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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Health Lessons, by Alvin Davison
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Health Lessons
+       Book 1
+
+Author: Alvin Davison
+
+Release Date: March 13, 2010 [EBook #31616]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HEALTH LESSONS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Larry B. Harrison, D. Alexander and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Book Cover]
+
+
+
+
+  HEALTH LESSONS
+  BOOK I
+
+  BY
+  ALVIN DAVISON, M.S., A.M., PH.D.
+  PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY IN LAFAYETTE COLLEGE
+
+  [Illustration: Publisher Symbol]
+
+  NEW YORK � CINCINNATI � CHICAGO
+  AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY
+  ALVIN DAVISON.
+
+  ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON.
+
+  HEALTH LESSONS. BK. 1.
+  W. P. 6
+
+[Illustration: Exercise, clean air, and well-chewed food make a strong
+and healthy body.]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Scarcely one half of the children of our country continue in school
+much beyond the fifth grade. It is important, therefore, that so far
+as possible the knowledge which has most to do with human welfare
+should be presented in the early years of school life.
+
+Fisher, Metchnikoff, Sedgwick, and others have shown that the health
+of a people influences the prosperity and happiness of a nation more
+than any other one thing. The highest patriotism is therefore the
+conservation of health. The seven hundred thousand lives annually
+destroyed by infectious diseases and the million other serious cases
+of sickness from contagious maladies, with all their attendant
+suffering, are largely sacrifices on the altar of ignorance. The
+loving mother menaces the life of her babe by feeding it milk with a
+germ content nearly half as great as that of sewage, the anemic girl
+sleeps with fast-closed windows, wondering in the morning why she
+feels so lifeless, and the one-time vigorous boy goes to a
+consumptive's early grave, because they did not know (what every
+school ought to teach) the way to health.
+
+Doctor Price, the Secretary of the State Board of Health of Maryland,
+recently said before the American Public Health Association that the
+text-books of our schools show a marked disregard for the urgent
+problems which enter our daily life, such as the prevention of
+tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and acute infectious diseases.
+
+Since the observing public have seen educated communities decrease
+their death rate from typhoid fever, tuberculosis, and diphtheria from
+one third to three fourths by heeding the health call, lawmakers are
+becoming convinced that the needless waste of human life should be
+stopped. Michigan has already decreed that every school child shall be
+taught the cause and prevention of the communicable diseases, and
+several other states are contemplating like action. This book meets
+fully the demands of all such laws as are contemplated, and presents
+the important truths not by dogmatic assertion, but by citing specific
+facts appealing to the child mind in such a way as to make a lasting
+impression.
+
+After the eleventh year of age, the first cause of death among school
+children is tuberculosis. The chief aim of the author has been to show
+the child the sure way of preventing this disease and others of like
+nature, and to establish an undying faith in the motto of Pasteur, "It
+is within the power of man to rid himself of every parasitic disease."
