
+original light.
+
+  See also Newton's _Opticks_, bk. i. pt. ii.; Maxwell's _Scientific
+  Papers_; Helmholtz's papers in _Poggendorf's Annalen_; Sir G. G.
+  Stokes, _Burnett Lectures for 1884-5-6_; Abney's _Colour Vision_
+  (1895).     (J. R. C.)
+
+
+
+
+COLOURS, MILITARY, the flags carried by infantry regiments and
+battalions, sometimes also by troops of other arms. Cavalry regiments
+and other units have as a rule standards and guidons (see FLAG). Colours
+are generally embroidered with mottoes, symbols, and above all with the
+names of battles.
+
+From the earliest time at which men fought in organized bodies of
+troops, the latter have possessed some sort of insignia visible over all
+the field of battle, and serving as a rallying-point for the men of the
+corps and an indication of position for the higher leaders and the men
+of other formed bodies. In the Roman army the eagle, the _vexillum_, &c.
+had all the moral and sentimental importance of the colours of to-day.
+During the dark and the middle ages, however, the basis of military
+force being the individual knight or lord, the banner, or other flag
+bearing his arms, replaced the regimental colour which had signified the
+corporate body and claimed the devotion of each individual soldier in
+the ranks, though the original meaning of the colour as a corps, not a
+personal distinction, was sometimes maintained by corporate bodies (such
+as trade-gilds) which took the field as such. An example is the famous
+_carroccio_ or standard on wheels, which was frequently brought into the
+field of battle by the citizen militia of the Italian cities, and was
+fought for with the same ardour as the royal standard in other medieval
+battles.
+
+The application of the word "colour" to such insignia, however, dates
+only from the 16th century. It has been suggested that, as the
+professional captain gradually ousted the nobleman from the command of
+the drilled and organized companies of foot--the man of gentle birth, of
+course, maintained his ascendancy in the cavalry far longer--the leaders
+of such bodies, no longer possessing coat-armour and individual banners,
+had recourse to small flags of distinctive colour instead. "Colour" is
+in the 16th century a common name in England and middle Europe for the
+unit of infantry; in German the _Fahnlein_ (colour) of landsknechts was
+a strong company of more than 300 foot. The ceremonial observances and
+honours paid nowadays to the colours of infantry were in fact founded
+for the most part by the landsknechts, for whom the flag (carried by
+their "ensign") was symbolical of their intense regimental life and
+feeling. The now universal customs of constituting the colour guard of
+picked men and of saluting the colours were in equal honour then; before
+that indeed, the appearance of the personal banner of a nobleman implied
+his actual presence with it, and the due honours were paid, but the
+colour of the 16th century was not the distinction of one man, but the
+symbol of the corporate life and unity of the regiment, and thus the new
+colour ceremonial implied the same allegiance to an impersonal
+regimental spirit, which it has (with the difference that the national
+spirit has been blended with the regimental) retained ever since. The
+old soldier rallied to the colours as a matter of habit in the confusion
+of battle, and the capture or the loss of a colour has always been
+considered a special event, glorious or the reverse, in the history of a
+regiment, the importance of this being chiefly sentimental, but having
+as a very real background the fact that, if its colour was lost, a
+regiment was to all intents and purposes dissolved and dispersed.
+Frederick the Great and Napoleon always attached the highest importance
+to the maintenance at all costs of the regimental colours. Even over
+young troops the influence of the colour has been extraordinary, and
+many generals have steadied their men in the heat of battle by taking a
+regimental colour themselves to lead the advance or to form up the
+troops. Thus in the first battle of Bull Run (1861) the raw Confederate
+troops were rallied under a heavy fire by General Joseph Johnston, their
+commander-in-chief, who stood with a colour in his hand until the men
+gathered quickly in rank and file. The archduke Charles at Aspern (1809)
+led his young troops to the last assault with a colour in his hand.
+Marshal Schwerin was killed at the battle of Prague while carrying a
+regimental colour.
+
+In the British army colours are carried by guards and line (except
+rifle) battalions, each battalion having two colours, the king's and the
+regimental. The size of the colour is 3 ft. 9 in. by 3 ft., and the
+length of the stave 8 ft. 7 in. The colour has a gold fringe and gold
+and crimson tassels, and bears various devices and "battle honours."
+Both colours are carried by subaltern officers, and an escort of
+selected non-commissioned officers forms the rest of the colour party.
+The ceremony of presenting new colours is most impressive. The old
+colours are "trooped" (see below) before being cased and taken to the
+rear. The new colours are then placed against a pile of drums and then
+uncased by the senior majors and the senior subalterns. The consecration
+follows, after which the colours are presented to the senior subalterns.
+The battalion gives a general salute when the colours are unfurled, and
+the ceremony concludes with a march past. "Trooping the colour" is a
+more elaborate ceremonial peculiar to the British service, and is said
+to have been invented by the duke of Cumberland. In this, the colour is
+posted near the left of the line, the right company or guard moves up to
+it, and an officer receives it, after which the guard with the colour
+files between the ranks of the remainder from left to right until the
+right of the line is reached.
+
+In the United States army the infantry regiment has two colours, the
+national and the regimental. They are carried in action.
+
+In the French army one colour (_drapeau_) is carried by each infantry
+regiment. It is carried by an officer, usually a _sous-lieutenant_, and
+the guard is composed of a non-commissioned officer and a party of
+"first class" soldiers. Regiments which have taken an enemy's colour or
+standard in battle have their own colours "decorated," that is, the
+cross of the Legion of Honour is affixed to the stave near the point.
+Battle honours are embroidered on the white of the tricolour. The
+_eagle_ was, in the First and Third Empires, the infantry colour, and
+was so called from the gilt eagle which surmounted the stave. The
+_chasseurs a pied_, like the rifles of the British army, carry no
+colours, but the battalion quartered for the time being at Vincennes
+carries a colour for the whole arm in memory of the first _chasseurs de
+Vincennes_. As in other countries, colours are saluted by all armed
+bodies and by individual officers and men. When the _drapeau_ is not
+present with the regiment its place is taken by an ordinary flag.
+
+The colours of the German infantry, foot artillery and engineers vary in
+design with the states to which the corps belong in the first instance;
+thus, black and white predominate in Prussian colours, red in those of
+Wurttemberg regiments, blue in Bavarian, and so on. The point of the
+colour stave is decorated in some cases with the iron cross, in memory
+of the War of Liberation and of the war of 1870. Each battalion of an
+infantry regiment has its own colour, which is carried by a
+non-commissioned officer, and guarded as usual by a colour party. The
+colour is fastened to the stave by silver nails, and the ceremony of
+driving the first nail into the stake of a new colour is one of great
+solemnity. Rings of silver on the stave are engraved with battle
+honours, the names of those who have fallen in action when carrying the
+colour, and other commemorative names and dates. The oath taken by each
+recruit on joining is sworn on the colour (_Fahneneid_).
+
+The practice in the British army of leaving the colours behind on taking
+the field dates from the battle of Isandhlwana (22nd January 1879), in
+which Lieutenants Melvill and Coghill lost their lives in endeavouring
+to save the colours of the 24th regiment. In savage warfare, in which
+the British regular army is more usually engaged, it is true that no
+particular reason can be adduced for imperilling the colours in the
+field. It is questionable, however, whether this holds good in civilized
+warfare. Colours were carried in action by both the Russians and the
+Japanese in the war of 1904-5, and they were supplemented on both sides
+by smaller flags or camp colours. The conception of the colour as the
+emblem of union, the rallying-point, of the regiment has been mentioned
+above. Many hold that such a rallying-point is more than ever required
+in the modern _guerre de masses_, when a national short-service army is
+collected in all possible strength on the decisive battle-field, and
+that scarcely any risks or loss of life would be disproportionate to the
+advantages gained by the presence of the colours. There is further a
+most important factor in the problem, which has only arisen in recent
+years through modern perfection in armament. In the first stages of an
+attack, the colours could remain, as in the past, with the closed
+reserves or line of battle, and they would not be uncased and sent into
+the thick of the fight at all hazards until the decisive assault was
+being delivered. Then, it is absolutely essential, as a matter of
+tactics, that the artillery (q.v.), which covers the assault with all
+the power given it by modern science and training, should be well
+informed as to the progress of the infantry. This covering fire was
+maintained by the Japanese until the infantry was actually in the smoke
+of their own shrapnel. With uniforms of neutral tint the need of some
+means whereby the artillery officers can, at 4000 yds. range,
+distinguish their own infantry from that of the enemy, is more
+pronounced than ever. The best troops are apt to be unsteadied by being
+fired into by their own guns (e.g. at Elandslaagte), and the more
+powerful the shell, and the more rapid and far-ranging the fire of the
+guns, the more necessary it becomes to prevent such accidents. A
+practicable solution of the difficulty would be to display the colours
+as of old, and this course would not only have to an enhanced degree the
+advantages it formerly possessed, but would also provide the simplest
+means for ensuring the vitally necessary co-operation of infantry and
+artillery in the decisive assault. The duty of carrying the colours was
+always one of special danger, and sometimes, in the old short-range
+battles, every officer who carried a flag was shot. That this fate would
+necessarily overtake the bearer under modern conditions is far from
+certain, and in any case the few men on the enemy's side who would be
+brave enough to shoot accurately under heavy shell fire would, however
+destructive to the colour party, scarcely inflict as much damage on the
+battalion as a whole, as a dozen or more accidental shells from the
+massed artillery of its own side.
+
+
+
+
+COLOUR-SERGEANT, a non-commissioned officer of infantry, ranking, in the
+British army, as the senior non-commissioned officer of each company. He
+is charged with many administrative duties, and usually acts as pay
+sergeant. A special duty of the colour-sergeants of a battalion is that
+of attending and guarding the colours and the officers carrying them. In
+some foreign armies the colours are actually carried by
+colour-sergeants. The rank was created in the British army in 1813.
+
+
+
+
+COLOURS OF ANIMALS. Much interest attaches in modern biology to the
+questions involved in the colours of animals. The subject may best be
+considered in two divisions: (1) as regards the uses of colour in the
+struggle for existence and in sexual relationships; (2) as regards the
+chemical causation.
+
+
+1. BIONOMICS
+
+_Use of Colour for Concealment._--_Cryptic colouring_ is by far the
+commonest use of colour in the struggle for existence. It is employed
+for the purpose of attack (_aggressive resemblance_ or _anticryptic
+colouring_) as well as of defence (_protective resemblance_ or
+_procryptic colouring_). The fact that the same method, concealment, may
+be used both for attack and defence has been well explained by T. Belt
+(_The Naturalist in Nicaragua_, London, 1888), who suggests as an
+illustration the rapidity of movement which is also made use of by both
+pursuer and pursued, which is similarly raised to a maximum in both by
+the gradual dying out of the slowest through a series of generations.
+Cryptic colouring is commonly associated with other aids in the struggle
+for life. Thus well-concealed mammals and birds, when discovered, will
+generally endeavour to escape by speed, and will often attempt to defend
+themselves actively. On the other hand, small animals which have no
+means of active defence, such as large numbers of insects, frequently
+depend upon concealment alone. Protective resemblance is far commoner
+among animals than aggressive resemblance, in correspondence with the
+fact that predaceous forms are as a rule much larger and much less
+numerous than their prey. In the case of insectivorous Vertebrata and
+their prey such differences exist in an exaggerated form. Cryptic
+colouring, whether used for defence or attack, may be either _general_
+or _special_. In _general resemblance_ the animal, in consequence of its
+colouring, produces the same effect as its environment, but the
+conditions do not require any special adaptation of shape and outline.
+General resemblance is especially common among the animals inhabiting
+some uniformly coloured expanse of the earth's surface, such as an ocean
+or a desert. In the former, animals of all shapes are frequently
+protected by their transparent blue colour; on the latter, equally
+diverse forms are defended by their sandy appearance. The effect of a
+uniform appearance may be produced by a combination of tints in
+startling contrast. Thus the black and white stripes of the zebra blend
+together at a little distance, and "their proportion is such as exactly
+to match the pale tint which arid ground possesses when seen by
+moonlight" (F. Galton, _South Africa_, London, 1889). _Special
+resemblance_ is far commoner than general, and is the form which is
+usually met with on the diversified surface of the earth, on the shores,
+and in shallow water, as well as on the floating masses of Algae on the
+surface of the ocean, such as the Sargasso Sea. In these environments
+the cryptic colouring of animals is usually aided by special
+modifications of shape, and by the instinct which leads them to assume
+particular attitudes. Complete stillness and the assumption of a certain
+attitude play an essential part in general resemblance on land; but in
+special resemblance the attitude is often highly specialized, and
+perhaps more important than any other element in the complex method by
+which concealment is effected. In special resemblance the combination of
+colouring, shape and attitude is such as to produce a more or less exact
+resemblance to some one of the objects in the environment, such as a
+leaf or twig, a patch of lichen, or flake of bark. In all cases the
+resemblance is to some object which is of no interest to the enemy or
+prey respectively. The animal is not hidden from view by becoming
+indistinguishable from its background, as in the cases of general
+resemblance, but it is mistaken for some well-known object.
+
+In seeking the interpretation of these most interesting and elaborate
+adaptations, attempts have been made along two lines. First, it is
+sought to explain the effect as a result of the direct influence of the
+environment upon the individual (G. L. L. Buffon), or by the inherited
+effects of effort and the use and disuse of parts (J. B. P. Lamarck).
+Second, natural selection is believed to have produced the result, and
+afterwards maintained it by the survival of the best concealed in each
+generation. The former suggestions break down when the complex nature of
+numerous special resemblances is appreciated. Thus the arrangement of
+colours of many kinds into an appropriate pattern requires the
+co-operation of a suitable shape and the rigidly exact adoption of a
+certain elaborate attitude. The latter is instinctive, and thus depends
+on the central nervous system. The cryptic effect is due to the exact
+co-operation of all these factors; and in the present state of science
+the only possible hope of an interpretation lies in the theory of
+natural selection, which can accumulate any and every variation which
+tends towards survival. A few of the chief types of methods by which
+concealment is effected may be briefly described. The colours of large
+numbers of Vertebrate animals are darkest on the back, and become
+gradually lighter on the sides, passing into white on the belly. Abbott
+H. Thayer (_The Auk_, vol. xiii., 1896) has suggested that this
+gradation obliterates the appearance of solidity, which is due to
+shadow. The colour-harmony, which is also essential to concealment, is
+produced because the back is of the same tint as the environment (_e.g._
+earth) bathed in the cold blue-white of the sky, while the belly, being
+cold blue-white bathed in shadow and yellow earth reflections, produces
+the same effect. Thayer has made models (in the natural history museums
+at London, Oxford and Cambridge) which support his interpretation in a
+very convincing manner. This method of neutralizing shadow for the
+purpose of concealment by increased lightness of tint was first
+suggested by E. B. Poulton in the case of a larva (_Trans. Ent. Soc.
+Lond._, 1887, p. 294) and a pupa (_Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._, 1888, pp.
+596, 597), but he did not appreciate the great importance of the
+principle. In an analogous method an animal in front of a background of
+dark shadow may have part of its body obliterated by the existence of a
+dark tint, the remainder resembling, e.g., a part of a leaf (W. Muller,
+_Zool. Jahr. J. W. Spengel_, Jena, 1886). This method of rendering
+invisible any part which would interfere with the resemblance is well
+known in mimicry. A common aid to concealment is the adoption by
+different individuals of two or more different appearances, each of
+which resembles some special object to which an enemy is indifferent.
