diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:56:06 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:56:06 -0700 |
| commit | 969f5fdad2d99e034f52705813a02af808a1c9c7 (patch) | |
| tree | 220b221e445fdd42e1d5d2ae387106cc6089aead /31616-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '31616-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/31616-h.htm | 7119 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i001.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2965 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i003.jpg | bin | 0 -> 82009 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i009.jpg | bin | 0 -> 5913 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i011.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7151 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i012.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7634 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i015.jpg | bin | 0 -> 14410 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i018.jpg | bin | 0 -> 65944 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i020.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4599 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i022.jpg | bin | 0 -> 28592 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i024.jpg | bin | 0 -> 32065 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i025.jpg | bin | 0 -> 33744 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i027.jpg | bin | 0 -> 90640 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i028.jpg | bin | 0 -> 30716 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i030.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7473 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i031.jpg | bin | 0 -> 73015 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i032.jpg | bin | 0 -> 42361 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i034.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8270 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i035.jpg | bin | 0 -> 29332 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i036.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4332 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i038.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6562 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i039.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7024 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i041.jpg | bin | 0 -> 17613 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i042.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6307 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i044.jpg | bin | 0 -> 22041 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i047.jpg | bin | 0 -> 11096 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i048.jpg | bin | 0 -> 81199 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i049.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7099 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i050.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6034 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i052.jpg | bin | 0 -> 103308 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i053.jpg | bin | 0 -> 12353 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i057.jpg | bin | 0 -> 5141 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i059.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4678 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i060.jpg | bin | 0 -> 50820 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i061.jpg | bin | 0 -> 31848 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i062.jpg | bin | 0 -> 14322 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i064.jpg | bin | 0 -> 40292 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i068.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4024 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i069bottom.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7136 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i069top.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4583 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i070.jpg | bin | 0 -> 3767 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i071.jpg | bin | 0 -> 38493 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i072.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6667 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i077.jpg | bin | 0 -> 19178 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i079.jpg | bin | 0 -> 29240 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i082.jpg | bin | 0 -> 48285 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i085.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9332 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i087.jpg | bin | 0 -> 36975 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i088.jpg | bin | 0 -> 12782 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i089.jpg | bin | 0 -> 33136 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i091.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7783 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i094bottom.jpg | bin | 0 -> 41097 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i094top.jpg | bin | 0 -> 3247 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i095.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4318 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i097.jpg | bin | 0 -> 28198 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i099.jpg | bin | 0 -> 71756 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i100.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2346 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i101.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8646 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i102.jpg | bin | 0 -> 41517 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i104.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8164 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i105.jpg | bin | 0 -> 52916 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i107bottom.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2920 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i107top.jpg | bin | 0 -> 5662 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i108bottom.jpg | bin | 0 -> 5271 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i108top.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6406 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i111.jpg | bin | 0 -> 13639 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i112.jpg | bin | 0 -> 5258 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i114.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6433 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i115.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6909 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i116.jpg | bin | 0 -> 3972 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i117.jpg | bin | 0 -> 5772 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i119.jpg | bin | 0 -> 137101 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i121.jpg | bin | 0 -> 7335 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i123.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9020 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i127bottom.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2985 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i127top.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6637 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i129bottom.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2380 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i129top.jpg | bin | 0 -> 3234 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i130.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4372 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i131.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4695 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i132.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4047 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i133.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6578 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i136.jpg | bin | 0 -> 88718 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i138.jpg | bin | 0 -> 5535 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i140.jpg | bin | 0 -> 72810 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i141.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6445 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i144.jpg | bin | 0 -> 25404 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i149.jpg | bin | 0 -> 10798 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i150.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6649 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i153.jpg | bin | 0 -> 25259 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i155.jpg | bin | 0 -> 36530 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i165.jpg | bin | 0 -> 4996 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i166.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6565 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i169.jpg | bin | 0 -> 41140 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i174.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8737 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i175.jpg | bin | 0 -> 8573 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i176.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6007 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i177.jpg | bin | 0 -> 3358 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i178.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2933 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/i186.jpg | bin | 0 -> 6077 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 31616-h/images/icover.jpg | bin | 0 -> 96175 bytes |
101 files changed, 7119 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/31616-h/31616-h.htm b/31616-h/31616-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5630879 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/31616-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7119 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Health Lessons, Book I by Alvin Davison. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + + .gap { margin-top: 1em; } + +hr { margin: 3em auto 3em auto; + height: 0px; + border-width: 1px 0 0 0; + border-style: solid; + border-color: #dcdcdc; + width: 500px; + clear: both; +} + +.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + color: #999; +} /* page numbers */ + +table.toc { + margin: auto; + width: 50%; +} + +td.c1 { + text-align: right; + vertical-align: top; + padding-right: 1em; +} + +td.c2 { + text-align: left; + margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; + padding-right: 1em; + vertical-align: top; +} + +td.c3 { + text-align: right; + padding-left: 1em; + vertical-align: bottom; +} + +.blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + .center {text-align: center;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .frame {margin: 1em; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right:1.5em; border: solid 1px;} + +/* Images */ + .figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + + .figleft { + clear: left; + float: left; + margin: 1em 1em 1em 0em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; + width: auto; +} + + .figright { + clear: right; + float: right; + margin: 1em 0em 1em 1em; + padding: 0; + text-align: center; + width: auto; +} + + .fig { font-variant: small-caps; } + + .bord img { padding: 1px; + border: 1px solid black +} + +p.caption { + margin-top: 0; + font-size: 70%; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Transcriber Notes */ +div.tn { + background-color:#EEE; + border:dashed 1px; + color:#000; + margin-left:10em; + margin-right:10em; + margin-top:5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + padding:1em; +} + +ul.corrections { + list-style-type:circle; +} + +/* INDEX */ +ul.index { list-style-type: none; + width: 20em; + margin: 2em auto; +} +li.pad { padding-top: 2.0%; } + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Health Lessons, by Alvin Davison + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Health Lessons + Book 1 + +Author: Alvin Davison + +Release Date: March 13, 2010 [EBook #31616] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HEALTH LESSONS *** + + + + +Produced by Larry B. Harrison, D. Alexander and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p class="gap"> +<br /> +<br /> +<br /> </p> +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="icover" id="icover"></a> +<img src="images/icover.jpg" width="500" height="791" alt="Health Lessons by Alvin Davison" title="Book Cover"/> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h1>HEALTH LESSONS</h1> + +<h2>BOOK I</h2> + +<h4>BY</h4> + +<h3><span class="smcap">ALVIN DAVISON, M.S., A.M., Ph.D.</span></h3> + +<h5>PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY IN LAFAYETTE COLLEGE</h5> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 75px;"> +<a name="i001" id="i001"></a> +<img src="images/i001.jpg" width="75" height="84" alt="American Book Company" title="Publisher Symbol"/> +</div> + +<h4>NEW YORK ❖ CINCINNATI ❖ CHICAGO</h4> + +<h3>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h3> + +<hr /> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1910, by</span></h5> + +<h4>ALVIN DAVISON.</h4> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.</span></h5> + +<h5>HEALTH LESSONS. BK. 1.</h5> + +<h5>W. P. 6</h5> + +<hr /> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i003" id="i003"></a> +<img src="images/i003.jpg" width="500" height="750" alt="A strong and healthy body." title=""/> +<p class="caption">Exercise, clean air, and well-chewed food make a strong and +<br />healthy body.</p> +</div> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>Scarcely one half of the children of our country +continue in school much beyond the fifth grade. It is +important, therefore, that so far as possible the knowledge +which has most to do with human welfare should be +presented in the early years of school life.</p> + +<p>Fisher, Metchnikoff, Sedgwick, and others have shown +that the health of a people influences the prosperity and +happiness of a nation more than any other one thing. +The highest patriotism is therefore the conservation of +health. The seven hundred thousand lives annually +destroyed by infectious diseases and the million other +serious cases of sickness from contagious maladies, with +all their attendant suffering, are largely sacrifices on the +altar of ignorance. The loving mother menaces the life +of her babe by feeding it milk with a germ content nearly +half as great as that of sewage, the anemic girl sleeps +with fast-closed windows, wondering in the morning why +she feels so lifeless, and the one-time vigorous boy goes +to a consumptive's early grave, because they did not know +(what every school ought to teach) the way to health.</p> + +<p>Doctor Price, the Secretary of the State Board of Health +of Maryland, recently said before the American Public +Health Association that the text-books of our schools show +a marked disregard for the urgent problems which enter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +our daily life, such as the prevention of tuberculosis, +typhoid fever, and acute infectious diseases.</p> + +<p>Since the observing public have seen educated communities +decrease their death rate from typhoid fever, +tuberculosis, and diphtheria from one third to three +fourths by heeding the health call, lawmakers are becoming +convinced that the needless waste of human life should +be stopped. Michigan has already decreed that every +school child shall be taught the cause and prevention of +the communicable diseases, and several other states are +contemplating like action. This book meets fully the +demands of all such laws as are contemplated, and presents +the important truths not by dogmatic assertion, but by +citing specific facts appealing to the child mind in such +a way as to make a lasting impression.</p> + +<p>After the eleventh year of age, the first cause of death +among school children is tuberculosis. The chief aim of +the author has been to show the child the sure way of +preventing this disease and others of like nature, and +to establish an undying faith in the motto of Pasteur, +"It is within the power of man to rid himself of every +parasitic disease."</p> + +<p>Nearly all of the illustrations used are from photographs +and drawings specially prepared for this book. These, +together with the large amount of material gleaned from +original sources and from the author's experiments in the +laboratory, will, it is hoped, make this little volume +worthy of the same generous welcome accorded the two +earlier books of this series.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table class="toc" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="c1"><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td class="c2"> </td><td class="c3"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">I.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Caring for the Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">II.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Parts of the Body</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">III.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Feeding the Body</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">IV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Food and Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">V.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">How Plants sour or spoil Food</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">VI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Milk may be a Food or a Poison</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">VII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">How the Body uses Food</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">VIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Care of the Mouth</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">IX.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Alcoholic Drinks</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">X.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Alcohol and Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Tobacco and the Drugs which injure the Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Skin and Bathing</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Clothing and how to use It</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XIV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Breathing</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Fresh Air and Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XVI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Blood and how it flows through the Body</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XVII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Insects and Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XVIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">How the Body Moves</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_135">135</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XIX.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Muscles and Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XX.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">How the Body is Governed</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XXI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">How Narcotics and Stimulants affect the Brain and Nerves</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XXII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Senses, or Doors of Knowledge</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XXIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Keeping away Sickness</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1">XXIV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Helping before the Doctor Comes</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="c1"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td class="c2"> </td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p> +<h1>HEALTH LESSONS</h1> + +<hr /> +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> +<h3>CARING FOR THE HEALTH</h3> + +<p><b>Good Health better than Gold.</b>—Horses and houses, +balls and dolls, and much else that people think they +want to make them happy can be bought with +money. The one thing which is worth more than +all else cannot be bought with even a houseful of +gold. This thing is good health. Over three million +persons in our country are now sick, and many +of them are suffering much pain. Some of them +would give all the money they have to gain once +more the good health which the poorest may usually +enjoy by right living day by day.</p> + +<p><b>How long shall you live?</b>—In this country most of +the persons born live to be over forty years of age, and +some live more than one hundred years. A hundred +years ago most persons died before the age of thirty-five +years. In London three hundred years ago only about +one half of those born reached the age of twenty-five +years. Scarcely one half of the people in India to-day +live beyond the age of twenty-five years. In fact,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +people in India are dying nearly twice as fast as in +our own country. This is because they have not +learned how to take care of the body in India so well +as we have.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i009" id="i009"></a> +<img src="images/i009.jpg" width="150" height="204" alt="Elderly Lady" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 1</span> +—By right living this woman remained in good health for several years +after she was a century old.</p> +</div> + +<p>The study which +tells how to keep well +is <i>Hygiene</i>. Whether +you keep well and live +long, or suffer much +from headaches, cold, +and other sickness, +depends largely on +how you care for your +body.</p> + +<p><b>Working together +for Health.</b>—One cannot +always keep well +and strong by his own +efforts. The grocer +and milkman may sell to you bad food, the town +may furnish impure water, churches and schools may +injure your health by failing to supply fresh air in +their buildings. More than a hundred thousand people +were made very sick last year through the use of +water poisoned by waste matter which other persons +carelessly let reach the streams and wells. Many of +the sick died of the fever caused by this water.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +Although it cannot be said that we are engaged in +real war, yet we are surely killing one another by +our thoughtless habits in scattering disease. We +must therefore not only know how to care for our +own bodies, but teach all to help one another to keep +well.</p> + +<p><b>A Lesson from War.</b>—The mention of war makes +those who know its terrors shudder. Disease has +caused more than ten times as much suffering and +death as war with its harvest of mangled bodies, +shattered limbs, and blinded eyes. In our four +months' war with Spain in 1898 only 268 soldiers +were killed in battle, while nearly 4000 brave men +died from disease. We lost more than ten men by +disease to every one killed by bullets.</p> + +<p>In the late war between Japan and Russia the +Japanese soldiers cared for their health so carefully +that only one fourth as many died from disease as +perished in battle. This shows that with care for +the health the small men of Japan saved themselves +from disease, and thus won a victory told around the +world.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i011" id="i011"></a> +<img src="images/i011.jpg" width="150" height="245" alt="Surgeon General" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 2</span> +—The Surgeon General who, by keeping the soldiers well, helped Japan +win in the war against Russia.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Battle with Disease.</b>—For long ages sickness +has caused more sorrow, misery, and death +than famine, war, and wild beasts. Many years ago +a plague called the <i>black death</i> swept over most +of the earth, and killed nearly one third of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +inhabitants. A little more than a hundred years +ago yellow fever killed thousands of people in +Philadelphia and New York in a few weeks. When +Boston was a city +with a population of +11,000, more than +one half of the persons +had smallpox in +one year. Within a +few years one half +of the sturdy red men +of our forests were +slain by smallpox +when it first visited +our shores. Before +the year 1798 few +boys or girls reached +the age of twenty +years without a pit-marked +face due to +the dreadful disease +of smallpox. This +disease was formerly more common than measles and +chicken pox now are because we had not yet learned +how to prevent it as we do to-day.</p> + +<p><b>Victory over Disease.</b>—Cholera, yellow fever, +black death, and smallpox no longer cause people to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +flee into the wilderness to escape them when they +occasionally break out in a town or city. We have +learned how to prevent these ailments among people +who will obey the +laws of health.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i012" id="i012"></a> +<img src="images/i012.jpg" width="150" height="218" alt="A Native American" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 3</span> +—One of the thousands of sturdy red men which smallpox slew before +we learned how to prevent the disease.</p> +</div> + +<p>Until the year +1900, people fled from +a city when yellow +fever was announced, +but now any one can +sleep with a fever +patient and not catch +the disease, because +we have learned how +to prevent it. Nurses +and doctors no longer +hesitate to sit for +hours in the rooms of +those sick with smallpox +because they +know how to treat the body to keep away this disease. +By studying this book, boys and girls may learn not +only how to keep free from these diseases, but how to +manage their bodies to make them strong enough to +escape other diseases.</p> + +<p><b>As the Twig is bent so the Tree is inclined.</b>—This +old saying means that a strong, straight, healthy, full-grown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +tree cannot come from a weak and bent young +tree. Health in manhood and womanhood depends +on how the health is cared for in childhood. The +foundation for disease is often laid during school +years. The making of strong bodies that will live +joyous lives for long years must begin in boyhood +and girlhood.</p> + +<p>In youth is the time to begin right living. Bad +habits formed in early life often cause much sorrow +in later years. It is said that over one half the +drunkards began drinking liquor before they were +twenty years of age and most of the smokers began +to use tobacco before they were twenty years old.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. What is worth most in this world?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. How many people are sick in our country?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. How long do most people live?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Why do people not live long in India?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. What is hygiene?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How many more deaths are caused by disease than by</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">war?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Give some facts about smallpox.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Why do we have no fear of yellow fever and smallpox</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">now?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Why should you be careful of your health while young?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. When do most smokers and drinkers begin their bad</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">habits?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER II</h2> +<h3>PARTS OF THE BODY</h3> + +<p><b>Regions of the Body.</b>—In order to talk about any +part of the body it must have a name. The main +portion of the body is called the <i>trunk</i>. At the top +of the trunk is the <i>head</i>. The arms and legs are +known as <i>limbs</i> or <i>extremities</i>. The part of the arm +between the elbow and wrist is the <i>forearm</i>. The +<i>thigh</i> is the part of the leg between the knee and hip.</p> + +<p>The upper part of the trunk is called the <i>chest</i> and +is encircled by the ribs. The lower part of the trunk +is named the <i>abdomen</i>. A large cavity within the +chest contains the lungs and heart. The cavity of +the abdomen is filled with the liver, stomach, food +tube, and other working parts.</p> + +<p><b>The Plan of the Body.</b>—All parts of the body are +not the same. One part has one kind of work to do +while another performs quite a different duty. The +covering of the body is the <i>skin</i>. Beneath is the red +meat called <i>muscle</i>. It looks just like the beef bought +at the butcher shop which is the muscle of a cow or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +ox. Nearly one half of the weight of the body is +made of muscle.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 175px;"> +<a name="i015" id="i015"></a> +<img src="images/i015.jpg" width="175" height="322" alt="The Organs" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 4</span> +—General plan of the organs of the body.</p> +</div> + +<p>The muscle is fastened to the <i>bones</i> which support +the body and give +it stiffness. The +muscle by pulling +on the bones helps +the body to do all +kinds of work. +The muscles and +bones cannot work +day after day +without being fed. +For this reason a +food tube leads +from the mouth +down into the +trunk to prepare +milk, meat, bread, +or other food, for +the use of the +body.</p> + +<p><b>Feeding the +Body.</b>—The +mouth receives +the food and chews it so that it may be easily +swallowed. It then goes into a sac called the <i>stomach</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +Here the hard parts are broken up into tiny bits +and float about in a watery fluid. This goes out of +the stomach into a long crooked tube, the <i>intestine</i>. +Here the particles are made still finer, and the whole +mass is then ready to be carried to every part of the +muscles, bones, and brain to build up what is being +worn out in work and play.</p> + +<p><b>Carrying Food through the Body.</b>—In all parts of +the body are little branching tubes. These unite into +larger tubes leading to the heart. Through these +tubes flows <i>blood</i>. Hundreds of tiny tubes in the +walls of the intestine drink in the watery food, and +it flows with the blood to the heart. The heart then +pushes this blood with its food out through another +set of tubes which divide into fine branches as they +lead to every part of the body (<a href="#i018">Fig. 5</a>).</p> + +<p><b>Getting rid of Ashes and Worn-out Parts.</b>—The +body works like a machine. Food is used somewhat +as a locomotive uses coal to give it power +to work. Some ashes are left from the used food, +and other waste matter is formed by the dead +and worn-out parts of the body. This waste is +gathered up by the richly branching blood tubes +and carried to the lungs. Here some of it passes +out at every breath. Part of the waste goes out +through the skin with the sweat and part passes +out through the kidneys. In this way the dead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]<br />[Pg 19]</a></span> +matter is kept from collecting in the body and +clogging its parts.</p> + +<p><b>How the Parts of the Body are made to work Together.</b>—The +mass of red flesh covering the bones is +made up of many pieces called muscles. Whenever +we catch a ball or run or even speak, more than a +dozen muscles must be made to act together just in +the right way. When food goes into the stomach, +something must tell the juice to flow out of the walls +to act on the food. The boss or manager of all the +work carried on by the thousands of parts of the body +is known as the <i>brain</i> and <i>spinal cord</i> with their tiny +threads, the <i>nerves</i>, spreading everywhere through +bones and muscles. The brain and spinal cord give +the orders and the nerves carry them (<a href="#i018">Fig. 5</a>).</p> + +<p><b>The Servants of the Body.</b>—The parts of the body +are much like the servants in a large house or the +clerks in a store. One servant or clerk does one kind +of work while another does something entirely different. +Each portion of the body does a different +kind of work. Each one of these parts doing a particular +work is called an <i>organ</i>. The stomach is an +organ to prepare food and the heart is an organ for +sending the blood through the body.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i018" id="i018"></a> +<img src="images/i018.jpg" width="500" height="626" alt="Blood Vessels and Nervous System" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 5</span> +—On the left are shown the branching tubes which carry blood to all +parts of the body; on the right are the brain, spinal cord, and nerves +which direct the work of the organs.</p> +</div> + +<p>The entire body is composed of several hundred +organs. Each of them is formed of several kinds of +materials named <i>tissue</i>. A skinlike tissue makes up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +the lining of the stomach, while its outside is made of +muscular tissue. The smallest parts of a tissue are little +bodies named <i>cells</i>, and very fine threads called <i>fibers</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Growth of the Body.</b>—The body grows rapidly in +childhood and more slowly after the sixteenth year, +but it continues to get larger until about the twenty-fifth +year of age. Some children always grow slowly, +have weak bones, and frail bodies. This is generally +so because they have poor food or do not chew it +well, and get too little fresh air, sunshine, and sleep.</p> + +<p>The use of beer, wine, or tobacco may hinder the +body from using food for growth, or they may poison +the body so that it will never be large and strong. +The body should grow about a hundred pounds in +weight during the first thirteen years of life. Whether +children grow little or much generally depends on the +food they give their bodies.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Point out and name four parts of the body.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Name the two parts of the trunk.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What does the chest contain?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. What is muscle?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. How is the body fed?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. Give three parts taking waste out of the body.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Of what use are the brain and nerves?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Name two organs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. How long does the body continue to grow?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Why are some children weak and of slow growth?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER III</h2> +<h3>FEEDING THE BODY</h3> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i020" id="i020"></a> +<img src="images/i020.jpg" width="150" height="133" alt="Black Snake" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 6</span> +—Photograph of the outer dead skin pushed off from a black snake crawling through the brush.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Why the Body needs Food.</b>—Every living thing, +whether a plant or an animal, needs food. While the +whole body lives, a part of it is constantly dying. +The entire outer layer +of a snake's skin dies +three or four times +during a year and is +cast off, sometimes in +a single piece. We +can scrape dead bits +of skin from the surface +of our body at +any time. Tiny particles +are dying in all +regions of the body, +and we should soon waste away if food were not +taken to make up the loss for the worn-out parts.</p> + +<p>The body also needs food to help it do its work +and keep warm. The body has the strange power of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +using food eaten to make the legs and arms move +and the brain to think. In doing this the body is +said to burn the food.</p> + +<p><b>How the Body burns itself and also Food.</b>—If a +boy is weighed just before playing a game of ball and +again afterward, he will find that part of his body +has been used up and given off in the breath and +sweat. He has burned part of his body, and the +breath and sweat are like the smoke given off when +a match is burned.</p> + +<p>One fifth of the air is made of a gas called <i>oxygen</i>. +When anything becomes very hot, this oxygen makes +it burst into a flame and burn. We breathe in oxygen +with the air and the living action of the body +causes such a slow union of the oxygen and the tissues +that there is no blaze although there is a little heat.</p> + +<p><b>Kinds of Food.</b>—There are four general classes of +foods. These are the <i>building foods</i>, the <i>sugars</i> and +<i>starches</i>, the <i>fats</i>, and the <i>mineral foods</i>. The building +foods are those which help largely in forming new +muscle and blood or other parts of the body. <i>Proteids</i> +is another name for building foods.</p> + +<p><i>Sugars</i> and <i>starches</i> are placed in one group because +starch changes to sugar within the body. If +you chew a starchy food like bread for a few minutes, +it will begin to taste sweet because the starch +is becoming sugar.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>Fats are got not only from fat meat but also +from eggs, butter, milk, and many other foods. +There is some mineral matter, such as potash and +soda, in many of the vegetables and meats eaten, and +we use much table salt to season other foods.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i022" id="i022"></a> +<img src="images/i022.jpg" width="500" height="292" alt="Good Foods" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 7</span> +—Good foods for building muscles, blood, and bone.