+
+Nearly all of the illustrations used are from photographs and drawings
+specially prepared for this book. These, together with the large
+amount of material gleaned from original sources and from the author's
+experiments in the laboratory, will, it is hoped, make this little
+volume worthy of the same generous welcome accorded the two earlier
+books of this series.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                  PAGE
+
+       I. CARING FOR THE HEALTH                               9
+
+      II. PARTS OF THE BODY                                  15
+
+     III. FEEDING THE BODY                                   21
+
+      IV. FOOD AND HEALTH                                    30
+
+       V. HOW PLANTS SOUR OR SPOIL FOOD                      36
+
+      VI. MILK MAY BE A FOOD OR A POISON                     41
+
+     VII. HOW THE BODY USES FOOD                             47
+
+    VIII. THE CARE OF THE MOUTH                              60
+
+      IX. ALCOHOLIC DRINKS                                   68
+
+       X. ALCOHOL AND HEALTH                                 74
+
+      XI. TOBACCO AND THE DRUGS WHICH INJURE THE
+            HEALTH                                           78
+
+     XII. THE SKIN AND BATHING                               85
+
+    XIII. CLOTHING AND HOW TO USE IT                         94
+
+     XIV. BREATHING                                         100
+
+      XV. FRESH AIR AND HEALTH                              111
+
+     XVI. THE BLOOD AND HOW IT FLOWS THROUGH THE BODY       117
+
+    XVII. INSECTS AND HEALTH                                127
+
+   XVIII. HOW THE BODY MOVES                                135
+
+     XIX. THE MUSCLES AND HEALTH                            144
+
+      XX. HOW THE BODY IS GOVERNED                          149
+
+     XXI. HOW NARCOTICS AND STIMULANTS AFFECT THE
+            BRAIN AND NERVES                                158
+
+    XXII. THE SENSES, OR DOORS OF KNOWLEDGE                 165
+
+   XXIII. KEEPING AWAY SICKNESS                             174
+
+    XXIV. HELPING BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES                   183
+
+  INDEX                                                     189
+
+
+
+
+HEALTH LESSONS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CARING FOR THE HEALTH
+
+
+=Good Health better than Gold.=--Horses and houses, balls and dolls,
+and much else that people think they want to make them happy can be
+bought with money. The one thing which is worth more than all else
+cannot be bought with even a houseful of gold. This thing is good
+health. Over three million persons in our country are now sick, and
+many of them are suffering much pain. Some of them would give all the
+money they have to gain once more the good health which the poorest
+may usually enjoy by right living day by day.
+
+=How long shall you live?=--In this country most of the persons born
+live to be over forty years of age, and some live more than one
+hundred years. A hundred years ago most persons died before the age of
+thirty-five years. In London three hundred years ago only about one
+half of those born reached the age of twenty-five years. Scarcely one
+half of the people in India to-day live beyond the age of twenty-five
+years. In fact, people in India are dying nearly twice as fast as in
+our own country. This is because they have not learned how to take
+care of the body in India so well as we have.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--By right living this woman remained in good
+health for several years after she was a century old.]
+
+The study which tells how to keep well is _Hygiene_. Whether you keep
+well and live long, or suffer much from headaches, cold, and other
+sickness, depends largely on how you care for your body.
+
+=Working together for Health.=--One cannot always keep well and strong
+by his own efforts. The grocer and milkman may sell to you bad food, the
+town may furnish impure water, churches and schools may injure your
+health by failing to supply fresh air in their buildings. More than a
+hundred thousand people were made very sick last year through the use of
+water poisoned by waste matter which other persons carelessly let reach
+the streams and wells. Many of the sick died of the fever caused by this
+water. Although it cannot be said that we are engaged in real war, yet
+we are surely killing one another by our thoughtless habits in
+scattering disease. We must therefore not only know how to care for our
+own bodies, but teach all to help one another to keep well.
+
+=A Lesson from War.=--The mention of war makes those who know its
+terrors shudder. Disease has caused more than ten times as much
+suffering and death as war with its harvest of mangled bodies,
+shattered limbs, and blinded eyes. In our four months' war with Spain
+in 1898 only 268 soldiers were killed in battle, while nearly 4000
+brave men died from disease. We lost more than ten men by disease to
+every one killed by bullets.
+
+In the late war between Japan and Russia the Japanese soldiers cared
+for their health so carefully that only one fourth as many died from
+disease as perished in battle. This shows that with care for the
+health the small men of Japan saved themselves from disease, and thus
+won a victory told around the world.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Surgeon General who, by keeping the
+soldiers well, helped Japan win in the war against Russia.]
+
+=The Battle with Disease.=--For long ages sickness has caused more
+sorrow, misery, and death than famine, war, and wild beasts. Many
+years ago a plague called the _black death_ swept over most of the
+earth, and killed nearly one third of the inhabitants. A little more
+than a hundred years ago yellow fever killed thousands of people in
+Philadelphia and New York in a few weeks. When Boston was a city with
+a population of 11,000, more than one half of the persons had smallpox
+in one year. Within a few years one half of the sturdy red men of our
+forests were slain by smallpox when it first visited our shores.