+Thus the leaf-like butterflies (_Kallima_) present various types of
+colour and pattern on the under side of the wings, each of which closely
+resembles some well-known appearance presented by a dead leaf; and the
+common British yellow under-wing moth (_Tryphaena pronuba_) is similarly
+polymorphic on the upper side of its upper wings, which are exposed as
+it suddenly drops among dead leaves. Caterpillars and pupae are also
+commonly _dimorphic_, green and brown. Such differences as these extend
+the area which an enemy is compelled to search in order to make a
+living. In many cases the cryptic colouring changes appropriately
+during the course of an individual life, either seasonally, as in the
+ptarmigan or Alpine hare, or according as the individual enters a new
+environment in the course of its growth (such as larva, pupa, imago,
+&c.). In insects with more than one brood in the year, _seasonal
+dimorphism_ is often seen, and the differences are sometimes appropriate
+to the altered condition of the environment as the seasons change. The
+causes of change in these and Arctic animals are insufficiently worked
+out: in both sets there are observations or experiments which indicate
+changes from within the organism, merely following the seasons and not
+caused by them, and other observations or experiments which prove that
+certain species are susceptible to the changing external influences. In
+certain species concealment is effected by the use of adventitious
+objects, which are employed as a covering. Examples of this
+_allocryptic_ defence are found in the tubes of the caddis worms
+(_Phryganea_), or the objects made use of by crabs of the genera _Hyas_,
+_Stenorhynchus_, &c. Such animals are concealed in any environment. If
+sedentary, like the former example, they are covered up with local
+materials; if wandering, like the latter, they have the instinct to
+reclothe. Allocryptic methods may also be used for aggressive purposes,
+as the ant-lion larva, almost buried in sand, or the large frog
+_Ceratophrys_, which covers its back with earth when waiting for its
+prey. Another form of allocryptic defence is found in the use of the
+colour of the food in the digestive organs showing through the
+transparent body, and in certain cases the adventitious colour may be
+dissolved in the blood or secreted in superficial cells of the body:
+thus certain insects make use of the chlorophyll of their food (Poulton,
+_Proc. Roy. Soc._ liv. 417). The most perfect cryptic powers are
+possessed by those animals in which the individuals can change their
+colours into any tint which would be appropriate to a normal
+environment. This power is widely prevalent in fish, and also occurs in
+Amphibia and Reptilia (the chameleon affording a well-known example).
+Analogous powers exist in certain Crustacea and Cephalopoda. All these
+rapid changes of colour are due to changes in shape or position of
+superficial pigment cells controlled by the nervous system. That the
+latter is itself stimulated by light through the medium of the eye and
+optic nerve has been proved in many cases. Animals with a short
+life-history passed in a single environment, which, however, may be very
+different in the case of different individuals, may have a different
+form of _variable cryptic colouring_, namely, the power of adapting
+their colour once for all (many pupae), or once or twice (many larvae).
+In these cases the effect appears to be produced through the nervous
+system, although the stimulus of light probably acts on the skin and not
+through the eyes. Particoloured surfaces do not produce particoloured
+pupae, probably because the antagonistic stimuli neutralize each other
+in the central nervous system, which then disposes the superficial
+colours so that a neutral or intermediate effect is produced over the
+whole surface (Poulton, _Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond._, 1892, p. 293). Cryptic
+colouring may incidentally produce superficial resemblances between
+animals; thus desert forms concealed in the same way may gain a likeness
+to each other, and in the same way special resemblances, e.g. to lichen,
+bark, grasses, pine-needles, &c., may sometimes lead to a tolerably
+close similarity between the animals which are thus concealed. Such
+likeness may be called _syncryptic_ or _common protective_ (or
+_aggressive_) _resemblance_, and it is to be distinguished from mimicry
+and common warning colours, in which the likeness is not incidental, but
+an end in itself. Syncryptic resemblances have much in common with those
+incidentally caused by functional adaptation, such as the mole-like
+forms produced in the burrowing Insectivora, Rodentia and Marsupialia.
+Such likeness may be called _syntechnic resemblance_, incidentally
+produced by dynamic similarity, just as syncryptic resemblance is
+produced by static similarity.
+
+_Use of Colour for Warning and Signalling, or Sematic Coloration._--The
+use of colour for the purpose of warning is the exact opposite of the
+one which has been just described, its object being to render the animal
+conspicuous to its enemies, so that it can be easily seen, well
+remembered, and avoided in future. Warning colours are associated with
+some quality or weapon which renders the possessor unpleasant or
+dangerous, such as unpalatability, an evil odour, a sting, the
+poison-fang, &c. The object being to warn an enemy off, these colours
+are also called _aposematic_. Recognition markings, on the other hand,
+are _episematic_, assisting the individuals of the same species to keep
+together when their safety depends upon numbers, or easily to follow
+each other to a place of safety, the young and inexperienced benefiting
+by the example of the older. Episematic characters are far less common
+than aposematic, and these than cryptic; although, as regards the latter
+comparison, the opposite impression is generally produced from the very
+fact that concealment is so successfully attained. Warning or aposematic
+colours, together with the qualities they indicate, depend, as a rule,
+for their very existence upon the abundance of palatable food supplied
+by the animals with cryptic colouring. Unpalatability, or even the
+possession of a sting, is not sufficient defence unless there is enough
+food of another kind to be obtained at the same time and place (Poulton,
+_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1887, p. 191). Hence insects with warning colours
+are not seen in temperate countries except at the time when insect life
+as a whole is most abundant; and in warmer countries, with well-marked
+wet and dry seasons, it will probably be found that warning colours are
+proportionately less developed in the latter. In many species of African
+butterflies belonging to the genus _Junonia_ (including _Precis_) the
+wet-season broods are distinguished by the more or less conspicuous
+under sides of the wings, those of the dry season being highly cryptic.
+Warning colours are, like cryptic, assisted by special adaptations of
+the body-form, and especially by movements which assist to render the
+colour as conspicuous as possible. On this account animals with warning
+colours generally move or fly slowly, and it is the rule in butterflies
+that the warning patterns are similar on both upper and under sides of
+the wings. Many animals, when attacked or disturbed, "sham death" (as it
+is commonly but wrongly described), falling motionless to the ground. In
+the case of well-concealed animals this instinct gives them a second
+chance of escape in the earth or among the leaves, &c., when they have
+been once detected; animals with warning colours are, on the other hand,
+enabled to assume a position in which their characters are displayed to
+the full (J. Portschinsky, _Lepidopterorum Rossiae Biologia_, St
+Petersburg, 1890, plate i. figs. 16, 17). In both cases a definite
+attitude is assumed, which is not that of death. Other warning
+characters exist in addition to colouring: thus sound is made use of by
+the disturbed rattlesnake and the Indian _Echis_, &c. Large birds, when
+attacked, often adopt a threatening attitude, accompanied by a
+terrifying sound. The cobra warns an intruder chiefly by attitude and
+the dilation of the flattened neck, the effect being heightened in some
+species by the "spectacles." In such cases we often see the combination
+of cryptic and sematic methods, the animal being concealed until
+disturbed, when it instantly assumes an aposematic attitude. The
+advantage to the animal itself is clear: a poisonous snake gains nothing
+by killing an animal it cannot eat; while the poison does not cause
+immediate death, and the enemy would have time to injure or destroy the
+snake. In the case of small unpalatable animals with warning colours the
+enemies would only first become aware of the unpleasant quality by
+tasting and often destroying their prey; but the species would gain by
+the experience thus conveyed, even though the individual might suffer.
+An insect-eating animal does not come into the world with knowledge: it
+has to be educated by experience, and warning colours enable this
+education as to what to avoid to be gained by a small instead of a large
+waste of life. Furthermore, great tenacity of life is usually possessed
+by animals with warning colours. The tissues of aposematic insects
+generally possess great elasticity and power of resistance, so that
+large numbers of individuals can recover after very severe treatment.
+
+The brilliant warning colours of many caterpillars attracted the
+attention of Darwin when he was thinking over his hypothesis of sexual
+selection, and he wrote to A. R. Wallace on the subject (C. Darwin,
+_Life and Letters_, London, 1887, iii. 93). Wallace, in reply, suggested
+their interpretation as warning colours, a suggestion since verified by
+experiment (_Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond._, 1867, p. lxxx; _Trans. Ent. Soc.
+Lond._, 1869, pp. 21 and 27). Although animals with warning colours are
+probably but little attacked by the ordinary enemies of their class,
+they have special enemies which keep the numbers down to the average.
+Thus the cuckoo appears to be an insectivorous bird which will freely
+devour conspicuously coloured unpalatable larvae. The effect of the
+warning colours of caterpillars is often intensified by gregarious
+habits. Another aposematic use of colours and structures is to divert
+attention from the vital parts, and thus give the animal attacked an
+extra chance of escape. The large, conspicuous, easily torn wings of
+butterflies and moths act in this way, as is found by the abundance of
+individuals which may be captured with notches bitten symmetrically out
+of both wings when they were in contact. The eye-spots and "tails" so
+common on the hinder part of the hind wing, and the conspicuous apex so
+frequently seen on the fore wing, probably have this meaning. Their
+position corresponds to the parts which are most offen found to be
+notched. In some cases (e.g. many _Lycaenidae_) the "tail" and eye-spot
+combine to suggest the appearance of a head with antennae at the
+posterior end of the butterfly, the deception being aided by movements
+of the hind wings. The flat-topped "tussocks" of hair on many
+caterpillars look like conspicuous fleshy projections of the body, and
+they are held prominently when the larva is attacked. If seized, the
+"tussock" comes out, and the enemy is greatly inconvenienced by the fine
+branched hairs. The tails of lizards, which easily break off, are to be
+similarly explained, the attention of the pursuer being probably still
+further diverted by the extremely active movements of the amputated
+member. Certain crabs similarly throw off their claws when attacked, and
+the claws continue to snap most actively. The tail of the dormouse,
+which easily comes off, and the extremely bushy tail of the squirrel,
+are probably of use in the same manner. Animals with warning colours
+often tend to resemble each other superficially. This fact was first
+pointed out by H. W. Bates in his paper on the theory of mimicry
+(_Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xxiii., 1862, p. 495). He showed that the
+conspicuous, presumably unpalatable, tropical American butterflies,
+belonging to very different groups, which are mimicked by others, also
+tend to resemble each other, the likeness being often remarkably exact.
+These resemblances were not explained by his theory of mimicry, and he
+could only suppose that they had been produced by the direct influence
+of a common environment. The problem was solved in 1879 by Fritz Muller
+(see _Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond._, 1879, p. xx.), who suggested that life is
+saved by this resemblance between warning colours, inasmuch as the
+education of young inexperienced enemies is facilitated. Each species
+which falls into a group with common warning (_synaposematic_) colours
+contributes to save the lives of the other members. It is sufficiently
+obvious that the amount of learning and remembering, and consequently of
+injury and loss of life involved in the process, are reduced when many
+species in one place possess the same aposematic colouring, instead of
+each exhibiting a different "danger-signal." These resemblances are
+often described as "Mullerian mimicry," as distinguished from true or
+"Batesian mimicry" described in the next section. Similar synaposematic
+resemblances between the specially protected groups of butterflies were
+afterwards shown to exist in tropical Asia, the East Indian Islands and
+Polynesia by F. Moore (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1883, p. 201), and in Africa
+by E. B. Poulton (_Report Brit. Assoc._, 1897, p. 688). R. Meldola
+(_Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ x., 1882, p. 417) first pointed out and
+explained in the same manner the remarkable general uniformity of colour
+and pattern which runs through so many species of each of the
+distasteful groups of butterflies; while, still later, Poulton (_Proc.
+Zool. Soc._, 1887, p. 191) similarly extended the interpretation to the
+synaposematic resemblances between animals of all kinds in the same
+country. Thus, for example, longitudinal or circular bands of the same
+strongly contrasted colours are found in species of many groups with
+distant affinities.
+
+Certain animals, especially the Crustacea, make use of the special
+defence and warning colours of other animals. Thus the English
+hermit-crab, _Pagurus Bernhardus_, commonly carries the sea-anemone,
+_Sagartia parasitica_, on its shell; while another English species,
+_Pagurus Prideauxii_, inhabits a shell which is invariably clothed by
+the flattened _Adamsia palliata_.
+
+The white patch near the tail which is frequently seen in the gregarious
+Ungulates, and is often rendered conspicuous by adjacent black markings,
+probably assists the individuals in keeping together; and appearances
+with probably the same interpretation are found in many birds. The white
+upturned tail of the rabbit is probably of use in enabling the
+individuals to follow each other readily. The difference between a
+typical aposematic character appealing to enemies, and episematic
+intended for other individuals of the same species, is well seen when we
+compare such examples as (1) the huge banner-like white tail,
+conspicuously contrasted with the black or black and white body, by
+which the slow-moving skunk warns enemies of its power of emitting an
+intolerably offensive odour; (2) the small upturned white tail of the
+rabbit, only seen when it is likely to be of use and when the owner is
+moving, and, if pursued, very rapidly moving, towards safety.
+
+_Mimicry_ (see also MIMICRY) or _Pseudo-sematic Colours_.--The fact that
+animals with distant affinities may more or less closely resemble each
+other was observed long before the existing explanation was possible.
+Its recognition is implied in a number of insect names with the
+termination -_formis_, usually given to species of various orders which
+more or less closely resemble the stinging Hymenoptera. The usefulness
+of the resemblance was suggested in Kirby and Spence's _Introduction to
+Entomology_, London, 1817, ii. 223. H. W. Bates (_Trans. Linn. Soc._
+vol. xxiii., 1862, p. 495) first proposed an explanation of mimicry
+based on the theory of natural selection. He supposed that every step in
+the formation and gradual improvement of the likeness occurred in
+consequence of its usefulness in the struggle for life. The subject is
+of additional interest, inasmuch as it was one of the first attempts to
+apply the theory of natural selection to a large class of phenomena up
+to that time well known but unexplained. Numerous examples of mimicry
+among tropical American butterflies were discussed by Bates in his
+paper; and in 1866 A. R. Wallace extended the hypothesis to the
+butterflies of the tropical East (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xxv., 1866,
+p. 19); Roland Trimen (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ vol. xxvi., 1870, p. 497) to
+those of Africa in 1870. The term mimicry is used in various senses. It
+is often extended, as indeed it was by Bates, to include all the
+superficial resemblances between animals and any part of their
+environment. Wallace, however, separated the cryptic resemblances
+already described, and the majority of naturalists have followed this
+convenient arrangement. In cryptic resemblance an animal resembles some
+object of no interest to its enemy (or prey), and in so doing is
+concealed; in mimicry an animal resembles some other animal which is
+specially disliked by its enemy, or some object which is specially
+attractive to its prey, and in so doing becomes conspicuous. Some
+naturalists have considered mimicry to include all superficial
+likenesses between animals, but such a classification would group
+together resemblances which have widely different uses. (1) The
+resemblance of a mollusc to the coral on which it lives, or an external
+parasite to the hair or skin of its host, would be _procryptic_; (2)
+that between moths which resemble lichen, _syncryptic_; (3) between
+distasteful insects, _synaposematic_; (4) between the Insectivor mole
+and the Rodent mole-rat, _syntechnic_; (5) the essential element in
+mimicry is that it is a false warning (pseud-aposematic) or false
+recognition (pseud-episematic) character. Some have considered that
+mimicry indicates resemblance to a moving object; but apart from the
+non-mimetic likenesses between animals classified above, there are
+ordinary cryptic resemblances to drifting leaves, swaying bits of twig,
+&c., while truly mimetic resemblances are often specially adapted for
+the attitude of rest. Many use the term mimicry to include synaposematic
+as well as pseudo-sematic resemblances, calling the former "Mullerian,"
+the latter "Batesian," mimicry. The objection to this grouping is that
+it takes little account of the deceptive element which is essential in
+mimicry. In synaposematic colouring the warning is genuine, in
+pseud-aposematic it is a sham. The term mimicry has led to much
+misunderstanding from the fact that in ordinary speech it implies
+deliberate imitation. The production of mimicry in an individual animal
+has no more to do with consciousness or "taking thought" than any of the
+other processes of growth. Protective mimicry is here defined as an
+advantageous and superficial resemblance of one animal to another, which
+latter is specially defended so as to be disliked or feared by the
+majority of enemies of the groups to which both belong--a resemblance
+which appeals to the sense of sight, sometimes to that of hearing, and
+rarely to smell, but does not extend to deep-seated characters except
+when the superficial likeness is affected by them. _Mutatis mutandis_
+this definition will apply to aggressive (pseud-episematic) resemblance.