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Body-building Foods.</b>—A person with all the sugar, +molasses, starch, butter, and lard he could eat would +starve to death in a few weeks because none of these +foods would help to build up the dying parts of the +body. A large amount of body builder is found in +lean meat, eggs, milk, peas, beans, corn meal, and +bread. Bread and milk is a good food to make +the body grow. If the body takes in more building +food than it needs for repairs, it may store it up in the +form of fat or burn it to help the body do its work.</p> + +<p><b>The Fuel Foods.</b>—The fuel foods are the sugars,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +starches, and fats. These are the foods which the +body can easily burn to keep it warm and give it +power to act. Candy, molasses, or sugar in any form, +taken in small quantities, is a good food. Starch, +which the body quickly changes to sugar, is a much +cheaper food. Meats contain very little starch, but +nearly all vegetables contain much starch. Three +fourths of corn meal, rice, wheat flour, and soda +crackers consists of starch. More than one half of +white bread, dried beans, and peas is made of pure +starch, and there is much starch in potatoes.</p> + +<p><i>Fat</i> is more abundant in animal than in vegetable +food. Castor oil and cotton-seed oil are fats from +vegetables. The fat of the cow is called <i>suet</i> or +<i>tallow</i>, while the fat of the hog is known as <i>lard</i>. +<i>Butter</i> is the fat collected from milk. Cream and +eggs contain much fat. When persons eat too much +of the sugars, starches, or fats, the body may store +them up as fat. For this reason thin persons wishing +to gain in flesh eat eggs, nuts, and rich milk.</p> + +<p><b>The Mineral Foods.</b>—The body must have not only +lime to help form the bones, but iron, salt, soda, and +potash for other parts of the body. All these minerals +except salt are found in many of the common foods.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i024" id="i024"></a> +<img src="images/i024.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="Good Foods" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 8</span> +—Good foods for giving the body power and heat.</p> +</div> + +<p>Water is one of the most important of the mineral +foods because it helps the body use all the other +foods. Most people drink too little water to enjoy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +the best health. The body needs more than two +quarts of water every day. There is much water in +our foods. More than one half of eggs, meat, and +potatoes is made of water, and more than three +fourths of tomatoes, green corn, onions, cabbage, and +string beans is composed of water. We should drink +one quart or more of water daily. It should not be used +ice cold, and very little should be taken at meal time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i025" id="i025"></a> +<img src="images/i025.jpg" width="500" height="235" alt="Home drainage" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 9</span> +—Diagram showing how the drainage from a house with a sick person +caused one hundred and twenty cases of typhoid fever at Mount Savage, Maryland.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Water and Health.</b>—One of the common causes +of sickness is bad water. Water from shallow wells +within a hundred feet of barnyards, pigpens, or +other outhouses is usually unsafe to drink. At Newport, +Rhode Island, more than eighty persons were +made sick with the fever by drinking the water +from a well only ten feet deep. The impure water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +from one spring at Trenton, New Jersey, gave the fever +to nearly a hundred persons in one season. At Mount +Savage, Maryland, a hundred and +twenty persons were made ill +by using the water +from a spring near a +house drain.</p> + +<p>Water from rivers and streams running near where +many people live is likely to be made impure and is +sure to bring sickness and death to some of those who +use it. Water from a small stream at Plymouth, +Pennsylvania, running past a house occupied by a +typhoid patient, gave the fever to over a thousand +persons in one month. The water from a small stream +at Ithaca, New York, gave the fever to over thirteen +hundred people in one season, and an almost equal +number caught the fever in a few weeks at Butler, +Pennsylvania, by drinking water from a small creek +along which some sick persons lived.</p> + +<p><b>Preventing Sickness from Bad Water.</b>—It is better +to go thirsty than to drink water which is likely to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]<br />[Pg 28]</a></span> +cause sickness. Any water can be made safe by boiling +it one minute. Boiled water is the most healthful +kind of water to use. The people of China and +Japan seldom use water that has not been boiled.</p> + +<p>Many cities using water from rivers run it through a +layer of sand and gravel to remove the tiny things +that cause so much sickness and death. This makes +the water very much purer, but it is not so certain to +make the water safe as is boiling it. Bad water +makes nearly a quarter of a million of our people sick +every year and kills twenty thousand of them.</p> + +<p><b>How much Food does the Body Need?</b>—Most people +eat too much. Overeating overworks the stomach, +poisons the body, makes one feel lazy, and causes +headache. If you chew your food fine and stop eating +as soon as hunger is satisfied without tempting the +appetite with sweets, you are not likely to overeat.</p> + +<p>About one seventh of a pound of building food is +needed daily to keep the body in repair, and a quarter +of a pound of fat and a pound of starches and sugars +are required to help the body do a hard day's work. +A half pound of bread, beans, and meat each, a +pound of potatoes, a pint of milk, and a quarter of a +pound of butter and sugar each, will give a working +man all the food he needs for a day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i027" id="i027"></a> +<img src="images/i027.jpg" width="500" height="697" alt="Plymouth, Pennsylvania" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 10</span> +—Bird's-eye view of Plymouth, Pennsylvania, showing where the +waste from one sick room was thrown on the bank of a stream which +several miles below supplied the town with water and caused over one +thousand cases of fever and more than a hundred deaths within seven weeks.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Beer and Wine as Foods.</b>—It was once thought +that beer and wine were good foods, but hundreds of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 28]<br />[Pg 29]</a></span> +late experiments show that these drinks are very poor +and expensive foods. A half glass of milk is of more +use to the body as a food than a full quart of beer. +The use of much wine or beer may seem to satisfy +the appetite because they deaden the real feeling of +hunger. Neither of these drinks can be used by the +young without danger of doing much harm.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i028" id="i028"></a> +<img src="images/i028.jpg" width="500" height="328" alt="Milk" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 11</span> +—The little glass of milk contains nearly twice as much food +for building flesh and blood as the large glass of beer.</p> +</div> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Why does the body need food?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Why do you weigh less after working?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What is oxygen?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. From what do we get body-building foods?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. In what is starch found?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How much water does the body need?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Where have people been made sick by using bad water?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. How can we prevent sickness from bad water?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What harm does overeating do?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. What can you say of beer as a food?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2> +<h3>FOOD AND HEALTH</h3> + +<p><b>Meats.</b>—Beef is the best of all meat for food. +Nearly one fifth of it can be used to repair the worn-out +parts of the body. Mutton, the meat of sheep, +is almost as good for food as beef. Veal and pork +also contain much body-building matter, but the +stomach must work hard to prepare them for use.</p> + +<p>Fish is an excellent food, but it has only little more +than one half as much flesh-building matter as good +beef. Poultry is a healthful food, especially for the +weak and sick, but it is more expensive than the +other meats. Oysters are largely made of water and +do not contain much to strengthen the body.</p> + +<p>In all meat there is some waste matter. This may +harm the body if we eat too much meat. It is no +longer thought healthful for most persons to eat meat +more than once a day. Too much meat used daily +for several years is likely to cause disease.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i030" id="i030"></a> +<img src="images/i030.jpg" width="150" height="262" alt="Bread" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 12</span> +—Each of these articles costs the same, but the bread will furnish four +times as much food for the body as the cabbage, more than twice as much as +the fish, and nearly twice as much as the milk.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Cooking of Meat.</b>—The best meat if poorly +cooked is unfit for eating. Broiled and roasted meats +are more healthful than boiled or fried meat. Meat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +is broiled by holding it in a wire frame over a +flame or hot coals. It is roasted by placing it +in a covered pan in a +hot oven for two or +three hours. It is +boiled by keeping it +in hot water several +hours.</p> + +<p>Meat is fried by +cooking it in lard or +other fat in a pan. +Only those who have +strong bodies should +eat fried meat.</p> + +<p>The cheap cuts of +meat from the neck, +breast, and legs have +about as much food +matter in them as +the more costly parts. +Such meat may be +made more tender +by boiling than by +roasting.</p> + +<p><b>Soup.</b>—Soup, broth, and beef tea furnish but little +food for the body. They are very useful in giving us +a good appetite for the real food to be eaten later.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +They make the stomach go to work more quickly +than other food. Soup or broth is made from meat +by placing it on the stove in cold water, gradually +heating it, and then keeping it hot several hours.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i031" id="i031"></a> +<img src="images/i031.jpg" width="500" height="517" alt="Groups of foods" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 13</span> +—Either group of foods will give the body the same strength +and nourishment for work and growth.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Vegetables.</b>—Some persons never eat meat of any +kind because they enjoy better health when using +only vegetables, milk, and eggs. Peas and beans contain +much matter for making new flesh and blood +and also much starch to give heat and power to the +body. Potatoes form a valuable food. Roasted potatoes +are more healthful than those boiled or fried.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i032" id="i032"></a> +<img src="images/i032.jpg" width="500" height="428" alt="Real food" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 14</span> +—The amount of real food in these articles.</p> +</div> + +<p>Radishes, onions, and cucumbers are made largely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +of water. Only a small amount of these should be +eaten at one meal as the stomach must work hard to +make use of them. Young beets, lettuce, and ripe +tomatoes may be eaten by young and old. They +contain useful minerals and help keep the body in +a healthful condition.</p> + +<p><b>The Cereals or Grain Foods.</b>—These foods are eaten +in the form of bread, oatmeal, corn meal, rice, and +breakfast foods. All of these furnish much matter +to strengthen the body and make it grow. Bread +and butter with rice are excellent foods for children.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 100px;"> +<a name="i034" id="i034"></a> +<img src="images/i034.jpg" width="100" height="320" alt="Beer" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 15</span> +—A bottle of beer. The dotted part at the top shows +how much body-building food it contains.</p> +</div> +<p><b>Fruits.</b>—Very few people can remain well long +without eating fruit of some kind. Ripe apples, +pears, plums, peaches, berries, and cherries furnish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +useful salts to the body and also help the stomach +and food tube do their work in a more healthful way. +Fruits also increase the appetite. Green fruit and +fruit which is overripe should never be eaten.</p> + +<p><b>Eggs.</b>—Eggs form a good food for nearly everybody, +but they are specially needed by the young and +other persons with weak bodies. They can repair the +worn-out parts of the body and also help it do its +work.</p> + +<p>Eggs are most healthful when eaten raw or soft +cooked. The best way to cook them through evenly +is to put them in a pan off the stove and add about +a quart of boiling water for every three eggs. Cover +and let them cook fifteen minutes.</p> + +<p>Eggs should be kept in a cold room or cellar until +used. They become stale in less than a week when +left in a warm living room and may get a bad taste +when only three or four days old.</p> + +<p><b>Salt, Pepper, and Vinegar.</b>—Eating much salt is +harmful. A small quantity of salt and pepper increases +the appetite and makes the stomach do its +work better. Children should use very little pepper +and almost no vinegar and mustard.</p> + +<p><b>Tobacco.</b>—Some people think tobacco is a food because +it is made from the leaves of a plant. Other +people think tobacco is a food because they do not +feel hungry after smoking or chewing it. The truth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +is that tobacco is of no use to the body +as a food and may do it much harm +because of the poison it contains. +Tobacco satisfies hunger somewhat by +deadening the parts of the body that +are calling for food.</p> + +<p><b>Beer.</b>—The people who make beer +and sell it say that it is a food. Men +who have no interest in selling beer, +and have experimented with it to find +out whether it strengthens the body, say +that beer should never be used as a food. +It often tends to weaken the body. +Children should never use beer at any +time, and older people can sometimes avoid disease +by letting it alone.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Which are the best meats for food?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Why should we not eat meat at every meal?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. How should meat be cooked to make it most tender?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. How is soup or broth made?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Name the best vegetables for food.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. Name some good grain foods.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Of what use are fruits?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. What can you say of the use of eggs?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. How should eggs be cared for?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. What can you say of the use of salt and pepper?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Why does tobacco satisfy hunger?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Of what value is beer for food?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER V</h2> +<h3>HOW PLANTS SOUR OR SPOIL FOOD</h3> + +<p><b>Germs, Microbes, or Bacteria.</b>—The dust and dirt of +all sorts contain thousands of tiny plants too small +to be seen by the eye without help. An instrument +called a <i>microscope</i> makes them appear so large that +their form and growth are easily studied. These +little plants are called <i>germs</i> or <i>microbes</i>. They are +also named <i>bacteria</i>. They are so small that a million +laid side by side would not cover the head of a pin.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i035" id="i035"></a> +<img src="images/i035.jpg" width="500" height="169" alt="Bacteria" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 16</span> +—Bacteria or microbes found in water, dust, and waste. They help +change straw and other dead matter into food for plants. Much enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>There are hundreds of different kinds of germs. +Some are round like little balls and others are the +shape of tiny rods. Many of them which look just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +alike act very different in growing. There are more +than twenty different kinds that grow in our bodies +and cause diphtheria, tuberculosis, and other diseases. +We have measles and scarlet fever because we have +gotten these disease germs from some one else in +whom they were growing.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i036" id="i036"></a> +<img src="images/i036.jpg" width="150" height="94" alt="Mold" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 17</span> +—Mold which grew on moist bread in two days. 5, seed bodies breaking out of the +sack; 1, 2, and 4, one of the seed bodies after one, two, and four hours' growth. Much +enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>Most germs feed on dead matter instead of our +living bodies and make it melt away or change into +another form. An +apple or a piece of +meat thrown out +on the ground will +soon change and +become like the +earth on which it +lies. The change, +called decay, is +caused by millions +of germs. The +farmer's best friends are certain germs which help +make the ground rich, so that the crops will grow.</p> + +<p><b>Mold.</b>—The dust raised in sweeping contains tiny +living seedlike bodies. If these fall on bread, cheese, +or fruit, and this food is afterward kept moist in a +warm room for a day or two, they will grow into +grayish fluffy spots. These spots are mold. The +greenish white growth on the top of some canned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +fruit and on berries left in the warm kitchen over +night is also mold.</p> + +<p>Mold is a plant which grows from tiny round +bodies acting like seeds (<a href="#i036">Fig. 17</a>). These seed bodies +of mold are common in all dust and often fly through +the air. On this account food should be kept covered +when possible and especially when one is sweeping. +Some mold gives bread, cheese, and other food a bad +taste, but it will not make one sick.</p> + +<p><b>How Germs Grow.</b>—Germs will not grow where it +is very cold, but freezing the germs does not kill them. +Boiling one minute kills most germs. Drying will +stop the germs from growing, but will not kill all of +them. Sunlight kills many of them.</p> + +<p>Moisture and warmth make germs grow rapidly. +A germ in growing lengthens out a little and then +divides in the middle. It does this so quickly that +one germ may become two in fifteen minutes. Each +of these will then divide. In this way one germ can +make many million germs in a single day (<a href="#i038">Fig. 18</a>).</p> + +<p><b>The Spoiling of Meat.</b>—Fresh meat will not remain +good even one day if left in a warm place. A large +greenish blue fly seen buzzing about in warm weather +will sometimes lay its eggs on meat. These will hatch +the next day into little worms, called maggots. They +grow rapidly and a few days later change into flies.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i038" id="i038"></a> +<img src="images/i038.jpg" width="150" height="141" alt="Growing germ" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 18</span> +—Drawing of the germ at the top every ten minutes, showing how +it grew into two germs in a half hour. Much enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>Germs will also spoil meat not kept cold. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +feed on the meat and give off a poison, making it +unfit to eat. The bad odor tells when the germs are +at work. Every home should have +a cold cellar or an ice box to keep +food from spoiling.</p> + +<p><b>Saving Food from Souring.</b>—The +souring of milk and of cooked food +of any kind is due to the germs +always present in the air and clinging +by the thousands to unwashed +dishes and hands. If meat or fruit +is cooked and kept tightly covered, +it will remain good for years. Many persons save +fruit and vegetables for use in winter by putting +them in jars, which are heated to kill the germs, and +sealed tight to keep out other germs.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i039" id="i039"></a> +<img src="images/i039.jpg" width="150" height="140" alt="Yeast plants" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 19</span> +—Yeast plants used in making bread and beer. Those on +the right are growing new plants. Much enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Yeast or the Alcohol Plant.</b>—Sweet cider and other +fruit juices are sometimes spoiled by a plant named +yeast. This plant has the form of a football and is +so small that a million of its kind together would not +make a mass as large as the head of a pin. It floats +about in the air and is present on the skins of fruits.</p> + +<p>Yeast is also called the alcohol plant because whenever +it grows in a sweet substance like fruit juice it +changes part of it into a biting substance called alcohol. +At the same time it gives off a gas. It is this +gas which forms the bubbling or frothing in beer.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>The millions of yeast plants in the yeast cake +bought at the store, when put into the dough for +bread, grow and form gas. +This pushes the bits of +dough apart and makes it +light. The little alcohol +formed is all driven off in +the baking.</p> + +<p>The alcohol which yeast +forms by growing in sweet +cider is in a few weeks +changed to vinegar by +other germs called the +vinegar plants. Sour cider may make those who +use it sick and drunk because it contains alcohol. +Yeast makes wine out of grape juice.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Where are germs found?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. What is the form of microbes?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Name some diseases caused by germs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. What is mold?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Why should food be kept covered when not in use?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What causes meat to spoil?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. How may fruit be kept from spoiling?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Where is yeast found?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What effect has yeast on fruit juice?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Why should you not drink sour cider?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2> +<h3>MILK MAY BE A FOOD OR A POISON</h3> + +<p><b>Of what Milk is Made.</b>—Milk is the most perfect +food known. It contains everything needed to build +and strengthen the body. In one gallon of milk +there is about one teacupful of pure fat, nearly the +same amount of sugar, one teacupful of body-building +food needed to make muscle and blood. There is also +some lime and other mineral matter to make the +bones of the young grow strong. The remaining +seven pints are water.</p> + +<p><b>Kinds of Milk.</b>—When milk is left standing in a jar +for several hours, much of the fat, which is present in +the form of tiny balls, rises to the upper part. This +upper layer of milk full of fat is called <i>cream</i>. If +this is removed, the rest is called <i>skim milk</i>.</p> + +<p>Milk after standing in a warm place one or two +days becomes sour. It is then sometimes put into a +tight box or barrel and beat in such a way as to break +up the little balls of fat. These are then pressed together +into a mass called <i>butter</i>. It requires a whole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +gallon of milk to make one teacupful of butter. The +milk remaining after the butter is taken out is called +<i>buttermilk</i>. Cheese is made from milk.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i041" id="i041"></a> +<img src="images/i041.jpg" width="500" height="161" alt="Fat in Milk" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 20</span> +—Two kinds of milk, showing the amount of fat in each.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Milk as a Food.</b>—Milk is a healthful drink for +nearly every one and especially useful for those with +weak bodies. During sickness it is sometimes the +only food the patient can take. It is well for children +to use two or three glasses of milk daily with their +meals. It should be sipped slowly so it will mix with +the fluid in the mouth and not form lumps called +curds in the stomach.</p> + +<p>A quart of milk contains more food for the body +than a half pound of good beefsteak. A pint of milk +will supply the body with about as much food as a +pint of oysters. A bowl of milk and a half loaf of +bread is a healthful supper for a boy or girl. Skim +milk and buttermilk are healthful drinks which +furnish much food for building bone, blood, and +muscle.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i042" id="i042"></a> +<img src="images/i042.jpg" width="150" height="148" alt="Germs" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 21</span> +—Germs which grow in milk and make it sour.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span><b>When Milk is a Poison.</b>—In New York, Cincinnati, +and Chicago it has been noticed for many years that +large numbers of babies become sick in warm weather +and many of them die. +The doctors learned +that most of the babies +taken sick were being +fed on cows' milk +because their own +mothers did not have +enough for them. It +was then found that +the sick babies had +been using milk from +dairies where the +stables were dirty, the cows soiled, and the hands of +the milkers unclean. On this account much dirt got +into the milk.</p> + +<p>Babies fed on clean milk from clean cows kept in +clean stables remained strong and well. By much +study the doctors learned that <i>dirty milk is poisonous +milk</i>. The poison is made by the germs or bacteria +living by the millions in unclean stables and in milk +buckets not well washed in boiling water. Dirty milk +becomes most poisonous in hot weather because warmth +makes the germs grow very fast and become so numerous +that millions are present in a teaspoonful of milk.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span><b>Keeping Milk Clean.</b>—During one week of hot +weather in Cincinnati, over a hundred babies were +poisoned with dirty milk. In the same week twice +this number were made sick by unclean milk in Philadelphia. +During the hot part of the year in our +country bad milk kills more than a half dozen babies +every hour of the day and night.</p> + +<p>The only way <i>to have milk clean is to have clean +stables with clean cows, milked by clean hands, and the +milk handled in clean pails, cans, and bottles which have +been scalded after being washed</i>. The milk must then +be kept cold until used, so that the germs will not +grow in it.</p> + +<p><b>Saving the Baby from Bad Milk.</b>—If possible, milk +should be bought for the baby in bottles sealed with +a pasteboard lid. If milk turns sour the same day +it is delivered, it is not fit for the baby to take. +Heating it makes most milk safer for use. The +heating of milk to kill most of the germs is <i>pasteurizing</i> +it. It should be kept very hot for about +fifteen minutes, but should not be allowed to boil. +It should be cooled by placing the vessel on ice or in +cold water.</p> + +<p>The baby's bottle and nipple should be washed in +cold water and then well scalded immediately after +being used. The bottle, the nipple, and the milk +should be kept away from flies and dust. One fly has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +been known to carry on its body more germs than +there are leaves on a large tree.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i044" id="i044"></a> +<img src="images/i044.jpg" width="500" height="199" alt="Prison" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 22</span> +—Plan of the prison at Easton, Pa. The crosses show into which +cells the flies brought typhoid germs from the sewer and made the prisoners +sick with fever.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Flies and Fever in a Prison.</b>—In August, 1908, +thirteen prisoners in the jail at Easton, Pennsylvania, +were taken ill with typhoid fever. They had not been +near any sick persons and their food and water were +found to be pure. All those sick were in cells in one +end of the prison. About twenty feet from this end +a sewer had been uncovered two weeks before and +left open. This sewer carried the waste from the +hospital where several patients were sick with the +fever. Flies fed on the waste in the sewer and then +with the germs sticking to their feet flew into the +cells of the prisoners and walked over their cups, +spoons, and food. A little girl who played near +this open sewer and shared her lunch with the flies +had a severe attack of fever two weeks later because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +the germs scraped from the flies' feet on her food got +into her body and grew.</p> + +<p><b>Milk and Disease.</b>—We must be very careful to +get not only clean milk but milk from healthy cows +milked by persons who have no typhoid fever, scarlet +fever, or diphtheria in their homes. If only one or +two disease germs get into the milk from the hands +of those who have nursed the sick, these will grow +into immense numbers in a single day. Many of +those who use the milk will then become ill. Hundreds +are made sick in this way every year.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Why is milk a good food?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. What does a gallon of milk contain?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What is cream?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. How is butter made?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. For whom is milk specially good?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How does milk become poisonous?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Why is dirty milk more poisonous in hot weather?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Tell what harm unclean milk does.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. How may milk be kept clean?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Explain how milk is heated to make it safe for use.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Show how flies may cause fever.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Tell how milk may carry diphtheria into our homes.</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2> +<h3>HOW THE BODY USES FOOD</h3> + +<p><b>Organs for making ready the Food.</b>—Before the +food can get into the blood and be carried over the +body to feed the muscles and the brain, it must be +made into a fluid. This changing of the solid food +into a liquid by the stomach and other organs is called +<i>digestion</i>. The organs which do this work are known +as <i>digestive organs</i>. They consist of a <i>food tube</i> and +several bodies called <i>glands</i>.</p> + +<p><b>The Food Tube.</b>—The food canal is about thirty +feet long. Its first part, the <i>mouth</i>, opens back of the +tongue into the throat, named the <i>pharynx</i>. This +leads into a tube, the gullet, passing down through +the back part of the chest into the <i>stomach</i> below the +diaphragm. The stomach is a bent sac opening into +a tube over twenty-five feet long called the <i>bowels</i> or +<i>intestines</i>. This tube is folded into a bunch which +fills a large part of the cavity of the abdomen.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i047" id="i047"></a> +<img src="images/i047.jpg" width="150" height="186" alt="A Gland" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 23</span> +—The plan of a gland. <i>a</i> carries blood to the gland and <i>v</i> takes it away +after the gland has taken out what it needs. On the right side the top of +the gland has been cut off.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Glands or Juice Makers.</b>—A gland is a little +tube closed at one end, or a bunch of such tubes, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +can take something out of the blood and make +it into a juice. A gland under each ear and four +others near the tongue +make the juice called +<i>saliva</i> which flows into +the mouth through +tubes.</p> + +<p>A long, flat, pink +gland back of the +stomach is called the +<i>sweetbread</i> or <i>pancreas</i>. +This and a large brown +gland, the <i>liver</i>, empty +their juices into the +intestines. The whole +inner surface of the +stomach and intestines +is lined with tiny tubes, +the glands. The juice of these with that of the other +glands softens the food and makes it into a liquid.</p> + +<p><b>The Work of the Mouth.</b>—The mouth has three +things to do: It should break the lumps of food +into fine bits so it can be well wet with the slippery +fluid called <i>saliva</i> and also easily swallowed. It +must roll the food about so that it gets soaked with +saliva. It must hold the food long enough to get +much taste from it because this starts the juices to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +flowing into the stomach. Food gives out its taste +only after it is changed to a liquid. It should not be +washed down with water, as this weakens the juices +in the stomach.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i048" id="i048"></a> +<img src="images/i048.jpg" width="500" height="692" alt="Glands" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 24</span> +—The three glands which make the saliva for acting on the food in the mouth.</p> +</div> + +<p>No food should be swallowed until it is broken +into bits nearly as small as the head of a pin. Some +foods, such as cheese, bananas, and nuts, should be +made even finer than this. There is nothing in the +stomach to crush to pieces large lumps of food. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +juices of the stomach can do their full work only +when the food is well chewed in the mouth.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i049" id="i049"></a> +<img src="images/i049.jpg" width="150" height="148" alt="A chewed chestnut" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 25</span> +—Photograph of a chestnut chewed a half minute by a boy who +had poor teeth because he had not taken care of them. The lumps +are so large that the juices of the stomach could not dissolve them.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Chewing of Food keeps away Sickness.</b>—Bread, +meat, and potatoes should be cut into pieces no larger +than half the size of your +thumb and each piece +put separately into your +mouth with a fork. It +should then be chewed +from twenty to thirty +times before another piece +is put into the mouth. +Food treated in this way +will not cause headache +or a sickness in the +stomach called <i>indigestion</i> +or <i>dyspepsia</i>. It is +said that there are so many persons with this kind of +sickness that more than $5,000,000 are spent every +year for medicine to help them.</p> + +<p>Too little chewing of the food while you are young +may not cause many aches or pains, but if you form +the habit of rapid eating it is hard to learn to eat +slowly. No one who chews his food poorly can avoid +sickness long or grow well and strong.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i050" id="i050"></a> +<img src="images/i050.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="A chewed chestnut" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 26</span> +—Photograph of a chestnut chewed a half minute by a boy with good teeth.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Work of the Stomach.</b>—When the food is swallowed, +it passes through the gullet into the stomach.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +This is a sac holding more than a quart (<a href="#i052">Fig. 27</a>). +It is made of an outer wall of muscle and an inner +skinlike coat full of tiny tubes called <i>gastric glands</i>. +Millions of these give +out drop by drop a watery +fluid named <i>gastric juice</i>. +This juice begins to flow +as soon as we smell or +taste food and continues +to drop out as long as +there is any food in the +stomach.</p> + +<p>The use of the gastric +juice is to help change +part of the food into a more watery fluid. To do this +it must be well mixed with the food. This mixing is +done by the muscles in the outer wall of the stomach +(<a href="#i057">Fig. 29</a>). They squeeze together and then loosen up +in such a way as to move the food about and turn it +over until every particle is wet again and again with +the gastric juice.</p> + +<p><b>How long Food stays in the Stomach.</b>—A ring of +muscle around the end of the stomach keeps the food +from escaping until it has become a thin grayish +liquid. The stomach can finish its work on some +kinds of food in one or two hours. With other +foods it must work four or five hours.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]<br />[Pg 53]</a></span>The stomach can finish its work on soft boiled +eggs, milk, roasted potatoes, and broiled lamb within +two hours. With pork, veal, cabbage, and fried potatoes +it must work four or five hours. When a person +is sick the stomach is weak, and he should have only +the food which causes the stomach the least work.