+Before the year 1798 few boys or girls reached the age of twenty years
+without a pit-marked face due to the dreadful disease of smallpox.
+This disease was formerly more common than measles and chicken pox now
+are because we had not yet learned how to prevent it as we do to-day.
+
+=Victory over Disease.=--Cholera, yellow fever, black death, and
+smallpox no longer cause people to flee into the wilderness to escape
+them when they occasionally break out in a town or city. We have
+learned how to prevent these ailments among people who will obey the
+laws of health.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--One of the thousands of sturdy red men which
+smallpox slew before we learned how to prevent the disease.]
+
+Until the year 1900, people fled from a city when yellow fever was
+announced, but now any one can sleep with a fever patient and not
+catch the disease, because we have learned how to prevent it. Nurses
+and doctors no longer hesitate to sit for hours in the rooms of those
+sick with smallpox because they know how to treat the body to keep
+away this disease. By studying this book, boys and girls may learn not
+only how to keep free from these diseases, but how to manage their
+bodies to make them strong enough to escape other diseases.
+
+=As the Twig is bent so the Tree is inclined.=--This old saying means
+that a strong, straight, healthy, full-grown tree cannot come from a
+weak and bent young tree. Health in manhood and womanhood depends on
+how the health is cared for in childhood. The foundation for disease
+is often laid during school years. The making of strong bodies that
+will live joyous lives for long years must begin in boyhood and
+girlhood.
+
+In youth is the time to begin right living. Bad habits formed in early
+life often cause much sorrow in later years. It is said that over one
+half the drunkards began drinking liquor before they were twenty years
+of age and most of the smokers began to use tobacco before they were
+twenty years old.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. What is worth most in this world?
+
+     2. How many people are sick in our country?
+
+     3. How long do most people live?
+
+     4. Why do people not live long in India?
+
+     5. What is hygiene?
+
+     6. How many more deaths are caused by disease than by
+        war?
+
+     7. Give some facts about smallpox.
+
+     8. Why do we have no fear of yellow fever and smallpox
+        now?
+
+     9. Why should you be careful of your health while young?
+
+    10. When do most smokers and drinkers begin their bad
+        habits?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PARTS OF THE BODY
+
+
+=Regions of the Body.=--In order to talk about any part of the body it
+must have a name. The main portion of the body is called the _trunk_.
+At the top of the trunk is the _head_. The arms and legs are known as
+_limbs_ or _extremities_. The part of the arm between the elbow and
+wrist is the _forearm_. The _thigh_ is the part of the leg between the
+knee and hip.
+
+The upper part of the trunk is called the _chest_ and is encircled by
+the ribs. The lower part of the trunk is named the _abdomen_. A large
+cavity within the chest contains the lungs and heart. The cavity of
+the abdomen is filled with the liver, stomach, food tube, and other
+working parts.
+
+=The Plan of the Body.=--All parts of the body are not the same. One
+part has one kind of work to do while another performs quite a
+different duty. The covering of the body is the _skin_. Beneath is the
+red meat called _muscle_. It looks just like the beef bought at the
+butcher shop which is the muscle of a cow or ox. Nearly one half of
+the weight of the body is made of muscle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--General plan of the organs of the body.]
+
+The muscle is fastened to the _bones_ which support the body and give
+it stiffness. The muscle by pulling on the bones helps the body to do
+all kinds of work. The muscles and bones cannot work day after day
+without being fed. For this reason a food tube leads from the mouth
+down into the trunk to prepare milk, meat, bread, or other food, for
+the use of the body.
+
+=Feeding the Body.=--The mouth receives the food and chews it so that it
+may be easily swallowed. It then goes into a sac called the _stomach_.
+Here the hard parts are broken up into tiny bits and float about in a
+watery fluid. This goes out of the stomach into a long crooked tube, the
+_intestine_. Here the particles are made still finer, and the whole mass
+is then ready to be carried to every part of the muscles, bones, and
+brain to build up what is being worn out in work and play.