+The conditions under which mimicry occurs have been stated by
+Wallace:--"(1) that the imitative species occur in the same area and
+occupy the same station as the imitated; (2) that the imitators are
+always the more defenceless; (3) that the imitators are always less
+numerous in individuals; (4) that the imitators differ from the bulk of
+their allies; (5) that the imitation, however minute, is _external_ and
+_visible_ only, never extending to internal characters or to such as do
+not affect the external appearance." It is obvious that conditions 2 and
+3 do not hold in the case of Mullerian mimicry. Mimicry has been
+explained, independently of natural selection, by the supposition that
+it is the common expression of the direct action of common causes, such
+as climate, food, &c.; also by the supposition of independent lines of
+evolution leading to the same result without any selective action in
+consequence of advantage in the struggle; also by the operation of
+sexual selection.
+
+It is proposed, in conclusion, to give an account of the broad aspects
+of mimicry, and attempt a brief discussion of the theories of origin of
+each class of facts (see Poulton, _Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool._, 1898, p.
+558). It will be found that in many cases the argument here made use of
+applies equally to the origin of cryptic and sematic colours. The
+relationship between these classes has been explained: mimicry is, as
+Wallace has stated (_Darwinism_, London, 1889), merely "an exceptional
+form of protective resemblance. "Now, protective (cryptic) resemblance
+cannot be explained on any of the lines suggested above, except natural
+selection; even sexual selection fails, because cryptic resemblance is
+especially common in the immature stages of insect life. But it would be
+unreasonable to explain mimetic resemblance by one set of principles and
+cryptic by another and totally different set. Again, it may be plausible
+to explain the mimicry of one butterfly for another on one of the
+suggested lines, but the resemblance of a fly or moth to a wasp is by no
+means so easy, and here selection would be generally conceded; yet the
+appeal to antagonistic principles to explain such closely related cases
+would only be justified by much direct evidence. Furthermore, the
+mimetic resemblances between butterflies are not haphazard, but the
+models almost invariably belong only to certain sub-families, the
+_Danainae_ and _Acraeinae_ in all the warmer parts of the world, and, in
+tropical America, the _Ithomiinae_ and _Heliconinae_ as well. These
+groups have the characteristics of aposematic species, and no theory but
+natural selection explains their invariable occurrence as models
+wherever they exist. It is impossible to suggest, except by natural
+selection, any explanation of the fact that mimetic resemblances are
+confined to changes which produce or strengthen a superficial likeness.
+Very deep-seated changes are generally involved, inasmuch as the
+appropriate instincts as to attitude, &c., are as important as colour
+and marking. The same conclusion is reached when we analyse the nature
+of mimetic resemblance and realize how complex it really is, being made
+up of _colours_, both pigmentary and structural, _pattern_, _form_,
+_attitude_ and _movement_. A plausible interpretation of colour may be
+wildly improbable when applied to some other element, and there is _no_
+explanation except natural selection which can explain all these
+elements. The appeal to the direct action of local conditions in common
+often breaks down upon the slightest investigation, the difference in
+habits between mimic and model in the same locality causing the most
+complete divergence in their conditions of life. Thus many insects
+produced from burrowing larvae mimic those whose larvae live in the
+open. Mimetic resemblance is far commoner in the female than in the
+male, a fact readily explicable by selection, as suggested by Wallace,
+for the female is compelled to fly more slowly and to expose itself
+while laying eggs, and hence a resemblance to the slow-flying freely
+exposed models is especially advantageous. The facts that mimetic
+species occur in the same locality, fly at the same time of the year as
+their models, and are day-flying species even though they may belong to
+nocturnal groups, are also more or less difficult to explain except on
+the theory of natural selection, and so also is the fact that mimetic
+resemblance is produced in the most varied manner. A spider resembles
+its model, an ant, by a modification of its body-form into a superficial
+resemblance, and by holding one pair of legs to represent antennae;
+certain bugs (Hemiptera) and beetles have also gained a shape unusual in
+their respective groups, a shape which superficially resembles an ant; a
+Locustid (_Myrmecophana_) has the shape of an ant painted, as it were,
+on its body, all other parts resembling the background and invisible; a
+Membracid (Homoptera) is entirely unlike an ant, but is concealed by an
+ant-like shield. When we further realize that in this and other examples
+of mimicry "the likeness is almost always detailed and remarkable,
+however it is attained, while the methods differ absolutely," we
+recognize that natural selection is the only possible explanation
+hitherto suggested. In the cases of aggressive mimicry an animal
+resembles some object which is attractive to its prey. Examples are
+found in the flower-like species of _Mantis_, which attract the insects
+on which they feed. Such cases are generally described as possessing
+"alluring colours," and are regarded as examples of aggressive
+(anticryptic) resemblance, but their logical position is here.
+
+_Colours displayed in Courtship, Secondary Sexual Characters, Epigamic
+Colours._--Darwin suggested the explanation of these appearances in his
+theory of _sexual selection_ (_The Descent of Man_, London, 1874). The
+rivalry of the males for the possession of the females he believed to be
+decided by the preference of the latter for those individuals with
+especially bright colours, highly developed plumes, beautiful song, &c.
+Wallace does not accept the theory, but believes that natural selection,
+either directly or indirectly, accounts for all the facts. Probably the
+majority of naturalists follow Darwin in this respect. The subject is
+most difficult, and the interpretation of a great proportion of the
+examples in a high degree uncertain, so that a very brief account is
+here expedient. That selection of some kind has been operative is
+indicated by the diversity of the elements into which the effects can be
+analysed. The most complete set of observations on epigamic display was
+made by George W. and Elizabeth G. Peckham upon spiders of the family
+_Attidae_ (_Nat. Hist. Soc. of Wisconsin_, vol. i., 1889). These
+observations afforded the authors "conclusive evidence that the females
+pay close attention to the love-dances of the males, and also that they
+have not only the power, but the will, to exercise a choice among the
+suitors for their favour." Epigamic characters are often concealed
+except during courtship; they are found almost exclusively in species
+which are diurnal or semi-diurnal in their habits, and are excluded from
+those parts of the body which move too rapidly to be seen. They are very
+commonly directly associated with the nervous system; and in certain
+fish, and probably in other animals, an analogous heightening of effect
+accompanies nervous excitement other than sexual, such as that due to
+fighting or feeding. Although there is epigamic display in species with
+sexes alike, it is usually most marked in those with secondary sexual
+characters specially developed in the male. These are an exception to
+the rule in heredity, in that their appearance is normally restricted to
+a single sex, although in many of the higher animals they have been
+proved to be latent in the other, and may appear after the essential
+organs of sex have been removed or become functionless. This is also the
+case in the Aculeate Hymenoptera when the reproductive organs have been
+destroyed by the parasite _Stylops_. J. T. Cunningham has argued
+(_Sexual Dimorphism in the Animal Kingdom_, London, 1900) that secondary
+sexual characters have been produced by direct stimulation due to
+contests, &c., in the breeding period, and have gradually become
+hereditary, a hypothesis involving the assumption that acquired
+characters are transmitted. Wallace suggests that they are in part to be
+explained as "recognition characters," in part as an indication of
+surplus vital activity in the male.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The following works may also be consulted:--T. Eimer,
+  _Orthogenesis der Schmetterlinge_ (Leipzig, 1898); E. B. Poulton, _The
+  Colours of Animals_ (London, 1890); F. E. Beddard, _Animal Coloration_
+  (London, 1892); E. Haase, _Researches on Mimicry_ (translation,
+  London, 1896); A. R. Wallace, _Natural Selection and Tropical Nature_
+  (London, 1895); _Darwinism_ (London, 1897); A. H. Thayer and G. H.
+  Thayer, _Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom_ (New York,
+  1910).     (E. B. P.)
+
+
+2. CHEMISTRY
+
+The coloration of the _surface_ of animals is caused either by
+_pigments_, or by a certain _structure_ of the surface by means of which
+the light falling on it, or reflected through its superficial
+transparent layers, undergoes diffraction or other optical change. Or it
+may be the result of a combination of these two causes. It plays an
+important part in the relationship of the animal to its environment, in
+concealment, in mimicry, and so on; the presence of a pigment in the
+integument may also serve a more direct physiological purpose, such as a
+respiratory function. The coloration of birds' feathers, of the skin of
+many fishes, of many insects, is partially at least due to structure and
+the action of the peculiar pigmented cells known as "chromatophores"
+(which W. Garstang defines as pigmented cells specialized for the
+discharge of the chromatic function), and is much better marked when
+these have for their background a "reflecting layer" such as is provided
+by guanin, a substance closely related to uric acid. Such a mechanism is
+seen to greatest advantage in fishes. Among these, guanin may be present
+in a finely granular form, causing the light falling on it to be
+scattered, thus producing a white effect; or it may be present in a
+peculiar crystalline form, the crystals being known as "iridocytes"; or
+in a layer of closely apposed needles forming a silvery sheet or mirror.
+In the iris of some fishes the golden red colour is produced by the
+light reflected from such a layer of guanin needles having to pass
+through a thin layer of a reddish pigment, known as a "lipochrome."
+Again, in some lepidopterous insects a white or a yellow appearance is
+produced by the deposition of uric acid or a nearly allied substance on
+the surface of the wings. In many animals, but especially among
+invertebrates, colouring matters or pigments play an important role in
+surface coloration; in some cases such coloration may be of benefit to
+the animal, but in others the integument simply serves as an organ for
+the excretion of waste pigmentary substances. Pigments (1) may be of
+direct physiological importance; (2) they may be excretory; or (3) they
+may be introduced into the body of the animal with the food.
+
+Of the many pigments which have been described up to the present time,
+very few have been subjected to elementary chemical analysis, owing to
+the great difficulties attending their isolation. An extremely small
+amount of pigment will give rise to a great amount of coloration, and
+the pigments are generally accompanied by impurities of various kinds
+which cling to them with great tenacity, so that when one has been
+thoroughly cleansed very little of it remains for ultimate analysis.
+Most of these substances have been detected by means of the
+spectroscope, their absorption bands serving for their recognition, but
+mere identity of spectrum does not necessarily mean chemical identity,
+and a few chemical tests have also to be applied before a conclusion can
+be drawn. The absorption bands are referred to certain definite parts of
+the spectrum, such as the Fraunhofer lines, or they may be given in
+wave-lengths. For this purpose the readings of the spectroscope are
+reduced to wave-lengths by means of interpolation curves; or if Zeiss's
+microspectroscope be used, the position of bands in wave-lengths
+(denoted by the Greek letter [lambda]) may be read directly.
+
+Haemoglobin, the red colouring matter of vertebrate blood,
+C758H1203N195S3FeO218, and its derivatives haematin, C32H30N4FeO3, and
+haematoporphyrin, C16H18N2O3, are colouring matters about which we
+possess definite chemical knowledge, as they have been isolated,
+purified and analysed. Most of the bile pigments of mammals have
+likewise been isolated and studied chemically, and all of these are
+fully described in the text-books of physiology and physiological
+chemistry. Haemoglobin, though physiologically of great importance in
+the respiratory process of vertebrate animals, is yet seldom used for
+surface pigmentation, except in the face of white races of man or in
+other parts in monkeys, &c. In some worms the transparent skin allows
+the haemoglobin of the blood to be seen through the integument, and in
+certain fishes also the haemoglobin is visible through the integument.
+It is a curious and noteworthy fact that in some invertebrate animals in
+which no haemoglobin occurs, we meet with its derivatives. Thus haematin
+is found in the so-called bile of slugs, snails, the limpet and the
+crayfish. In sea-anemones there is a pigment which yields some of the
+decomposition-products of haemoglobin, and associated with this is a
+green pigment apparently identical with biliverdin (C16H18N2O4), a green
+bile pigment. Again, haematoporphyrin is found in the integuments of
+star-fishes and slugs, and occurs in the "dorsal streak" of the
+earth-worm _Lumbricus terrestris_, and perhaps in other species.
+Haematoporphyrin and biliverdin also occur in the egg-shells of certain
+birds, but in this case they are derived from haemoglobin. Haemoglobin
+is said to be found as low down in the animal kingdom as the
+Echinoderms, e.g. in _Ophiactis virens_ and _Thyonella gemmata_. It also
+occurs in the blood of _Planorbis corneus_ and in the pharyngeal muscles
+of other mollusca.
+
+A great number of other pigments have been described; for example, in
+the muscles and tissues of animals, both vertebrate and invertebrate,
+are the histohaematins, of which a special muscle pigment, myohaematin,
+is one. In vertebrates the latter is generally accompanied by
+haemoglobin, but in invertebrates--with the exception of the pharyngeal
+muscles of the mollusca--it occurs alone. Although closely related to
+haemoglobin or its derivative haemochromogen, the histohaematins are yet
+totally distinct, and they are found in animals where not a trace of
+haemoglobin can be detected. Another interesting pigment is turacin,
+which contains about 7% of nitrogen, found by Professor A. H. Church in
+the feathers of the Cape lory and other plantain-eaters, from which it
+can be extracted by water containing a trace of ammonia. It has been
+isolated, purified and analysed by Professor Church. From it may be
+obtained turacoporphyrin, which is identical with haematoporphyrin, and
+gives the band in the ultra-violet which J. L. Soret and subsequently A.
+Gamgee have found to be characteristic of haemoglobin and its compounds.
+Turacin itself gives a peculiar two-banded spectrum, and contains about
+7% of copper in its molecule. Another copper-containing pigment is
+haemocyanin, which in the oxidized state gives a blue colour to the
+blood of various Mollusca and Arthropoda. Like haemoglobin, it acts as
+an oxygen-carrier in respiration, but it takes no part in surface
+coloration.
+
+A class of pigments widely distributed among plants and animals are the
+lipochromes. As their name denotes, they are allied to fat and generally
+accompany it, being soluble in fat solvents. They play an important part
+in surface coloration, and may be greenish, yellow or red in colour.
+They contain no nitrogen. As an example of a lipochrome which has been
+isolated, crystallized and purified, we may mention carotin, which has
+recently been found in green leaves. Chlorophyll, which is so often
+associated with a lipochrome, has been found in some Infusoria, and in
+_Hydra_ and _Spongilla_, &c. In some cases it is probably formed by the
+animal; in other cases it may be due to symbiotic algae, while in the
+gastric gland of many Mollusca, Crustacea and Echinodermata it is
+derived from food-chlorophyll. Here it is known as entero-chlorophyll.
+The black pigments which occur among both vertebrate and invertebrate
+animals often have only one attribute in common, viz. blackness, for
+among the discordant results of analysis one thing is certain, viz. that
+the melanins from vertebrate animals are not identical with those from
+invertebrate animals. The melanosis or blackening of insect blood, for
+instance, is due to the oxidation of a chromogen, the pigment produced
+being known as a uranidine. In some sponges a somewhat similar pigment
+has been noticed. Other pigments have been described, such as
+actiniochrome, echinochrome, pentacrinin, antedonin, polyperythrin
+(which appears to be a haematoporphyrin), the floridines,
+spongioporphyrin, &c., which need no mention here; all these pigments
+can only be distinguished by means of the spectroscope.
+
+Most of the pigments are preceded by colourless substances known as
+"chromogens," which by the action of the oxygen of the air and by other
+agencies become changed into the corresponding pigments. In some cases
+the pigments are built up in the tissues of an animal, in others they
+appear to be derived more or less directly from the food. Derivatives of
+chlorophyll and lipochromes especially, seem to be taken up from the
+intestine, probably by the agency of leucocytes, in which they may occur
+in combination with, or dissolved by, fatty matters and excreted by the
+integument. In worms especially, the skin seems to excrete many effete
+substances, pigments included. No direct connexion has been traced
+between the chlorophyll eaten with the food and the haemoglobin of blood
+and muscle. Attention may, however, be drawn to the work of Dr E.
+Schunck, who has shown that a substance closely resembling
+haematoporphyrin can be prepared from chlorophyll; this is known as
+phylloporphyrin. Not only does the _visible_ spectrum of this substance
+resemble that of haematoporphyrin, but the _invisible_ ultra-violet
+also, as shown by C. A. Schunck.