</p> + +<p><b>The Work of the Intestines.</b>—The last part of the +work in getting the food ready for the blood is done in +the long folded tube known as the intestine (<a href="#i052">Fig. 27</a>). +Here juices coming from the pancreas and liver mix +with the food and change into a liquid those parts +not acted on in the stomach.</p> + +<p>The intestine does quite as much work as the stomach. +Sometimes when the stomach is sick, too much +work is put off on the intestines and then they become +sick and give much pain.</p> + +<p>The pint of watery fluid from the pancreas and the +quart of greenish yellow fluid called <i>bile</i> given out by +the liver are carried through two tubes into the intestine +(<a href="#i052">Fig. 27</a>). To mix these juices with the food +the intestine is being swung gently back and forth +and the walls squeezed together by muscles forming +its outer coat. As soon as the intestine has finished +its work the food begins to enter the blood.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i052" id="i052"></a> +<img src="images/i052.jpg" width="500" height="1136" alt="Getting food ready" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 27</span> +—The organs which get the food ready to enter the blood.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i053" id="i053"></a> +<img src="images/i053.jpg" width="150" height="298" alt="View of a canine" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 28</span> +—Showing how the food in the dog is carried from the intestine to the liver +and heart. The white tubes carry the fats up to the vein in the neck, and the +dark tubes which are veins carry the other part of the food to the liver.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>How Food gets into the Blood.</b>—An hour or two +after food has entered the intestine it is almost as +thin a fluid as milk. Millions of tiny fingerlike<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +growths stick out from the inner side of the intestines +and drink in the watery food. These little fingers +for drinking up the +food are scarcely one +fourth as large as the +point of a pencil. +They are called <i>villi</i>.</p> + +<p>The villi are filled +with blood tubes having +thin walls. The +food passes through +these walls into the +blood stream. Much +of it then goes to the +liver, but the fatty +parts flow up a tube +along the backbone +and empty into a +blood tube in the neck. +From the neck and +the liver the food goes +with the blood to the +heart which sends it +to all parts of the +body.</p> + +<p><b>What the Liver does.</b>—The liver is a dark red body +nearly as large as the upper half of your head. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +lies just below the diaphragm. It works night and +day helping to keep the inner parts of the body clean +and at the same time deal out food.</p> + +<p>The liver takes some waste out of the blood and +sends it out into the intestine with the bile. When +there is no food in the intestine, the bile is stored up +in the <i>gall bladder</i> under the liver. The liver +changes certain waste matter in the blood into such +form that other organs can cast it out of the body. +It also stores up certain parts of the food coming +from the intestines and gives it out to the body little +by little as it is needed.</p> + +<p><b>When and How much to Eat.</b>—When the food +organs do not do their work rightly, the whole body +becomes sick. Eating too much overworks the +stomach. It becomes so full that the food cannot +be moved about and well mixed with the juices. +Germs then work on the food and make it sour. In +fact the germs may change part of the food into a +poison. This poison will cause headache and a bad +feeling.</p> + +<p>Do not form a habit of taking powders to cure headache. +They are likely to hurt the heart. Take less +food, eat it more slowly, and do not wash it down +with drink. Stop eating before your stomach feels full.</p> + +<p>Each meal gives the stomach about four hours of +work to do. It then needs one hour of rest. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +shows that the time from one meal to the next should +be about five hours. Very young children and sick persons +need food oftener. Boys and girls should not +eat candies, cake, or other food between meals. It +spoils the appetite and is likely to get the stomach +out of working order.</p> + +<p><b>Danger Signals.</b>—A white or yellowish coat on the +tongue, a bad breath, pain in the bowels, or a headache +is a danger signal. It tells that the food organs +are not doing their work as they should and unless +help is given sickness is likely to occur. Medicine +may help, but using foods easy to digest, eating less, +chewing more, and getting plenty of exercise in the +fresh air are likely to be the greatest aids to health.</p> + +<p><b>The Chewing of Tobacco and Digestion.</b>—Some men +chew tobacco as much as ten hours every day. The +taste of the tobacco makes the saliva flow from the +glands into the mouth. This dissolves the poison out +of the tobacco and it is then spit out. If the tobacco-soaked +saliva were all swallowed, the man would be +poisoned.</p> + +<p>The chewing of tobacco causes the loss of much +saliva which is needed to help digest the food. Anyone +who tires his jaw by chewing tobacco is not likely +to chew his food well. Some of the poison in the +tobacco is taken into the body through the blood vessels +in the lining of the mouth. This is shown by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +the fact that a boy not used to tobacco becomes very +sick after he has chewed a mouthful for only ten +minutes.</p> + +<p><b>Smoking and Digestion.</b>—Some persons think that +the smoking of a cigar after a meal helps digestion. +It may do so in some cases. If a lawyer is much +excited about a case he is trying, or a business man +is in trouble about his losses, the thinking causes the +blood to flow to the head when it is needed in the +stomach to give out digestive juices.</p> + +<p>The taste of the tobacco smoke may cause some +gastric juice to run out into the stomach, but at the +same time it is likely to hurt the nerves of taste so +that food cannot give so much enjoyment as when +the nerves are unharmed. Although smoking may +at the time help digestion a little, the poison in the +tobacco may afterward injure the body. This poison +is especially harmful to growing bodies, and boys who +are wise will refuse to smoke on all occasions.</p> + +<p><b>Beer and Digestion.</b>—Some people drink beer with +their meals because they think it makes the food +taste better. It really prevents them from getting +the full taste of the food because they wash it down +before it is well soaked with the saliva.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i057" id="i057"></a> +<img src="images/i057.jpg" width="150" height="121" alt="Stomach" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 29</span> +—The stomach, showing the arrangement of the muscular fibers which alcohol may +hinder from doing good work. At the right a piece is cut out of the top layer of muscle.</p> +</div> + +<p>The flavor of beer may sometimes cause an extra +flow of gastric juice into the stomach, but the alcohol +in the beer is likely to make the movements of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +stomach slower. This prevents the food from being +well and quickly mixed with the juices. Several +glasses of beer used at one meal +will make the stomach do its +work very slowly, and it will not +do it well.</p> + +<p><b>Wine and Digestion.</b>—Wine +is taken by some +people to give +more appetite for +food. It is likely, +however, to do +more harm than +good because the alcohol in it makes the muscles +which mix the food in the stomach act more slowly. +Some of the food may sour before it gets wet with the +juice. Much wine used at a meal is always harmful.</p> + +<p><b>Natural Appetite.</b>—If one is in health, he should +feel a desire for his food at every meal. This desire +for a reasonable amount of food is a natural appetite. +Fresh air and exercise will do much to give one the +right kind of an appetite. The eating of much sweets +and the breathing of bad air are likely to spoil the +appetite.</p> + +<p>The use of some things, such as opium, tobacco, +beer, wine, and whisky, creates an unnatural appetite.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +That is, after one has used these articles a few months +he cannot stop their use without great suffering. The +younger the person, the sooner the appetite becomes +fixed. For this reason <i>young persons should never +use tobacco or alcoholic drinks of any kind</i>.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. What is digestion?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Name the parts of the food tube.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Where does saliva come from?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Explain how the food is acted on in the mouth.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Why should food be well chewed?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What forms the gastric juice?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Of what use is the gastric juice?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. How long does food stay in the stomach?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Name some foods easily digested.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. What does the intestine do?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. What are villi?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Tell how the food gets into the blood.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. Of what use is the liver?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">14. Why should we not eat too much?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">15. Should we eat between meals?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">16. Give three reasons why you should not use tobacco.</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2> +<h3>THE CARE OF THE MOUTH</h3> + +<p><b>Sickness often begins in the Mouth.</b>—A clean +mouth and sound teeth have much to do in keeping +one well. The germs which cause nearly a half +million deaths in the United States every year enter +the body through the mouth. If the mouth is unclean, +only one or two disease germs entering it may +remain there and grow.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i059" id="i059"></a> +<img src="images/i059.jpg" width="150" height="94" alt="Upper jaw" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 30</span> +—The teeth of the upper jaw at eleven years of age.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is just as important to wash the mouth two +or three times each day as it is to wash the hands +and face. A few +germs of diphtheria, +sore throat, +or tuberculosis are +likely to get into +the mouth any +day, but if the +mouth and teeth +are well washed +with a brush morning and night, the germs will not +have time to grow and cause sickness.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span><b>The Teeth.</b>—The first twenty teeth that appear +are called the <i>milk set</i>. The eight front teeth grow +out during the first year of life and back of these +twelve others appear during the second year. Between +the seventh and the tenth year all of the milk +teeth are lost because others grow beneath them and +push them out.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i060" id="i060"></a> +<img src="images/i060.jpg" width="500" height="464" alt="Full set of teeth" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 31</span> +—The full set of teeth on the right side at twelve years of age. The +numbers show at what year of age each one grows out of the gum.</p> +</div> + +<p>The first four teeth of the second set appear in the +sixth year, just behind the last milk teeth (<a href="#i059">Fig. 30</a>). +These teeth should be watched very closely and at +the first sign of decay you should go to the dentist.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +As the milk teeth get loose and come out, the second +set of teeth take their places.</p> + +<p>If you are ten or eleven years old, you should +have twelve good teeth in the upper jaw and the +same number below. The last ones to break through +the gums are the four wisdom teeth at the back of +the mouth. They appear after the seventeenth year.</p> + +<p>The front teeth are called <i>incisors</i> because they are +used to cut the food. The back teeth are named +<i>molars</i> because they are used in grinding the food.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i061" id="i061"></a> +<img src="images/i061.jpg" width="500" height="244" alt="Bad teeth" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 32</span> +—Photograph of teeth not kept clean, showing how germs and a +sour substance called acid eat holes in them and thus cause decay and toothache.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Toothache.</b>—Toothache is a common ailment, and +yet it can be entirely prevented. A tooth does not +ache until it has a hole in it. The tender nerve +within gives us warning that it is being hurt. The +dentist can stop the ache and mend the tooth so that +it will not ache again. Look at your teeth every +month and feel about them with a wooden tooth-pick +to know when the decay begins. If the little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +holes are mended as soon as found, you will never +have toothache, and you can keep your teeth as +long as you live.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i062" id="i062"></a> +<img src="images/i062.jpg" width="150" height="274" alt="A tooth" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 33</span> +—Slice down through a tooth showing <i>f</i>, the enamel, and <i>d</i>, the +soft pulp with nerves and blood tubes from the root at <i>h</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>How to keep the Teeth Sound.</b>—Every tooth is +covered with a layer of hard shining substance +called <i>enamel</i> (<a href="#i062">Fig. 33</a>). So long as +this is unbroken the softer bony +part of the tooth cannot decay. At +the base of the tooth where the gum +joins it the enamel is very thin, +so that the scratch of a pin or other +instrument may break it.</p> + +<p>Never pick the teeth with a pin +or needle. The biting off of thread, +finger nails, and other hard material +may crack the enamel. It may also +be softened and eaten away by acid +formed where food remains about +a tooth. For this reason a quill or +wooden pick or piece of tough thread, +called <i>dental floss</i>, should be used to clear the teeth +of food after each meal. Slimy matter collects over +the whole surface of the teeth, and is likely to cause +decay in spots unless it is cleaned off night and morning +with brush and water. The chewing of dry crusts +of bread or crackers strengthens the teeth and keeps +off decay.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span><b>Why Candy and other Sweets cause the Teeth to +Decay.</b>—A sour substance called acid usually starts +the decay of a tooth by eating through the enamel. +Germs change sugar and other sweets into an acid. +The acid is not made at once. An hour or more is +needed for the germs to grow to form the acid. If, +after eating sweet foods, the mouth is well cleaned, +no acid will be formed. Sugar and candy do not, +therefore, spoil the teeth unless it is left sticking +about them.</p> + +<p><b>How to brush the Teeth.</b>—Every boy and girl +should own a toothbrush. <i>The teeth should be +brushed every night and morning and kept white.</i> +Yellow or gray slimy teeth are very ugly. The +teeth should be brushed on the inside as well as on +the outside. It is best to brush the teeth crosswise +for two minutes and then spend another two minutes +brushing the upper teeth downwards and the lower +teeth upwards. This prevents pushing the gum away +from the teeth. Plenty of water should be used with +the brush, and a little good powder is helpful once a +day.</p> + +<p><b>How the Dentist can Help.</b>—Sometimes the milk +teeth do not get loose so that they can be pulled +with the fingers at the right time. The second teeth +then come in at one side and may never get straight +in place. They then spoil the appearance of the face<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +and do poor work in chewing. The dentist should +be asked to help straighten the teeth as soon as they +appear crooked.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i064" id="i064"></a> +<img src="images/i064.jpg" width="500" height="472" alt="Bad and good teeth" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 34</span> +—Exact drawing of the teeth of two persons. Those in the lower +picture began to decay over twenty-five years ago and they were then +filled so as to remain perfect. The teeth in the upper picture began to +decay less than ten years ago but were not filled.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is wise to have the dentist examine the teeth +once or twice every year and remove a limy substance +called tartar collecting at their base. The +dentist can stop the decay in a tooth by cleaning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +out the little hole and filling it with gold or some +other material. It may cause a little pain and expense +to have the teeth filled, but it will save a hundred +times as much pain and expense later. The +six year molars need special care as they are likely +to decay early. Even the milk teeth often need filling +so that they will not be lost too soon.</p> + +<p><b>Bad Teeth cause Sickness.</b>—When anything decays, +it is full of germs, and they are always giving off +some poison. The poison may hurt the body and is +likely to make parts of the mouth sore and tender so +that other germs of disease can break through into +the flesh. Disease germs can easily lodge in the holes +of decaying teeth, grow in numbers, and finally cause +diphtheria, sore throat, or other ailments.</p> + +<p>Four out of every five children suffering from +diphtheria or other throat or ear troubles are found to +have from one to ten bad teeth. You must keep +good teeth if you wish to be well and strong.</p> + +<p><b>The Value of Sound Teeth.</b>—Sound teeth which will +do good work in chewing food are worth more than a +foot or an arm. If the foot or arm is lost, the body is +likely to get well and be as healthy as ever. <i>The +health of the whole body depends upon the work done +by the teeth.</i> Unless they do their part the stomach +cannot get the food ready for the blood.</p> + +<p>A part of badly chewed food is turned into a poison<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +farther down in the food canal. This is what makes +many people feel so tired and miserable much of the +time. Hundreds of men have been refused admission +to our army because they have poor teeth. Soldiers +must be strong and well to take long marches and +fight battles. Sound teeth give strength and health.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Why should the mouth be washed out every day?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. When do the milk teeth appear?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. When are the milk teeth lost?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. How many teeth have you?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. How many show signs of decay?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How may toothache be prevented?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. How may the teeth be kept sound?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Why do sweets cause the teeth to decay?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. How should you brush your teeth?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Why should the dentist examine your teeth every year?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Why are sound teeth of great worth?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2> +<h3>ALCOHOLIC DRINKS</h3> + +<p><b>Drink needed for Health.</b>—Water in the form of +sweat and in other ways is constantly passing off +from the body. This water carries with it the waste +matter which, if it remained, would poison the body. +There is some water in the food we eat, but not enough +to supply the wants of the body.</p> + +<p>Some persons think that the body needs beer or +wine to keep it in good order. These liquids, as well +as whisky, brandy, and rum, are called <i>alcoholic drinks</i>. +The latest experiments and studies show that the body +never needs alcoholic drinks to keep it in the best +of health. These drinks sometimes make the body +sick, and if much alcohol is taken at one time, the +person becomes dizzy, staggers, and may fall down and +go to sleep.</p> + +<p><b>The Desire for Drink.</b>—When parts of the body +have too little water, there is a longing for drink. +This is called <i>thirst</i>. As soon as a cup of water is +drunk the desire is satisfied. There is no danger of +drinking too much pure water.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>Persons who have been accustomed to use alcoholic +drink have a thirst which water does not satisfy. It +is an <i>unnatural thirst</i>. Even beer or wine will not +satisfy such a thirst except for a few minutes. Very +often a person's thirst is not satisfied until he has +used so much wine or whisky that he becomes dull and +unsteady in his walk. He is then said to be drunk.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i068" id="i068"></a> +<img src="images/i068.jpg" width="150" height="88" alt="Yeast plants" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 35</span> +—Yeast plants growing as in the making of beer and wine. Much enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>How the Yeast Plant makes Alcohol.</b>—In the cake +of yeast bought at the grocery there are millions of +tiny plants, each shaped +somewhat like a potato. +This strange little plant +will grow very rapidly +when put into any +sweet watery substance. +It sends out a bud +which grows larger and +larger until in a half +hour the bud is as large as the old plant. It may +then break loose and grow other buds, just like the +mother plant.</p> + +<p>When yeast grows, it changes the sugar or sweet +part of the water into alcohol and a gas called carbon +dioxide. It is this gas which makes beer foam and +bubble when opened. All alcohol used in beer, porter, +ale, wine, brandy, rum, gin, and whisky is made by +yeast plants.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i069top" id="i069top"></a> +<img src="images/i069top.jpg" width="150" height="107" alt="Malt" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 36</span> +—Photograph of sprouted barley grains called malt.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span><b>How Beer is Made.</b>—There is more beer used than +any other alcoholic drink. It is cheap and is much +weaker in alcohol than +wine or whisky. Only +about one twentieth +part of beer is alcohol.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i069bottom" id="i069bottom"></a> +<img src="images/i069bottom.jpg" width="150" height="205" alt="Hops" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 37</span> +—Photograph of a spray of hops, which are used to flavor beer.</p> +</div> + +<p>In making beer, a +sweet watery mixture +is first prepared by +mashing sprouted barley +grains in water. +Barley or any other +grain forms sugar as soon as it begins to grow. Yeast +plants are added to the +sweet mixture. By +growing they change +some of the sugar into +alcohol. Hops are also +put in to give the beer +a fine flavor. After a +time the clear liquid is +separated from the barley +grains and hops and +put into tight casks and +bottles.</p> + +<p><b>The Making of Wine.</b>—Wine +contains from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +two to four times as much alcohol as beer. Most +of the wine is made in California, France, and +Germany because grapes grow better in these countries +than elsewhere. Wine may be made from +the juice of any fruit, but the grape is generally +used.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i070" id="i070"></a> +<img src="images/i070.jpg" width="150" height="98" alt="Grapes and wine" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 38</span> +—The quantity of grapes required to make this glass full of wine.</p> +</div> + +<p>The grapes after being picked are thrown into +large tubs and crushed so that the juice runs out. +The wild yeast +always present +on the grape +skins begins +to grow in +the juice and +change some +of the sugar +into alcohol. +This work of +the yeast lasts +from one to +eight weeks. At the end of that time, the grape +juice has become a kind of poor wine, consisting +of alcohol, water, grape flavor, and some acid. To +make the wine good it must be drawn off into casks, +where the yeast causes further changes during several +weeks. It is then put into bottles, where it should +remain about five years to get the right flavor.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span><b>Sherry</b> is a strong wine used in flavoring food, +such as puddings and sauces. A few teaspoonfuls of +this wine will make a child drunk. The wines made +at home from elderberries, blackberries, and cherries +contain alcohol which will do just as much harm as +that in the purchased wines.</p> + +<p><b>How Brandy is Made.</b>—Brandy contains more +alcohol than wine and almost as much as whisky. +In fact brandy is only very strong wine. After the +yeast plants have formed as much alcohol as they can +in grape juice it becomes so strong that it kills them. +This wine is then heated in such a way as to separate +some of the water from it. The taking away of the +water leaves the wine stronger in alcohol and it then +forms brandy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i071" id="i071"></a> +<img src="images/i071.jpg" width="500" height="258" alt="Alcohol content" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 39</span> +—The shaded part at the bottom of each bottle shows the amount of alcohol in the drink.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i072" id="i072"></a> +<img src="images/i072.jpg" width="150" height="151" alt="A still" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 40</span> +—A still used in making whisky or brandy. The heat makes the alcohol fumes +or vapor rise and pass over through the pipe coiled in a vessel of cold water. The cold +changes the vapor to a liquid which is whisky.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span><b>Whisky and Rum.</b>—These two drinks are strong in +alcohol. Nearly one half of each is pure alcohol. +Whisky is usually +made from rye, +corn, or wheat, +or all three together. +They furnish +the food in +which the yeast +grows and makes +alcohol. This +watery mixture of +grain and alcohol +is then heated +and the vapor +or steam forms +whisky after it +goes off through a pipe into another vessel. This +kind of heating is <i>distillation</i>. Rum is formed in somewhat +the same way from molasses or cane juice.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Name some alcoholic drinks.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. What is an unnatural thirst?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Explain how the yeast plant forms alcohol.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Tell how beer is made.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Tell how wine is made.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What is brandy?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Which drinks contain most alcohol?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER X</h2> +<h3>ALCOHOL AND HEALTH</h3> + +<p><b>The Money spent for Alcoholic Drinks.</b>—If the money +spent for alcoholic drinks were all collected together +in silver dollars, it would more than fill ten schoolrooms +of average size. Not only rich men spend +large sums yearly for fine wines and brandies, but +also the poor give their money for beer and other +drinks which the body does not need.</p> + +<p>When parents waste their money on drink, they +cannot buy the food and clothes needed to keep their +families strong and well. In this way strong drink +causes much sickness and suffering and sometimes +even death.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol injures the Body.</b>—Some persons drink +very little beer or wine, so they seem to have but +little effect on the health. Others use strong drink +every day and for a few years they may remain +quite well. Later ill health often comes on, and they +then find that some of the organs have been so much +hurt that they will never be quite well again.</p> + +<p>A few years ago a group of fifty well-known men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +in the United States spent much time and thousands +of dollars to learn how much alcohol was harming +our country. After much study among many +people they announced that there were about one million +men and boys whose health had been injured +by strong drink, such as beer, wine, and whisky. Because +strong drink causes so much sorrow and sickness +several states have passed laws forbidding its +sale, and saloons have been closed by laws in parts of +many other states.</p> + +<p><b>How Alcohol affects Kittens.</b>—The body of a kitten +is made very much like the body of a child. It has +just the same organs that a child has, and they do +the same kind of work. Doctor Hodge, a well-known +scientist of Massachusetts, therefore concluded that +alcohol would act on kittens in the same way as it +would on a man or boy.</p> + +<p>The doctor got two healthy kittens and fed them +a little alcohol every day for nearly two weeks. In +a few days they stopped being playful, did not grow, +and did not keep their fur clean and smooth as +healthy kittens do. After using alcohol several days +they became very ill. This experiment showed that +alcohol stops kittens from growing and robs them of +good health.</p> + +<p><b>How Alcohol hurts Dogs.</b>—Doctor Hodge fed a +little alcohol to two dogs nearly every day for three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +years. He also kept the brother and sister of these +dogs, but gave them no alcohol. All the dogs had +the same kind of food and were treated alike except +that one pair got alcohol and the other pair did not.</p> + +<p>The two drinking dogs got sick more easily and +staid sick much longer than the temperance dogs. +The drinking dogs became lazy, and timid, while the +others were strong, full of fun, and brave.</p> + +<p>Within four years the drinking dogs had born to +them twenty-seven puppies, but only four of them +lived to grow up. The others were too weak or +sickly to live. During the same time the temperance +dogs had forty-five puppies and forty-one of these +lived. This shows that strong drink will not only +injure the bodies of those who take it, but will make +their children weak and sickly.</p> + +<p><b>The Use of Strong Drink causes Disease.</b>—Many +persons who take beer or wine every day become fat. +They think this is a sign of health. It is really a +sign of disease. They become short of breath. They +can no longer run so fast or do so much work because +the heart is covered with fat and even some +of its wall is changed to fat. For this reason the +heart cannot do its work easily or well.</p> + +<p>The kidneys which take the waste out of the blood +often become injured by alcohol and a disease causing +death follows. Sometimes the stomach becomes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +diseased so that it cannot do its work. This makes +the whole body sick.</p> + +<p>The hardening of parts of the liver is nearly +always caused by the use of beer. The liver is sure +to suffer if one uses much alcoholic drink because the +alcohol goes direct from the food tube to the liver. +Long use of strong drink may bring on disease in the +brain and nerves.</p> + +<p><b>Alcoholic Drinks may cause Death.</b>—Every ten +years the government appoints persons to visit each +home in our land to take the census. A part of this +census report consists of a table showing the disease +of which people died. It is from the census report +that we know that hundreds of people die every year +from the use of alcohol.</p> + +<p><b>Danger to Health in beginning the Use of Strong +Drink.</b>—A large number of people take a drink of +beer or wine occasionally because they do not see +that it hurts the body. No one expects to become a +steady drinker or a drunkard when he begins to +drink. Reports show that every drunkard begins his +downward course by taking a few drinks occasionally. +Thousands of persons begin a drunkard's life every +year because the appetite leads them on gently until +they become slaves and cannot let drink alone.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2> +<h3>TOBACCO AND OTHER DRUGS WHICH INJURE THE<br /> +HEALTH</h3> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i077" id="i077"></a> +<img src="images/i077.jpg" width="150" height="375" alt="Tobacco" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 41</span> +—The tobacco plant.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>How Tobacco is Made.</b>—Tobacco is made from the +leaves of the tobacco plant. The plant may grow as +tall as a man and bear more than a +dozen leaves. Each leaf is two or +three times as large as your hand. +The seeds are planted in the springtime, +and the plants are ready to be +cut in the autumn. Most of our +tobacco is raised in the Southern +states and Cuba.</p> + +<p>After cutting, the tobacco must be +dried and cared for in a special way +to give it the right flavor. It is then +sent to factories and made into cigars, +smoking tobacco, or chewing tobacco.</p> + +<p><b>How Tobacco is Used.</b>—Many million +dollars are spent every year by +the people of our country for tobacco. Most of the +tobacco is used in smoking. Some men smoke it in +pipes, while others smoke it in the form of cigars or +cigarettes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>Many men chew tobacco. When used in this way, +something like licorice is generally mixed with the +tobacco to give it a more pleasant taste. Sometimes +the dry tobacco is ground into a fine powder called +snuff. This is used by both men and women.</p> + +<p><b>Tobacco contains a Poison.</b>—When boys chew or +smoke tobacco for the first time, it always makes +them sick. Chewing or smoking for fifteen minutes +will make them grow dizzy and weak and feel so +sick that they must lie down for a long time.</p> + +<p>The sickness is caused by a poison called <i>nicotine</i> +which is present in all tobacco. Much of this poison +may be soaked out by boiling the tobacco in water. +A cup of water in which a pipeful of tobacco has +been boiled will kill goldfish in an hour when poured +into a gallon jar of water with the fish. There is +enough poison in a handful of tobacco to kill a boy +who is not in the habit of using it.</p> + +<p><b>Why Men can use Tobacco without becoming Sick.</b>—Experiments +upon animals have shown that the body +can learn to use a poison and not become sick from +it. The poison of a rattlesnake is deadly to most +animals; but if a tiny bit of the poison is put under +the skin of the rabbit one day and then on each +succeeding day a little larger dose of the poison is +given the rabbit for a long time, the animal will +become so accustomed to the poison that the bite of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +a rattlesnake will not harm it. It is the same way +with tobacco. Little by little the body learns to +overcome the effects of the poison, but much use of +tobacco is likely to hurt certain parts of the body.</p> + +<p><b>Tobacco is Harmful to the Young.</b>—A dose of poison +which will kill a child may do but little harm to +a man. Tobacco is certain to hurt boys more than +it does men. The poison makes the body grow +slower.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i079" id="i079"></a> +<img src="images/i079.jpg" width="500" height="222" alt="Poison" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 42</span> +—There is more poison in the one on the right than in the one on the left.</p> +</div> + +<p>A large number of measurements made by Doctor +Seaver showed that the boys who did not use tobacco +gained in four years one twentieth more in weight +and one fourth more in girth and height than the +users of tobacco. These boys were between sixteen +and twenty-two years of age. It is likely that tobacco +will have a more harmful effect on younger boys.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span><b>Laws to keep the Young Healthy.</b>—Boys ought to +be wise and brave enough to let alone what keeps +their bodies from growing and hurts their health, +but some will not do it. For this reason some +countries are trying to save the health of their boys +by making laws against the use of tobacco.</p> + +<p>The Germans a few years ago passed a law in their +land forbidding all boys and girls under sixteen +years of age to use tobacco in any form. Seeing the +good results of this law in Germany and the harm +that tobacco was doing the boys in the United States, +the Emperor of Japan on the 6th of March, 1900, +proclaimed this law: "The smoking of tobacco by +minors under the age of twenty is prohibited."</p> + +<p>In our own country several states have passed laws +against the use of cigarettes by boys. One country +after another is learning that if they want strong +men, to fight, to work, and to win, tobacco must not +be allowed to weaken the bodies of the young.</p> + +<p><b>How the White Man becomes a Slave.</b>—Before the +Civil War the black men of the South were slaves. +They could not do as they pleased because they +belonged to their masters whom they must obey +or else they would suffer punishment. No boy can +begin the use of tobacco without the danger of becoming +a slave to it.</p> + +<p>The use of tobacco either by chewing or smoking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +gradually causes in any one the growth of an appetite +which makes him feel miserable and unhappy unless +it is kept satisfied. It can be satisfied only by the +use of more and more tobacco.