+
+=Carrying Food through the Body.=--In all parts of the body are little
+branching tubes. These unite into larger tubes leading to the heart.
+Through these tubes flows _blood_. Hundreds of tiny tubes in the walls
+of the intestine drink in the watery food, and it flows with the blood
+to the heart. The heart then pushes this blood with its food out
+through another set of tubes which divide into fine branches as they
+lead to every part of the body (Fig. 5).
+
+=Getting rid of Ashes and Worn-out Parts.=--The body works like a
+machine. Food is used somewhat as a locomotive uses coal to give it
+power to work. Some ashes are left from the used food, and other waste
+matter is formed by the dead and worn-out parts of the body. This
+waste is gathered up by the richly branching blood tubes and carried
+to the lungs. Here some of it passes out at every breath. Part of the
+waste goes out through the skin with the sweat and part passes out
+through the kidneys. In this way the dead matter is kept from
+collecting in the body and clogging its parts.
+
+=How the Parts of the Body are made to work Together.=--The mass of
+red flesh covering the bones is made up of many pieces called muscles.
+Whenever we catch a ball or run or even speak, more than a dozen
+muscles must be made to act together just in the right way. When food
+goes into the stomach, something must tell the juice to flow out of
+the walls to act on the food. The boss or manager of all the work
+carried on by the thousands of parts of the body is known as the
+_brain_ and _spinal cord_ with their tiny threads, the _nerves_,
+spreading everywhere through bones and muscles. The brain and spinal
+cord give the orders and the nerves carry them (Fig. 5).
+
+=The Servants of the Body.=--The parts of the body are much like the
+servants in a large house or the clerks in a store. One servant or
+clerk does one kind of work while another does something entirely
+different. Each portion of the body does a different kind of work.
+Each one of these parts doing a particular work is called an _organ_.
+The stomach is an organ to prepare food and the heart is an organ for
+sending the blood through the body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--On the left are shown the branching tubes
+which carry blood to all parts of the body; on the right are the
+brain, spinal cord, and nerves which direct the work of the organs.]
+
+The entire body is composed of several hundred organs. Each of them is
+formed of several kinds of materials named _tissue_. A skinlike tissue
+makes up the lining of the stomach, while its outside is made of
+muscular tissue. The smallest parts of a tissue are little bodies
+named _cells_, and very fine threads called _fibers_.
+
+=Growth of the Body.=--The body grows rapidly in childhood and more
+slowly after the sixteenth year, but it continues to get larger until
+about the twenty-fifth year of age. Some children always grow slowly,
+have weak bones, and frail bodies. This is generally so because they
+have poor food or do not chew it well, and get too little fresh air,
+sunshine, and sleep.
+
+The use of beer, wine, or tobacco may hinder the body from using food
+for growth, or they may poison the body so that it will never be large
+and strong. The body should grow about a hundred pounds in weight
+during the first thirteen years of life. Whether children grow little
+or much generally depends on the food they give their bodies.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Point out and name four parts of the body.
+
+     2. Name the two parts of the trunk.
+
+     3. What does the chest contain?
+
+     4. What is muscle?
+
+     5. How is the body fed?
+
+     6. Give three parts taking waste out of the body.
+
+     7. Of what use are the brain and nerves?
+
+     8. Name two organs.
+
+     9. How long does the body continue to grow?
+
+    10. Why are some children weak and of slow growth?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FEEDING THE BODY
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Photograph of the outer dead skin pushed off
+from a black snake crawling through the brush.]
+
+=Why the Body needs Food.=--Every living thing, whether a plant or an
+animal, needs food. While the whole body lives, a part of it is
+constantly dying. The entire outer layer of a snake's skin dies three
+or four times during a year and is cast off, sometimes in a single
+piece. We can scrape dead bits of skin from the surface of our body at
+any time. Tiny particles are dying in all regions of the body, and we
+should soon waste away if food were not taken to make up the loss for
+the worn-out parts.