+
+  The reader may refer to E. A. Schafer's _Text-Book of Physiology_
+  (1898) for A. Gamgee's article "On Haemoglobin, and its Compounds"; to
+  the writer's papers in the _Phil. Trans._ and _Proc. Roy. Soc._ from
+  1881 onwards, and also _Quart. Journ. Micros. Science_ and _Journ. of
+  Physiol._; to C. F. W. Krukenberg's _Vergleichende physiologische
+  Studien_ from 1879 onwards, and to his _Vortrage_. Miss M. I. Newbigin
+  collected in _Colour in Nature_ (1898) most of the recent literature
+  of this subject. Dr E. Schunck's papers will be found under the
+  heading "Contribution to the Chemistry of Chlorophyll" in _Proc. Roy.
+  Soc._ from 1885 onwards; and Mr C. A. Schunck's paper in _Proc. Roy.
+  Soc._ vol. lxiii.     (C. A. MacM.)
+
+
+
+
+COLSTON, EDWARD (1636-1721), English philanthropist, the son of William
+Colston, a Bristol merchant of good position, was born at Bristol on the
+2nd of November 1636. He is generally understood to have spent some
+years of his youth and manhood as a factor in Spain, with which country
+his family was long connected commercially, and whence, by means of a
+trade in wines and oil, great part of his own vast fortune was to come.
+On his return he seems to have settled in London, and to have bent
+himself resolutely to the task of making money. In 1681, the date of his
+father's decease, he appears as a governor of Christ's hospital, to
+which noble foundation he afterwards gave frequently and largely. In the
+same year he probably began to take an active interest in the affairs of
+Bristol, where he is found about this time embarked in a sugar refinery;
+and during the remainder of his life he seems to have divided his
+attention pretty equally between the city of his birth and that of his
+adoption. In 1682 he appears in the records of the great western port as
+advancing a sum of L1800 to its needy corporation; in 1683 as "a free
+burgess and _meire_ (St Kitts) merchant" he was made a member of the
+Merchant's Hall; and in 1684 he was appointed one of a committee for
+managing the affairs of Clifton. In 1685 he again appears as the city's
+creditor for about L2000, repayment of which he is found insisting on in
+1686. In 1689 he was chosen auditor by the vestry at Mortlake, where he
+was residing in an old house once the abode of Ireton and Cromwell. In
+1691, on St Michael's Hill, Bristol, at a cost of L8000, he founded an
+almshouse for the reception of 24 poor men and women, and endowed with
+accommodation for "Six Saylors," at a cost of L600, the merchant's
+almshouses in King Street. In 1696, at a cost of L8000, he endowed a
+foundation for clothing and teaching 40 boys (the books employed were to
+have in them "no tincture of Whiggism"); and six years afterwards he
+expended a further sum of L1500 in rebuilding the school-house. In 1708;
+at a cost of L41,200, he built and endowed his great foundation on Saint
+Augustine's Back, for the instruction, clothing, maintaining and
+apprenticing of 100 boys; and in time of scarcity, during this and next
+year, he transmitted "by a private hand" some L20,000 to the London
+committee. In 1710, after a poll of four days, he was sent to
+parliament, to represent, on strictest Tory principles, his native city
+of Bristol; and in 1713, after three years of silent political life, he
+resigned this charge. He died at Mortlake in 1721, having nearly
+completed his eighty-fifth year; and was buried in All Saints' church,
+Bristol.
+
+Colston, who was in the habit of bestowing large sums yearly for the
+release of poor debtors and the relief of indigent age and sickness, and
+who gave (1711) no less than L6000 to increase Queen Anne's Bounty Fund
+for the augmentation of small livings, was always keenly interested in
+the organization and management of his foundations; the rules and
+regulations were all drawn up by his hand, and the minutest details of
+their constitution and economy were dictated by him. A high churchman
+and Tory, with a genuine intolerance of dissent and dissenters, his name
+and example have served as excuses for the formation of two political
+benevolent societies--the "Anchor" (founded 1769) and the "Dolphin"
+(founded 1749),--and also the "Grateful" (founded 1758), whose rivalry
+has been perhaps as instrumental in keeping their patron's memory green
+as have the splendid charities with which he enriched his native city
+(see BRISTOL).
+
+  See Garrard, _Edward Colston, the Philanthropist_ (4to, Bristol,
+  1852); Pryce, _A Popular History of Bristol_ (1861); Manchee, _Bristol
+  Charities_.
+
+
+
+
+COLT, SAMUEL (1814-1862), American inventor, was born on the 19th of
+July 1814 at Hartford, Connecticut, where his father had a manufactory
+of silks and woollens. At the age of ten he left school for the factory,
+and at fourteen, then being in a boarding school at Amherst,
+Massachusetts, he made a runaway voyage to India, during which (in 1829)
+he constructed a wooden model, still existing, of what was afterwards to
+be the revolver (see PISTOL). On his return he learned chemistry from
+his father's bleaching and dyeing manager, and under the assumed name
+"Dr Coult" travelled over the United States and Canada lecturing on that
+science. The profits of two years of this work enabled him to continue
+his researches and experiments. In 1835, having perfected a
+six-barrelled rotating breech, he visited Europe, and patented his
+inventions in London and Paris, securing the American right on his
+return; and the same year he founded at Paterson, New Jersey, the Patent
+Arms Company, for the manufacture of his revolvers only. As early as
+1837 revolvers were successfully used by United States troops, under
+Lieut.-Colonel William S. Harney, in fighting against the Seminole
+Indians in Florida. Colt's scheme, however, did not succeed; the arms
+were not generally appreciated; and in 1842 the company became
+insolvent. No revolvers were made for five years, and none were to be
+had when General Zachary Taylor wrote for a supply from the seat of war
+in Mexico. In 1847 the United States government ordered 1000 from the
+inventor; but before these could be produced he had to construct a new
+model, for a pistol of the company's make could nowhere be found. This
+commission was the beginning of an immense business. The little armoury
+at Whitneyville (New Haven, Connecticut), where the order for Mexico was
+executed, was soon exchanged for larger workshops at Hartford. These in
+their turn gave place (1852) to the enormous factory of the Colt's
+Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing Company, doubled in 1861, on the banks of
+the Connecticut river, within the city limits of Hartford, where so many
+millions of revolvers with all their appendages have been manufactured.
+Thence was sent, for the Russian and English governments, to Tula and
+Enfield, the whole of the elaborate machinery devised by Colt for the
+manufacture of his pistols. Colt introduced and patented a number of
+improvements in his revolver, and also invented a submarine battery for
+harbour defence. He died at Hartford on the 10th of January 1862.
+
+
+
+
+COLT'S-FOOT, the popular name of a small herb, _Tussilago Farfara_, a
+member of the natural order Compositae, which is common in Britain in
+damp, heavy soils. It has a stout branching underground stem, which
+sends up in March and April scapes about 6 in. high, each bearing a head
+of bright yellow flowers, the male in the centre surrounded by a much
+larger number of female. The flowers are succeeded by the fruits, which
+bear a soft snow-white woolly pappus. The leaves, which appear later,
+are broadly cordate with an angular or lobed outline, and are covered on
+the under-face with a dense white felt. The botanical name, _Tussilago_,
+recalls its use as a medicine for cough (_tussis_). The leaves are
+smoked in cases of asthma.
+
+
+
+
+COLUGO, or COBEGO, either of two species of the zoological genus
+_Galeopithecus_. These animals live in the forests of the Malay
+Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippine Islands, where they feed
+chiefly on leaves, and probably also on insects. In size they may be
+compared with cats; the long slender limbs are connected by a broad fold
+of skin extending outwards from the sides of the neck and body, the
+fingers and toes are webbed, and the hind-limbs joined by an outer
+membrane as in bats. Their habits are nocturnal, and during the daytime
+they cling to the trunks or limbs of trees head downwards in a state of
+repose. With the approach of night their season of activity commences,
+when they may be occasionally seen gliding from tree to tree supported
+on their cutaneous parachute, and they have been noticed as capable of
+traversing in this way a space of 70 yds. with a descent of only about
+one in five. Europeans in the East know these animals as "flying
+lemurs." (See GALEOPITHECUS.)
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBA, SAINT (Irish, _Colum_), Irish saint, was born on the 7th of
+December 521, in all probability at Gartan in Co. Donegal. His father
+Feidlimid was a member of the reigning family in Ireland and was closely
+allied to that of Dalriada (Argyll). His mother Eithne was of Leinster
+extraction and was descended from an illustrious provincial king. To
+these powerful connexions as much as to his piety and ability, he owed
+the immense influence he possessed. Later lives state that the saint was
+also called Crimthann (fox), and Reeves suggests that he may have had
+two names, the one baptismal, the other secular. He was afterwards known
+as Columkille, or Columba of the Church, to distinguish him from others
+of the same name. During his early years the Irish Church was reformed
+by Gildas and Finian of Clonard, and numerous monasteries were founded
+which made Ireland renowned as a centre of learning. Columba himself
+studied under two of the most distinguished Irishmen of his day, Finian
+of Moville (at the head of Strangford Lough) and Finian of Clonard.
+Almost as a matter of course, under such circumstances, he embraced the
+monastic life. He was ordained deacon while at Moville, and afterwards,
+when about thirty years of age, was raised to the priesthood. During his
+residence in Ireland he founded, in addition to a number of churches,
+two famous monasteries, one named Daire Calgaich (Derry) on the banks of
+Lough Foyle, the other Dair-magh (Durrow) in King's county.
+
+In 563 he left his native land, accompanied by twelve disciples, and
+went on a mission to northern Britain, perhaps on the invitation of his
+kinsman Conall, king of Dalriada. Irish accounts represent Columba as
+undertaking this mission in consequence of the censure expressed against
+him by the clergy after the battle of Cooldrevny; but this is probably a
+fabrication. The saint's labours in Scotland must be regarded as a
+manifestation of the same spirit of missionary enterprise with which so
+many of his countrymen were imbued. Columba established himself on the
+island of Hy or Iona, where he erected a church and a monastery. About
+the year 565 he applied himself to the task of converting the heathen
+kingdom of the northern Picts. Crossing over to the mainland he
+proceeded to the residence, on the banks of the Ness, of Brude, king of
+the Picts. By his preaching, his holy life, and, as his earliest
+biographers assert, by the performance of miracles, he converted the
+king and many of his subjects. The precise details, except in a few
+cases, are unknown, or obscured by exaggeration and fiction; but it is
+certain that the whole of northern Scotland was converted by the labours
+of Columba, and his disciples and the religious instruction of the
+people provided for by the erection of numerous monasteries. The
+monastery of Iona was reverenced as the mother house of all these
+foundations, and its abbots were obeyed as the chief ecclesiastical
+rulers of the whole nation of the northern Picts. There were then
+neither dioceses nor parishes in Ireland and Celtic Scotland; and by the
+Columbite rule the bishops themselves, although they ordained the
+clergy, were subject to the jurisdiction of the abbots of Iona, who,
+like the founder of the order, were only presbyters. In matters of
+ritual they agreed with the Western Church on the continent, save in a
+few particulars such as the precise time of keeping Easter and manner of
+tonsure.
+
+Columba was honoured by his countrymen, the Scots of Britain and
+Ireland, as much as by his Pictish converts, and in his character of
+chief ecclesiastical ruler he gave formal benediction and inauguration
+to Aidan, the successor of Conall, as king of the Scots. He accompanied
+that prince to Ireland in 575, and took a leading part in a council held
+at Drumceat in Ulster, which determined once and for all the position of
+the ruler of Dalriada with regard to the king of Ireland. The last years
+of Columba's life appear to have been mainly spent at Iona. There he was
+already revered as a saint, and whatever credit may be given to some
+portions of the narratives of his biographers, there can be no doubt as
+to the wonderful influence which he exercised, as to the holiness of his
+life, and as to the love which he uniformly manifested to God and to his
+neighbour.
+
+In the summer of 597 he knew that his end was approaching. On Saturday
+the 8th of June he was able, with the help of one of his monks, to
+ascend a little hill above the monastery and to give it his farewell
+blessing. Returning to his cell he continued a labour in which he had
+been engaged, the transcription of the Psalter. Having finished the
+verse of the 34th Psalm where it is written, "They who seek the Lord
+shall want no manner of thing that is good," he said, "Here I must
+stop:--what follows let Baithen write"; indicating, as was believed, his
+wish that his cousin Baithen should succeed him as abbot. He was present
+at evening in the church, and when the midnight bell sounded for the
+nocturnal office early on Sunday morning he again went thither
+unsupported, but sank down before the altar and passed away as in a
+gentle sleep.
+
+Several Irish poems are ascribed to Columba, but they are manifestly
+compositions of a later age. Three Latin hymns may, however, be
+attributed to the saint with some degree of certainty.
+
+  The original materials for a life of St Columba are unusually full.
+  The earliest biography was written by one of his successors, Cuminius,
+  who became abbot of Iona in 657. Much more important is the
+  enlargement of that work by Adamnan, who became abbot of Iona in 679.
+  These narratives are supplemented by the brief but most valuable
+  notices given by the Venerable Bede. See W. Reeves, _Life of St
+  Columba, written by Adamnan_ (Dublin, 1857); W. F. Skene, _Celtic
+  Scotland_, vol. ii. "Church and Culture" (Edinburgh, 1877).
+       (E. C. Q.)
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBAN (543-615), Irish saint and writer, was born in Leinster in 543,
+and was educated in the monastery of Bangor, Co. Down. About the year
+585 he left Ireland together with twelve other monks, and established
+himself in the Vosges, among the ruins of an ancient fortification
+called Anagrates, the present Anegray in the department of Haute-Saone.
+His enemies accused him before a synod of French bishops (602) for
+keeping Easter according to the old British and now unorthodox way, and
+a more powerful conspiracy was organized against him at the court of
+Burgundy for boldly rebuking the crimes of King Theuderich II. and the
+queen-mother Brunhilda. He was banished and forcibly removed from his
+monastery, and with St Gall and others of the monks he withdrew into
+Switzerland, where he preached with no great success to the Suebi and
+Alamanni. Being again compelled to flee, he retired to Italy, and
+founded the monastery of Bobbio in the Apennines, where he remained till
+his death, which took place on the 21st of November 615. His writings,
+which include some Latin poems, prove him a man of learning, and he
+appears to have been acquainted not only with the Latin classics, but
+also with Greek, and even Hebrew.
+
+  The collected edition of St Columban's writings was published by
+  Patrick Fleming in his _Collectanea sacra Hiberni_ (Louvain, 1667),
+  and reproduced by Migne, p. 4, vol. lxxxvi. (Paris, 1844). See
+  further, Wright's _Biographia Literaria_. Columban's _Regula
+  Coenobitalis cum Poenitenliali_ is to be found in the _Codex
+  Regularum_ (Paris, 1638). A complete bibliography is given in U.
+  Chevallier, _Repertoire des sources hist_. (Bio. Bibliogr.), vol. i.
+  990 (Paris, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBANI, PLACIDO, Italian architectural designer, who worked chiefly
+in England in the latter part of the 18th century. He belonged to the
+school of the Adams and Pergolesi, and like them frequently designed the
+enrichments of furniture. He was a prolific producer of chimney-pieces,
+which are often mistaken for Adam work, of moulded friezes, and painted
+plaques for cabinets and the like. There can be no question that the
+English furniture designers of the end of the 18th century, and
+especially the Adams, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, owed much to his
+graceful, flowing and classical conceptions, although they are often
+inferior to those of Pergolesi. His books are still a valuable
+store-house of sketches for internal architectural decoration. His
+principal works are:--_Vases and Tripods_ (1770); _A New Book of
+Ornaments, containing a variety of elegant designs for Modern Panels,
+commonly executed in Stucco, Wood or Painting, and used in decorating
+Principal Rooms_ (1775); _A variety of Capitals, Friezes and Corniches,
+and how to increase and decrease them, still retaining their
+proportions_ (1776). He also assisted John Crunden in the production of
+_The Chimneypiece Makers' Daily Assistant_ (1776).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBARIUM (Lat. _columba_, a dove), a pigeon-house. The term is
+applied in architecture to those sepulchral chambers in and near Rome,
+the walls of which were sunk with small niches (_columbaria_) to receive
+the cinerary urns. Vitruvius (iv. 2) employs the term to signify the
+holes made in a wall to receive the ends of the timbers of a floor or
+roof.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA, a city and the county-seat of Boone county, Missouri, U.S.A.,
+situated in the central part of the state, about 145 m. (by rail) W.N.W.