</p> + +<p>Many men would like to quit the use of tobacco if +they could do so without suffering. They are slaves, +and tobacco is their master.</p> + +<p><b>Cigarettes and Health.</b>—A cigarette is a tube of +paper filled with tobacco. The tobacco is usually not +so strong as that used in cigars and pipes. For this +reason, boys like it better, and because it is so mild +they draw the smoke down into the lungs. This +gives the poison a better chance to be taken up by +the blood. On this account, and because one is likely +to smoke oftener when he smokes a small piece of tobacco, +cigarettes are thought by some to be more +harmful than the use of tobacco in pipes and cigars.</p> + +<p><b>Tea and Coffee.</b>—Tea is made from the dried leaves +of the tea plant. Tea plants are raised in North Carolina, +China, and Japan. The drink called tea used +at the table is made by pouring boiling water on the +tea leaves. The leaves should not be boiled as this +draws out a substance which keeps the stomach from +doing its work in the right way.</p> + +<p>Coffee is the seed of a plant growing in South +America and Asia. It is roasted, then ground, and +boiled in water to make the drink called coffee.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i082" id="i082"></a> +<img src="images/i082.jpg" width="500" height="395" alt="Tea and coffee plants" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 43/44</span> +—Branch of a tea plant.—Branch of a coffee plant +with bunches of coffee berries near the bottom.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>Children should not use either tea or coffee as they +are likely to hurt the stomach and may injure the +heart. One or two cups of tea or coffee daily seem +to have little or no bad effect on the health of most +grown persons. Coffee taken at supper may keep +one awake by sending too much blood to the brain.</p> + +<p><b>Opium and Morphine.</b>—Opium is a dangerous drug +which is got from the heads of the white poppy plant +grown mostly in the far East. From gashes cut in +the poppy heads a juice runs out and hardens into a +gum from which the pure drug is made.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>Some persons smoke opium for the drowsy and +pleasant feeling it gives. Its use is very hurtful and +ruins both body and mind. <i>Morphine</i> is a pure form +of opium. Persons take it to kill pain and make +them sleep. You should never take it except when +given by the doctor, as a habit is quickly formed +which will make you miserable through life.</p> + +<p><b>Patent Medicines.</b>—These are medicines advertised +to cure ailments which generally cannot be cured by +drugs. They are the medicines much advertised in +the newspapers and magazines. Never use them unless +your doctor tells you to do so. Many of them +contain harmful drugs, such as morphine and alcohol. +When you are sick, go to your doctor for advice.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Explain how tobacco is raised.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. How is tobacco used?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. How does tobacco affect a boy using it for the first time?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. What is the name of the poison in tobacco?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Tell how tobacco keeps boys from growing.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What countries do not allow boys to use tobacco?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. What is meant by being a slave to tobacco?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. What is tea?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What is coffee?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Why should you not use opium or morphine?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2> +<h3>THE SKIN AND BATHING</h3> + +<p><b>Parts of the Skin.</b>—The skin is about as thick as +the leather of your shoe. It is fastened to the +muscles beneath with fine white threads like spider +webs. This is called <i>connective tissue</i> because it connects +the skin to the lean meat.</p> + +<p>The skin is made of two layers (<a href="#i085">Fig. 45</a>). The +upper layer is formed of cells. This is named <i>epidermis</i> +or <i>scarfskin</i>. The deeper layer is made largely of +fine threads woven together. It is the <i>true skin</i> or +<i>derma</i>. There is no blood in the scarfskin, but there +is a network of blood tubes in the true skin. It is +the crowding of these with blood that makes the +skin look so red when we get hot or excited.</p> + +<p><b>The Use of the Skin.</b>—The skin has three chief uses. +It protects the softer parts of the body from being +hurt by rough or hard things which might touch it. +It contains the organs of feeling. It helps keep the +right amount of heat in the body.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i085" id="i085"></a> +<img src="images/i085.jpg" width="150" height="159" alt="View below the skin" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 45</span> +—A thin slice through the skin, showing sweat glands, a nerve, and +blood-tubes. Much enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>The top part of the skin is dry and dead. This +gives better protection than if it were moist and tender.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +Particles of it are wearing out and dropping off +while other bits are growing beneath to take the place +of the worn-out parts. +The more this top +skin is pressed on +and rubbed, the thicker +it becomes. For this +reason it is twice as +thick in the palms of +the hand and on the +soles of the feet.</p> + +<p>Scattered through +the true skin are millions +of tiny organs +fastened to the ends of +the nerve threads leading to the spinal cord and brain. +These organs tell us when the skin is touched or when +it is hot or cold or is being hurt.</p> + +<p><b>The Pores and the Sweat Glands.</b>—On a warm day +the skin becomes wet with a salty fluid called <i>sweat</i> +or <i>perspiration</i>. This flows from the tiny holes or +pores in the skin. A good magnifying glass will +show these pores arranged in rows on the ridges in +the palm of the hand.</p> + +<p>From each pore a tube leads down into the true skin +to a coiled tube forming the <i>sweat gland</i> (<a href="#i085">Fig. 45</a>). +Sweat glands are present by the thousands in the skin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +of all parts of the body. They give out from one pint +to a gallon of sweat daily. The more we work and +the warmer the weather, the more the sweat flows.</p> + +<p>There is a little waste matter carried out of the +body by the sweat, but its chief use is to cool the +body. It does this by passing off in the air and +carrying the heat with it. In this way the body is +kept from getting too hot in summer.</p> + +<p><b>The Color of the Skin.</b>—In the African race the +color of the skin is black, in the Chinese it is yellowish, +while in our race it is nearly white. The different +hues are due to a coloring matter called <i>pigment</i>. +This lies in the deep part of the scarfskin. Going out +in the wind and sun causes more pigment to collect, +and we say we are tanned. If the pigment collects +in spots, it makes freckles.</p> + +<p>There is no way of removing at once freckles or +tan. They usually disappear in the winter. No +powders nor any other kind of medicine should be +taken to make the skin white and smooth. Such +medicines may contain poison and are likely in time +to hurt the body. The skin may usually be kept soft +and smooth by washing well with soft water and good +soap. If it becomes harsh or cracked, a little glycerine +rubbed on after each washing may help it.</p> + +<p><b>The Nails and their Care.</b>—The nails are hardened +parts of the epidermis. They are intended to prevent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +the ends of the fingers from being hurt and to +give a neat appearance to the hand.</p> + +<p>The ends of the nails should never be chewed or +torn off, as this makes the fingers blunt and the flesh +sore. They should be filed or cut neatly with the +scissors so that they do not stick out beyond the ends +of the fingers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i087" id="i087"></a> +<img src="images/i087.jpg" width="500" height="311" alt="Nails" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 46</span> +—Photograph of hands showing at the right how the nails should +appear, and at the left how biting off the nails makes the fingers blunt and sore.</p> +</div> + +<p>Many boys and some girls spoil the appearance of +their nails by letting a line of black dirt remain beneath +them. A piece of a stick or a nail cleaner +should be passed beneath the nails every time the hands +are washed. If the fingers are much soiled, a stiff +brush is useful in removing the dirt under the nails.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i088" id="i088"></a> +<img src="images/i088.jpg" width="150" height="229" alt="Hair" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 47</span> +—A slice through a hair in its sac. Much enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Hair.</b>—Some hair grows on nearly all parts of +the body. It is much thicker on the head than elsewhere.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +Each hair grows from a little knob at the +bottom of a tiny tube in the skin called the <i>hair sac</i> +(<a href="#i088">Fig. 47</a>). If hair is pulled out, another one will +grow in its place if the knob +at the bottom of the sac is +not hurt.</p> + +<p>One or two <i>oil glands</i> open +into each hair sac and give +out an oil to keep the scalp +and hair soft. No other hair +dressing is needed.</p> + +<p>After thirty or forty years +of age the hair begins to turn +gray. No medicine will prevent +the hair from turning +gray, and it is generally unwise +to color the hair with a dye. There is poison in +some of the mixtures sold to color the hair.</p> + +<p><b>The Care of the Hair.</b>—When the hair is uncombed, +the whole person looks untidy. The hair should be +combed carefully every morning and again made tidy +before each meal. You should use as little water as +possible to moisten the hair. The glands can be made +to give out their hair oil by squeezing parts of the +scalp between the fingers.</p> + +<p>The scalp should be well cleansed with soap and +warm water every three or four weeks. The hair<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +should be dried quickly with a soft towel and by sitting +in the sun or near a stove. One is likely to +catch cold by going out of doors when the hair is wet. +Hair oils and dandruff cures should not be used unless +advised by a physician. Pinching and wrinkling the +scalp twice weekly with the fingers makes the blood +tubes grow larger and bring more food to the hair. +It will also in many persons stop the hair from falling +out and prevent dandruff and itching.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i089" id="i089"></a> +<img src="images/i089.jpg" width="500" height="294" alt="Appearance" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 48</span> +—Photographs showing how keeping the hair tidy improves the appearance.</p> +</div> + +<p>Do not use the hair brush of another person or exchange +hats with your companions. Unclean persons +and those living or playing much with them often have +among their hairs little creatures called <i>head lice</i>. +They suck blood and cause constant itching. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +doctor will tell any one how to get rid of them +easily.</p> + +<p><b>Keeping the Skin <a name="Clean" id="Clean"></a>Clean.</b>—The amount of dead matter +carried out by the sweat on to the skin every day +is equal to a mass as large as your thumb. Dust also +works through the clothing and sticks fast to the +moist skin. For this reason every one should wash +the whole body once or twice each week. The feet +should be washed oftener as they become more soiled.</p> + +<p>Many persons take a bath every day. A cold bath +taken just after rising in the morning wakes up the +nerves, makes the heart work better, and gives health +and strength to the whole body. Afterward, the body +should be well rubbed with a coarse towel. The bath +may be taken by lying in a tub of water or by rubbing +the body over quickly with a wet sponge. A +hot bath is best for cleansing the skin. A warm bath +makes one sleepy and should, therefore, be taken only +at bedtime.</p> + +<p><i>The hands should always be well washed before +handling food.</i> Persons neglecting to do this have +caused much sickness because of the disease germs on +their hands. One hundred and fifty persons were +given typhoid fever in one city in Massachusetts by +a man who handled milk without washing his hands. +Dirt and disease are companions. You must be clean +if you would be healthy.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span><b>The Kidneys.</b>—The sweat glands do not take out +of the blood one quarter as much waste matter as the +kidneys. These are two bodies longer than the finger +and more than twice as wide, and having the shape +of a bean. One lies on either side of the backbone +below the liver.</p> + +<p>The blood coming to the kidneys is full of waste +and dead matter picked up from all parts of the body. +This is passed out through the thin walls of the +thousands of little blood tubes into the many tiny +tubes of the kidneys.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i091" id="i091"></a> +<img src="images/i091.jpg" width="150" height="128" alt="Blood tubes" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 49</span> +—The blood tubes in a piece of skin as large as the head of a pin.</p> +</div> + +<p>Water is required to keep the body clean within as +well as without. For this reason you should drink +more than a quart of +water daily. A glass +or two of water drunk +a half hour before +meals cleanses and +rouses to action the +digestive organs.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol and the +Skin.</b>—The skin of +those who use much +beer or whisky often +becomes rough, red, and pimply. Any alcoholic drink +is likely to injure the skin because it may hinder good +digestion. The drunkard has a red nose and a dark-colored<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +skin. This is because alcohol weakens the +walls of the blood tubes and lets them become gorged +with blood.</p> + +<p>If a person takes a drink only once in a while, his +face becomes red after each drink, and an hour or two +later the effect of the alcohol passes off. The blood +tubes have squeezed up to their natural size.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol and the Kidneys.</b>—Taking several glasses +daily of even such weak alcoholic drink as beer often +causes the kidneys to become sick. Some of their +working parts become changed to fat and some parts +become hard. The cells which let the waste matter +pass out of the blood get hurt by the poison of the +alcohol so that they let some of the food also pass +out of the blood.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Name the two parts of the skin.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Give the three uses of the skin.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What is a sweat gland?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. How much sweat is formed daily?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Of what use is the sweat?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How should the nails be cared for?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Tell what care should be given the hair.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Why should you not use another person's hair brush?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Why should the skin be washed often?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Of what use is a cold bath?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Why should the hands be well washed before handling</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">food?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Why does the drunkard have a red nose?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2> +<h3>CLOTHING AND HOW TO USE IT</h3> + + +<p><b>Kinds of Clothing.</b>—People are beginning to learn +that the wearing of the right kind of clothing has +much to do with keeping them well. Many persons +wear too heavy clothing in winter. Keeping the +body too hot makes it weak.</p> + +<p>Some kinds of clothing are much warmer than +others. Some are expensive and others are cheap. +Cheap clothes will often serve the same purpose as the +more costly ones. If you look at your handkerchief or +stockings, you will see that they are made of threads +running crosswise to each other. All clothing is made +from threads. Some of these are wool, some are linen, +a few are silk, and many are cotton.</p> + +<p><b>Woolen Clothing.</b>—Woolen clothing, such as overcoats +and fine cloth dresses and suits, is made from +the wool cut from sheep. Enough wool can be sheared +from two sheep in one year to make an entire suit of +clothes. The raw wool is first twisted into threads +and then woven by machines into cloth.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i094top" id="i094top"></a> +<img src="images/i094top.jpg" width="150" height="88" alt="Flax" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 50</span> +—At the left is a bunch of flax gathered from the field, and on the right is a spool of +thread made from the flax and ready to be woven into linen.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span><b>Linen.</b>—Linen is used in making collars, cuffs, and +handkerchiefs. It is made from fine threads taken +from the flax plant. On a piece of ground as large +as a schoolroom +enough flax can +be raised to make +a half dozen collars. +Garments to +be worn in warm +weather are sometimes +made of +linen.</p> + +<p><b>Silk.</b>—Silk is +used in making neckties, gloves, ribbons, and dresses. +Silk cloth is woven from the cocoons made by silkworms. +A silkworm is about as big as your largest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +finger. It grows to this size from the egg in one +month. In three or four days it spins a shell of silk +thread completely surrounding itself. This shell is +called a <i>cocoon</i>. Within this it changes to a moth.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i094bottom" id="i094bottom"></a> +<img src="images/i094bottom.jpg" width="500" height="382" alt="Silkworms" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 51</span> +—Photograph of silkworms changing mulberry leaves into silk.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i095" id="i095"></a> +<img src="images/i095.jpg" width="150" height="113" alt="Lint fiber" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 52</span> +—These fibers from the lint about the seed of cotton are woven into cotton cloth.</p> +</div> + +<p>When the cocoons are to be used for silk, the worm +is killed by heat as soon as it has woven its home so +that it may not change to a moth and eat off some of +the silk in getting +out. Many thousand +worms are needed to +get enough silk for a +dress. The worms are +raised largely in China, +Japan, Italy, and +France.</p> + +<p><b>Cotton.</b>—All calico, +muslin, and most cheap +clothing are made from +cotton thread. This is made from the cotton fibers +surrounding the seeds of the cotton plant (<a href="#i095">Fig. 52</a>). +The cotton used in this country is raised in the Southern +states.</p> + +<p>Cotton clothing is stronger and wears much longer +than silk or wool, but it does not look so well and is +not nearly so warm.</p> + +<p><b>The Use of Wraps and Overcoats.</b>—<i>Outer wraps +and overcoats should never be worn in a warm room<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +or while working hard.</i> They cause much sweat to +form on the body, and as soon as one goes out of +doors the sweat begins to pass off. This makes the +body feel cold and in some cases leads to a long +sickness.</p> + +<p>When riding in cold weather, extra wraps should +be worn. Scarfs and furs should not be worn about +the throat except in extreme cold weather. Bundling +up the neck and chin is likely to cause sore +throat.</p> + +<p><b>Danger from Wet Clothing.</b>—Many children have +caught severe colds leading to serious sickness by +wearing wet or damp clothing. Wet clothing causes +the heat to pass off from the body quickly, so that it +is chilled before we know it. This may be shown by +wrapping two bottles of warm water in cloths. Wet +one cloth and let the other remain dry. In twenty +minutes the bottle with the wet cloth will be cool, but +the other one will still be warm. <i>If your wet clothing +cannot be changed at once, keep exercising or throw +a heavy coat about you.</i></p> + +<p><b>Untidy and Soiled Clothing.</b>—All boys and girls +should learn to keep their clothing as clean as possible. +Do not wipe the hands on the clothing, or sit down in +the dirt, or let food smear the front of the coat or dress.</p> + +<p>The sweat is constantly bringing waste matter out +of the body. This soils the clothing next to it. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +this account clothing to be washed every week or +oftener should be worn next to the skin. Very thin +cotton underclothing should be worn in summer. +Woolen clothes give more warmth for winter.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i097" id="i097"></a> +<img src="images/i097.jpg" width="500" height="256" alt="Corns" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 53</span> +—Showing how to prevent the shoe from pressing on corns caused +by wearing tight shoes or socks roughly darned.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Shoes.</b>—Badly fitting shoes cause sore feet and +much pain. A shoe that is tight across the toes is +sure to cause corns. A <i>corn</i> is a thickened part of +the top skin which presses on the more tender part +beneath. Soaking the feet in hot water and filing off +the top of the corn or using a corn plaster will help +it. Shoes should always be a half inch longer than +the foot. Waterproof shoes or rubbers should be +worn in wet weather. Rubbers should not be worn +in the house.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol and Clothing.</b>—Many persons think that a +drink of whisky will make them warm when taken +on a cold day. For this reason whisky is sometimes +used when clothing is really needed. The use of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +whisky or any other alcoholic drink will not make +the body warm. It may make one feel warm because +it loosens the muscles in the blood tubes of the skin +and so lets more blood come to the surface. In this +way the body becomes colder because too much blood +gets into the skin and is then chilled by the cold air. +As alcohol deadens the feeling it may prevent one +from feeling cold when the body is really very cold. +Too little clothing and too much alcohol have been +known to cause men to freeze to death.</p> + +<p><b>Experience in using Alcohol to keep the Body Warm.</b>—Doctor +Hayes, who went as physician with Doctor +Kane to explore in the Arctic regions, said that he +would never again take alcoholic drink with him on +such a trip. He declared alcohol was of no use in +helping men to keep warm. He found from actual +experience that those who use alcohol cannot endure +cold so well as other people.</p> + +<p>Doctor Carpenter, a well-known physician, tells of +a crew of sixty-six men who tried to stay in Hudson +Bay all winter. They used some alcoholic drink. +Only two of the party lived through the winter. +Later another party of twenty-two men passed the +winter in the same place. They used no strong +drink at any time and as a consequence all but two +of them were reported well and strong in the following +spring.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2> +<h3>BREATHING</h3> + +<p><b>The Lungs.</b>—The lungs are two light spongy +bodies filling up the greater part of the chest. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +heart lies between the lungs. The lungs are formed +largely of thousands of thin-walled sacs and two sets +of tubes. One set of tubes carries air into and out of +the lungs, and the other set is filled with blood. These +sacs and tubes are held in place by a loose meshwork +of tissue.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i099" id="i099"></a> +<img src="images/i099.jpg" width="500" height="624" alt="Lungs" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 54</span> +—The ribs and front wall of the chest cut away to show the lungs. +A piece of one lung is cut off to show the heart. <i>A</i> and <i>E</i>, parts of the +breastbone; <i>F</i>, diaphragm.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Why we Breathe.</b>—Breathing means taking air into +the lungs and forcing it out. The air is made to go +into the lungs in order that a part of it called oxygen +may get into the blood. The blood then carries the +oxygen to all parts of the body where it can help the +organs do their work.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i100" id="i100"></a> +<img src="images/i100.jpg" width="150" height="74" alt="Gills" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 55</span> +—Photograph of a salamander, showing the gills on either side of the head, +which are used in breathing.</p> +</div> + +<p>The air which comes out of the lungs is not the +same as that which goes in. Some of the oxygen has +been used up and in +its place is a heavier +gas named <i>carbon +dioxide</i>, which has +been given out by +the body. This carbon +dioxide is part +of the waste formed +in every part of the +body from the used-up food and dying parts of the +body. We breathe therefore to get oxygen into the +body and to take out some of the waste matter.</p> + +<p>All animals must breathe. If our breath is shut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +off only four or five minutes, death results. In the +earthworm the oxygen goes right through the skin +into the blood. Bugs and flies have several little +openings along the sides of the body which lead into +tubes branching throughout the body to carry air. +A fish gets air through its gills lying under a bony +flap on each side of the head.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i101" id="i101"></a> +<img src="images/i101.jpg" width="150" height="168" alt="Windpipe and lungs" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 56</span> +—The windpipe and lungs viewed from in front. On the right, the tissue is removed +to show the air tubes.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>How the Air passes into the Lungs.</b>—The outer openings +of the nose +are called nostrils. +From here +two channels lead +back through the +nose to the throat. +The cavity of the +throat behind the +nose and tongue +is the <i>pharynx</i>. +At the bottom of +the pharynx is a +tube made mostly +of gristle. This +tube is larger than +your thumb and is named the <i>larynx</i>, or <i>voice box</i>. +The bump on its front part forms the lump in the +throat called the <i>Adam's Apple</i>.</p> + +<p>From the voice box extends the <i>windpipe</i> called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +<i>trachea</i>, down to the lungs. The windpipe divides at +its lower end between the lungs into two branches. +One of these enters each lung.</p> + +<p><b>The Air Tubes in the Lungs.</b>—As the branch of +the windpipe enters each lung it divides into smaller +branches just like the limbs of a tree. These divide +into still smaller tubes, which branch again and again +until they are as small as a hair. These hairlike +tubes have swollen ends called <i>air sacs</i>. The walls +of the air sacs are much thinner than tissue paper.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i102" id="i102"></a> +<img src="images/i102.jpg" width="500" height="233" alt="Air cells" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 57</span> +—A bunch of air cells at the end of an air tube in the lungs, showing +the blood vessels which receive the oxygen and give out the carbon dioxide.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>How the Blood trades Waste for Oxygen in the Lungs.</b>—The +blood, which is constantly running from all +parts of the body to the lungs, collects waste formed +from the burnt food and dying parts of the organs. +When the blood comes to the lungs, it is full of this +waste, called carbon dioxide. The blood tubes divide<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +into fine branches with very thin walls and form a +rich network over the air sacs. This allows the carbon +dioxide and water to pass out of the blood tubes +into the air sacs, while the oxygen at the same time +goes through into the blood. More than a pint of +water is given off in the breath daily.</p> + +<p><b>How we Breathe.</b>—The bottom of the chest cavity +is formed by an upward arching sheet of muscle +called the <i>diaphragm</i>. This is fastened to the lower +ribs. The ribs at rest slant downward and inward. +When the ribs are pulled up or the arch of the diaphragm +down, the cavity of the chest becomes larger. +The air then runs into the lungs and swells them out. +When the ribs are let drop or the arch of the diaphragm +goes up, the air is pushed out of the lungs.</p> + +<p>Without thinking, we work the muscles to draw +up the ribs about eighteen times every minute, because +all parts of the body are calling for oxygen. +The harder we work the oftener we breathe because +the muscles need more oxygen to make them go.</p> + +<p><b>Why we should breathe through the Nose.</b>—Most +persons find it easy to breathe through the nose. In +some, however, the passages in the nose are too small +to carry the air without effort. On this account they +let the mouth hang open and breathe through it.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i104" id="i104"></a> +<img src="images/i104.jpg" width="150" height="228" alt="Air way" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 58</span> +—Face cut through the middle to show how the adenoids stop the air from passing +through the nose. Arrows show the course which the air should take.</p> +</div> + +<p>The air should pass only through the nose because +it is lined with hairs and tiny waving threads which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +catch the dust. In this way germs and dirt are +prevented from +getting into the +throat and lungs, +and in winter the +cold air is warmed.</p> + +<p><b>Why Some Children +cannot +breathe through +the Nose.</b>—When +one has a cold, the +lining of the nose +becomes swollen +and gives out a +white substance +called <i>mucus</i>. +The swelling of +the lining and the +mucus fill up the +passages. The +nose should be +kept clean by using a handkerchief and blowing out +the mucus into it. <i>Never put the finger into the nose.</i> +Disease germs often get on the fingers from things +touched.</p> + +<p>Children who have the habit of breathing through +the mouth should be examined by a physician. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +will, in most cases, find soft spongy growths called +<i>adenoids</i> in the back part of the nose. They should +always be removed as soon as possible. They may +cause disease or deafness and may even injure the +mind.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i105" id="i105"></a> +<img src="images/i105.jpg" width="500" height="437" alt="Voice box" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 59</span> +—A view of the voice box from the top.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Voice.</b>—In the upper part of the voice box at +the top of the windpipe is a fold of tissue stretched +on either side. These two folds of tissue form the +<i>vocal cords</i>. The air rushing past them causes sound. +The different sounds are made by stretching the cords +tight or loosely. By means of the tongue, teeth, and +lips the sound is formed into words.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span><b>How to use the Voice.</b>—A cold or much shouting +makes the vocal cords swell and we become hoarse. +Rest is the best cure. It is not polite to shout or +whistle in the house and you should never use an +angry tone of voice. When talking to a person, always +speak distinctly but pleasantly and turn your +face toward his and look directly into his eyes. +Never use a harsh, loud tone of voice.</p> + +<p><b>Why you should not spit on Floors or Sidewalks.</b>—We +used to think that any one well had no germs +of sickness in his mouth, but we now know that many +well persons have germs in their mouths which can +cause long sickness when they get into other persons. +If you are sick with diphtheria, scarlet fever, or sore +throat, the germs of the disease are likely to remain +in your mouth two or three months. Persons with +tuberculosis throw out millions of these germs in +their spit every day.</p> + +<p>Spitting is not only an unclean habit but a deadly +curse. Spit often contains the seeds of death. +Women's skirts and the soles of our shoes carry it +into the houses. It becomes dry, but the germs live +and float about in the dust, then enter the mouth to +make us sick. Carelessness with spit is said to cause +more than a hundred deaths every day in our land.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i107top" id="i107top"></a> +<img src="images/i107top.jpg" width="150" height="167" alt="Fly feeding on bread" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 60</span> +—Photograph of a house fly on a piece of bread. This fly had been feeding on spit +and a study of its legs and body showed more germs present than there are hairs on a +person's head.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Do not use an Open Spittoon.</b>—It is much safer to +have a smallpox patient in the house than an open<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +spittoon in the summer. You can prevent the smallpox +by vaccination, but you cannot keep the flies from +carrying ten thousand germs +of death from the spittoon +to the food on the table. A +million germs have been +found on a single fly.</p> + +<p>Spit should be dropped +into a cup which should be +kept covered when not being +used. The spit should +be destroyed by fire or +some germ-killing fluid, +such as lye or formalin.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i107bottom" id="i107bottom"></a> +<img src="images/i107bottom.jpg" width="150" height="99" alt="Germs" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 61</span> +—An exact drawing of the germs in a spot as large as a period, on the +edge of a drinking cup.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Keeping Sickness away +from the Throat and Lungs.</b>—All +sickness of the throat and lungs is caught from +some one else. The germs are passed from one to +another on the drinking +cup, by sucking +pencils, wetting the +finger to turn the +pages of a book, or +putting the fingers in +the nose or mouth.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i108top" id="i108top"></a> +<img src="images/i108top.jpg" width="150" height="146" alt="Beef broth jelly" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 62</span> +—A dish of beef broth jelly left open two minutes in a room +being swept. Each spot is a city of thousands of germs which grew +from one germ dropping on the jelly. By counting the spots you +can tell how many germs fell from the dust on this dish three inches +in diameter.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Dust is the partner +of disease.</i> It contains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +germs. Avoid dust. +Wipe up the rooms with +a damp cloth; never use +a feather duster. Avoid +dry sweeping. Use a +suction cleaner or have +rugs which can be cleaned +out of doors.</p> + +<p>Give the lungs fresh +air and deep breathing +and the body good food +and plenty of sleep to +make it so strong that +germs cannot overcome +it when they enter.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i108bottom" id="i108bottom"></a> +<img src="images/i108bottom.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="Consumption germs" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 63</span> +—Photograph of consumption germs, the tiny rods which often +grow and cause tuberculosis in bodies weakened by beer or whisky. +Much enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Alcoholic Drink and +the Lungs.</b>—The most +common disease of the +lungs is <i>tuberculosis</i>. +Nearly all bartenders +who sell strong drink +take some themselves. +Lately it has been learned +in Germany that tuberculosis +causes one half of +all the deaths among bartenders. +Alcohol was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +once thought to be a good medicine for lung troubles, +but it has been clearly proven that beer and whisky +weaken the lungs and make them ready for the germs +of disease. The body already weakened by the poison +of the alcohol is then easily overcome by the disease.</p> + +<p><b>Tobacco and the Lungs.</b>—The occasional use of tobacco +does not seem to hurt the lungs when fully +grown. A study of many young persons has shown +that the chest of smokers grows much more slowly +than in those who do not use tobacco. As the lungs +cannot grow any faster than the chest, they must +grow slowly in boys using much tobacco.</p> + +<p>Tobacco is a common cause of sore throat. Many +smokers have been compelled to quit the habit because +of throat troubles.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Where are the lungs located?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. What do the tubes in the lungs carry?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What part of the air do we use in the body?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Tell how the air gets into the lungs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. What passes from the blood into the air sacs?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. Why should we breathe through the nose?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Why should you keep the fingers away from the nose?