+
+The body also needs food to help it do its work and keep warm. The body
+has the strange power of using food eaten to make the legs and arms move
+and the brain to think. In doing this the body is said to burn the food.
+
+=How the Body burns itself and also Food.=--If a boy is weighed just
+before playing a game of ball and again afterward, he will find that
+part of his body has been used up and given off in the breath and
+sweat. He has burned part of his body, and the breath and sweat are
+like the smoke given off when a match is burned.
+
+One fifth of the air is made of a gas called _oxygen_. When anything
+becomes very hot, this oxygen makes it burst into a flame and burn. We
+breathe in oxygen with the air and the living action of the body
+causes such a slow union of the oxygen and the tissues that there is
+no blaze although there is a little heat.
+
+=Kinds of Food.=--There are four general classes of foods. These are
+the _building foods_, the _sugars_ and _starches_, the _fats_, and the
+_mineral foods_. The building foods are those which help largely in
+forming new muscle and blood or other parts of the body. _Proteids_ is
+another name for building foods.
+
+_Sugars_ and _starches_ are placed in one group because starch changes
+to sugar within the body. If you chew a starchy food like bread for a
+few minutes, it will begin to taste sweet because the starch is
+becoming sugar.
+
+Fats are got not only from fat meat but also from eggs, butter, milk,
+and many other foods. There is some mineral matter, such as potash and
+soda, in many of the vegetables and meats eaten, and we use much table
+salt to season other foods.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Good foods for building muscles, blood, and
+bone.]
+
+=Body-building Foods.=--A person with all the sugar, molasses, starch,
+butter, and lard he could eat would starve to death in a few weeks
+because none of these foods would help to build up the dying parts of
+the body. A large amount of body builder is found in lean meat, eggs,
+milk, peas, beans, corn meal, and bread. Bread and milk is a good food
+to make the body grow. If the body takes in more building food than it
+needs for repairs, it may store it up in the form of fat or burn it to
+help the body do its work.
+
+=The Fuel Foods.=--The fuel foods are the sugars, starches, and fats.
+These are the foods which the body can easily burn to keep it warm and
+give it power to act. Candy, molasses, or sugar in any form, taken in
+small quantities, is a good food. Starch, which the body quickly
+changes to sugar, is a much cheaper food. Meats contain very little
+starch, but nearly all vegetables contain much starch. Three fourths
+of corn meal, rice, wheat flour, and soda crackers consists of starch.
+More than one half of white bread, dried beans, and peas is made of
+pure starch, and there is much starch in potatoes.
+
+_Fat_ is more abundant in animal than in vegetable food. Castor oil
+and cotton-seed oil are fats from vegetables. The fat of the cow is
+called _suet_ or _tallow_, while the fat of the hog is known as
+_lard_. _Butter_ is the fat collected from milk. Cream and eggs
+contain much fat. When persons eat too much of the sugars, starches,
+or fats, the body may store them up as fat. For this reason thin
+persons wishing to gain in flesh eat eggs, nuts, and rich milk.
+
+=The Mineral Foods.=--The body must have not only lime to help form the
+bones, but iron, salt, soda, and potash for other parts of the body. All
+these minerals except salt are found in many of the common foods.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Good foods for giving the body power and heat.]
+
+Water is one of the most important of the mineral foods because it helps
+the body use all the other foods. Most people drink too little water to
+enjoy the best health. The body needs more than two quarts of water
+every day. There is much water in our foods. More than one half of eggs,
+meat, and potatoes is made of water, and more than three fourths of
+tomatoes, green corn, onions, cabbage, and string beans is composed of
+water. We should drink one quart or more of water daily. It should not
+be used ice cold, and very little should be taken at meal time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Diagram showing how the drainage from a house
+with a sick person caused one hundred and twenty cases of typhoid
+fever at Mount Savage, Maryland.]