+of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4000; (1900) 5651 (1916 negroes); (1910) 9662.
+Columbia is served by the Wabash and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas
+railways. It is primarily an educational centre, is a market for grain
+and farm products, and has grain elevators, a packing house, a shoe
+factory and brick works. Columbia is the seat of the University of
+Missouri, a coeducational state institution, established in 1839 and
+opened in 1841; it received no direct financial support from the state
+until 1867, and its founding was due to the self-sacrifice of the people
+of the county. It is now liberally supported by the state; in 1908 its
+annual income was about $650,000. In 1908 the university had (at
+Columbia) 200 instructors and 2419 students, including 680 women;
+included in its library is the collection of the State Historical
+Society. The School of Mines of the university is at Rolla, Mo.; all
+other departments are at Columbia. A normal department was established
+in 1867 and opened in 1868; and women were admitted to it in 1869. The
+College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts became a department of the
+university in 1870. The law department was opened in 1872, the medical
+in 1873, and the engineering in 1877. The graduate department was
+established in 1896, and in 1908 a department of journalism was
+organized. On the university campus in the quadrangle is the monument of
+grey granite erected over the grave of Thomas Jefferson, designed after
+his own plans, and bearing the famous inscription written by him. It was
+given to the university by descendants of Jefferson when Congress
+appropriated money for the monument now standing over his grave. Near
+the city is the farm of the agricultural college and the experiment
+station. At Columbia, also, are the Parker Memorial hospital, the
+Teachers College high school, the University Military Academy, the
+Columbia Business College, Christian College (Disciples) for women,
+established in 1851, its charter being the first granted by Missouri for
+the collegiate education of Protestant women; the Bible College of the
+Disciples of Christ in Missouri; and Stephens College (under Baptist
+control) for women, established in 1856. The municipality owns the
+water-works and the electric lighting plant. Columbia was first settled
+about 1821.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA, a borough of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W.
+bank of the Susquehanna river (here crossed by a long steel bridge),
+opposite Wrightsville and about 81 m. W. by N. of Philadelphia. Pop.
+(1890) 10,599; (1900) 12,316, of whom 772 were foreign-born; (1910)
+11,454. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia, Baltimore &
+Washington, the Philadelphia & Reading, and the Northern Central
+railways, and by interurban electric railways. The river here is about a
+mile wide, and a considerable portion of the borough is built on the
+slope of a hill which rises gently from the river-bank and overlooks
+beautiful scenery. The Pennsylvania railway has repair shops here, and
+among Columbia's manufactures are silk goods, embroidery and laces, iron
+and steel pipe, engines, laundry machinery, brushes, stoves, iron toys,
+umbrellas, flour, lumber and wagons; the city is also a busy shipping
+and trading centre. Columbia was first settled, by Quakers, in 1726; it
+was laid out as a town in 1787; and in 1814 it was incorporated. In 1790
+it was one of several places considered in Congress for a permanent site
+of the national capital.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA, the capital city of South Carolina, U.S.A., and the
+county-seat of Richland county, on the E. bank of the Congaree river, a
+short distance below the confluence of the Saluda and the Broad rivers,
+about 130 m. N.W. of Charleston. Pop. (1890) 15,353; (19O0) 21,108, of
+whom 9858 were negroes; and (1910) 26,319. It is served by the Atlantic
+Coast Line, the Southern, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Columbia,
+Newberry & Laurens railways. Columbia is picturesquely situated on the
+level top of a bluff overlooking the Congaree, which falls about 36 ft.
+in passing by, but is navigable for the remainder of its course. The
+surrounding country is devoted chiefly to cotton culture. The state
+house, United States government building and city hall are fine
+structures. Some of the new business houses are ten or more storeys in
+height. The state penitentiary and the state insane asylum are located
+here, and Columbia is an important educational centre, being the seat of
+the university of South Carolina, the Columbia College for women
+(Methodist Episcopal South, 1854), the College for women (Presbyterian,
+1890), and the Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1828); and the Allen
+University (African Methodist Episcopal; coeducational, 1880), and the
+Benedict College (Baptist) for negroes. The University of South
+Carolina, organized in 1801 and opened in 1805, was known as South
+Carolina College in 1805-1863, 1878-1887 and 1891-1906, and as the
+university of South Carolina in 1866-1877, 1888-1891 and after 1906; in
+1907-1908 it had departments of arts, science, pedagogy and law, an
+enrolment of 285 students, and a faculty of 25 instructors. By means of
+a canal abundant water power is furnished by the Congaree, and the city
+has some of the largest cotton mills in the world; it has, besides,
+foundries and machine shops and manufactories of fertilizers and
+hosiery. The manufactures under the factory system were valued at
+$3,133,903 in 1900 and at $4,676,944 in 1905--a gain, greater than that
+of any other city in the state, of 49.2% in five years. In the
+neighbourhood are several valuable granite quarries. The municipality
+owns and operates its water-works.
+
+While much of the site was still a forest the legislature, in 1786,
+chose it for the new capital. It was laid out in the same year, and in
+1790 the legislature first met here. Until 1805, when it was
+incorporated as a village, Columbia was under the direct government of
+the legislature; in 1854 it was chartered as a city. On the morning of
+the 17th of February 1865 General W. T. Sherman, on his march through
+the Carolinas, entered Columbia, and on the ensuing night a fire broke
+out which was not extinguished until most of the city was destroyed. The
+responsibility for this fire was charged by the Confederates upon the
+Federals and by the Federals upon the Confederates.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA, a city and the county-seat of Maury county, Tennessee, U.S.A.,
+situated on the Duck river, in the central part of the state, 46 m. S.
+of Nashville. Pop. (1890) 5370; (1900) 6052 (2716 negroes); (1910) 5754.
+Columbia is served by the Louisville & Nashville, and the Nashville,
+Chattanooga & St Louis railways. It is the seat of the Columbia
+Institute for girls (under Protestant Episcopal control), founded in
+1836, and of the Columbia Military Academy. Columbia is in a fine
+farming region; is engaged extensively in the mining and shipping of
+phosphates; has an important trade in live-stock, especially mules;
+manufactures cotton, lumber, flour, bricks, pumps and woollen goods; and
+has marble and stone works. Columbia was settled about 1807 and was
+incorporated in 1822. During the Civil War it was the base from which
+General N. B. Forrest operated in 1862-1863, and was alternately
+occupied by Confederate and Federal forces during General Hood's
+Nashville campaign (November-December 1864).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA RIVER, a stream of the north-west United States and south-west
+Canada, about 939 m. in length, draining a basin of about 250,000 sq.
+m., of which 38,395 are in British Columbia; some 105,000 sq. m. belong
+to the valley of the Snake and 11,700 to that of the Willamette. The
+source of the river is partly in the Yellowstone country, partly near
+the Titon peaks, and partly in the pine-clad mountains of British
+Columbia. Some American geographers regard the head as that of the Clark
+Fork, but it is most generally taken to be in British Columbia about 80
+m. north of the United States line. From this point it runs some 150 m.
+to the north-west to the "Big Bend," and then in a great curve
+southward, enclosing the superb ranges of the Selkirks, crossing the
+international line near the boundary of Washington and Idaho, where it
+is joined by the Pend Oreille river, or Clark Fork, already referred to.
+This latter river rises in the Rocky Mountains west of Helena, Montana,
+falls with a heavy slope (1323 ft. in 167 m.) to its confluence with the
+Flathead, flows through Lake Pend Oreille (27 m.) in northern Idaho, and
+runs in deep canyons (falling 900 ft. in 200 m.) to its junction with
+the Columbia, which from this point continues almost due south for more
+than 106 m. Here the Columbia is joined by the Spokane, a large river
+with heavy fall, and enters the "Great Plain of the Columbia," an area
+of some 22,000 sq. m., resembling the "parks" of Colorado, shut in on
+all sides by mountains: the Moses range to the north, the Bitter Root
+and Coeur d'Alene on the east, the Blue on the south, and the Cascades
+on the west. The soil is rich, yielding great harvests of grain, and the
+mountains rich in minerals as yet only slightly prospected. After
+breaking into this basin the river turns sharply to the west and skirts
+the northern mountain barrier for about 105 m. Where it strikes the
+confines of the Cascades, it is joined by the Okanogan, turns due south
+in the second Big Bend, and flows about 200 m. to its junction with the
+Snake near Wallula.
+
+After the confluence of the Snake with the Columbia the greater river
+turns west toward the Pacific. Throughout its course to this point it
+may be said that the Columbia has no flood plain; everywhere it is
+cutting its bed; almost everywhere it is characterized by canyons,
+although above the Spokane the valley is much broken down and there is
+considerable timbered and fertile bench land. Below the Spokane the
+canyon becomes more steep and rugged. From the mouth of the Okanogan to
+Priests Rapids extends a superb canyon, with precipitous walls of black
+columnar basalt 1000 to 3000 ft. in height. The finest portion is below
+the Rock Island Rapids. In this part of its course, along the Cascade
+range in the Great Plain and at its passage of the range westward,
+rapids and cascades particularly obstruct the imperfectly opened bed. In
+the lower Columbia, navigation is first interrupted 160 m. from the
+mouth at the Cascades, a narrow gorge across the Cascade range 4.5 m.
+long, where the river falls 24 ft. in 2500; the rapids are evaded by a
+canal constructed (1878-1896) by the Federal government, and by a
+portage railway (1890-1891). Fifty-three miles above this are the
+Dalles, a series of falls, rapids and rock obstructions extending some
+12 m. and ending at Celilo, 115m. below Wallula, with a fall of 20 ft.
+There are also impediments just below the mouth of the Snake; others in
+the lower course of this river below Riparia; and almost continuous
+obstructions in the Columbia above Priests Rapids. The commerce of the
+Columbia is very important, especially that from Portland, Vancouver,
+Astoria, and other outlets of the Willamette valley and the lower
+Columbia. The grain region of the Great Plain, the bottom-land orchards
+and grain field on the plateaus of the Snake, have not since 1880 been
+dependent upon the water navigation for freighting, but in their
+interest costly attempts have been made to open the river below the
+Snake uninterruptedly to commerce.
+
+The Columbia is one of the greatest salmon streams of the world (see
+OREGON). The tonnage of deep-sea vessels in and out over the bar at the
+river's mouth from 1890-1899 was 9,423,637 tons. From 1872-1899 the
+United States government expended for improvement of the Snake and
+Columbia $6,925,649. The mouth of the latter is the only deep-water
+harbour between San Francisco and Cape Flattery (700 m.), and the only
+fresh water harbour of the Pacific coast. To facilitate its entrance,
+which, owing to bars, tides, winds, and the great discharge of the
+river, has always been difficult, a great jetty has been constructed
+(1885-1895, later enlarged) to scour the bars. It was about 4.5 miles
+long, and in 1903 work was begun to make it 2.5 miles longer. The tides
+are perceptible 150 m. above the mouth (mean tide at Astoria _c._ 6.2
+ft.), the average tidal flow at the mouth being about 1,000,000 cub. ft.
+per second; while the fresh water outflow is from 90,000 to 300,000 cub.
+ft. according to the stage of water, and as high as 1,000,000 cub. ft.
+in time of flood. Improvements were undertaken by the Federal government
+and a state commission in 1902 in order to secure a 25-ft. channel from
+Portland to the sea.
+
+In 1792, and possibly also in 1788, the river mouth was entered by
+Captain Robert Gray (1755-1806) of Boston, Mass., who named the river
+after his own vessel, "Columbia," which name has wholly supplanted the
+earlier name, "Oregon." In 1804-1805 the river was explored by
+Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Upon these discoveries the United
+States primarily based its claim to the territory now embraced in the
+states of Oregon and Washington.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, one of the oldest and most important of the higher
+institutions of learning in the United States, located for the most part
+on Morningside Heights, New York city. It embraces Columbia College,
+founded as King's College in 1754; a school of medicine (the College of
+Physicians and Surgeons) founded in 1767, in West 59th Street; a school
+of law, founded in 1858; schools of applied science, including a school
+of mines and schools of chemistry and engineering, separately organized
+in 1896; a school of architecture, organized in 1881; graduate schools
+of political science, organized in 1880, philosophy, organized in 1890,
+and pure science, organized in 1892; and a school of journalism; closely
+affiliated with it are the College of Pharmacy, founded in 1829, in West
+68th Street; Teachers' College, founded in 1886, as the New York College
+for the Training of Teachers, and essentially a part of the university
+since 1899; and Barnard College (for women) founded in 1889, and
+essentially a part of the university since 1900. Reciprocal relations
+also exist between the university and both the General Theological
+Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church and the Union Theological
+Seminary, thus practically adding to the university a theological
+department. Columbia also nominates the American professors who lecture
+at German universities by the reciprocal arrangement made in 1905, the
+German professors lecturing in America being nominated by the Prussian
+ministry of education. Women are now admitted to all the university
+courses except those in law, medicine, technology and architecture.
+Since 1900 a summer session has been held for six weeks and attended
+largely by teachers. Teachers and others, under the direction of the
+Teachers' College, are afforded an opportunity to pursue courses _in
+absentia_ and so meet some of the requirements for an academic degree or
+a teacher's diploma. All students of good ability are enabled to
+complete the requirements for the bachelor's degree together with any
+one of the professional degrees by six years of study at the university.
+Several courses of lectures designed especially for the public--notably
+the Hewitt Lectures, in co-operation with Cooper Union--are delivered at
+different places in the city and at the university.
+
+In 1908 there were in Columbia University in all departments 609
+instructors and 4096 students; of these 420 were in Barnard College, 850
+were in the Teachers' College, and 229 were in the College of Pharmacy.
+The numerous University publications include works embodying the
+results of original research published by the University Press;
+"Studies" published in the form of a series by each of several
+departments, various periodicals edited by some members of the faculty,
+such as the _Columbia University Quarterly_, the _Political Science
+Quarterly_, and the _School of Mines Quarterly_; and several papers or
+periodicals published by the students, among which are the _Columbia
+Spectator_, a daily paper, the _Columbia Law Review_, the _Columbia
+Monthly_ and the _Columbia Jester_.
+
+With two or three unimportant exceptions the buildings of the university
+on Morningside Heights have been erected since 1896. They include,
+besides the several department buildings, a library building, a
+university hall (with gymnasium), Earl Hall (for social purposes), St
+Paul's chapel (dedicated in 1907), two residence halls for men, and one
+for women. The library contains about 450,000 volumes exclusive of
+duplicates and unbound pamphlets. The highest authority in the
+government of the institution is vested in a board of twenty-four
+trustees, vacancies in which are filled by co-optation; but the
+immediate educational interests are directed largely by the members of
+the university council, which is composed of the president of the
+university, the dean and one other representative from the faculty of
+each school. The institution is maintained by the proceeds from an
+endowment fund exceeding $15,000,000, by tuition fees ranging, according
+to the school, from $150 to $250 for each student, and by occasional
+gifts for particular objects.
+
+The charter (1754) providing for the establishment of King's College was
+so free from narrow sectarianism as to name ministers of five different
+denominations for ex-officio governors, and the purpose of the
+institution as set forth by its first president, Dr Samuel Johnson
+(1696-1772) was about as broad as that now realised. In 1756 the
+erection of the first building was begun at the lower end of Manhattan
+Island, near the Hudson, and the institution prospered from the
+beginning. From 1776 to 1784, during the War of Independence, the
+exercises of the college were suspended and the library and apparatus
+were stored in the New York city hall. In 1784 the name was changed to
+Columbia College, and an act of the legislature was passed for creating
+a state university, of which Columbia was to be the basis. But the plan
+was not a success, and three years later, in 1787, the act was repealed
+and the administration of Columbia was entrusted to a board of trustees
+of which the present board is a successor. In 1857 there was an
+extensive re-organization by which the scope of the institution was much
+enlarged, and at the same time it was removed to a new site on Madison
+Avenue between 49th and 50th Streets. From 1890 to 1895 much
+centralization in its administration was effected, in 1896 the name of
+Columbia University was adopted, and in the autumn of 1897 the old site
+and buildings were again abandoned for new, this time on Morningside
+Heights.