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. What are the vocal cords?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Give two reasons why no one should spit on the floor.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Tell how alcohol harms the lungs.</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2> +<h3>FRESH AIR AND HEALTH</h3> + +<p><b>How much Air we Breathe.</b>—At every breath we +take in about one pint of air. We breathe eighteen +times each minute. Nine quarts of air therefore +pass in and out of the lungs every minute. Air +once breathed is not fit to breathe again. It contains +waste and carbon dioxide which weaken the body.</p> + +<p>If you breathe three full breaths into a wide-mouthed +jar or bottle, it will contain so much of the +carbon dioxide that a lighted candle or splinter will +at once go out when thrust into the jar. A cat shut +in a tight box two feet square and one foot high will +die in less than a half hour.</p> + +<p>Many years ago when the British and Hindoo +soldiers were fighting each other, the Hindoos made +prisoners of 146 of the British and locked them in a +room about one half as large as a common schoolroom. +There were only two small windows. During +the night 123 of these men died because of the bad air.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i111" id="i111"></a> +<img src="images/i111.jpg" width="150" height="311" alt="Fresh air path" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 64</span> +—The direction of the flame of the candle shows how the fresh air enters and the +bad air leaves a room.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>How much Air should enter a Room.</b>—The air +laden with waste coming out of the lungs quickly +mixes with the other air of the room. In this way<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +all of the air in the room soon becomes impure. +Forty children will give out nearly two barrels of air +in one minute. In another +minute this air has made all +of the other air in the room +unclean. It can still be +breathed, but it makes children +feel drowsy and lazy +and may cause headache. +They then do poor work.</p> + +<p>To keep the air pure in +a room, fresh air must be let +in from the outside. If there +are many in the room, the +openings must be large or +fans on a wheel must be +used to force the air in. In +the New York schools a little +over a cubic yard of fresh +air is forced into the room +for each child every minute.</p> + +<p><b>How to get Fresh Air into a Room.</b>—When air is +warmed it becomes lighter and rises. In many public +buildings, fresh air heated by a furnace is forced into +the rooms through pipes entering several feet above the +floor. By a fan or heated flue the impure air is sucked +out of the room through openings near the floor.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i112" id="i112"></a> +<img src="images/i112.jpg" width="150" height="180" alt="Open windows" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 65</span> +—How the windows of your bedroom should be open to get the most fresh air.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>Changing the air in a room is called <i>ventilation</i>. +To get plenty of fresh air in a room there must be +one or more places for it to enter and one or more +places for it to pass out. Where there is no furnace +or fan, windows on one side of the room may be +opened at the bottom +to let in the air and +the same windows +opened at the top to +let the impure air +escape. <i>Do not sit +in a draft</i>, but use a +board or curtain to +throw the air upward +as it enters the window. +<i>A room should +not be kept too warm.</i> +Sitting in a very +warm room weakens +the body and prepares +it to take cold. The temperature of a living +room should be between 65 and 70 degrees.</p> + +<p><b>Fresh Air while you Sleep.</b>—Thousands of people +have weakened their bodies and brought on disease by +sleeping in bad air. Many persons keep their windows +so tightly closed during the night that the air smells +bad in the morning. I knew a family who always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +slept with windows closed except in the very warmest +weather. Three of the children died of tuberculosis, +and a fourth one took the disease but was saved by +keeping his windows wide open.</p> + +<p>Bad air in the sleeping room makes one feel +drowsy in the morning instead of refreshed by sleep. +<i>Your windows should always be open while you sleep.</i> +In cold weather a window should be open a foot at +both the bottom and the top, or if there are two windows +in the room, both may be opened at the bottom. +In moderate weather the openings should be twice +as large. A cap may be worn to keep the head +warm, and the bed should be out of the draft.</p> + +<p><b>Fresh Air gives Health.</b>—Four hundred people die of +tuberculosis in our country every day. A few years ago +it was thought that no one could get well of this disease. +Now three fourths of those in the first stages of the disease +get well. The chief part of the cure is fresh air. +Medicine is seldom used because no medicine will cure +tuberculosis. Good food and rest are great helps.</p> + +<p>Many of those with tuberculosis stay out of doors +all day and at night sleep in tents or with all of +the windows wide open, even in the coldest weather. +Snow may blow in and the water in the room may +turn to solid ice, but fresh air, the good angel of +health, will give the body new strength and make it +well and strong again.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i114" id="i114"></a> +<img src="images/i114.jpg" width="150" height="206" alt="Being cured" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 66</span> +—This man is curing himself of +tuberculosis by sleeping at night, and sitting by day, on this porch.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>Many years ago when the Indians lived in tents +and often slept outdoors none of them had this dirty +air disease of tuberculosis. +Since they +have formed the habit +of living in houses +nearly one half of +some tribes have become +sick with this +catching disease.</p> + +<p><b>Making the Lungs +Strong.</b>—It requires +over three quarts of +air to fill your lungs. +When you breathe +quietly, less than one +pint of air passes in +and out of your lungs. +This shows that a large part of the lungs is not used. +The air sacs at the top and in the bottom part of the +lungs are seldom filled completely. It is in these +places that disease begins.</p> + +<p>Several minutes should be spent two or three times +each day in exercising the lungs. Fill them completely +with air many times. <i>Learn to breathe deeply +while you are walking in the fresh air.</i> Hold the head +up and the shoulders back so that every part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +lungs can be filled. <i>Sit straight. Your life depends +upon your lungs.</i> Give them a chance to do their +work and teach them to do it well.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i115" id="i115"></a> +<img src="images/i115.jpg" width="150" height="213" alt="Unhealthful position" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 67</span> +—Unhealthful position which squeezes the lungs so that they cannot +work freely.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Tobacco and Pure Air.</b>—There is poison in the smoke +of tobacco. This is shown by its effect on insects. +Owners of greenhouses +often buy the stems +and other waste parts +of tobacco. They pile +it in a pan and after +closing the doors and +windows of the greenhouse +tightly, set fire +to it. The smoke +rises and fills the +whole house. In less +than an hour it has +killed many of the +bugs and beetles +which were destroying +the plants.</p> + +<p>A person not used +to tobacco will sometimes be made sick by sitting +only an hour in a room where persons are smoking. +It is wrong for smokers to poison the air which +others must breathe. For this reason a smoking +room should be well ventilated.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2> +<h3>THE BLOOD AND HOW IT FLOWS THROUGH THE BODY</h3> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i116" id="i116"></a> +<img src="images/i116.jpg" width="150" height="117" alt="Blood cells" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 68</span> +—The cells in the blood. The two white ones were drawn while crawling. Much enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Blood keeps the Body Clean within and gives it +Food.</b>—Every tiny particle of the body, whether in +the legs, arms, or head, must have food to keep it alive +and help it do its work. It must also have oxygen, +and it must be washed clean of its waste matter. +All this is done by the streams of blood, which bathe +every cell to +bring it food +and oxygen +and to wash +away its waste.</p> + +<p><b>Parts of the +Blood.</b>—Blood +consists of a +clear, watery +part called +<i>plasma</i> and +many little +bodies named <i>cells</i>. The liquid found in a blister is +the clear part of the blood. The cells which float in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +the watery part are so little and so close together +that more than a million are in each drop of blood.</p> + +<p>A few of the cells are white, but most of them are +red, and it is their color that makes the blood look +red. Your body contains about one gallon of blood. +It is carried through the body in branching tubes +called <i>blood vessels</i> (<a href="#i119">Fig. 70</a>).</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i117" id="i117"></a> +<img src="images/i117.jpg" width="150" height="154" alt="The heart" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 69</span> +—Photograph of the heart from in front with the lungs pinned aside. One fourth natural +size.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Blood Vessels.</b>—There are four kinds of blood +vessels. They are the <i>heart</i>, the <i>arteries</i>, the <i>capillaries</i>, +and the <i>veins</i>. +The heart lies in +the chest between +the lungs. It +squeezes the +blood into the +arteries. These +carry the blood +to all parts of the +body. It then +runs into the capillaries, +which are +tiny tubes connecting +the arteries +with the veins. The veins return the blood to +the heart.</p> + +<p>The blood flows so fast that it goes from the heart +down to the toes and back again in a half minute.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]<br />[Pg 120]</a></span><b>The Heart or Pump of Life.</b>—When the heart +stops we die, because the blood can no longer flow to +carry food and oxygen to the hungry tissues. The +heart is a sac with thick walls of muscle. It is +shaped like a strawberry and is about as large as +your fist. Its cavity is divided into four parts. The +two upper ones are called <i>auricles</i> and the lower ones +are named <i>ventricles</i>. The blood enters the auricles +and then pours through an opening into each ventricle, +from which it passes out into the arteries.</p> + +<p><b>The Arteries or Sending Tubes.</b>—The blood is sent +out from the heart through the arteries leading to all +parts of the body. The chief artery is the <i>aorta</i>. It +is larger than your thumb and extends from the heart +down through the body in front of the backbone. +It has more than twenty branches. All of these +branch again and again like the limbs of a tree until +they are finer than hairs.</p> + +<p>A large tube, the <i>lung artery</i>, takes blood directly +from the heart to the lungs. Here it branches into +more than a thousand divisions, so that the blood +can take in oxygen and give off to the lungs its +waste.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i119" id="i119"></a> +<img src="images/i119.jpg" width="500" height="860" alt="Arteries" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 70</span> +—Arteries, the tubes carrying the blood from the heart through the +body. Only the chief vessels are shown on one side.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Capillaries or Feeding Tubes.</b>—These are the +tiny tubes, finer than hairs, which join the smallest +end branches of the arteries with the beginnings of +the little veins. They are so thickly scattered in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +flesh that you cannot stick it with a pin without +piercing one.</p> + +<p>They are called feeding tubes because they have +such very thin walls that the food in the blood and +the oxygen brought from the lungs can pass through +to feed the muscles and other organs. The dead +parts of the body and also the ashes of the food used +up, pass from the organs into the capillaries.</p> + +<p><b>The Veins or Returning Tubes.</b>—The veins, beginning +in fine branches formed by the capillaries, return +the blood to the heart. The branches unite into +larger and larger vessels and finally flow into one +main vein, the <i>vena cava</i>. This extends along in +front of the backbone and opens into the heart.</p> + +<p><b>Why the Blood flows in only one Direction.</b>—The +heart causes the flow of the blood. It does this by +squeezing together its walls so as to make the blood +go out into the arteries. When once in the arteries, +the blood must go forward because there are little +doors at the mouths of the arteries in the heart. +These doors, called <i>valves</i>, open in only one direction, +so that the blood cannot flow backward (<a href="#i121">Fig. 71</a>). +There are other valves between the upper and lower +cavities of the heart, preventing the blood from being +pushed back into the veins.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i121" id="i121"></a> +<img src="images/i121.jpg" width="150" height="182" alt="The heart" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 71</span> +—The heart with the front part cut away to show the four chambers and +valves. The arrows show the direction in which the blood flows.</p> +</div> + +<p>The movement of the walls of the heart in and +out is called the <i>heart beat</i>. This can be plainly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +felt by placing the hand on the left side of the chest. +The heart beats about seventy times each minute +in grown persons, but +much oftener in +children. At each +beat a wave of blood +flows along the arteries. +This is known +as the <i>pulse</i>. It may +be felt at the base of +the thumb, where an +artery runs just +under the skin.</p> + +<p><b>Why the Heart +sometimes beats +Faster.</b>—When we +run or do hard work, +the heart may beat twice as fast as when we are +lying down. This is because the muscles need more +oxygen to help them act. Work makes them get +hungry, and they send word by the nerves to the +heart to hurry along the blood to bring more oxygen +from the lungs.</p> + +<p>When germs make the body sick, the heart often +beats faster because it is affected by the poison made +by the germs. The doctor then feels the pulse to tell +how much the body is poisoned.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span><b>Use of Blood Cells.</b>—The red cells act like boats. +They load up with oxygen in the lungs and carry it +to all parts of the body. Here they trade it off for +carbon dioxide, a waste substance. This they carry +back to the lungs to be cast out of the body.</p> + +<p>There is one white blood cell to every four +hundred red ones. The white cells are the body-guards. +They change their shape and are able to +crawl through the walls of the capillaries. Wherever +the body is hurt, they collect in large numbers +and eat the germs which are always trying to get +into the body through sores. The white matter +called <i>pus</i> in a sore is largely made of white blood +cells which came there to fight the germs and were +killed in the battle.</p> + +<p>The germs of boils and fevers often get into the +blood, but the white cells usually kill them before +they have a chance to grow into large numbers and +make the body sick.</p> + +<p><b>How to stop Bleeding.</b>—Most of the larger arteries +are deep in the flesh and seldom get cut. There are +many veins just under the skin. If the blood comes +out in spurts, it is from an artery; but if it flows +steadily, it is from a vein. If the blood does not run +out in a stream, it will stop without any special care. +As soon as the blood gets to the air it forms a jellylike +mass called a <i>clot</i>. This helps stop the flow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +All hurt places in the skin should be tied up in a +clean cloth.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i123" id="i123"></a> +<img src="images/i123.jpg" width="150" height="281" alt="Stopping blood flow" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 72</span> +—Stopping the flow of blood from an artery.</p> +</div> + +<p>If a large artery is cut, a bandage twisted tight +with a stick around +the limb on the side +of the wound next to +the heart will stop the +bleeding. If a vein +is cut, the bandage +should be placed on +the side of the cut +away from the heart.</p> + +<p><b>Alcoholic Drinks +weaken the Blood.</b>—It +has been noticed +for some years that +when a user of beer +or whisky is attacked +with fever, the disease +is more severe +than in one not using +alcohol. The reason +for this has lately been +explained by a well-known scientist working in Paris. +He put certain disease germs in rabbits, but they did +not become sick. When he gave them a little alcohol +and put the same amount of disease germs in them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +as before, they became sick and died. By careful +study he learned that the white blood cells had in +the first case killed the germs. In the second experiment +the blood cells were made so weak and lazy +by the alcohol that they did not put up such a strong +fight against the germs.</p> + +<p><b>Tobacco and the Blood.</b>—Any one who chews or +smokes tobacco regularly gets much of the poison into +the blood. The vessels in the mouth and throat +drink in some of the juice and also the poison from +the smoke. How much this poison affects the blood +cells is not known, but it is likely to do them some +harm because it makes the growing cells of the body +less active.</p> + +<p><b>How Beer weakens the Heart.</b>—Whisky was at +one time thought to strengthen the heart, but doctors +generally agree now that it weakens the heart. It +may make the heart beat a little stronger for a few +minutes, but after that the beating is weaker than +usual.</p> + +<p>Much use of beer is known to make fat collect +around the heart and also cause some of the heart +muscle itself to change into fat. In this way the +heart becomes so weak that it can no longer do its +work, and death results. The reports from Germany +show that hundreds of persons die every year from +weakened hearts made so by the use of much beer.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span><b>Alcohol hurts the Blood Vessels.</b>—Careful examination +of the blood vessels of drunkards after death +shows that in many cases the alcohol has caused the +walls of the vessels to become thick and sometimes +hard. The thickening of the wall makes the channel +of the tube smaller. The heart must then work +much harder to get the blood through to feed the +tissues.</p> + +<p><b>Tobacco and the Heart.</b>—Many boys who use tobacco +regularly do not have a steady heart beat. +This is specially true of those who smoke several +cigarettes daily. A few years ago, when our country +was at war with Spain, thousands of young men, +wanted for soldiers, were examined to find out +whether their bodies were strong enough to endure +the hardships of war. Hundreds were refused admittance +to the army because of weak bodies, and +many of them were reported by the physicians as +having hearts weakened by the use of tobacco.</p> + +<p>The boys preparing for the army at the Military +Academy at West Point and for sea fighting at the +Naval Academy at Annapolis are not allowed to smoke +cigarettes. Our country must have strong men for +hard work. Tobacco never gives strength, but often +causes weakness.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2> +<h3>INSECTS AND HEALTH</h3> + +<p><b>Malaria or Chills and Fever.</b>—Malaria is a disease +in which the patient usually has a chill followed by +a fever at the same time each day or every other day. +Thousands of people suffer from this sickness in the +warm parts of our country and hundreds of them die +every year. In some regions people cannot live because +this sickness attacks every one who comes there.</p> + +<p>Many years ago a doctor found in the blood of +malaria patients tiny animals. He thought that +they might be the cause of the illness, but he could +not find out how they got into the blood.</p> + +<p><b>Finding out how Malaria Germs get into the Blood.</b>—It +had been noticed for many years that mosquitoes +were always found wherever there was malaria. +In the year 1900 two men decided to find out if they +could live in a malaria region and not have the disease +when the mosquitoes were kept from biting +them.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i127top" id="i127top"></a> +<img src="images/i127top.jpg" width="150" height="201" alt="Humpback mosquito" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 73</span> +—Position of the common humpback mosquito at rest with body full of +blood sucked by thrusting the bill into the flesh.</p> +</div> + +<p>They made their home a whole season in a cottage +in the midst of many persons who were sick with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +malaria. They breathed the same air, ate the same +kind of food, and drank the same kind of water as +those who suffered from the +disease, but they remained +well. The only thing that +they did different from those +who got sick was to keep the +mosquitoes out of their rooms +at night by means of screens. +This experiment and many +other studies have shown that +we catch malaria only by the +bites of mosquitoes.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i127bottom" id="i127bottom"></a> +<img src="images/i127bottom.jpg" width="150" height="83" alt="Malaria mosquito" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 74</span> +—Position of the malaria mosquito at rest.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Only a Few Mosquitoes carry +Malaria.</b>—Malaria is not common +in all regions where mosquitoes live, and it has +been found that only one group of mosquitoes carries +the germs. The two common +groups are the straight-backed +and the humped. To +prove that the +straight-backed +ones did the +harm several of +them were allowed +to suck blood from a man sick with malaria +in Italy. They were then sent to London and let bite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +a healthy man. In a few days he became sick with +malaria. Many experiments with the humped-back +mosquitoes, found nearly everywhere in our country, +show that they do not carry malaria germs.</p> + +<p><b>Yellow Fever.</b>—Until 1901 yellow fever was the +scourge of many cities in the South. Thousands of +persons lost their lives from it. Wherever the dread +disease broke out in a city many persons would flee +to the country because they thought that they could +not breathe the air without getting the germs.</p> + +<p>Some persons thought that mosquitoes might cause +the disease, and in 1900 experiments were carried out +in Cuba to learn whether mosquitoes really did carry +yellow fever germs. Seven men made their home in +a room well screened to keep out the mosquitoes. +They used clothing which had been worn by others +sick with the fever and even slept on pillows and +blankets on which yellow fever victims had died. +Many persons thought that these bedclothes were full +of fever germs and that all the men would surely get +the disease. Not one of them, however, got sick +although they lived in the midst of these soiled materials +for three weeks.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i129top" id="i129top"></a> +<img src="images/i129top.jpg" width="150" height="105" alt="Yellow fever mosquito" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 75</span> +—The yellow fever mosquito biting the finger. Note how the lower lip is bent.</p> +</div> + +<p>Seven other men were chosen for another experiment. +A large room was prepared and made thoroughly +clean. Only clean bedding and clean clothes +were used. The men were given pure food and pure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +water, but into the room were let loose mosquitoes +which had been sucking blood from a person sick +with the fever. In +a few days six of +the seven men became +sick with the +fever and one of +them died. From +these experiments +and other studies +we now know that +<i>this dreadful fever +is carried from the sick to the well only by the bites of +mosquitoes</i>.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i129bottom" id="i129bottom"></a> +<img src="images/i129bottom.jpg" width="150" height="46" alt="Mosquito eggs" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 76</span> +—A bunch of mosquito eggs floating on the surface of the water. Enlarged about +fifteen times.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>How Mosquitoes Live.</b>—Before we can get rid of +any pests we must know where the eggs are hatched +and the young +pass their early +life. The eggs of +mosquitoes are +laid on standing +water. The water +may be in an old +tomato can, a rain barrel, a cistern, or a large pond. +A day or two after the mother lays one or two +hundred eggs, they hatch into dark, wriggling objects +called <i>wigglers</i>. In from ten to twenty days later<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +they change into flying mosquitoes. These habits +of life show that the easiest time to kill them is when +they are young.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i130" id="i130"></a> +<img src="images/i130.jpg" width="150" height="122" alt="Wigglers" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 77</span> +—Photograph of wigglers, the stage in which the mosquito lives a +week or two in water.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Getting rid of Mosquitoes.</b>—During warm weather +mosquitoes cause the death of more than a thousand +persons in the world every day besides making many +others very sick. To get rid of mosquitoes is to prevent +sickness and death. In one year yellow fever +killed over five thousand people in New York and +Philadelphia because +the doctors did not +know how to stop the +disease from spreading.</p> + +<p>When this fever +broke out in New +Orleans in 1905, less +than five hundred persons +died of it because +the doctors had then +learned that the disease +is spread only by the yellow fever mosquito. +They therefore began killing the mosquitoes. Kerosene +was poured over all the ponds and stagnant +pools of water which could not be drained. This +kills the young mosquitoes because the oil gets into +their breathing tube which they stick up to the surface<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +of the water to get air. All rain barrels and tin +cans were emptied and cisterns were tightly covered. +Men, women, and children worked week days and +Sundays killing mosquitoes because they knew that +they were saving human life. The destroying fever +was stopped.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i131" id="i131"></a> +<img src="images/i131.jpg" width="150" height="99" alt="Fly eggs" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 78</span> +—Photograph of eggs laid on waste matter by two flies in one hour.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Flies cause much Sickness.</b>—Very few people are +afraid of house flies because they do not bite. Although +they are so small and seemingly harmless yet +we know that they +cause many more +deaths every year +than mad dogs, poisonous +snakes, and all +wild beasts.</p> + +<p>Flies crawl around +among slops, in spittoons, +and in other +unclean places. In +this way they get thousands of germs of tuberculosis, +typhoid fever, and cholera on their feet and then scatter +them over our food as they crawl about on the table, in +the grocery store, or among the milk cans. In our last +war with Spain more than a thousand of our soldiers +were made sick with fever carried to them by flies.</p> + +<p>In Denver, Colorado, in 1908 fifty persons were +made sick with the fever by flies which fed on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +slops from a sick room and then crawled around in the +milk cans from which those who became sick used milk.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i132" id="i132"></a> +<img src="images/i132.jpg" width="150" height="108" alt="Fly larva" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 79</span> +—Photograph of the worm stage or larva of the fly at the left and three +of the sleeping stage or pupæ at the right. Twice the natural size.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>How to fight the Flies.</b>—House flies lay at one +time about one hundred eggs in the dirt thrown out +of horse stables, in +garbage cans, or in +any other unclean +place. In a day or +two the eggs hatch +into little white +worms which feed on +the dirt. One or two +weeks later the +worms change to flies.</p> + +<p>Flies may be kept +out of houses by putting screens in the windows and +doors or by darkening the rooms when they are not +in use. The few which gain entrance may be +caught in fly traps. All food in the store or +the home should be kept covered. It is not safe +to eat candy on which flies have wiped their feet or +to drink the milk in which they have washed them.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i133" id="i133"></a> +<img src="images/i133.jpg" width="150" height="129" alt="Handful of manure" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 80</span> +—Photograph of a half handful of manure which had been thrown out of a +horse stable. Note more than one hundred houseflies in the sleeping stage.</p> +</div> + +<p>The surest way to get rid of flies in any community +is for all the people to work together and keep the +entire neighborhood clean. No dead grass, weeds, or +rags should be allowed to lie in the backyards or +alleys. The cleanings from stables should be hauled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +away every week or stored in tightly covered boxes. +Garbage cans must have close-fitting lids, so that +there will be no place +in which the young +may hatch and grow.</p> + +<p><b>Other Insects which +carry Disease.</b>—In +certain parts of +Africa, the <i>sleeping +sickness</i> has made +ruins of prosperous +villages. Thousands +of the natives are dying +yearly from this +disease. The germs are carried from one person to +another by the bite of a fly.</p> + +<p>Some fleas carry the germs of <i>plague</i>, which a few +centuries ago swept across Asia and Europe destroying +hundreds of lives daily. The plague is now +common in India and was present in California in +1908 and 1910. The bedbug spreads several kinds +of fevers in warm countries and may also be a carrier +of leprosy and typhoid fever. These facts show that insects +are dangerous and should be kept out of the home.</p> + +<p>Any one troubled with these little pests in the +house may learn how to get rid of them by writing +to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> +<h3>HOW THE BODY MOVES</h3> + +<p><b>The Need of a Framework.</b>—The body needs a stiff +framework made of bones for three purposes. One +purpose is to give it shape, a second purpose is to +help the body move, and a third one is to protect +from injury some of the delicate organs, such as the +heart and brain.</p> + +<p>The bones are nowhere separate but are joined +together with tough bands named <i>ligaments</i>. All +the bones together form the <i>skeleton</i>.</p> + +<p>All animals from fish to man have a skeleton. +Many of the lower creatures, such as worms and flies, +have no bony skeleton. Most of these move sluggishly +or have a hardened outer covering, like beetles +and wasps. The skeleton of animals such as the +cat, rabbit, or cow, has about the same number of +bones as man, and they are arranged in the same +way.</p> + +<p><b>Of what a Bone is Made.</b>—Although the bones are +so hard, they are not dead. They contain blood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]<br />[Pg 137]</a></span> +have feeling, and are just as much alive as the +softer parts of the body. It is the lime that makes +them stiff. This can be eaten out by putting the +bone in strong vinegar or other acid for a few days. +A long bone will then become so limber that it can +be tied into a knot.</p> + +<p>The living part of a bone can be burned out by +placing it on hot coals for a half hour. At the end +of this time the bone will look just as before, but +when it is touched, will crumble to pieces.</p> + +<p><b>Forms of Bones.</b>—The bones of the legs and arms +are hollow. This form gives the greatest strength +with the least weight. You can prove this by using +two sheets of paper. Roll one sheet and fold the +other one. Hang weights on both ends of each and +use the finger for a support in the middle.</p> + +<p>The cavity of these bones is filled with a soft +white substance called <i>marrow</i>. This is largely fat. +Each bone is surrounded by a tough membrane to +which the muscles are attached.</p> + +<p><b>Arrangement of the Bones.</b>—The bones of the head +form the <i>skull</i>. The other bones of the body not +belonging to the <i>limbs</i> make up the <i>trunk</i>. There +are over two hundred bones in the entire body. +Eight of these form a case for the brain. Fourteen +give shape to the face. A chain of twenty-six bones +named <i>vertebræ</i> forms the backbone.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i136" id="i136"></a> +<img src="images/i136.jpg" width="500" height="879" alt="The skeleton" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 81</span> +—Photograph of the bones of the skeleton.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>Twelve pairs of <i>ribs</i> encircle the chest. They are +fastened behind to the backbone. The front parts of +the ribs are made of pieces of gristle. The seven +upper pairs are joined to the breastbone. The five +lower pairs are named <i>false ribs</i>.</p> + +<p>The <i>collar bone</i> is in front of the shoulder and +behind it is the flat <i>shoulder blade</i>. There is one +bone in the upper part of each arm and leg and two +bones in the lower part of each limb. Twenty-eight +small bones are found in the hand, while twenty-seven +are present in the foot.</p> + +<p><b>How the Bones may be Injured.</b>—In the young +some of the entire bones and parts of many others +are soft like gristle. For this reason, the bones of +the young seldom get broken, but they are easily +bent and pressed out of their natural shape. On this +account you should hold the body erect in sitting and +walking. Bending over the table or desk day after +day is not only likely to cause round shoulders, but is +sure to squeeze up the lungs and other organs so they +cannot do their best work.</p> + +<p>Sitting at a table or desk, so that one shoulder is +higher than the other or carrying books at the side, +so that they rest on the hip may cause a curve sidewise +in the backbone. Tight clothing about the +waist presses the ribs out of shape and hurts the +other organs within the body.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i138" id="i138"></a> +<img src="images/i138.jpg" width="150" height="135" alt="A ligament" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 82</span> +—How the bones are held together. A piece has been cut out of the tough ligament to show +the cup of the hip bone into which the head of the thigh bone fits.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span><b>Caring for Broken Bones.</b>—When a bone of the +arm or leg is broken, the muscles tend to make the +ends shove over +each other. The +broken ends are +sometimes sharp, +and if the limb +is bent, these +may tear through +the flesh. This +may be prevented +by binding a +board firmly on +opposite sides of +the limb across +the broken part. This will hold the bones in place +until the surgeon comes and will also allow the +patient to be moved.</p> + +<p>The surgeon will set the broken bones by bringing +the ends together and holding them in place by sheets +of wood or metal firmly held by a bandage. In a +few days the membrane around the bone begins to +grow new bone to join the broken parts.</p> + +<p><b>How the Bones are joined together.</b>—The two +general classes of joints are the <i>movable</i> and <i>immovable</i>. +Except the lower jaw, the bones of the skull are so +tightly joined together that there is no motion between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]<br />[Pg 141]</a></span> +them. The bones of the wrist and back have but +little movement. The freest motion is at the shoulder +joint, where the round head of one bone fits into the +shallow cup of another. This is called a <i>ball and +socket joint</i>. Such a joint is found also at the hip. +At the elbow and knee the bones move back and forth +like a hinge and these are named <i>hinge joints</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Working Parts of a Joint.</b>—The ends of the bones +are covered with a thin layer of gristle. The bones +are held in place by several strong bands called <i>ligaments</i> +(<a href="#i138">Fig. 82</a>). These entirely surround the joint. +On their inner sides is a delicate membrane which gives +out a slippery fluid to make the joint work easily.</p> + +<p>The ligaments are sometimes strained, stretched, +or torn by a fall. The joint then swells because the +watery part of the blood collects there. A sprained +limb should be elevated to prevent swelling. Bathing +it in very hot water is helpful.</p> + +<p><b>The Muscles.</b>—The muscles form the lean meat in +any animal. They make up about one half the +weight of the body. Each muscle is a bundle of +thousands of little threads held together by other +finer threads, while the whole is surrounded by a thin +sheet. Little bundles formed of several of these +threads called fibers may be seen in a piece of cooked +beef picked to pieces. There are over five hundred +muscles in the body.