+
+=Water and Health.=--One of the common causes of sickness is bad
+water. Water from shallow wells within a hundred feet of barnyards,
+pigpens, or other outhouses is usually unsafe to drink. At Newport,
+Rhode Island, more than eighty persons were made sick with the fever
+by drinking the water from a well only ten feet deep. The impure
+water from one spring at Trenton, New Jersey, gave the fever to
+nearly a hundred persons in one season. At Mount Savage, Maryland, a
+hundred and twenty persons were made ill by using the water from a
+spring near a house drain.
+
+Water from rivers and streams running near where many people live is
+likely to be made impure and is sure to bring sickness and death to
+some of those who use it. Water from a small stream at Plymouth,
+Pennsylvania, running past a house occupied by a typhoid patient, gave
+the fever to over a thousand persons in one month. The water from a
+small stream at Ithaca, New York, gave the fever to over thirteen
+hundred people in one season, and an almost equal number caught the
+fever in a few weeks at Butler, Pennsylvania, by drinking water from a
+small creek along which some sick persons lived.
+
+=Preventing Sickness from Bad Water.=--It is better to go thirsty than
+to drink water which is likely to cause sickness. Any water can be
+made safe by boiling it one minute. Boiled water is the most healthful
+kind of water to use. The people of China and Japan seldom use water
+that has not been boiled.
+
+Many cities using water from rivers run it through a layer of sand and
+gravel to remove the tiny things that cause so much sickness and death.
+This makes the water very much purer, but it is not so certain to make
+the water safe as is boiling it. Bad water makes nearly a quarter of a
+million of our people sick every year and kills twenty thousand of them.
+
+=How much Food does the Body Need?=--Most people eat too much.
+Overeating overworks the stomach, poisons the body, makes one feel
+lazy, and causes headache. If you chew your food fine and stop eating
+as soon as hunger is satisfied without tempting the appetite with
+sweets, you are not likely to overeat.
+
+About one seventh of a pound of building food is needed daily to keep
+the body in repair, and a quarter of a pound of fat and a pound of
+starches and sugars are required to help the body do a hard day's
+work. A half pound of bread, beans, and meat each, a pound of
+potatoes, a pint of milk, and a quarter of a pound of butter and sugar
+each, will give a working man all the food he needs for a day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Bird's-eye view of Plymouth, Pennsylvania,
+showing where the waste from one sick room was thrown on the bank of a
+stream which several miles below supplied the town with water and
+caused over one thousand cases of fever and more than a hundred deaths
+within seven weeks.]
+
+=Beer and Wine as Foods.=--It was once thought that beer and wine were
+good foods, but hundreds of late experiments show that these drinks
+are very poor and expensive foods. A half glass of milk is of more use
+to the body as a food than a full quart of beer. The use of much wine
+or beer may seem to satisfy the appetite because they deaden the real
+feeling of hunger. Neither of these drinks can be used by the young
+without danger of doing much harm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The little glass of milk contains nearly twice
+as much food for building flesh and blood as the large glass of beer.]
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Why does the body need food?
+
+     2. Why do you weigh less after working?
+
+     3. What is oxygen?
+
+     4. From what do we get body-building foods?
+
+     5. In what is starch found?
+
+     6. How much water does the body need?
+
+     7. Where have people been made sick by using bad water?
+
+     8. How can we prevent sickness from bad water?
+
+     9. What harm does overeating do?
+
+    10. What can you say of beer as a food?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+FOOD AND HEALTH
+
+
+=Meats.=--Beef is the best of all meat for food. Nearly one fifth of
+it can be used to repair the worn-out parts of the body. Mutton, the
+meat of sheep, is almost as good for food as beef. Veal and pork also
+contain much body-building matter, but the stomach must work hard to
+prepare them for use.
+
+Fish is an excellent food, but it has only little more than one half
+as much flesh-building matter as good beef. Poultry is a healthful
+food, especially for the weak and sick, but it is more expensive than
+the other meats. Oysters are largely made of water and do not contain
+much to strengthen the body.