+
+  See _A History of Columbia University_, by members of the faculty (New
+  York, 1904); and J. B. Pine, "King's College, now Columbia
+  University," in _Historic New York_ (New York, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBINE (Ital. _columbina_, from _columba_, a dove), in pantomime
+(q.v.) the fairy-like dancer who is courted by Harlequin. In the
+medieval Italian popular comedy she was Harlequin's daughter.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBINE, an erect perennial herbaceous plant known botanically as
+_Aquilegia vulgaris_ (natural order Ranunculaceae). In Med. Latin it was
+known as _Columbina sc. herba_, the dove's plant. The slender stem bears
+delicate, long-stalked, deeply divided leaves with blunt segments, and a
+loose panicle of handsome drooping blue or white flowers, which are
+characterized by having all the five petals spurred. The plant occurs
+wild in woods and thickets in England and Ireland, and flowers in early
+summer. It is well known in cultivation as a favourite spring flower, in
+many varieties, some of which have red flowers.
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBITE, a rare mineral consisting of iron niobate, FeNb2O6, in
+which the iron and niobium are replaced by varying amounts of manganese
+and tantalum respectively, the general formula being (Fe, Mn) (Nb,
+Ta)2O6. It was in this mineral that Charles Hatchett discovered,
+in 1801, the element niobium, which he himself called columbium after
+the country (Columbia or America) whence came the specimen in the
+British Museum collection which he examined. The species has also been
+called niobite. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, and the
+black, opaque crystals are often very brilliant with a sub-metallic
+lustre. Twinned crystals are not uncommon, and there is a distinct
+cleavage parallel to the face marked _b_ in the figure. Hardness 6;
+specific gravity 5.3. With increasing amount of tantalum the specific
+gravity increases up to 7.3, and members at this end of the series are
+known as tantalite (FeTa2O6). Specimens in which the iron is
+largely replaced by manganese are known as manganocolumbite or
+manganotantalite, according as they contain more niobium or more
+tantalum. Columbite occurs as crystals and compact masses in granite and
+pegmatite at Rabenstein in Lower Bavaria, the Ilmen Mountains in the
+Urals, Haddam in Connecticut, and several other localities in the United
+States; also in the cryolite of Greenland. Tantalite is from Finland,
+and it has recently been found in some abundance in the deposits of
+cassiterite in the tin-field of Greenbushes in the Blackwood district,
+Western Australia.
+
+[Illustration: Crystal of Columbite.]
+
+Dimorphous with columbite and tantalite are the tetragonal minerals
+tapiolite (= skogbolite) and mossite, so that the four form an
+isodimorphous group with the general formula (Fe, Mn) (Nb, Ta)2O6.
+Mossite is from a pegmatite vein near Moss in Norway, and tapiolite is
+from Finland. All these minerals contain tin in small amount.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBIUM, or NIOBIUM (symbol Cb or Nb, atomic weight 94), one of the
+metallic elements of the nitrogen group, first detected in 1801 by C.
+Hatchett in a specimen of columbite (niobite) from Massachusetts (_Phil.
+Trans._ 1802, 49). It is usually found associated with tantalum, the
+chief minerals containing these two elements being tantalite, columbite,
+fergusonite and yttrotantalite; it is also a constituent of pyrochlor,
+euxenite and samarskite. Columbium compounds are usually prepared by
+fusing columbite with an excess of acid potassium sulphate, boiling out
+the fused mass with much water, and removing tin and tungsten from the
+residue by digestion with ammonium sulphide, any iron present being
+simultaneously converted into ferrous sulphide. The residue is washed,
+extracted by dilute hydrochloric acid, and again well washed with
+boiling water. It is then dissolved in hydrofluoric acid and heated in
+order to expel silicon fluoride; finally the columbium, tantalum and
+titanium fluorides are separated by the different solubilities of their
+double fluorides (C. Marignac, _Ann. chim. et phys._ 1866 [4], 8, p. 63;
+1868, 13, p. 28; see also W. Gibbs, _Jahresb._ 1864, p. 685; R. D. Hall
+and E. F. Smith, _Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc._ 1905, 44, p. 177).
+
+The metal was first obtained by C. W. Blomstrand (_Journ. prak. Chem._
+1866, 97, p. 37) by reducing the chloride with hydrogen; it has more
+recently been prepared by H. Moissan by reducing the oxide with carbon
+in the electric furnace (the product obtained always contains from 2-3%
+of combined carbon), and by H. Goldschmidt and C. Vautin (_Journ. Soc.
+Chem. Industry_, 1898, 19, p. 543) by reducing the oxide with aluminium
+powder. As obtained by the reduction of the chloride, it is a steel grey
+powder of specific gravity 7.06. It burns on heating in air; and is
+scarcely attacked by hydrochloric or nitric acids, or by _aqua regia_;
+it is soluble in warm concentrated sulphuric acid.
+
+  _Columbium hydride_, CbH, is obtained as a greyish metallic powder,
+  when the double fluoride, CbF5, 2KF, is reduced with sodium. It
+  burns when heated in air, and is soluble in warm concentrated
+  sulphuric acid. Three oxides of columbium are certainly known, namely
+  the _dioxide_, Cb2O2, the _tetroxide_, Cb2O4, and the
+  _pentoxide_, Cb2O5, whilst a fourth oxide, _columbium trioxide_,
+  Cb2O3, has been described by E. F. Smith and P. Maas (_Zeit. f.
+  anorg. Chem._ 1894, 7, p. 97). _Columbium dioxide_, Cb2O2, is
+  formed when dry potassium columbium oxyfluoride is reduced by sodium
+  (H. Rose, _Pogg. Ann._ 1858, 104, p. 312). It burns readily in air,
+  and is converted into the pentoxide when fused with acid potassium
+  sulphate. _Columbium_ _tetroxide_, Cb2O4 is obtained as a black
+  powder when the pentoxide is heated to a high temperature in a current
+  of hydrogen. It is unattacked by acids. _Columbium pentoxide_
+  (columbic acid), Cb2O5, is obtained from columbite, after the
+  removal of tantalum (see above). The mother liquors are concentrated,
+  and the double salt of composition 2KF.CbOF3.H2O, which
+  separates, is decomposed by sulphuric acid, or by continued boiling
+  with water (C. Marignac; see also G. Kruss and L. F. Nilson, _Ber._
+  1887, 20, p. 1676). It is a white amorphous infusible powder, which
+  when strongly heated in sulphuretted hydrogen, yields an oxysulphide.
+  Several hydrated forms are known, yielding salts known as
+  _columbates_. A _percolumbic acid_, HCbO4.nH2O, has been
+  prepared by P. Melikoff and L. Pissarjewsky (_Zeit. f. anorg. Chem._
+  1899, 20, p. 341), as a yellow amorphous powder by the action of
+  dilute sulphuric acid on the potassium salt, which is formed when
+  columbic acid is fused in a silver crucible with eight times its
+  weight of caustic potash (_loc. cit._). Salts of the acid H3CbO8
+  have been described by C. W. Balke and E. F. Smith (_Jour. Amer. Chem.
+  Soc._ 1908, 30, p. 1637).
+
+  _Columbium trichloride_, CbCl3, is obtained in needles or crystalline
+  crusts, when the vapour of the pentachloride is slowly passed through
+  a red-hot tube. When heated in a current of carbon dioxide it forms
+  the oxychloride CbOCl3, and carbon monoxide. _Columbium
+  pentachloride_, CbCl5, is obtained in yellow needles when a mixture of
+  the pentoxide and sugar charcoal is heated in a current of air-free
+  chlorine. It melts at 194 deg. C. (H. Deville) and boils at 240.5 deg.
+  C. It is decomposed by water, and dissolves in hydrochloric acid.
+  _Columbium oxychloride_, CbOCl3, is formed when carbon tetrachloride,
+  and columbic acid are heated together at 440 deg. C.: 3CCl4 + Cb2O5 =
+  2CbOCl3 + 3COCl2, and also by distilling the pentachloride, in a
+  current of carbon dioxide, over ignited columbic acid. It forms a
+  white silky mass which volatilizes at about 400 deg. C. It deliquesces
+  in moist air, and is decomposed violently by water. _Columbium
+  pentafluoride_, CbF5, is obtained when the pentoxide is dissolved in
+  hydrofluoric acid. It is only known in solution; evaporation of the
+  solution yields the pentoxide. The _oxyfluoride_, CbOF3, results when
+  a mixture of the pentoxide and fluorspar is heated in a current of
+  hydrochloric acid. It forms many double salts with other metallic
+  fluorides.
+
+  _Columbium oxysulphide_, CbOS3, is obtained as a dark bronze coloured
+  powder when the pentoxide is heated to a white heat in a current of
+  carbon bisulphide vapour; or by gently heating the oxychloride in a
+  current of sulphuretted hydrogen. It burns when heated in air, forming
+  the pentoxide and sulphur dioxide.
+
+  _Columbium nitride_, Cb3N5 (?), is formed when dry ammonia gas is
+  passed into an ethereal solution of the chloride. A heavy white
+  precipitate, consisting of ammonium chloride and columbium nitride, is
+  thrown down, and the ammonium chloride is removed by washing it out
+  with hot water, when the columbium nitride remains as an amorphous
+  residue (Hall and Smith, _loc. cit._).
+
+  _Potassium fluoxy percolumbate_, K2CbO2F5.H2O, is prepared by
+  dissolving potassium columbium oxyfluoride in a 3% solution of
+  hydrogen peroxide. The solution turns yellow in colour, and, when
+  saturated, deposits a pasty mass of crystals. The salt separates from
+  solutions containing hydrofluoric acid in large plates, which are
+  greenish yellow in colour.
+
+  The atomic weight was determined by C. Marignac (_Ann. chim. et phys._
+  1866 (4), 8, p. 16) to be 94 from the analysis of potassium columbium
+  oxyfluoride, and the same value has been obtained by T. W. Richards
+  (_Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc._ 1898, 20, p. 543).
+
+
+
+
+COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER [in Spanish CRISTOBAL COLON] (c. 1446, or perhaps
+rather 1451,-1506) was the eldest son of Domenico Colombo and Suzanna
+Fontanarossa, and was born at Genoa either about 1446 or in 1451, the
+exact date being uncertain. His father was a wool-comber, of some small
+means, who lived till 1498. According to the life of Columbus by his son
+Ferdinand (a statement supported by Las Casas), young Christopher was
+sent to the university of Pavia, where he devoted himself to astronomy,
+geometry and cosmography. Yet, according to the admiral's own statement,
+he became a sailor at fourteen. Evidently this statement, however,
+cannot mean the abandonment of all other employment, for in 1470, 1472,
+and 1473 we find him engaged in trade at Genoa, following the family
+business of weaving, and (in 1473) residing at the neighbouring Savona.
+In 1474-1475 he appears to have visited Chios, where he may have resided
+some time, returning to Genoa perhaps early in 1476. Thence he seems to
+have again set out on a voyage in the summer of 1476, perhaps bound for
+England; on the 13th of August 1476, the four Genoese vessels he
+accompanied were attacked off Cape St Vincent by a privateer, one
+Guillaume de Casenove, surnamed Coullon or Colombo ("Columbus"); two of
+the four ships escaped, with Christopher, to Lisbon. In December 1476,
+the latter resumed their voyage to England, probably carrying with them
+Columbus, who, after a short stay in England, claims to have made a
+voyage in the northern seas, and even to have visited Iceland about
+February 1477. This last pretension is gravely disputed, but it is
+perhaps not to be rejected, and we may also trace the Genoese about this
+time at Bristol, at Galway, and probably among the islands west and
+north of Scotland. Soon after this he returned to Portugal, where
+(probably in 1478) he married a lady of some rank, Felipa Moniz de
+Perestrello, daughter of Bartholomew Perestrello, a captain in the
+service of Prince Henry the Navigator, and one of the early colonists
+and first governor of Porto Santo. Felipa was also a cousin of the
+archbishop of Lisbon at this time (1478).
+
+
+  Idea of western passage to Asia.
+
+About 1479 Columbus visited Porto Santo, here as in Portugal probably
+employing his time in making maps and charts for a livelihood, while he
+pored over the logs and papers of his deceased father-in-law, and talked
+with old seamen of their voyages, and of the mystery of the western
+seas. About this time, too, if not earlier, he seems to have arrived at
+the conclusion that much of the world remained undiscovered, and step by
+step conceived that design of reaching Asia by sailing west which was to
+result in the discovery of America. In 1474 he is said to have
+corresponded with Paolo Toscanelli, the Florentine physician and
+cosmographer, and to have received from him valuable suggestions, both
+by map and letter, for such a Western enterprise. (The whole of this
+incident has been disputed by some recent critics.) He had perhaps
+already begun his studies in a number of works, especially the _Book_ of
+Marco Polo and the _Imago Mundi_ of Pierre d'Ailly, by which his
+cosmographical and geographical conceptions were largely moulded. His
+views, as finally developed and presented to the courts of Portugal and
+Spain, were supported by three principal lines of argument, derived from
+natural reasons, from the theories of geographers, and from the reports
+and traditions of mariners. He believed the world to be a sphere; he
+underestimated its size; he overestimated the size of the Asiatic
+continent. And the farther that continent extended towards the east, the
+nearer it came towards Spain. Nor were these theories the only supports
+of his idea. Martin Vicente, a Portuguese pilot, was said to have found,
+400 leagues to the westward of Cape St Vincent, and after a westerly
+gale of many days' duration, a piece of strange wood, wrought, but not
+with iron; Pedro Correa, Columbus's own brother-in-law, was said to have
+seen another such waif at Porto Santo, with great canes capable of
+holding four quarts of wine between joint and joint, and to have heard
+of two men being washed up at Flores "very broad-faced, and differing in
+aspect from Christians." West of Europe, now and then, men fancied there
+hove in sight the mysterious islands of St Brandan, of Brazil, of
+Antillia or of the Seven Cities. In his northern journey, too, some
+vague and formless traditions may have reached the explorer's ear of the
+voyages of Leif Ericson and Thorfinn Karlsefne, and of the coasts of
+Markland and Vinland. All were hints and rumours to bid the bold mariner
+sail towards the setting sun, and this he at length determined to do.
+
+
+  Quest of a patron.
+
+The concurrence of some state or sovereign, however, was necessary for
+the success of this design. Columbus, on the accession of John II. of
+Portugal, seems to have entered the service of this country, to have
+accompanied Diego d'Azambuja to the Gold Coast, and to have taken part
+in the construction of the famous fort of St George at El Mina
+(1481-1482). On his return from this expedition, he submitted to King
+John the scheme he had now matured for reaching Asia by a western route
+across the ocean. The king was deeply interested in the rival scheme (of
+an eastern or south-eastern route round Africa to India) which had so
+long held the field, which had been initiated by the Genoese in 1291,
+and which had been revived, for Portugal, by Prince Henry the Navigator;
+but he listened to the Genoese, and referred him to a committee of
+council for geographical affairs. The council's report was adverse; but
+the king, who was yet inclined to favour the theory of Columbus,
+assented to the suggestion of the bishop of Ceuta that the plan should
+be carried out in secret and without its author's knowledge. A caravel
+was despatched; but it returned after a brief absence, the sailors
+having lost heart, and refused to venture farther. Upon discovering
+this treachery, Columbus left Lisbon for Spain (1484), taking with him
+his son Diego, the only issue of his marriage with Felipa Moniz, who was
+by this time dead. He departed secretly;--according to some writers, to
+give the slip to King John; according to others, to escape his
+creditors.