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i140" id="i140"></a> +<img src="images/i140.jpg" width="500" height="685" alt="50 muscles" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 83</span> +—Fifty of the muscles just under the skin. Note the white cords, +the tendons in the regions of the hands and feet.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i141" id="i141"></a> +<img src="images/i141.jpg" width="150" height="172" alt="The biceps" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 84</span> +—The biceps muscle contracted above and relaxed or loosened below.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>Some of the muscles are more than a foot long and +have the shape of a ribbon. Some are circular like +those around the mouth, eyes, and stomach, while +others are large in +the middle and +taper toward the +ends.</p> + +<p><b>How the Muscles +are fastened +to the Bones.</b>—The +two ends of +a muscle are +attached to different +bones. In +many cases the +muscle is not +joined directly to +the bone, but is +connected to a tough white cord called a <i>tendon</i>. +The tendon is then fixed to the bone.</p> + +<p>Several of the muscles in the forearm run into tendons +in the wrist because if the muscle part were to +extend along the wrist, this part of the arm would be +large and clumsy instead of graceful and slender. +Some of these tendons may be seen to move by bending +the wrist and then working the fingers.</p> + +<p><b>How the Muscles do their Work.</b>—A tiny nerve<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +thread runs from the spinal cord or brain to every +muscle thread. Messages sent through the nerve +threads to the muscles make them act. A muscle +can act in only two ways (<a href="#i141">Fig. 84</a>). It can become +shorter or longer. When it gets shorter, we say it +<i>contracts</i>. When it stretches out, it is said to <i>relax</i>.</p> + +<p>A muscle cannot contract more than one fourth of +its length. To pull the forearm up, the brain sends a +message to the muscle fixed by one end at the shoulder +and by the other end to a bone at the elbow. The +muscle at once becomes shorter and thicker, as may +be felt by placing the fingers on it. Although it +shortens only two inches it is fastened to the bone +so near the elbow that it draws the hand up two feet.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Of what use are the bones?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. What animals have bony skeletons?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What can you say of the form of bones?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. How many bones in the body?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Name six bones.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What part of the arm has two bones side by side?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. How many ribs have you?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Explain how a broken bone should be cared for.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Point out and name two kinds of joints.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. What are ligaments?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Of what is a muscle made?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. How many muscles in the body?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. How many tendons can you feel in your wrist?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<h3>THE MUSCLES AND HEALTH</h3> + +<p><b>Making the Muscles Strong.</b>—No persons use all +of the five hundred muscles in the body every day. +In slow walking only about twenty muscles are used, +while in running more than four times that number +are called into action. Muscles which are not used +get lazy and weak.</p> + +<p>Every time a muscle is made to act the blood +vessels enlarge and bring to it more blood to supply +food. The more food the muscle has the stronger +it grows. The right arm is used more than the left +in most persons. This makes it so much stronger +that some boys can lift twenty-five pounds more with +the right arm than they can with the left.</p> + +<p><b>Using the Muscles keeps the Body Well.</b>—All +muscles must have more blood when they are used so +that the heart is made to beat faster and stronger by +exercise. In this way its valves and walls become +able to do more work. Such a heart not only does +its work better in a well person, but is able to keep +pumping when the body is weakened by disease. +Many persons die because the heart gets too weak to +push the blood through the body.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>In all the little spaces between the muscles and +parts of other organs is some watery part of the blood +containing much waste given off from the tissues. +Moving the muscles presses on this watery waste in +such a way as to move it along into the blood channels. +It then can be cast out of the body by the +lungs and other organs. One reason why we feel so +good after exercise is because the poisonous waste +has been taken away.</p> + +<p>No one can remain well very long without taking +exercise. Children as well as older persons should +enjoy one or two hours of outdoor play every day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i144" id="i144"></a> +<img src="images/i144.jpg" width="500" height="220" alt="Exercises" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 85</span> +—Various ways of exercising the muscles to keep the body well.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>How to exercise the Muscles.</b>—Outdoor games +give the best form of exercise. Tennis, baseball, +cricket, rowing, and swimming are sports which bring +nearly all the muscles into use. Every boy and girl +should learn to swim. It is dangerous to go swimming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +alone or to swim in deep water. Cramp may +seize the muscles at any time, so that the limbs cannot +be moved. Hundreds of persons are drowned +every year by venturing in deep water.</p> + +<p>Taking care of the yard and garden and helping +with other work about the home is one of the best +ways of getting exercise and at the same time doing +some good.</p> + +<p><b>Special Kinds of Exercise.</b>—A room with ropes, +swings, and machines in it for exercise is called a +<i>gymnasium</i>. Under the direction of a teacher the +pupils can get quickly just the right kind of exercise +to strengthen the weak parts of the body and keep +every organ in health. The muscles oftenest neglected +are those of the chest. Every one should keep +his chest full and round by swinging the arms and +<i>practicing deep breathing every day</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Danger from too much Exercise.</b>—Lately it has +been learned that very violent exercise for more than +a few minutes often injures the heart. The running +of many races until you are all out of breath or much +jumping of the rope is likely to strain the heart. It +is always harmful to urge the body on until it is completely +tired out.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol makes the Muscles Weak.</b>—In the year +1903 two learned men in Switzerland spent much +time to determine whether alcohol helped persons do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +more work. They tried more than two hundred +experiments with men to whom they sometimes gave +wine and sometimes food, and sometimes both were +given together.</p> + +<p>The results of these tests showed that when wine +was given alone, the man's ability to do work was +increased for a short time, but later he could not do +so much work as when he had taken no wine. +When the man took both food and wine, he could +do only about nine tenths as much work as when he +took food alone.</p> + +<p>The most careful tests by other persons show that +whisky will not help a man do more work, lift a +heavier weight, or shoot straighter. In fact little +or much whisky makes him less able to do any of +these things.</p> + +<p><b>Beer makes the Muscles Lazy.</b>—Doctor Parkes of +Netley secured two gangs of soldiers to do the same +kind of work. He allowed the first gang to drink +some beer, but the second gang were not allowed to +have any. During the first hour the beer gang +did the most work, but after that the temperance +gang did far more work during the entire day. The +next week beer was refused the first gang and given +to the second. The beer helped the second gang +do more work than the first one for nearly two hours, +but after that they did much less than the first gang.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +This shows that men who wish to do their best work +during the entire day should not use beer.</p> + +<p><b>Tobacco and the Muscles.</b>—Many experiments and +studies have shown that the body cannot do its best +work when even very small amounts of poison are taken +day after day. The poison in tobacco is believed +to weaken the muscles so much that no man on a +football team in any of our large colleges or universities +is allowed to smoke or chew during the season. +Persons training for any contest where much strength +is required do not use tobacco in any form.</p> + +<p><b>Tobacco prevents Growth of the Muscles.</b>—The +moderate use of tobacco by men has but little effect +on the muscles. It may cause them to tire a little +more easily when doing very hard work. Tobacco +poison does, however, show a marked effect on the +muscles of the young.</p> + +<p>Very careful measurements made at one of the large +universities showed that the boys who did not smoke +grew one tenth more in weight and one fourth more +in height than those using tobacco regularly. This +slow growth in tobacco users is partly due to the fact +that tobacco makes the muscles in the walls of the +blood vessels squeeze together so as to shut off some +of the blood from the legs, arms, and other parts, so +that they get too little food. Tobacco may also cause +less food to be digested for the use of the body.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2> +<h3>HOW THE BODY IS GOVERNED</h3> + +<p><b>Making the Parts of the Body Work.</b>—Each of the +hundreds of organs in the body has a certain work to +do and this must be done at the right time. In order +that all may work together and each one do its part +when needed, there is a chief manager called the <i>brain</i> +and a helping manager named the <i>spinal cord</i>. Millions +of tiny threads for sending messages connect the +two managers with every part of the body. These +threads form the <i>nerves</i>.</p> + +<p><b>The Brain.</b>—The brain is a soft bunch of matter +filling the inside of the skull. The bones of the skull +are a quarter of an inch thick and prevent any common +knocks from hurting the brain. It is surrounded +by three coverings which also help shield it from +injury.</p> + +<p>The surface of the brain is very uneven. There +are a great many folds separated by grooves. Some of +these are more than an inch deep.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i149" id="i149"></a> +<img src="images/i149.jpg" width="150" height="317" alt="Brain and spinal cord" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 86</span> +—The under side of the brain and the spinal cord with the chief nerves +of one side of the body viewed from in front.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Parts of the Brain.</b>—The brain is divided into three +chief parts. The upper and larger part is called the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +<i>big brain</i> or <i>cerebrum</i>. The lower part behind is the +<i>little brain</i> or <i>cerebellum</i>. +The part under +the little brain and +round like the thumb +is the <i>stem</i> of the brain. +It connects the larger +parts of the brain with +the spinal cord.</p> + +<p>The big brain is +partly separated into +halves by a deep cut +called a <i>fissure</i>. Each +half is a <i>hemisphere</i>.</p> + +<p>The outer layer of +the brain is gray. It +is made of millions of +tiny lumps of matter +which are the bodies +of nerve cells. These +are connected by +threads much finer +than hairs with other +parts of the brain +and spinal cord. Over +these threads called <i>nerve fibers</i> one cell can talk to +another somewhat as we talk over a telephone wire.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i150" id="i150"></a> +<img src="images/i150.jpg" width="150" height="137" alt="The brain" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 87</span> +—Side of the skull cut away to show the brain. <i>B</i>, backbone.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span><b>The Spinal Cord.</b>—This is a bundle of nerve matter +about as thick as your finger. It extends from the +stem of the brain +down the canal +in the backbone. +The outer layer +of the spinal cord +is white because +it is made of the +tiny threads, <i>nerve +fibers</i>. The inner +part is made of +the bodies of nerve +cells and therefore +looks gray. The fibers are branching threads +from the cells in the cord and brain.</p> + +<p><b>The Message Carriers or Nerve Fibers.</b>—In order +that the managers may send messages, these fine +threads, the nerve fibers, extend from them to all +parts of the body. In many places from five to five +hundred or more of these fibers are united in one +white cord called a <i>nerve</i>.</p> + +<p>Twelve pairs of nerves are joined to the under side +of the brain and thirty-one pairs are connected with +the spinal cord (<a href="#i149">Fig. 86</a>). The nerves of the brain +branch to all parts of the head and neck, and one +pair goes down to the lungs, heart, and stomach.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +The nerves connected with the spinal cord branch to +every part of the muscles, bones, and skin of the arms, +trunk, and legs.</p> + +<p><b>How the Nerves do their Work.</b>—On a telephone +wire we can send a message in either direction. A +message can travel on a nerve in only one direction. +For this reason there must be two kinds of nerves. +One kind is called <i>sending nerves</i> because the brain +and cord send orders over them to make the organs +act. The other kind carries messages to the brain +from the eyes, ears, skin, or other organs of sense, +telling it how they feel. On this account these are +named <i>receiving nerves</i>.</p> + +<p>When we wish to catch a ball, the brain sends an +order along the nerve threads down the spinal cord +and out through the nerves of the arm to the fingers +to get ready to seize a ball. The fingers are spread +to grasp the ball, but they do not close until a +message goes from the skin of the finger tips to +the spinal cord, telling it that the ball is in the +hand.</p> + +<p><b>The Work of the Brain.</b>—The brain is not only +the chief manager of the body, but the home of the +mind. The mind acts through the brain. The mind +receives through the brain what the eye sees, the +ear hears, the nose smells, and the fingers feel. All +this knowledge is stored up in the mind and called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +<i>memory</i>. These facts and others learned later are +worked over by the mind. This is called <i>thought</i>.</p> + +<p>The mind rules and becomes good or bad according +to whether it contains good thoughts or bad thoughts. +<i>It is wrong to read books and papers about robberies +and murders or to tell or to listen to bad stories</i>, +because in this way evil thoughts get into the mind. +The best way of keeping badness out of the mind is +to fill it with goodness. It is said that Lincoln was +so busy thinking how he could help others that there +was no room in his mind for a bad thought. Doing +some kindness every day helps much in the making +of a good mind.</p> + +<p><b>Habit.</b>—The doing of anything over and over +again until the body goes through the same motions +without any or very little thought is called <i>habit</i>. +The brain and nerves are so formed that when they +get used to obeying the same order of the mind again +and again, they will carry out these orders when the +mind no longer gives them. Sometimes they will +continue to obey the old orders even when new ones +are given.</p> + +<p>Many persons would like to break off the habit of +drinking beer or whisky, of chewing tobacco, and using +bad language, but they find it very hard to make the +mind rule the body because they have let the nerves +have their own way so long.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>Speaking cheerfully to those we meet, giving a kind +word to our friends, and looking pleasant are good +habits which every one ought to form in youth. +They not only make the mind better, but they help +the body to keep well and will prepare the way for +success in life later. Nobody wants a grumbling +clerk or a sour-faced housekeeper.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i153" id="i153"></a> +<img src="images/i153.jpg" width="500" height="244" alt="Expressions" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 88</span> +—The difference in appearance between a pouting and a pleasant expression.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Parts of the Body work without Orders from the +Brain.</b>—A snake with its brain crushed will still +squirm and a chicken with its head cut off jumps +about. These movements are caused by orders sent +from the spinal cord. When the hand or foot is +being hurt, the spinal cord orders the muscles to +draw the limb away even before we feel the pain +in the brain. Many of the movements of the body +which are often repeated may be directed by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +spinal cord, while the brain is left free to do other +work. This is why the spinal cord is called the helping +manager.</p> + +<p>The action of the muscles in the walls of the blood +vessels, the working of the stomach, the liver, pancreas, +and other glands are not directed by the brain, +but by the <i>sympathetic nerves</i>. These extend from +a little cord on either side of the backbone to all +parts of the body and make the organs, such as the +heart and sweat glands, which we cannot make obey +our will, do their work.</p> + +<p><b>Injury to the Nerves.</b>—The nerves are so important +for the welfare of the body that all the chief ones are +placed deep in the flesh, where they are not likely to +be hurt. If the nerves leading to the arm were cut, +it could not be moved, and we should have no +feeling in it. The hurting of a part of the brain, the +spinal cord, or the nerves may cause loss of feeling or +motion in the leg, arm, or other part of the body. +Such a part then seems asleep or dead and is said to +have <i>paralysis</i>.</p> + +<p>Pressing on a nerve prevents it from acting. Sitting +so as to press on the nerve of the leg often makes +the foot go to sleep. The bursting of a blood vessel +in the brain may let a blood clot form and press on +the nerves which govern the arm or the leg. This +pressure may cause paralysis.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span><b>Resting the Brain.</b>—When there is no food in the +stomach, it has time to rest. When we sit down or +lie down, the muscles get rest. The brain is always +busy except when we are asleep. No one can live +even a week without sleep. If a dog is kept awake +five days, it will die.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i155" id="i155"></a> +<img src="images/i155.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt="Sleeping positions" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 89</span> +—Sleeping in the position shown in the lower figure prevents free +breathing and tends to cause round shoulders. The upper figure shows +correct position.</p> +</div> + +<p>Children need much more sleep than older persons. +Men and women who work should have about eight +hours of sleep daily to remain in good health. Children +of twelve years should sleep nine hours each day; +those of ten years, ten hours; those of seven years, +eleven hours; and those of four years, twelve hours.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span><b>Getting the most out of Sleep.</b>—You should go to +bed every night at about the same hour. This will help +you to fall asleep as soon as you are in bed. Do not +sleep in the clothes which you have worn during the +day, but hang them up to air, and put on a night +robe.</p> + +<p>Children should use a very low pillow, so that the +body can lie straight in the bed. This gives the lungs +and heart freedom to act. Do not lie on the back as +this causes some of the organs to press on certain +nerves and makes you dream. The windows should +be opened wide because fresh air is the best aid to +rest and health and keeps away tuberculosis.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. What makes the parts of the body work together?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Describe the surface of the brain.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Name the three parts of the brain.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Of what is the outer layer of the brain made?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Where is the spinal cord?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What are nerve fibers?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. What work does the brain do?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. What makes the mind good or bad?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What is habit?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. How long should children sleep?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. How can you get the most good out of sleep?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXI</h2> +<h3>HOW NARCOTICS AND STIMULANTS AFFECT THE<br /> +BRAIN AND NERVES</h3> + +<p><b>What Narcotics and Stimulants Are.</b>—A <i>narcotic</i> +is something which when taken into the body makes +the organs do their work more slowly and tends to +cause sleepiness. Alcoholic drinks, tobacco, opium, +soothing sirups, and pain killers are narcotics.</p> + +<p>A <i>stimulant</i> is a substance which makes the organs +of the body do more and quicker work and does not +later make the organs work more slowly. Coffee +and tea are stimulants. Beer, wine, and whisky were +once thought to be stimulants, but experiments have +shown them to be narcotics. They urge the brain to +faster work for a few minutes, but a half hour later +they make it act slower than usual.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol hurts the Brain.</b>—Within five minutes +after a drink of beer or whisky has been swallowed, +part of the alcohol has reached the blood. Within +fifteen minutes much of the alcohol has gone from +the stomach directly into the blood. In a minute +after entering the blood vessels it reaches the brain.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>If much strong drink is taken, the cells of the brain +become so numbed that they cannot give the right +orders to the muscles to move the limbs. The person +then staggers about and is said to be drunk. Much +whisky taken will make the nerve cells so numb that +a man cannot move, and he will then lie down as if +in a deep sleep.</p> + +<p>A tablespoonful of whisky will make a child drunk +and twice that amount may make him very sick. +Much use of strong drink sometimes gives to the +brain a terrible disease called <i>delirium tremens</i>. In +this sickness the man thinks he sees horned animals, +hissing snakes, and other creatures which annoy him.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol injures the Thinking Part of the Brain.</b>—It +was once thought that wine or whisky would +make a man think better. Now we know that either +of these drinks makes his thoughts slower and also +causes him to make mistakes.</p> + +<p>Two doctors in Europe made many tests with men +to learn how alcohol affected their thinking. They +found that when using wine the men could do about +one tenth less work in adding numbers than when +they took no strong drink. These doctors also tested +the effect of alcohol on memory and discovered that +the use of even small quantities of liquor caused their +pupils to learn their lessons more slowly.</p> + +<p>When persons have taken only a very little drink,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +they often say and do very foolish things. They +sometimes tell secrets, for which they are very sorry +when they get sober. Often they become angry at the +least cause and strike or even shoot any person who +seems to speak or work against them in any way.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol makes People Steal and Kill.</b>—The alcohol +in strong drink, when often used, appears to deaden +that part of the brain which helps the mind know +right from wrong. In one year the courts of Suffolk +County in Massachusetts found 17,000 persons guilty +of doing some wickedness and in over 12,000 of these +cases alcohol was found to be the cause of doing the +wrong for which they were arrested.</p> + +<p>Some time ago there were collected the records of +30,000 prisoners, and among these over 12,000 had +done their wicked acts while alcohol was numbing the +brain. Lately another careful record of over 13,000 +prisoners in twelve different states has been studied. +In over 4000 of these men the use of strong drink +was the first cause of their crimes.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol makes the Mind Sick.</b>—Since the mind +depends upon certain parts of the brain, whatever +hurts the brain is quite sure to hurt the mind. +When the mind cannot reason rightly, the person is +said to be <i>insane</i>. A study of 2000 insane men in +New York State showed that the use of alcoholic +drink was the cause of the mind sickness in over 500<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +of them. Of 687 persons in Massachusetts who were +so insane that they had to be cared for daily by +others, more than 200 of them were brought to this +sad condition by alcohol.</p> + +<p><b>Brain of the Young easily overcome by Alcohol.</b>—No +one expects to become a drunkard or a criminal +when he first begins to drink. The continued use of +alcohol, however, soon numbs the brain and weakens +the mind, so that the person's will power is lost. He +is then not able to quit drinking even though he +wants to stop. He has become a slave to alcohol.</p> + +<p><i>The brain of a young person is injured much more +quickly by alcohol than that of an older person and he</i> +is much more likely to become a slave than one who +begins the use of drink late in life. Doctor Lambert, +of New York, studied the cases of 259 slaves to alcohol. +He learned that four began to drink before +six years of age; thirteen between six and twelve +years of age; sixty, between twelve and sixteen +years; 102 between sixteen and twenty-one years; +seventy-one, between twenty-one and thirty years; +and only eight after thirty years of age. These facts +teach that it is dangerous for the young to take +strong drink at any time.</p> + +<p><b>Laws against Alcohol.</b>—The men who make laws +for the good of the people are learning that alcohol +is injuring the mind and body of many persons every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +year. For this reason laws have lately been passed +forbidding the sale of strong drink in several entire +states and in large parts of many other states.</p> + +<p><b>Tobacco makes the Brain work Slower.</b>—An examination +of the age and habits of hundreds of the students +entering a large university in New England +showed that those who smoked required more than a +year longer than those who did not use tobacco, to +learn enough to enter the first classes in this school. +Moreover, out of every hundred of those who took +the highest rank in their work in the university, +ninety-five did not use tobacco. It is likely that +tobacco makes the mind work slower by preventing +the full amount of blood from going to the brain. It +does this by making the blood vessels smaller.</p> + +<p>So far as known tobacco has but little effect upon +the brains of older persons.</p> + +<p>Superintendent Ogg of Indiana reports that the occasional +users of cigarettes are a year, and the regular +users two years, behind those who do not smoke. The +conduct and honesty of the smokers were also found +to be lower than among those who did not smoke.</p> + +<p><b>Opium, Morphine, and Cocaine.</b>—All of these harmful +drugs are widely used in our country. They act +on the brain in a strange way. All of them deaden +pain. When a person first begins their use, only a +small amount is required to produce the effect wanted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +on the body. Later the doses must be increased. +After a few months' use the person becomes a slave +to the habit of using them, and he cannot stop their +use without the help of a doctor. It is therefore +dangerous to use these drugs at any time.</p> + +<p>Powders used for colds in the nose, also paregoric +and laudanum, contain these harmful drugs.</p> + +<p><b>Pain Killers and Soothing Sirups.</b>—All pain killers +contain opium or morphine or other harmful drugs. +They are therefore dangerous to use. Pain is useful +in telling us that some organ is out of order and needs +care. Killing the pain does not help the sick organ, +and it may let the organ get so sick as to cause death.</p> + +<p>One use of the nerves is to tell us when any part +of the body is hurt or sick. Pain is nature's warning, +and to numb the nerves which tell us about it is as +foolish as to kill a person because he brings us bad +news. <i>No medicine should ever be given children to +make them sleep or stop their crying except by the +advice of the physician.</i></p> + +<p><b>Powders and Pills.</b>—If you get sick, do not try to +cure yourself with pills or powders bought at the store. +Some of these medicines contain poisons which hurt +the heart or other organs. A number of persons have +been killed by taking such medicines. When you are +sick, go to a good doctor who understands how the +organs should work, and he will find which one is out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +of order and tell you exactly what medicine you need +and what to eat in order to get well quickly.</p> + +<p><b>Tea and Coffee.</b>—These drinks usually wake up the +brain and make it work better for a time. If too much +of them is used, they may excite the brain in such a way +as to make persons nervous. If taken for supper, they +may prevent sleep. Children should not use either +tea or coffee. Tea sometimes disturbs digestion, and +coffee may injure both the stomach and the heart.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. What is a narcotic?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Name some narcotics.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What is a stimulant?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Name some stimulants.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. How long before alcohol taken reaches the brain?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What effect does strong drink have on the brain?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Does alcohol help us think better?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. What facts show that alcohol sends men to prison?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What shows that alcohol makes the mind sick?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Why is it dangerous for the young to take strong drink?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. What shows that tobacco makes the brain work slower?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Why should you not use opium or morphine?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. What do pain killers contain?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXII</h2> +<h3>THE SENSES, OR DOORS OF KNOWLEDGE</h3> + +<p><b>The Organs of Sense.</b>—In order that our body +may keep out of the way of other persons and find +food and drink and do its work, the brain must have +some way of receiving news about what is near +us, how it looks, and of what it is made. Special +organs for receiving knowledge of people and things +about us are scattered over the surface of the body. +They are called <i>sense organs</i>. The chief ones are +the two eyes, the two ears, the nose, and many +organs of taste in the mouth, and the thousands of +tiny organs of feeling in the skin.</p> + +<p><b>The Eye.</b>—The eye consists of a globe called the +<i>eyeball</i> and parts which move this and protect it +from injury. Each eyeball is attached at its back +part to the large nerve of sight (<a href="#i165">Fig. 90</a>). This carries +messages to the brain, telling it what the eye sees.</p> + +<p>The eyeball is held in a socket in the front of the +skull. A layer of fat lines the socket and keeps the +eye from being injured by jars. The <i>eyebrows</i> at +the lower edge of the forehead prevent the sweat +from running into the eyeball.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i165" id="i165"></a> +<img src="images/i165.jpg" width="150" height="106" alt="The eyeball" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 90</span> +—Side of the face cut away to show the eyeball in its socket. <i>n</i> is the nerve of sight; +the other letters show the muscles which move the eyeball.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>The <i>eyelids</i> can close over the front of the eyeball +to shut out dirt or anything else likely to hurt it. The +lids have learned +to do their work +so well that we do +not need to think +to close them when +anything flies toward +the eye, for +they are shut before +we can think.</p> + +<p>A salty fluid +called <i>tears</i> flows +from the tear gland at the upper and outer side of the +eyeball. The tears keep the front of the eyeball clean.</p> + +<p><b>Parts of the Eyeball.</b>—The outside of the eyeball +is a tough white coat except in front, where it is as +clear as glass. Within the outer coat is a very thin +black lining to keep the light from scattering. In +front the lining is not against the outer coat, but +hangs loose and has in it a round hole called the +<i>pupil</i> to let the light pass through. The part around +the hole is the <i>iris</i>. It may be blue, black, or brown, +and can squeeze up so as to make the pupil very +small when the light is strong.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i166" id="i166"></a> +<img src="images/i166.jpg" width="150" height="132" alt="Another view of the eyeball" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 91</span> +—A slice from before backward through the eye.</p> +</div> + +<p>The end of the nerve of sight forms a tender pink +covering over most of the inner surface of the eyeball.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +The cavity within the eyeball is filled with three +clear substances. The +<i>lens</i>, shaped like a +flat door knob, is +fixed just behind the +pupil. In front of the +lens is a <i>watery fluid</i> +and behind it is a clear +<i>jellylike mass</i>. The use +of the lens and also +the other substances +is to bend the rays of +light together so that they will meet at one place.</p> + +<p><b>How the Eyeball is Moved.</b>—Six muscles fixed to +the bones of the socket holding the eye have their +other ends fastened to the tough coat of the eyeball. +One muscle turns the ball upward, another turns it +downward, one turns it inward and another turns +it outward. If an inner or an outer muscle is +too strong, a person may have cross eyes.</p> + +<p><b>Keeping the Eye Strong.</b>—Nearly all young children +have perfect eyes. After a year or two in +school the eyes of some children become weak. +Many children get weak eyes after they are ten or +twelve years old. This is because they have not +taken care of the eyes.</p> + +<p>The eyes are often hurt by reading a book with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +fine print, reading in a dim light, or by leaning over +the book so that the eyes look downward instead of +straight forward. As the eyes are very weak after +measles and most other diseases, they should not be +used much until a week or more after recovery.</p> + +<p>In reading the book should be held a little over a +foot in front of the chest and you should sit nearly +straight and let the light fall on the page from one +side. Never read while lying down because it strains +the eyes. Stop reading as soon as the eyes smart.</p> + +<p><b>Helping the Eyes to See.</b>—Very few old people +can see to read without the help of glasses, because +the lens of the eye hardens in old age. To see things +near by, the shape of the lens must be changed. In +some children, the shape of the eyes has become so +changed by straining them to read fine print or see +things in a dim light that the eyes hurt after being +used for any kind of work, and the head may often +ache and make the whole body feel bad. Such eyes +need help. You should have them examined by +an eye doctor who can fit you with glasses which +will help you see clearly without headache.</p> + +<p><b>Keeping the Eyes Well.</b>—Bits of dirt often get +beneath the eyelids and cause much pain. By taking +hold of the eyelashes the lid may be pulled out from +the eye and any dirt removed with the corner of a +clean handkerchief passed gently along the lid.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>The eyes sometimes become sore because they are +rubbed with soiled fingers on which are germs. These +germs get inside the lids and grow, and in this way +poison the eyes. Unless care is used sore eyes are +likely to spread from one child to another in the +school. The sick child rubs its eyes and then handles +a book or pencil on which the germs are smeared by +the fingers which touched the eyes. The next child +picks up the same book later, gets the germs on the +fingers, and then rubs the eyes. For this reason you +should never rub the eyes. If you have sore eyes, <i>be +careful that no one else catches the sickness from you</i>.</p> + +<p><b>The Ear.</b>—The ear is made of three parts called +the <i>outer ear</i>, the <i>middle ear</i> or <i>eardrum</i>, and the +<i>inner ear</i>. The outer ear is made of a plate of skin +and gristle and a slightly bent tube about one inch +long. At the inner end of this tube is a thin membrane +or <i>drumhead</i>. Beyond the drumhead is the +cavity of the middle ear about as large as a pea. A +chain of three tiny bones stretches from the outer +drumhead across this cavity to a tiny <i>inner drumhead</i>. +Beyond the inner drumhead is the inner ear.