+
+In all meat there is some waste matter. This may harm the body if we
+eat too much meat. It is no longer thought healthful for most persons
+to eat meat more than once a day. Too much meat used daily for several
+years is likely to cause disease.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Each of these articles costs the same, but
+the bread will furnish four times as much food for the body as the
+cabbage, more than twice as much as the fish, and nearly twice as much
+as the milk.]
+
+=The Cooking of Meat.=--The best meat if poorly cooked is unfit for
+eating. Broiled and roasted meats are more healthful than boiled or
+fried meat. Meat is broiled by holding it in a wire frame over a
+flame or hot coals. It is roasted by placing it in a covered pan in a
+hot oven for two or three hours. It is boiled by keeping it in hot
+water several hours.
+
+Meat is fried by cooking it in lard or other fat in a pan. Only those
+who have strong bodies should eat fried meat.
+
+The cheap cuts of meat from the neck, breast, and legs have about as
+much food matter in them as the more costly parts. Such meat may be
+made more tender by boiling than by roasting.
+
+=Soup.=--Soup, broth, and beef tea furnish but little food for the
+body. They are very useful in giving us a good appetite for the real
+food to be eaten later. They make the stomach go to work more quickly
+than other food. Soup or broth is made from meat by placing it on the
+stove in cold water, gradually heating it, and then keeping it hot
+several hours.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Either group of foods will give the body the
+same strength and nourishment for work and growth.]
+
+=Vegetables.=--Some persons never eat meat of any kind because they
+enjoy better health when using only vegetables, milk, and eggs. Peas and
+beans contain much matter for making new flesh and blood and also much
+starch to give heat and power to the body. Potatoes form a valuable
+food. Roasted potatoes are more healthful than those boiled or fried.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--The amount of real food in these articles.]
+
+Radishes, onions, and cucumbers are made largely of water. Only a
+small amount of these should be eaten at one meal as the stomach must
+work hard to make use of them. Young beets, lettuce, and ripe tomatoes
+may be eaten by young and old. They contain useful minerals and help
+keep the body in a healthful condition.
+
+=The Cereals or Grain Foods.=--These foods are eaten in the form of
+bread, oatmeal, corn meal, rice, and breakfast foods. All of these
+furnish much matter to strengthen the body and make it grow. Bread and
+butter with rice are excellent foods for children.
+
+=Fruits.=--Very few people can remain well long without eating fruit of
+some kind. Ripe apples, pears, plums, peaches, berries, and cherries
+furnish useful salts to the body and also help the stomach and food
+tube do their work in a more healthful way. Fruits also increase the
+appetite. Green fruit and fruit which is overripe should never be eaten.
+
+=Eggs.=--Eggs form a good food for nearly everybody, but they are
+specially needed by the young and other persons with weak bodies. They
+can repair the worn-out parts of the body and also help it do its work.
+
+Eggs are most healthful when eaten raw or soft cooked. The best way to
+cook them through evenly is to put them in a pan off the stove and add
+about a quart of boiling water for every three eggs. Cover and let
+them cook fifteen minutes.
+
+Eggs should be kept in a cold room or cellar until used. They become
+stale in less than a week when left in a warm living room and may get
+a bad taste when only three or four days old.
+
+=Salt, Pepper, and Vinegar.=--Eating much salt is harmful. A small
+quantity of salt and pepper increases the appetite and makes the
+stomach do its work better. Children should use very little pepper and
+almost no vinegar and mustard.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--A bottle of beer. The dotted part at the top
+shows how much body-building food it contains.]
+
+=Tobacco.=--Some people think tobacco is a food because it is made from
+the leaves of a plant. Other people think tobacco is a food because they
+do not feel hungry after smoking or chewing it. The truth is that
+tobacco is of no use to the body as a food and may do it much harm
+because of the poison it contains. Tobacco satisfies hunger somewhat by
+deadening the parts of the body that are calling for food.
+
+=Beer.=--The people who make beer and sell it say that it is a food.
+Men who have no interest in selling beer, and have experimented with
+it to find out whether it strengthens the body, say that beer should
+never be used as a food. It often tends to weaken the body. Children
+should never use beer at any time, and older people can sometimes
+avoid disease by letting it alone.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Which are the best meats for food?