+
+Columbus next betook himself to the south of Spain, and while meditating
+an appeal to the king of France, opened his plans to the count (from
+1491, duke) of Medina Celi. The latter gave him great encouragement,
+entertained him for two years, and even determined to furnish him with
+three or four caravels, to carry out his great design. Finally, however,
+being deterred by the consideration that the enterprise was too vast for
+a subject, he turned his guest from the determination he had come to of
+making application at the court of France, by writing on his behalf to
+Queen Isabella; and Columbus repaired to the court at Cordova at her
+bidding (1486).
+
+It was an ill moment for the navigator's fortune. Castile and Leon were
+in the thick of that struggle which resulted in the final conquest of
+the Granada Moors; and neither Ferdinand nor Isabella had time as yet to
+give due consideration to Columbus' proposals. The adventurer was indeed
+kindly received; he was handed over to the care of Alonso de
+Quintanilla, whom he speedily converted into an enthusiastic supporter
+of his theory. He made many other friends, and among them Beatriz
+Enriquez, the mother of his second son Fernando. But the committee,
+presided over by the queen's confessor, Fray Hernando de Talavera, which
+had been appointed to consider the new project, reported that it was
+vain and impracticable.
+
+From Cordova Columbus followed the court to Salamanca, having already
+been introduced by Quintanilla to the notice of the grand cardinal,
+Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza, "the third king of Spain"; the latter had
+befriended and supported the Genoese, and apparently arranged the first
+interview between him and Queen Isabella. At Salamanca prolonged
+discussions took place upon the questions now raised; the Dominicans of
+San Esteban entertained Columbus during the conferences (1486-1487). In
+1487 Columbus, who had been following the court from place to place
+(billeted in towns as an officer of the sovereigns, and gratified from
+time to time with sums of money towards his expenses), was present at
+the siege of Malaga. In 1488 he was invited by the king of Portugal, his
+"especial friend," to return to that country, and was assured of
+protection against arrest or proceedings of any kind (March 20): he had
+probably made fresh overtures to King John shortly before; and in the
+autumn of 1488 we find him in Lisbon, conferring with his brother
+Bartholomew and laying plans for the future. We have no record of the
+final negotiations of Columbus with the Portuguese government, but they
+clearly did not issue in anything definite, for Christopher now returned
+to Spain (though not till he had witnessed the return of Bartholomew
+Diaz from the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope and his reception by
+King John), while Bartholomew proceeded to England with a mission to
+interest King Henry VII. in the Columbian schemes. If the London
+enterprise was unsuccessful (as indeed it proved), it was settled that
+Bartholomew should carry the same invitation to the French court. He did
+so; and here he remained till summoned to Spain in 1493. Meantime
+Christopher, unable throughout 1490 to get a hearing at the Spanish
+court, was in 1491 again referred to a _junta_, presided over by
+Cardinal Mendoza; but this _junta_, to Columbus' dismay, once more
+rejected his proposals; the Spanish sovereigns merely promised him that
+when the Granada war was over, they would reconsider what he had laid
+before them.
+
+Columbus was now in despair. He at once betook himself to Huelva, a
+little maritime town in Andalusia, north-west of Cadiz, with the
+intention of taking ship for France. He halted, however, at the
+monastery of La Rabida, near Huelva, and still nearer Palos, where he
+seems to have made lasting friendships on his first arrival in Spain in
+January 1485, where he especially enlisted the support of Juan Perez,
+the guardian, who invited him to take up his quarters in the monastery,
+and introduced him to Garcia Fernandez, a physician and student of
+geography. Juan Perez had been the queen's confessor; he now wrote to
+her in urgent terms, and was summoned to her presence; and money was
+sent to Columbus to bring him once more to court. He reached Granada in
+time to witness the surrender of the city (January 2, 1492), and
+negotiations were resumed. Columbus believed in his mission, and stood
+out for high terms; he asked for the rank of admiral at once ("Admiral
+of the Ocean" in all those islands, seas, and continents that he might
+discover), the vice-royalty of all he should discover, and a tenth of
+the precious metals discovered within his admiralty. These conditions
+were rejected, and the negotiations were again interrupted. An interview
+with Mendoza appears to have followed; but nothing came of it, and
+before the close of January 1492, Columbus actually set out for France.
+At length, however, on the entreaty of the Queen's confidante, the
+Marquesa de Moya, of Luis de Santangel, receiver of the ecclesiastical
+revenues of the crown of Aragon, and of other courtiers, Isabella was
+induced to determine on the expedition. A messenger was sent after
+Columbus, and overtook him near a bridge called "Pinos," 6 m. from
+Granada. He returned to the camp at Santa Fe; and on the 17th of April
+1492, the agreement between him and their Catholic majesties was signed
+and sealed.
+
+As his aims included not only the discovery of Cipangu or Japan, but
+also the opening up of intercourse with the grand khan of Cathay, he
+received a royal letter of introduction to the latter. The town of Palos
+was ordered to find him two ships, and these were soon placed at his
+disposal. But no crews could be got together, in spite of the indemnity
+offered to criminals and "broken men" who would serve on the expedition;
+and had not Juan Perez succeeded in interesting in the cause the Palos
+"magnates" Martin Alonso Pinzon and Vicente Yanez Pinzon, Columbus'
+departure had been long delayed. At last, however, men, ships and stores
+were ready. The expedition consisted of the "Santa Maria," a decked ship
+of 100 tons with a crew of 52 men, commanded by the admiral in person;
+and of two caravels; the "Pinta" of 50 tons, with 18 men, under Martin
+Pinzon; and the "Nina," of 40 tons, with 18 men, under his brother
+Vicente Yanez, afterwards (1499) the first to cross the line in the
+American Atlantic.
+
+
+  First voyage.
+
+  America discovered.
+
+The adventurers numbered 88-souls; and on Friday, the 3rd of August
+1492, at eight in the morning, the little fleet weighed anchor, and
+stood for the Canary Islands. An abstract of the admiral's diary made by
+Las Casas is yet extant; and from it many particulars may be gleaned
+concerning this first voyage. Three days after the ships had set sail
+the "Pinta" lost her rudder; the admiral was in some alarm, but
+comforted himself with the reflection that Martin Pinzon was energetic
+and ready-witted; they had, however, to put in at Teneriffe, to refit
+the caravel. On the 6th of September they weighed anchor once more with
+all haste, Columbus having been informed that three Portuguese caravels
+were on the look-out to intercept him. On the 13th of September the
+westerly variations of the magnetic needle were for the first time
+observed; on the 15th a meteor fell into the sea at four or five leagues
+distance; soon after they arrived at those vast plains of seaweed called
+the Sargasso Sea; while all the time, writes the admiral, they had most
+temperate breezes, the sweetness of the mornings being especially
+delightful, the weather like an Andalusian April, and only the song of
+the nightingale wanting. On the 17th the men began to murmur; they were
+frightened by the strange phenomena of the variation of the compass, but
+the explanation Columbus gave restored their tranquillity. On the 18th
+they saw many birds, and a great ridge of low-lying cloud; and they
+expected to see land. On the 20th they saw boobies and other birds, and
+were sure the land must be near. In this, however, they were
+disappointed; and thenceforth Columbus, who was keeping all the while a
+double reckoning, one for the crew and one for himself, had great
+difficulty in restraining the evil-disposed from the excesses they
+meditated. On the 25th Martin Alonso Pinzon raised the cry of land, but
+it proved false, as did the rumour to the same effect on the 7th of
+October, from the "Nina." But on the 11th the "Pinta" fished up a cane,
+a pole, a stick which appeared to have been wrought with iron, and a
+board, while the "Nina" sighted a branch covered with berries; "and with
+these signs all of them breathed and were glad." At ten o'clock on that
+night Columbus himself perceived and pointed out a light ahead, and at
+two in the morning of Friday, the 12th of October 1492, Rodrigo de
+Triana, a sailor aboard the "Nina," announced the appearance of what
+proved to be the New World. The land sighted was an island, called by
+the Indians Guanahani, and named by Columbus San Salvador. It is
+generally identified with Watling Island.
+
+The same morning Columbus landed, richly clad, and bearing the royal
+banner of Spain. He was accompanied by the brothers Pinzon, bearing
+banners of the Green Cross (a device of the admiral's), and by great
+part of the crew. When they all had "given thanks to God, kneeling upon
+the shore, and kissed the ground with tears of joy, for the great mercy
+received," the admiral named the island, and took solemn possession of
+it for their Catholic majesties of Castile and Leon. At the same time
+such of the crews as had shown themselves doubtful and mutinous sought
+his pardon weeping, and prostrated themselves at his feet.
+
+Into the remaining detail of this voyage, of highest interest as it is,
+it is impossible to go further. It will be enough to say that it
+resulted in the discovery of the islands of Santa Maria de la Concepcion
+(Rum Cay), Fernandina (Long Island), Isabella (Crooked Island), Cuba or
+_Juana_ (named by Columbus in honour of the young prince of Spain), and
+Hispaniola, Haiti, or San Domingo. Off the last of these the "Santa
+Maria" went aground, owing to the carelessness of the steersman. No
+lives were lost, but the ship had to be unloaded and abandoned; and
+Columbus, who was anxious to return to Europe with the news of his
+achievement, resolved to plant a colony on the island, to build a fort
+out of the material of the stranded hulk, and to leave the crew. The
+fort was called La Navidad; 44 Europeans were placed in charge. On the
+4th of January 1493 Columbus, who had lost sight of Martin Pinzon, set
+sail alone in the "Nina" for the east; and two days afterwards the
+"Pinta" joined her sister-ship. A storm, however, separated the vessels,
+and it was not until the 18th of February that Columbus reached the
+island of Santa Maria in the Azores. Here he was threatened with capture
+by the Portuguese governor, who could not for some time be brought to
+recognize his commission. On the 24th of February, however, he was
+allowed to proceed, and on the 4th of March the "Nina" dropped anchor
+off Lisbon. The king of Portugal received the admiral with the highest
+honours. On the 13th of March the "Nina" put out from the Tagus, and two
+days afterwards, Friday, the 15th of March, she reached Palos.
+
+The court was at Barcelona; and thither, after despatching a letter
+announcing his arrival, Columbus proceeded in person. He entered the
+city in a sort of triumphal procession, was received by their majesties
+in full court, and, seated in their presence, related the story of his
+wanderings, exhibiting the "rich and strange" spoils of the new-found
+lands,--the gold, the cotton, the parrots, the curious arms, the
+mysterious plants, the unknown birds and beasts, and the Indians he had
+brought with him for baptism. All his honours and privileges were
+confirmed to him; the title of Don was conferred on himself and his
+brothers; he rode at the king's bridle; he was served and saluted as a
+grandee of Spain. A new and magnificent scutcheon was also blazoned for
+him (4th May 1493), whereon the royal castle and lion of Castile and
+Leon were combined with the five anchors of his own coat of arms. Nor
+were their Catholic highnesses less busy on their own account than on
+that of their servant. On the 3rd and 4th of May Alexander VI. granted
+bulls confirming to the crowns of Castile and Leon all the lands
+discovered, or to be discovered, west of a line of demarcation drawn 100
+leagues west of the Azores, on the same terms as those on which the
+Portuguese held their colonies along the African coast. A new expedition
+was got in readiness with all possible despatch, to secure and extend
+the discoveries already made.
+
+
+  Second voyage.
+
+After several delays the fleet weighed anchor on the 24th of September
+1493 and steered westwards. It consisted of three great carracks
+(galleons) and fourteen caravels (light frigates), having on board over
+1500 men, besides the animals and materials necessary for colonization.
+Twelve missionaries accompanied the expedition, under the orders of
+Bernardo Buil or Boil, a Benedictine; Columbus had been already directed
+(29th May 1493) to endeavour by all means in his power to Christianize
+the inhabitants of the islands, to make them presents, and to "honour
+them much", while all under him were commanded to treat them "well and
+lovingly," under pain of severe punishment. On the 13th of October the
+ships, which had put in at the Canaries, left Ferro; and on Sunday, the
+3rd of November, after a single storm, "by the goodness of God and the
+wise management of the admiral" an island was sighted to the west, which
+was named Dominica. Northwards from this the isles of Marigalante and
+Guadalupe were next discovered and named; while on the north-western
+course to La Navidad those of Montserrat, Antigua, San Martin, Santa
+Cruz and the Virgin Islands were sighted, and the island now called
+Porto Rico was touched at, hurriedly explored, and named San Juan
+Bautista. On the 22nd of November Columbus came in sight of Hispaniola,
+and sailing westward to La Navidad, found the fort burned and the colony
+dispersed. He decided on building a second fort, and coasting on 30 m.
+east of Monte Cristi, he pitched on a spot where he founded the city of
+Isabella.
+
+The climate proved unhealthy; the colonists were greedy of gold,
+impatient of control, proud, ignorant and mutinous; and Columbus, whose
+inclination drew him westward, was doubtless glad to escape the worry
+and anxiety of his post, and to avail himself of the instructions of his
+sovereigns as to further discoveries. On the 2nd of February 1494 he
+sent home, by Antonio de Torres, that despatch to their Catholic
+highnesses by which he may be said to have founded the West Indian slave
+trade. He established the mining camp of San Tomaso in the gold country
+of Central Hispaniola; and on the 24th of April 1494, having nominated a
+council of regency under his brother Diego, and appointed Pedro Margarit
+his captain-general, he again put to sea. After following the southern
+shore of Cuba for some days, he steered southwards, and discovered (May
+14th) the island of Jamaica, which he named Santiago. He then resumed
+his exploration of the Cuban coast, threaded his way through a labyrinth
+of islets which he named the Garden of the Queen (Jardin de la Reyna),
+and, after coasting westwards for many days, became convinced that he
+had discovered continental land. He therefore caused Perez de Luna, the
+notary, to draw up a document to this effect (12th of June 1494), which
+was afterwards taken round and signed (the admiral's steward witnessing)
+by the officers, men and boys of his three caravels, the "Nina," the
+"Cordera," and the "San Juan." He then stood to the south-east, and
+sighted the island of Evangelista (now Isla de los Pinos), revisited
+Jamaica, coasted the south of Hispaniola, and on the 24th of September
+touched at and named the island of La Mona, in the channel between
+Hispaniola and Porto Rico. Thence he had intended to sail eastwards and
+complete the survey of the Caribbean Archipelago; but he was exhausted
+by the terrible tear and wear of mind and body he had undergone (he says
+himself that on this expedition he was three-and-thirty days almost
+without sleep), and on the day following his departure from La Mona he
+fell into a lethargy, that deprived him of sense and memory, and had
+well-nigh proved fatal to life. At last, on the 29th of September, the
+little fleet dropped anchor off Isabella, and in his new city the
+admiral lay sick for five months.
+
+The colony was in a sad plight. Every one was discontented, and many
+were sick, for the climate was unhealthy and there was nothing to eat.
+Margarit and Boil had deserted the settlement and fled to Spain, but ere
+his departure the former, in his capacity of captain-general, had done
+much to outrage and alienate the Indians. The strongest measures were
+necessary to undo this mischief, and, backed by his brother Bartholomew,
+Columbus proceeded to reduce the natives under Spanish sway. Alonso de
+Ojeda succeeded by a brilliant _coup de main_ in capturing the cacique
+Caonabo, and the rest submitted. Five ship-loads of Indians were sent
+off to Seville (24th June 1495) to be sold as slaves; and a tribute was
+imposed upon their fellows, which must be looked upon as the origin of
+that system of _repartimientos_ or _encomiendas_ which was afterwards to
+work such mischief among the conquered. In October 1495 Juan Aguado
+arrived at Isabella, with a royal commission to report on the state of
+the colony; here he took up the position of a judge of Columbus's
+government; and much recrimination followed. Columbus decided to return
+home; he appointed his brother Bartholomew _adelantado_ of the island;
+and on the 10th of March 1496 he quitted Hispaniola in the "Nina." The
+vessel, after a protracted and perilous voyage, reached Cadiz on the
+11th of June 1496, where the admiral landed, wearing the habit of a
+Franciscan. He was cordially received by his sovereigns, and a new fleet
+of eight vessels was put at his disposal. By royal patent, moreover, a
+tract of land in Hispaniola, of 50 leagues by 20, was offered to him,
+with the title of duke or marquis (which he declined); for three years
+he was to receive an eighth of the gross and a tenth of the net profits
+on each voyage; the right of creating a _mayorazgo_ or perpetual entail
+of titles and estates was granted him; and his two sons were received
+into Isabella's service as pages.