</p> + +<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="i169" id="i169"></a> +<img src="images/i169.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt="The ear" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 92</span> +—View of the ear from in front. Three little bones stretch across +the middle ear.</p> +</div> + +<p>The middle ear is kept full of air by means of a +tube leading from it to the throat. A cold or other +sickness may cause this tube to fill up and make you +deaf. The inner ear consists of a sac and four bent +tubes filled with a watery fluid. They are also surrounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +by watery fluid contained in channels in a +bone of the skull. The end of the nerve of hearing +is on one of the tubes.</p> + +<p><b>How we Hear.</b>—Throwing a stone in the water +makes waves which move farther and farther outward. +In the same way a noise causes waves in the air. +These waves pass into the ear tube, strike the outer +drumhead, and make it move. This moves the chain +of bones in the middle ear so that they cause motion +in the inner drumhead. This in moving back and +forth makes waves in the fluid of the inner ear which +strike on the ends of the nerve of hearing and cause +messages to be carried to the brain.</p> + +<p><b>Care of the Ears.</b>—The ears should not be struck +or pulled, as the eardrum is easily broken. Do not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +put pencils, pins, or anything else in your ears. Wax +naturally forms in the ear tube to keep out bugs and +flies. The outer part of the tube may be kept clean +by wiping it with a moist cloth over the little finger. +If you often have earache or a running ear, you +should have it examined by a physician. <i>Neglecting +a sick ear may cause deafness.</i></p> + +<p>Some persons are deaf in one ear and do not know +it. Test each ear by covering the other one with a +heavy cloth and note how far off you can hear the +ticks of a watch.</p> + +<p><b>The Nose.</b>—The nose has a skinlike lining, but it +is always kept moist by little glands which give out +a watery fluid. The endings of the nerve of smell +are in the lining in the upper part of the nose. Two +nerves lead from the nose to the brain.</p> + +<p>When we catch cold, much blood rushes to the lining +of the nose and it becomes swollen. It then gives +out a thick white mucus. This covers the nerve endings, +so that we cannot smell.</p> + +<p>Smell is of great use in telling us whether our food +is good, by helping us to enjoy food with a pleasant +odor, and by warning us against bad air.</p> + +<p><b>The Sense of Taste.</b>—The nerves by which we +taste end in the soft covering of the tongue and some +other parts of the mouth. A food cannot be tasted +while it is dry. For this reason much slippery fluid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +flows into the mouth from glands under the ears and +tongue. This fluid, called <i>saliva</i>, softens the solid food +when it is well chewed, so we can taste it.</p> + +<p><b>The Senses of the Skin.</b>—There are endings of +nerves in the skin all over the body. They are of +three or four different kinds. Some of them tell us +about heat, others tell us about cold. Some tell us +about the shape, the smoothness, or hardness of objects, +while others tell us when the skin gets hurt.</p> + +<p>Most of the nerve endings are in the deeper part of +the skin, so that they are covered by the epidermis +and cannot be hurt by the rough things handled.</p> + +<p><b>Alcohol and the Senses.</b>—The senses are but little +affected by a small amount of alcoholic drink. The +sense of taste, after being accustomed to the sharpness +of strong drink, may be less easily pleased with the +taste of common food and drink.</p> + +<p>The use of large amounts of alcohol blunts all the +senses. In a drunken man the senses of the skin are +so numbed that he does not know when anything +touches him, and he may be badly burned before he +feels the pain.</p> + +<p>Heavy drinking makes the hearing less keen, enlarges +the blood vessels of the eyes, and makes them +appear red and bloodshot.</p> + +<p><b>Tobacco and the Senses.</b>—The use of tobacco does +not injure the senses of the skin and usually has no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +effect on hearing. Both chewing and smoking, if +much practiced, make the sense of taste less delicate, +so that one cannot enjoy his food to the fullest extent.</p> + +<p>Much smoking of tobacco may hurt the nerve of +sight and in a few cases it has made men blind. Many +boys have weakened their eyes by the use of cigarettes.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Name the chief sense organs.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Of what use are the eyelids and tears?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Name four parts of the eyeball.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. What is the iris?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Of what use is the lens?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What moves the eyeball?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. When do children get weak eyes?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. How are the eyes often hurt?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. How may poor eyes be helped?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. What makes the eyes sore?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. How do germs get into the eyes?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Name the three parts of the ear.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. What does the inner ear contain?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">14. What may result from neglecting a sick ear?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">15. Of what use is smell?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">16. Why should food be well chewed?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">17. In what part of the skin are most of the nerve endings?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">18. What effect does tobacco have on the sense of taste?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXIII</h2> + +<h3>KEEPING AWAY SICKNESS</h3> + +<p><b>Too Much Sickness.</b>—Many diseases are caused by +our own carelessness and our bad habits of living. +We have about one doctor for every one hundred +families. There are enough people sick every day to +make a city as large as New York or to equal the +number of people living in the thirteen states of +Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Arizona, New Mexico, +Utah, Delaware, Montana, Vermont, New Hampshire, +North Dakota and South Dakota, and Oklahoma.</p> + +<p>A careful study of disease and its cause shows that +at least one half of all the sickness in our land can +be avoided by right living.</p> + +<p><b>The Cause of Sickness.</b>—Some people are so foolish +as to make themselves sick. They weaken the body +by using much beer or wine, by breathing bad air, by +lack of exercise, or by fast eating. When the body +becomes weak, it is likely to get sick at any time.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i174" id="i174"></a> +<img src="images/i174.jpg" width="150" height="140" alt="Germs" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 93</span> +—The germs of diseases. Much enlarged.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is not always our own fault when we are sick. +It may be caused by the carelessness of others who +have let germs escape from their bodies so that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +are able to reach us. One half of the sickness in our +land is catching sickness. That is, it is sickness which +passes from one +person to another +and is caused by +tiny germs or microbes. +A catching +sickness is +called a <i>contagious +disease</i>. Some of +the common catching +diseases are +sore throat, colds, +diphtheria, pneumonia, +typhoid fever, measles, grippe, and whooping +cough.</p> + +<p><b>How we get a Catching Sickness.</b>—We get a catching +sickness by taking into our bodies the germs from +some other person. The germs of the sick do not pass +off in the breath, but in the spit or anything else which +comes from their bodies. This is why the spit and +all slops from the sick room should be burned, buried, +or destroyed in some way.</p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i175" id="i175"></a> +<img src="images/i175.jpg" width="150" height="195" alt="The path of germs" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 94</span> +—How the germs of disease start on their mission of death. This sewer +carries slops from the houses of the sick and well and empties into a stream +used below for drinking water.</p> +</div> + +<p>We should think it very wicked if a showman should +turn his lions and tigers loose in a crowd of women +and children. Somebody would surely be killed and +others hurt. It is just as wrong to turn loose the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +germs of the sick by throwing the spit and the slops +where they will get into a stream or where the flies +may find them and by +soiling their feet leave +death in their trail +wherever they crawl.</p> + +<p><b>How the Germs of +Sickness catch Us.</b>—The +germs of sickness +have no feet to walk +and no wings to fly, +yet they easily travel +from the sick to the +well. They are not +killed by being frozen, +or drowned by floating +in water, or destroyed +by drying. +For this reason they can travel with the ice, water, +milk, and dust.</p> + +<p>In Buffalo, New York, fifty-seven children caught +the scarlet fever in one week by using milk cared for +by a boy who was getting well from the scarlet fever.</p> + +<p>The germs of sickness are so small that a million +can hang to the hands or clothing and not be seen. +For this reason they are often left clinging to the +fingers, desks, books, and pencils, and travel in large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +numbers on the feet of flies. The surest way the +germs have of getting from one person to another is +by the common drinking cup.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i176" id="i176"></a> +<img src="images/i176.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="Clear beef broth jelly" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 95</span> +—Photograph of clear beef broth jelly in which a fly walked +five minutes scattering germs. Two days later each germ brushed +off the fly's feet grew into a city of germs appearing as a white spot.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Common Drinking Cup is an Exchange Station +for Germs.</b>—The most careful examinations have +shown that there are +thousands of children as +well as grown persons +who have very light attacks +of scarlet fever, +tuberculosis, or other diseases +and go to school or +about their work scattering +the germs of sickness +in their spit. A child +seldom drinks from a +cup without leaving on +it thousands of germs. +Some of these may be germs which will cause sickness. +On one drinking cup used in a school, the +germs were found to be as thick as the leaves on a +maple tree in June.</p> + +<p>In an Ohio school one warm day, a boy with beginning +measles drank from the cup which was afterward +used on the same day by the teacher and all the +other pupils. In less than two weeks every pupil +and the teacher were suffering from measles. <i>Put<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +nothing into your mouth which has been in another's +mouth.</i></p> + +<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i177" id="i177"></a> +<img src="images/i177.jpg" width="150" height="103" alt="Schoolhouse" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 96</span> +—A schoolhouse in Morgan county, Ohio, where sixteen pupils and the +teacher caught the measles in one day by drinking from a cup which had been +used by a boy sick with the measles.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>The Golden Rule.</b>—If you have a catching sickness, +such as measles, chicken pox, or whooping +cough, stay away from others. Since the germs of +some diseases, like +scarlet fever and diphtheria, +remain in the +spit sometimes several +months after you feel +well, don't scatter +your spit. Hold a +handkerchief before +your face when you +sneeze or cough. <i>Wash +your hands before +handling food.</i></p> + +<p><b>Some Animals carry Sickness.</b>—Mosquitoes carry +malaria and yellow fever and some other diseases. +Flies carry typhoid fever, grippe, diphtheria, and +tuberculosis. Bedbugs and fleas carry the plague and +leprosy. Rats carry the plague. Cats sometimes +carry diphtheria. Many cows have tuberculosis and +the germs of this disease are then sometimes found +in their milk. Some children have caught tuberculosis +from drinking such milk.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i178" id="i178"></a> +<img src="images/i178.jpg" width="150" height="114" alt="Splatter from a sneeze" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 97</span> +—A pane of glass held about two feet before the face of a boy who sneezed. The spots are the +droplets of spit thrown out. Each spot showed under the microscope from 50 to 1000 germs.</p> +</div> + +<p><b>Keeping away Smallpox.</b>—Smallpox was once the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +most terrible of all diseases. It is so catching that +two or three were often sick with it at one time in the +same family. Sometimes nearly one half the people +of a whole town would have the disease in one year. +Over a hundred +years ago +nearly every +grown up person +had little +pits scattered +over his face +as a result of +having had +smallpox.</p> + +<p>You can always +keep +away smallpox +by being vaccinated. The doctor can vaccinate you +by putting on the freshly scraped skin of your arm +some weak smallpox germs from a clean healthy calf +which has been vaccinated. Your arm will in a few +days get sore and you will not feel well for about one +week, but you will be made safe from smallpox for +several years.</p> + +<p>Fifty nurses were vaccinated in Philadelphia and +cared for many sick with the smallpox, staying with +them day after day, but not one of the nurses took<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +the disease. <i>Every one should be vaccinated when a +year old and again at the age of ten or twelve years.</i></p> + +<p><b>Colds.</b>—Some colds are catching, but we generally +take cold because we have weak bodies or have been +careless. If you want to be free from colds, remember +these six rules:—</p> + +<p>Don't sit still in wet clothes or with wet feet.</p> + +<p>Don't sit in a cold draft or in a cold room.</p> + +<p>Don't sit on the damp ground or on the ice when +you are resting from skating.</p> + +<p>Don't cool off quickly after exercising.</p> + +<p>Sleep in a room with the windows <i>wide</i> open.</p> + +<p>Take a cold bath every morning and draw fresh +air to the bottom of the lungs many times every day.</p> + +<p><b>Tuberculosis or Consumption.</b>—This disease is so +common and deadly that twenty persons die from it +in our country every hour. It is caused by tiny +germs (<a href="#i108bottom">Fig. 63</a>) which lodge in the lungs, glands, +bones, or other parts of the body, where they give off +poison and hurt the tissues. We take these germs +into the body with dust or food, and also by putting +to the lips a drinking cup or other things used by a +consumptive. Generally the germs will not grow in +a strong body, even when they have lodged there.</p> + +<p><b>Preventing Consumption.</b>—Living in poorly lighted +houses without much fresh air, working in dusty +rooms, using much strong drink and tobacco, eating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +poor food, losing sleep, neglecting a cough, and taking +little or no outdoor exercise weaken the body so +that the consumption germs can grow in it. Deep +breathing, sitting and walking erect, living in rooms +with sunshine, sleeping with the windows open eight +or nine hours every night, and eating good food +will prevent one from taking consumption and will +often cure the disease. Persons with this sickness +give out the germs in their spit, which should be +caught in a cup and burned.</p> + +<p><b>The Hookworm Disease.</b>—This is a sickness affecting +thousands of persons in the South. It is caused +by tiny worms half as large as a pin hanging fast to +the lining of the bowels. The worm is sometimes +called the lazy germ because it destroys the red blood +cells and makes the body feel weak and lazy. Children +with these worms grow slowly, have a dry skin, +and a swollen abdomen with a tender spot below the +stomach.</p> + +<p>The disease is easily cured by a physician, but it is +better to prevent it by killing the germs in the waste +from the bowels. For directions, address the Department +of Health at the capital of your state. If the +germs reach the ground they crawl around and may +get into the well, and enter the body again with the +drinking water. Generally, however, the worms +enter through the skin of those going barefooted, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +are carried by the blood to the lungs. From here +they go up the windpipe to the throat, and then down +the gullet to the bowels. It is their entrance through +the skin that causes ground itch or dew itch. Wearing +shoes will help prevent the disease.</p> + +<p><b>A Strong Body Wins.</b>—Nobody wants to be weak +and sickly. Most all of us could keep well if we +would try in the right way to keep the body strong.</p> + +<p>To keep the body in health it must have plenty of +sleep, enough good food well chewed, plenty of clean +water, exercise every day, and an abundance of fresh +air. The body is the temple of the soul. Don't hurt +it with bad habits.</p> + +<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. How many people are sick to-day in our country?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. How can much sickness be avoided?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What causes sickness?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. What is a contagious disease?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Name some contagious diseases.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How do we get a catching sickness?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Why should we be careful with the slops from the sick</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">room?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Tell how children in Buffalo caught scarlet fever.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What is the danger in using a cup from which others</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;">have drunk?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. How can you prevent others from getting your sickness?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Name some animals which carry <a name="sickness" id="sickness"></a>sickness.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. How can we keep away smallpox?</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. Give six rules to keep away colds.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">14. How may the body be kept strong?</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p> +<h2>CHAPTER XXIV</h2> +<h3>HELPING BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES</h3> + +<p><b>The Need of Quick Help.</b>—In many places in the +country, or when out camping, it is impossible to get +a doctor in less than two or three hours. Unless +some one at hand can give aid before the doctor +comes, much suffering and even death may result +when a simple accident occurs. For this reason +every one should know how to help in case of such +accidents as burns, bleeding, choking, and sunstroke.</p> + +<p><b>Clothing on Fire.</b>—Children should never play +about an open fire. A single spark lighting on a +cotton dress may cause it to burst into a blaze so that +within a few minutes the child is enveloped in flames.</p> + +<p>The quickest way to put out such a fire is to wrap +the child in a blanket, a piece of carpet, a coat, or any +part of your clothing quickly removed. If nothing +is at hand to wrap the sufferer in, roll him over and +over in the dirt or weeds until the flames are smothered. +When your clothing is on fire, you must not +run, because this fans the fire and makes it burn.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span><b>Burns and Scalds.</b>—If there is clothing on the +part burned, it should be taken off slowly so as not to +tear the skin. If the clothing sticks, soak it in oil a +few minutes until it gets loose. Cover the burned +part as quickly as possible with vaseline or a clean +cloth soaked in a quart of boiled water containing a +cup of washing soda. Let nothing dirty touch the +burned surface and keep it well wrapped.</p> + +<p><b>Bleeding.</b>—A person can lose a quart of blood +without danger of death and may live after more +than two quarts have been lost, but it is wise to try +to stop any flow of blood as quickly as possible. +Tying a clean cloth folded several times over the cut +will in most cases stop the flow. This will help a +clot to form and will also close the ends of the cut +vessels if the bandage is twisted tight with a stick.</p> + +<p>If the cut is on a limb and the blood comes out in +spurts, a bandage tied about the limb between the cut +and the body may be twisted tight with a stick so as +to press upon the artery and close it. A piece of +wood or folded cloth placed over the artery under the +bandage before it is tightened is helpful.</p> + +<p><b>Nosebleed.</b>—Some persons are troubled frequently +with bleeding from the nose. The least knock may +cause it to bleed for more than an hour. It may +generally be stopped without sending for a doctor.</p> + +<p>Sit up straight to keep the blood out of the head<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +and press the middle part of the nose firmly between +the fingers. Apply a cold wet cloth or a lump of ice +wrapped in a cloth to the back of the neck. Put a +bag of pounded ice on the root of the nose. If it +does not stop in a half hour, wet a soft rag or a piece +of cotton with cold tea or alum water and put it +gently into the bleeding nostril so as to entirely close +it. Do not blow the nose for several hours after the +bleeding has stopped as this may start it again.</p> + +<p><b>Fainting.</b>—Fainting may be caused by bad air, an +overheated room, by fear, or by some other excitement. +A fainting person falls down and appears to be +asleep. The lips are pale and there may be cold +sweat on the forehead. There is too little blood in +the brain, and the heart is weak.</p> + +<p>A fainting person should be laid flat on the floor or +on a couch, and all doors and windows opened wide. +Loosen all tight clothing and apply to the forehead +a cloth wet with cold water. A faint usually lasts +only a few minutes.</p> + +<p><b>Sunstroke.</b>—A person with sunstroke becomes +giddy, sick at the stomach, and weak. He then gets +drowsy and may seem as if asleep, but he cannot be +aroused. The skin is hot and dry instead of being +cold and pale, as in fainting. The doctor should be +sent for at once.</p> + +<p>The first aid for sunstroke is to put the patient in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +a cool cellar or an icehouse, raise the head, and wet +the head, neck, and back of the chest with cold +water. As soon as he wakens put him in a cool +room.</p> + +<p><b>Frostbite.</b>—When out in very cold weather, the +end of the nose, the tips of the ears, and the toes and +fingers are sometimes frozen. If a person comes into +a warm room, these frozen parts will give much pain. +The parts should be rubbed with snow or ice water +until a tingling sensation is felt.</p> + +<p><b>Breaks in the Skin.</b>—A small cut or tear in the +skin may become very sore and cause much trouble +if not cared for so as to keep the germs out. If there +is dirt in the wound, as when made with a rusty nail +or by the bite of a dog, it should be squeezed and +washed with boiled water to make it perfectly clean. +It may then be bound up in a clean cloth. A little +turpentine poured on the wound will help kill the +germs which may make it sore. If the dog is thought +to be mad or the wound is too deep to be easily +washed out to the bottom, a doctor should be called.</p> + +<p><b>Snakebite.</b>—The scratches made by the little +teeth of most snakes, such as the milk snake, garter +snake, and black snake, do no more harm than the +scratch of a pin. The <i>copperhead</i>, the <i>southern moccasin</i>, +and the <i>rattlesnake</i> have a pair of long teeth +called <i>fangs</i> in the upper jaw. These teeth have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +little canals in them through which the snake presses +poison into the bite.</p> + +<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="i186" id="i186"></a> +<img src="images/i186.jpg" width="150" height="145" alt="Copperhead snake" title=""/> +<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 98</span> +—Photograph of a copperhead snake whose bite may cause death.</p> +</div> + +<p>If a person is bitten +by one of these snakes, +the doctor must be sent +for and help given at +once. Put a bandage +above the bite and twist +it tight with a stick. +Make two or three deep +cuts into the bitten place +to let out the poisoned +blood. Suck the wound to draw out the poison and +apply ammonia.</p> + +<p><b>Choking.</b>—A hard piece of meat, a bone, or a peach +seed may slip back into the throat and press so hard +on the windpipe as to cut off the air from the lungs. +If the object is not far back in the throat, it may be +seized with the first finger. A few smart slaps on +the upper part of the back while the body is bent +forward may drive enough air out of the lungs to +push the object outward.</p> + +<p><b>Drowning.</b>—Every one should learn to swim while +young, but no one should venture in deep water. Stiffening +of the muscles called cramps often causes the +best swimmer to drown.</p> + +<p>After a person has been under the water two or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +three minutes he appears lifeless. He may, however, +be brought to life if laid face downward, his clothes +loosened, and the lungs made to breathe. A heavy +folded coat, a piece of sod, or a bunch of weeds should +be put under the chest. Then standing astride of +him place the hands on the lower ribs and bend forward +gradually so as to press on the ribs and push +the air out of the lungs. Then straighten your body +and slowly lessen pressure on the patient's ribs so +that the air will run into the lungs. In this way +make the air go in and out of the lungs about fifteen +times each minute.</p> + +<p><b>Poisoning.</b>—Whenever a person has taken poison, a +physician should be sent for at once. In most cases +an effort should be made to get the poison out of the +stomach by causing vomiting. A glass or two of +weak, warm soapsuds, a pint of water with a tablespoonful +of mustard, or a glass of water with two +tablespoonfuls of salt may be taken to make the +stomach throw out the poison. Tickling the throat +<a name="back" id="back"></a>back of the tongue will help cause vomiting.</p> + +<p>If a strong acid such as carbolic acid or a strong +alkali such as ammonia has been taken, do not cause +vomiting. For acids give chalk in warm water and +a pint of milk. For an alkali give vinegar in water.</p> + +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + +<ul class="index"> + <li>Ab do´men, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + <li>Ad´e noids, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li>Air and health, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + <li>Air sacs, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + <li>Air tubes, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + <li>Alcohol, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>. + <ul> + <li>and blood, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> + <li>and blood vessels, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li>and brain, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + <li>and clothing, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + <li>and crime, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + <li>and digestion, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + <li>and health, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + <li>and kidneys, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + <li>and lungs, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + <li>and muscles, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + <li>and senses, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + <li>and skin, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Alcoholic drinks, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>. + <ul> + <li>as food, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>A or´ta, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li>Appetite, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + <li>Arteries, <a href="#Page_18">19</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Backbone, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li>Bac te´ria, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>. + <ul> + <li>of disease, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + <li>of milk, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Bathing, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + <li>Beans, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li>Bedbugs and disease, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + <li>Beef tea, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li>Beer and digestion, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>. + <ul> + <li>as a food, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + <li>and heart, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> + <li>making of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Bile, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + <li>Blackdeath, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + <li>Bleeding, to stop, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + <li>Blood, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + <li>Blood vessels, <a href="#Page_18">19</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + <li>Body, parts of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>-<a href="#Page_18">19</a>.</li> + <li>Bones, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> + <li>Bowels, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>.</li> + <li>Brain, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li> + <li>Brain, use of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + <li>Brandy, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + <li>Bread, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li>Breathing, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + <li>Building foods, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li>Burns and scalds, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li> + <li>Butter, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Capillaries, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_119">120</a>.</li> + <li>Carbon dioxide, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + <li>Cells, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + <li>Cereals, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + <li>Cer´e brum, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + <li>Chest, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + <li>Chewing and health, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + <li>Choking, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + <li>Cholera, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li>Cider, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li> + <li>Cigarettes, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + <li>Cleanliness, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li> + <li>Clothing, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-<a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> + <li>Co´ca ine, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + <li>Coffee, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + <li>Colds, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + <li>Consumption, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + <li>Cooking of eggs, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>. + <ul> + <li>of meat, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Corns, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li>Cotton, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> + <li>Cream, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Deafness, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + <li>Diaphragm (<i>di´a fram</i>), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + <li>Digestion, organs of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + <li>Diphtheria, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + <li>Disease, cause of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>. + <ul> + <li>from alcohol, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> + <li>from bad air, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + <li>from drinking cup, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + <li>from dust, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + <li>of eyes, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li> + <li>from flies, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + <li>from insects, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li>from milk, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + <li>prevention of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> + Disease, from spit, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>. + <ul> + <li>victory over, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Dis til la´tion, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + <li>Drinking cup and disease, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li> + <li>Drowning, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + <li>Drunkards, cause of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li>Dust and disease, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + <li>Dys pep´si a, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Ear, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + <li>Eggs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li>Epidermis, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li> + <li>Exercise, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + <li>Eye, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>-<a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Fainting, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + <li>Fat, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li>Fats, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li>Feeding of body, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + <li>Feeling, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + <li>Feet, care of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li>Fish as food, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + <li>Fleas and disease, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li>Flies and disease, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, + <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + <li>Food, amount needed, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>. + <ul> + <li>and health, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + <li>digestion of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + <li>entrance to blood, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Foods, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + <li>Freckles, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li> + <li>Frostbite, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + <li>Fruits, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li>Fuel foods, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Gastric juice, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + <li>Germs, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_40">40</a>. + <ul> + <li>of disease, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + <li>of milk, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + <li>of spit, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Glands, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + <li>Growth of body, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + <li>Gullet, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Habit, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + <li>Habits, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + <li>Hair, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> + <li>Headache, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + <li>Hearing, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> + <li>Heart, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + <li>Hookworm disease, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + <li>Hookworms, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li>Hy´gi ene, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Insects and health, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li>Intestine, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li>Intestines, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Joints, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Kidney, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li>Kidneys, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Larynx (<i>lar´inks</i>), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + <li>Leprosy, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li>Life, length of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + <li>Ligaments, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li> + <li>Linen, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + <li>Liver, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + <li>Lung, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li>Lungs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Malaria, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li>Measles, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li>Meat, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>. + <ul> + <li>cooking of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + <li>spoiling of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Meats, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + <li>Mi´crobes, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + <li>Milk, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>. + <ul> + <li>and scarlet fever, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> + <li>as a food, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li>souring of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Mineral foods, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li>Mold, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li> + <li>Morphine, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + <li>Mosquitoes and disease, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> + <li>Mouth<a name="Mouth" id="Mouth"></a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + <li>Muscles, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>-<a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + <li>Muscles and health, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Nails, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> + <li>Nar cot´ics, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + <li>Nerves, <a href="#Page_18">19</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + <li>Nose, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + <li>Nose bleed, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Opium, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + <li>Organ, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + <li>Organs of body, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> + <li>Oxygen, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + <li>Oysters as a food, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>Painkillers, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> + <li>Pan´cre as, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>.