+
+
+  Third voyage.
+
+Meanwhile, however, the preparing of the fleet proceeded slowly, and it
+was not till the 30th of May 1498 that he set sail with his main fleet
+of six ships--two caravels had already been sent on ahead. From San
+Lucar he steered for Porto Santo, Madeira, and Gomera, despatching three
+vessels direct from the Canaries to Hispaniola. He next proceeded to the
+Cape Verde Islands, which he quitted on the 5th of July. On the 31st of
+the same month, being greatly in need of water, and fearing that no land
+lay westwards as he had hoped, Columbus had turned his ship's head
+north, when Alonzo Perez of Huelva saw land about 15 leagues to the
+south-west. It was crowned with three hill-tops, from which
+circumstance, and in fulfilment of a vow made at starting (to name the
+first land discovered on this voyage in honour of the Trinity), the
+admiral named it Trinidad, which name it yet bears. On Wednesday, the
+1st of August, he beheld for the first time the mainland of South
+America, the continent he had sought so long. It seemed to him but an
+insignificant island, and he called it Isla Santa. Sailing westwards,
+next day he saw the Gulf of Paria (named by him the Golfo de la
+Ballena), into which he was borne at immense risk on the ridge of waters
+formed by the meeting of the sea and the Orinoco estuaries. For several
+days he coasted the continent, esteeming as islands the various
+projections he saw, and naming them accordingly, nor was it until he had
+realized the volume poured out by the Orinoco that he began to perceive
+the truly continental character of his last discovery. He was now
+anxious to revisit the colony in Hispaniola; and after sighting Tobago,
+Grenada, and Margarita, made for San Domingo, the new capital of the
+settlement, where he arrived on the 31st of August. He found that
+affairs had not prospered well in his absence. By the vigour and
+activity of the _adelantado_, the whole island had been reduced under
+Spanish sway; but under the leadership of Francisco Roldan the
+malcontent settlers had risen in revolt, and Columbus had to compromise
+matters in order to restore peace. Roldan retained his office of chief
+justice; and such of his followers as chose to remain in the island were
+gratified with _repartimientos_ of land and labour.
+
+At home, however, court favour had turned against Columbus. For one
+thing, the ex-colonists were often bitterly hostile to the admiral and
+his brothers. They were wont to parade their grievances in the very
+court-yards of the Alhambra, to surround the king when he came forth
+with complaints and reclamations, to insult the discoverer's young sons
+with shouts and jeers. Again, the queen began to criticize severely the
+shipment of Indians from the new-found lands to Spain. And once more,
+there was no doubt that the colony itself, whatever the cause, had not
+prospered so well as might have been desired. Ferdinand's support of
+Columbus had never been very hearty, and his inclination to supersede
+the Genoese now prevailed over the queen's friendliness. Accordingly, on
+the 21st of May 1499, Francisco Bobadilla was appointed governor and
+judge of Hispaniola during royal pleasure, with authority to examine
+into all complaints. Columbus was ordered to deliver up his charge to
+Bobadilla, and to accept whatever the latter should deliver him from the
+sovereigns. Bobadilla left Spain in June 1500, and landed in Hispaniola
+on the 23rd of August.
+
+Columbus, meanwhile, had restored such tranquillity as was possible in
+his government. With Roldan's help he had beaten off an attempt on the
+island of the adventurer Ojeda, his old lieutenant; the Indians were
+being collected into villages and Christianized. Gold-mining was
+profitably pursued; in three years, he calculated, the royal revenues
+might be raised to an average of 60,000,000 reals. The arrival of
+Bobadilla, however, speedily changed this state of affairs. On landing,
+he took possession of the admiral's house and summoned him and his
+brothers before him. Accusations of severity, of injustice, of venality
+even, were poured down on their heads, and Columbus anticipated nothing
+less than a shameful death. Bobadilla put all three in irons, and
+shipped them off to Spain.
+
+Alonso Vallejo, captain of the caravel in which the illustrious
+prisoners sailed, still retained a proper sense of the honour and
+respect due to Columbus, and would have removed the fetters; but to this
+Columbus would not consent. He would wear them, he said, until their
+highnesses, by whose order they had been affixed, should order their
+removal; and he would keep them afterwards "as relics and as memorials
+of the reward of his service." He did so. His son Fernando "saw them
+always hanging in his cabinet, and he requested that when he died they
+might be buried with him." Whether this last wish was complied with is
+not known.
+
+A heart-broken and indignant letter from Columbus to Dona Juana de
+Torres, formerly nurse of the infante Don Juan, arrived at court before
+the despatch of Bobadilla. It was read to the queen, and its tidings
+were confirmed by communications from Alonso Vallejo and the alcaide of
+Cadiz. There was a great movement of indignation; the tide of popular
+and royal feeling turned once more in the admiral's favour. He received
+a large sum to defray his expenses; and when he appeared at court, on
+the 17th of December 1500, he was no longer in irons and disgrace, but
+richly apparelled and surrounded with friends. He was received with all
+honour and distinction. The queen is said to have been moved to tears by
+the narration of his story. Their majesties not only repudiated
+Bobadilla's proceedings, but declined to inquire into the charges that
+he at the same time brought against his prisoners, and promised Columbus
+compensation for his losses and satisfaction for his wrongs. A new
+governor, Nicolas de Ovando, was appointed, and left San Lucar on the
+13th of February 1502, with a fleet of thirty ships, to supersede
+Bobadilla. The latter was to be impeached and sent home; the admiral's
+property was to be restored; and a fresh start was to be made in the
+conduct of colonial affairs. Thus ended Columbus's history as viceroy
+and governor of the new Indies which he had presented to the country of
+his adoption.
+
+
+  Fourth voyage.
+
+His hour of rest, however, was not yet come. Ever anxious to serve their
+Catholic highnesses, "and particularly the queen," he had determined to
+find a strait through which he might penetrate westwards into Portuguese
+Asia. After the usual inevitable delays his prayers were granted, and on
+the 9th of May 1502, with four caravels and 150 men, he weighed anchor
+from Cadiz, and sailed on his fourth and last great voyage. He first
+betook himself to the relief of the Portuguese fort of Arzilla, which
+had been besieged by the Moors, but the siege had been raised before he
+arrived. He put to sea westwards once more, and on the 15th of June
+discovered the island of Martinino (probably St Lucia). He had received
+positive instructions from his sovereigns on no account to touch at
+Hispaniola; but his largest caravel was greatly in need of repairs, and
+he had no choice but to abandon her or disobey orders. He preferred the
+latter alternative, and sent a boat ashore to Ovando, asking for a new
+ship and for permission to enter the harbour to weather a hurricane
+which he saw was coming on. But his requests were refused, and he
+coasted the island, casting anchor under lee of the land. Here he
+weathered the storm, which drove the other caravels out to sea, and
+annihilated the homeward-bound fleet, the richest that had till then
+been sent from Hispaniola. Roldan and Bobadilla perished with others of
+the admiral's enemies; and Fernando Columbus, who accompanied his father
+on this voyage, wrote long afterwards, "I am satisfied it was the hand
+of God, for had they arrived in Spain they had never been punished as
+their crimes deserved, but rather been favoured and preferred."
+
+After recruiting his flotilla at Azua, Columbus put in at Jaquimo and
+refitted his four vessels; and on the 14th of July 1502 he steered for
+Jamaica. For several days the ships wandered painfully among the keys
+and shoals he had named the Garden of the Queen, and only an opportune
+easterly wind prevented the crews from open mutiny. The first land
+sighted (July 30th) was the islet of Guanaja, about 40 m. east of the
+coast of Honduras. Here he got news from an old Indian of a rich and
+vast country lying to the eastward, which he at once concluded must be
+the long-sought-for empire of the grand khan. Steering along the coast
+of Honduras, great hardships were endured, but nothing approaching his
+ideal was discovered. On the 12th of September Cape Gracias-a-Dios was
+rounded. The men had become clamorous and insubordinate; not until the
+5th of December, however, would he tack about and retrace his course. It
+now became his intention to plant a colony on the river Veragua, which
+was afterwards to give his descendants a title of nobility; but he had
+hardly put about when he was caught in a storm, which lasted eight days,
+wrenched and strained his crazy, worm-eaten ships severely, and finally,
+on Epiphany Sunday 1503, blew him into an embouchure which he named
+Belem or Bethlehem. Gold was very plentiful in this place, and here he
+determined to found his settlement. By the end of March 1503 a number of
+huts had been run up, and in these the _adelantado_ (Bartholomew
+Columbus), with 80 men, was to remain, while Christopher returned to
+Spain for men and supplies. Quarrels, however, arose with the natives;
+the cacique was made prisoner, but escaped again; and before Columbus
+could leave the coast he had to abandon a caravel, to take the settlers
+on board, and to relinquish the enterprise of colonization. Steering
+eastwards, he left a second caravel at Puerto Bello; he thence bore
+northwards for Cuba, where he obtained supplies from the natives. From
+Cuba he bore up for Jamaica, and there, in the harbour of San Gloria,
+now St Ann's Bay, he ran his ships aground in a small inlet still called
+Don Christopher's Cove (June 23rd, 1503).
+
+The expedition was received with great kindness by the natives, and here
+Columbus remained upwards of a year, awaiting the return of his
+lieutenant Diego Mendez, whom he had despatched to Ovando for
+assistance. During his critical sojourn here, the admiral suffered much
+from disease and from the lawlessness of his followers, whose misconduct
+had alienated the natives, and provoked them to withhold their
+accustomed supplies, until he dexterously worked upon their
+superstitions by prognosticating an eclipse. Two vessels having at last
+arrived for his relief, Columbus left Jamaica on the 28th of June 1504,
+and, after calling at Hispaniola, set sail for Spain on the 12th of
+September. After a tempestuous voyage he landed once more at San Lucar
+on the 7th of November 1504.
+
+As he was too ill to go to court, his son Diego was sent thither in his
+place, to look after his interests and transact his business. Letter
+after letter followed the young man from Seville--one by the hands of
+Amerigo Vespucci. A licence to ride on muleback was granted him on the
+23rd of February 1505; and in the following May he was removed to the
+court at Segovia, and thence again to Valladolid. On the landing of
+Philip and Juana at Coruna (25th of April 1506), although "much
+oppressed with the gout and troubled to see himself put by his rights,"
+he is known to have sent off the _adelantado_ to pay them his duty and
+to assure them that he was yet able to do them extraordinary service.
+The last documentary note of him is contained in a final codicil to the
+will of 1498, made at Valladolid on the 19th of May 1506. By this the
+old will is confirmed; the _mayorazgo_ is bequeathed to his son Diego
+and his heirs male, failing these to Fernando, his second son, and
+failing these to the heirs male of Bartholomew; only in case of the
+extinction of the male line, direct or collateral, is it to descend to
+the females of the family; and those into whose hands it may fall are
+never to diminish it, but always to increase and ennoble it by all means
+possible. The head of the house is to sign himself "The Admiral." A
+tenth of the annual income is to be set aside yearly for distribution
+among the poor relations of the house. A chapel is founded and endowed
+for the saying of masses. Beatriz Enriquez is left to the care of the
+young admiral. Among other legacies is one of "half a mark of silver to
+a Jew who used to live at the gate of the Jewry, in Lisbon." The codicil
+was written and signed with the admiral's own hand. Next day (20th of
+May 1506) he died.
+
+After the funeral ceremonies at Valladolid, Columbus's remains were
+transferred to the Carthusian monastery of Santa Maria de las Cuevas,
+Seville, where the bones of his son Diego, the second admiral, were also
+laid. Exhumed in 1542, the bodies of both father and son were taken over
+sea to Hispaniola and interred in the cathedral of San Domingo. In
+1795-1796, on the cession of that island to the French, the relics were
+re-exhumed and transferred to the cathedral of Havana, whence, after the
+Spanish-American War of 1898 and the loss of Cuba, they were finally
+removed to Seville cathedral, where they remain. The present heir and
+representative of Columbus belongs to the Larreategui family,
+descendants of the discoverer through the female line, and retains the
+titles of admiral and duke of Veragua.
+
+[Illustration: Columbus Cipher.
+
+The interpretation of the seven-lettered cipher, accepting the smaller
+letters of the second line as the final ones of the words, seems to be
+_Salve Christus, Maria, Yosephus_. The name _Christopher_
+(_Christoferens_) appears in the last line.]
+
+In person Columbus was tall and shapely. The only authentic portrait of
+him is that which once belonged to Paulus Jovius, and is still in the
+possession of the de Orchi family (related to Jovius by female descent)
+at Como. It shows us a venerable man with clean-shaven face, thin grey
+hair, high forehead, sad thoughtful eyes. It bears the inscription
+_Columbus Lygur. novi orbis repertor_.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Fernando Columbus, _Historie del Signor Don Fernando
+  Colombo ... e vera relatione della vita ... dell' Ammiraglio D.
+  Christoforo Colombo_ (the Spanish original of this, written before
+  1539, is lost; only the Italian version remains, first published at
+  Venice in 1571; a good edition appeared in London in 1867); Bartolome
+  de las Casas, _Historia de las Indias_, written 1527-1561, but first
+  printed at Madrid in 1875, after remaining in manuscript more than
+  three centuries; Andres Bernandez, _Historia de los Reyes Catolicos_
+  (contemporary with Fernando Columbus's _Historie_, but first printed
+  at Granada in 1856; best edition, Seville, 1870); Gonzalo Fernandez
+  Oviedo y Valdes, _Historia general de las Indias_ (Seville, 1535; best
+  edition, Madrid, 1851-1855); Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, _Opus
+  Epistolarum_, first published in 1530, and _De Orbe Novo_ (_Decades_),
+  printed in 1511 and 1530; Francisco Lopez de Gomara, _Historia general
+  de las Indias_ (Saragossa, 1552-1553, and Antwerp, 1554); Antonio de
+  Herrera, _Historia general de las Indias occidentales_ (publication
+  first completed in 1615, but best edition perhaps that of 1730,
+  Madrid); Juan Bautista Munoz, _Historia del Nuevo Mundo_ (Madrid,
+  1793); Martin Fernandez Navarrete, _Coleccion de los Viages y
+  descubrimientos que hicieron por mar los Espanoles_ (Madrid,
+  1825-1837); Washington Irving, _History of the Life and Voyages of
+  Christopher Columbus_ (London, 1827-1828); Alex. von Humboldt, _Examen
+  critique_ (Paris, 1836-1839); R. H. Major, _Select Letters of_
+  _Columbus_ (London, Hakluyt Society, 1847); Fernandez Duro, _Colon y
+  Pinzon_ (Madrid, 1883); Henry Harrisse, _Christophe Colomb_ (Paris,
+  1884), and _Christophe Colomb devant l'histoire_ (Paris, 1892); Justin
+  Winsor, _Christopher Columbus_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1891); Jose Maria
+  Asensio, _Cristoval Colon_ (Barcelona, 1892); Clements R. Markham,
+  _Life of Christopher Columbus_ (London, 1892); John Fiske, _Discovery
+  of America_ (Boston and New York, 1892); E. J. Payne, _History of the
+  New World called America_, vol. i. (Oxford, 1892); Paul Gaffarel,
+  _Histoire de la decouverte de l'Amerique_ (Paris, 1892); Charles I.
+  Elton, _Career of Columbus_ (London, 1892); _Raccolta Colombiana_
+  (1892, &c.); Sophus Ruge, _Columbus_ (Berlin, 1902); John Boyd
+  Thatcher, _Christopher Columbus_ (New York, 1903-1904); Henry Vignaud,
+  _La Lettre et la carte de Toscanelli_ (Paris, 1901), and _Etudes
+  critiques sur la vie de Colomb avant ses decouvertes_ (Paris, 1905);
+  Filson Young, _Christopher Columbus and the New World of his
+  discovery_ (London, 1906).     (C. R. B.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 6, Slice 6, by Various
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