</li> + <li>Pa ral´y sis, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + <li>Patent medicines, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> + <li>Pharynx (<i>far´inks</i>), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + <li>Plague, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li>Poisoning, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> + <li>Pro´te ids, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + <li>Pus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Radius, <a href="#Page_136">137</a>.</li> + <li>Ribs, <a href="#Page_136">137</a>.</li> + <li>Rum, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Sa li´va, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + <li>Salt, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> + <li>Scarlet fever, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + <li>Sense organs, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>-<a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + <li>Shoes, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> + <li>Sick, number of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li> + <li>Sickness, how caused, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>. + <ul> + <li>prevention of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Silk, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + <li>Skin, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a>. + <ul> + <li>senses of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Skull, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + <li>Sleep, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>. + <ul> + <li>and disease, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Sleeping sickness, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + <li>Slops, care of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li>Smallpox, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + <li>Smell, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li> + <li>Smoking, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + <li>Snakebites, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + <li>Sore throat, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li>Soups, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li> + <li>Spinal cord, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">19</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + <li>Spit, care of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li> + <li>Spitting and health, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + <li>Spleen, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + <li>Starch, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + <li>Stimulants, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + <li>Stomach, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_52">53</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li> + <li>Sugars, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + <li>Sunstroke, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li> + <li>Sweeping and health, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + <li>Sweetbread, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + <li>Swimming, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li> + <li>Sym pa thet´ic nerves, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Taste, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> + <li>Tea, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + <li>Teeth, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> + <li>Thigh, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + <li>Tissue, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + <li>Tobacco, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>. + <ul> + <li>and air, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + <li>and blood, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> + <li>and brain, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + <li>and digestion, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + <li>as food, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + <li>and health, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li> + <li>and heart, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + <li>and lungs, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + <li>and muscles, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + <li>and senses, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Tonsil, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li>Toothache, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + <li>Tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>. + <ul> + <li>and bad air, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + <li>cause of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + <li>prevention of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>-<a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>, + <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Trunk, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + <li>Typhoid fever, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>. + <ul> + <li>how caused, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_27">28</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Vaccination, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li> + <li>Vegetables as food, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + <li>Veins, <a href="#Page_27">28</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + <li>Ventilation, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + <li>Villi, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + <li>Vocal cords, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> + <li>Voice, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + <li>Voice box, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>War, deaths from, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + <li>Waste, giving out of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + <li>Water, use of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + <li>Water and health, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_27">28</a>.</li> + <li>Water in food, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> + <li>Whisky, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + <li>Whooping cough, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> + <li>Wigglers, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + <li>Windpipe, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + <li>Wine, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_27">28</a>. + <ul> + <li>and digestion, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + <li>making of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>Wounds, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li> + + <li class="pad"> </li> + + <li>Yeast, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> + <li>Yellow fever, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> +</ul> + +<div class="frame"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p> +<h2>BALDWIN AND BENDER'S<br /> +READERS</h2> + +<p class="center">Reading with Expression</p> + +<blockquote><p>By JAMES BALDWIN, Author of Baldwin's School Readers, +Harper's Readers, etc. and IDA C. BENDER, +Supervisor of Primary Grades, Buffalo, New York.</p> + +<p>AN EIGHT BOOK SERIES or A FIVE BOOK SERIES</p></blockquote> + +<hr /> + +<p>The authorship of this series is conclusive evidence of +its rare worth, of its happy union of the ideal and the +practical. The chief design of the books is to help pupils +to acquire the art and habit of reading so well as to give pleasure +both to themselves and to those who listen to them. They +teach reading with expression, and the selections have, to a +large extent, been chosen for this purpose.</p> + +<p>¶ These readers are very teachable and readable, and are unusually +interesting both in selections and in illustrations. The +selections are of a very high literary quality. Besides the +choicest schoolbook classics, there are a large number which +have never before appeared in school readers. The contents +are well balanced between prose and poetry, and the subject +matter is unusually varied. Beginning with the Third Reader, +selections relating to similar subjects or requiring similar +methods of study or recitation, are grouped together. Many +selections are in dialogue form and suitable for dramatization.</p> + +<p>¶ The First Reader may be used with any method of teaching +reading, for it combines the best ideas of each. A number +of helpful new features are also included. Each reading lesson +is on a right-hand page, and is approached by a series of preparatory +exercises on the preceding left-hand page.</p> + +<p>¶ The illustrations constitute the finest and most attractive +collection ever brought together in a series of readers. There +are over 600 in all, every one made especially for these books +by an artist of national reputation.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h2> +</div> + +<div class="frame"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p> +<h2>HICKS'S CHAMPION<br /> +SPELLING BOOK</h2> + +<p class="center">By WARREN E. HICKS, Assistant Superintendent of<br /> +Schools, Cleveland, Ohio</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center">Complete, $0.25—Part One, $0.18—Part Two, $0.18</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>This book embodies the method that enabled the pupils +in the Cleveland schools after two years to win the National +Education Association Spelling Contest of 1908.</p> + +<p>¶ By this method a spelling lesson of ten words is given each +day from the spoken vocabulary of the pupil. Of these ten +words two are selected for intensive study, and in the spelling +book are made prominent in both position and type at the head +of each day's lessons, these two words being followed by the +remaining eight words in smaller type. Systematic review is +provided throughout the book. Each of the ten prominent +words taught intensively in a week is listed as a subordinate +word in the next two weeks; included in a written spelling +contest at the end of eight weeks; again in the annual contest +at the end of the year; and again as a subordinate word in the +following year's work;—used five times in all within two +years.</p> + +<p>¶ The Champion Spelling Book consists of a series of lessons +arranged as above for six school years, from the third to the +eighth, inclusive. It presents about 1,200 words each year, +and teaches 312 of them with especial clearness and intensity. +It also includes occasional supplementary exercises which serve +as aids in teaching sounds, vowels, homonyms, rules of spelling, +abbreviated forms, suffixes, prefixes, the use of hyphens, +plurals, dictation work, and word building. The words have +been selected from lists, supplied by grade teachers of Cleveland +schools, of words ordinarily misspelled by the pupils of +their respective grades.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h2> +</div> + +<div class="frame"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p> +<h2>SPENCERS' PRACTICAL<br /> +WRITING</h2> + +<h3>By PLATT R. SPENCER'S SONS</h3> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center">Books 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 Per dozen, $0.60</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>SPENCERS' PRACTICAL WRITING has been devised +because of the distinct and wide-spread reaction from the +use of vertical writing in schools. It is thoroughly up-to-date, +embodying all the advantages of the old and of the +new. Each word can be written by one continuous movement +of the pen.</p> + +<p>¶ The books teach a plain, practical hand, moderate in slant, +and free from ornamental curves, shades, and meaningless +lines. The stem letters are long enough to be clear and unmistakable. +The capitals are about two spaces in height.</p> + +<p>¶ The copies begin with words and gradually develop into +sentences. The letters, both large and small, are taught +systematically. In the first two books the writing is somewhat +larger than is customary because it is more easily learned +by young children. These books also contain many illustrations +in outline. The ruling is very simple.</p> + +<p>¶ Instruction is afforded showing how the pupil should sit at +the desk, and hold the pen and paper. A series of drill movement +exercises, thirty-three in number, with directions for +their use, accompanies each book.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>SPENCERIAN PRACTICAL WRITING SPELLER</h3> + +<p class="center">Per dozen, $0.48</p> + +<p>This simple, inexpensive device provides abundant drill in writing +words. At the same time it trains pupils to form their copies in +accordance with the most modern and popular system of penmanship, +and saves much valuable time for both teacher and pupil.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h2> +</div> + +<div class="frame"> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p> +<h2>MAXWELL'S<br /> +NEW GRAMMARS</h2> + +<p class="center">By WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, Ph.D., LL.D.<br /> +Superintendent of Schools, City of New York</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center">Elementary Grammar $0.40 School Grammar $0.60</p> + +<hr /> + +<p>The ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR presents in very +small space all the grammar usually taught in elementary +schools.</p> + +<p>¶ It gives the pupil an insight into the general forms in which +thought is expressed, and enables him to see the meaning of +complicated sentences. The explanatory matter is made +clear by the use of simple language, by the elimination of +unnecessary technical terms, and by the frequent introduction +of illustrative sentences. The definitions are simple and precise. +The exercises are abundant and peculiarly ingenious. +A novel device for parsing and analysis permits these two +subjects to be combined in one exercise for purposes of drill.</p> + +<p>¶ The SCHOOL GRAMMAR contains everything needed +by students in upper grammar grades and secondary schools. +It covers fully the requirements of the Syllabus in English +issued by the New York State Education Department.</p> + +<p>¶ The book treats of grammar only, and presents many +exercises which call for considerable reflection on the meaning +of the expressions to be analyzed. Throughout, stress +is laid on the broader distinctions of thought and expression. +The common errors of written and spoken language are so +classified as to make it comparatively easy for pupils to +detect and correct them through the application of the rules +of grammar. The book ends with an historical sketch of +the English language, an article on the formation of words, +and a list of equivalent terms employed by other grammarians. +The full index makes the volume useful for reference.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h2> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<div class="tn"> +<h4>Transcriber's Note:</h4> +<ul class="corrections"> +<li>Inconsistent hyphenation in the word "skinlike" retained.</li> +<li><a href="#Clean">Pg 91</a> Added period after "Clean" located in "Keeping the Skin Clean".</li> +<li><a href="#sickness">Pg 182</a> Added period after "sickness" located in "animals which carry sickness".</li> +<li><a href="#back">Pg 188</a> Removed extraneous comma after "back" located in "throat back, of the tongue".</li> +<li><a href="#Mouth">Pg 190</a> Amended "47" to "67" located in "Mouth, 60-47".</li> +</ul> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Health Lessons, by Alvin Davison + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HEALTH LESSONS *** + +***** This file should be named 31616-h.htm or 31616-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/6/1/31616/ + +Produced by Larry B. Harrison, D. Alexander and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/31616-h/images/i001.jpg b/31616-h/images/i001.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5e0d319 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i001.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i003.jpg b/31616-h/images/i003.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..72a0bb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i003.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i009.jpg b/31616-h/images/i009.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bd28fb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i009.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i011.jpg b/31616-h/images/i011.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fa9aa7f --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i011.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i012.jpg b/31616-h/images/i012.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a1ba292 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i012.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i015.jpg b/31616-h/images/i015.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..34ed23a --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i015.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i018.jpg b/31616-h/images/i018.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac5c60b --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i018.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i020.jpg b/31616-h/images/i020.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d49baf8 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i020.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i022.jpg b/31616-h/images/i022.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ef48b34 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i022.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i024.jpg b/31616-h/images/i024.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..235f5a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i024.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i025.jpg b/31616-h/images/i025.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..129ea53 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i025.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i027.jpg b/31616-h/images/i027.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..dfc4681 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i027.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i028.jpg b/31616-h/images/i028.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d48194d --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i028.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i030.jpg b/31616-h/images/i030.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d9d8382 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i030.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i031.jpg b/31616-h/images/i031.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0b35d9d --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i031.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i032.jpg b/31616-h/images/i032.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed35e08 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i032.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i034.jpg b/31616-h/images/i034.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1b8c4ab --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i034.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i035.jpg b/31616-h/images/i035.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2fb2036 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i035.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i036.jpg b/31616-h/images/i036.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0eb308c --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i036.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i038.jpg b/31616-h/images/i038.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..dd9906e --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i038.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i039.jpg b/31616-h/images/i039.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4413857 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i039.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i041.jpg b/31616-h/images/i041.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f42cbfc --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i041.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i042.jpg b/31616-h/images/i042.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c5275af --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i042.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i044.jpg b/31616-h/images/i044.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..27d9509 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i044.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i047.jpg b/31616-h/images/i047.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..76e4b42 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i047.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i048.jpg b/31616-h/images/i048.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f3a98c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i048.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i049.jpg b/31616-h/images/i049.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e937721 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i049.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i050.jpg b/31616-h/images/i050.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8f95124 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i050.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i052.jpg b/31616-h/images/i052.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d37030f --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i052.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i053.jpg b/31616-h/images/i053.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..34da0a9 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i053.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i057.jpg b/31616-h/images/i057.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..abe11d6 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i057.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i059.jpg b/31616-h/images/i059.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1bac4fd --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i059.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i060.jpg b/31616-h/images/i060.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2ae0f68 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i060.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i061.jpg b/31616-h/images/i061.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..248390c --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i061.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i062.jpg b/31616-h/images/i062.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a99616 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i062.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i064.jpg b/31616-h/images/i064.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..69fa425 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i064.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i068.jpg b/31616-h/images/i068.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a76c30d --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i068.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i069bottom.jpg b/31616-h/images/i069bottom.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed49851 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i069bottom.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i069top.jpg b/31616-h/images/i069top.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..933b5f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i069top.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i070.jpg b/31616-h/images/i070.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2b2729d --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i070.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i071.jpg b/31616-h/images/i071.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cd5f393 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i071.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i072.jpg b/31616-h/images/i072.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..32fd82e --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i072.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i077.jpg b/31616-h/images/i077.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..31c62ef --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i077.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i079.jpg b/31616-h/images/i079.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f28874c --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i079.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i082.jpg b/31616-h/images/i082.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0ad11c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i082.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i085.jpg b/31616-h/images/i085.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bfe06e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i085.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i087.jpg b/31616-h/images/i087.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d566137 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i087.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i088.jpg b/31616-h/images/i088.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..02139ae --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i088.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i089.jpg b/31616-h/images/i089.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7df14a3 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i089.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i091.jpg b/31616-h/images/i091.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7d69e59 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i091.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i094bottom.jpg b/31616-h/images/i094bottom.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ae0f7ad --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i094bottom.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i094top.jpg b/31616-h/images/i094top.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3e7c329 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i094top.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i095.jpg b/31616-h/images/i095.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..120f159 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i095.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i097.jpg b/31616-h/images/i097.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e20e51e --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i097.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i099.jpg b/31616-h/images/i099.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a44d2ac --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i099.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i100.jpg b/31616-h/images/i100.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9606e67 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i100.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i101.jpg b/31616-h/images/i101.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..359a999 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i101.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i102.jpg b/31616-h/images/i102.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..05961aa --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i102.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i104.jpg b/31616-h/images/i104.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8bc50ae --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i104.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i105.jpg b/31616-h/images/i105.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..626c6c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i105.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i107bottom.jpg b/31616-h/images/i107bottom.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5076a2b --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i107bottom.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i107top.jpg b/31616-h/images/i107top.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..56fee33 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i107top.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i108bottom.jpg b/31616-h/images/i108bottom.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b67d22a --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i108bottom.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i108top.jpg b/31616-h/images/i108top.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..089d18b --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i108top.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i111.jpg b/31616-h/images/i111.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c0147f --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i111.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i112.jpg b/31616-h/images/i112.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8bc5678 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i112.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i114.jpg b/31616-h/images/i114.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2e6bfb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i114.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i115.jpg b/31616-h/images/i115.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0dd3cac --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i115.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i116.jpg b/31616-h/images/i116.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7d1b36a --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i116.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i117.jpg b/31616-h/images/i117.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d58649f --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i117.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i119.jpg b/31616-h/images/i119.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..714394f --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i119.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i121.jpg b/31616-h/images/i121.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a989ee --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i121.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i123.jpg b/31616-h/images/i123.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0e5d220 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i123.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i127bottom.jpg b/31616-h/images/i127bottom.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c1893c --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i127bottom.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i127top.jpg b/31616-h/images/i127top.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a3e626e --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i127top.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i129bottom.jpg b/31616-h/images/i129bottom.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b1532db --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i129bottom.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i129top.jpg b/31616-h/images/i129top.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..49574e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i129top.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i130.jpg b/31616-h/images/i130.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bd41bb1 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i130.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i131.jpg b/31616-h/images/i131.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0659b12 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i131.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i132.jpg b/31616-h/images/i132.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..85c62ee --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i132.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i133.jpg b/31616-h/images/i133.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..598d0a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i133.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i136.jpg b/31616-h/images/i136.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..193eb57 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i136.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i138.jpg b/31616-h/images/i138.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c1297ae --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i138.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i140.jpg b/31616-h/images/i140.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0d3fb0 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i140.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i141.jpg b/31616-h/images/i141.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ec2850 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i141.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i144.jpg b/31616-h/images/i144.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..660b06a --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i144.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i149.jpg b/31616-h/images/i149.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a30b014 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i149.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i150.jpg b/31616-h/images/i150.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cab9997 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i150.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i153.jpg b/31616-h/images/i153.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2dc712b --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i153.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i155.jpg b/31616-h/images/i155.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8394742 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i155.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i165.jpg b/31616-h/images/i165.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..595ae67 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i165.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i166.jpg b/31616-h/images/i166.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..848d44a --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i166.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i169.jpg b/31616-h/images/i169.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..358cba0 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i169.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i174.jpg b/31616-h/images/i174.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..60a8d33 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i174.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i175.jpg b/31616-h/images/i175.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..605a8fe --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i175.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i176.jpg b/31616-h/images/i176.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9a3fe7 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i176.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i177.jpg b/31616-h/images/i177.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8d98cba --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i177.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i178.jpg b/31616-h/images/i178.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f44e9c6 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i178.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/i186.jpg b/31616-h/images/i186.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8de9ffe --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/i186.jpg diff --git a/31616-h/images/icover.jpg b/31616-h/images/icover.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b65ffd5 --- /dev/null +++ b/31616-h/images/icover.jpg |