+
+     2. Why should we not eat meat at every meal?
+
+     3. How should meat be cooked to make it most tender?
+
+     4. How is soup or broth made?
+
+     5. Name the best vegetables for food.
+
+     6. Name some good grain foods.
+
+     7. Of what use are fruits?
+
+     8. What can you say of the use of eggs?
+
+     9. How should eggs be cared for?
+
+    10. What can you say of the use of salt and pepper?
+
+    11. Why does tobacco satisfy hunger?
+
+    12. Of what value is beer for food?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HOW PLANTS SOUR OR SPOIL FOOD
+
+
+=Germs, Microbes, or Bacteria.=--The dust and dirt of all sorts
+contain thousands of tiny plants too small to be seen by the eye
+without help. An instrument called a _microscope_ makes them appear so
+large that their form and growth are easily studied. These little
+plants are called _germs_ or _microbes_. They are also named
+_bacteria_. They are so small that a million laid side by side would
+not cover the head of a pin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Bacteria or microbes found in water, dust,
+and waste. They help change straw and other dead matter into food for
+plants. Much enlarged.]
+
+There are hundreds of different kinds of germs. Some are round like
+little balls and others are the shape of tiny rods. Many of them which
+look just alike act very different in growing. There are more than
+twenty different kinds that grow in our bodies and cause diphtheria,
+tuberculosis, and other diseases. We have measles and scarlet fever
+because we have gotten these disease germs from some one else in whom
+they were growing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Mold which grew on moist bread in two days.
+5, seed bodies breaking out of the sack; 1, 2, and 4, one of the seed
+bodies after one, two, and four hours' growth. Much enlarged.]
+
+Most germs feed on dead matter instead of our living bodies and make
+it melt away or change into another form. An apple or a piece of meat
+thrown out on the ground will soon change and become like the earth on
+which it lies. The change, called decay, is caused by millions of
+germs. The farmer's best friends are certain germs which help make the
+ground rich, so that the crops will grow.
+
+=Mold.=--The dust raised in sweeping contains tiny living seedlike
+bodies. If these fall on bread, cheese, or fruit, and this food is
+afterward kept moist in a warm room for a day or two, they will grow
+into grayish fluffy spots. These spots are mold. The greenish white
+growth on the top of some canned fruit and on berries left in the
+warm kitchen over night is also mold.
+
+Mold is a plant which grows from tiny round bodies acting like seeds
+(Fig. 17). These seed bodies of mold are common in all dust and often
+fly through the air. On this account food should be kept covered when
+possible and especially when one is sweeping. Some mold gives bread,
+cheese, and other food a bad taste, but it will not make one sick.
+
+=How Germs Grow.=--Germs will not grow where it is very cold, but
+freezing the germs does not kill them. Boiling one minute kills most
+germs. Drying will stop the germs from growing, but will not kill all
+of them. Sunlight kills many of them.
+
+Moisture and warmth make germs grow rapidly. A germ in growing
+lengthens out a little and then divides in the middle. It does this so
+quickly that one germ may become two in fifteen minutes. Each of these
+will then divide. In this way one germ can make many million germs in
+a single day (Fig. 18).
+
+=The Spoiling of Meat.=--Fresh meat will not remain good even one day
+if left in a warm place. A large greenish blue fly seen buzzing about
+in warm weather will sometimes lay its eggs on meat. These will hatch
+the next day into little worms, called maggots. They grow rapidly and
+a few days later change into flies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Drawing of the germ at the top every ten
+minutes, showing how it grew into two germs in a half hour. Much
+enlarged.]
+
+Germs will also spoil meat not kept cold. They feed on the meat and
+give off a poison, making it unfit to eat. The bad odor tells when the
+germs are at work. Every home should have a cold cellar or an ice box
+to keep food from spoiling.
+
+=Saving Food from Souring.=--The souring of milk and of cooked food of
+any kind is due to the germs always present in the air and clinging by
+the thousands to unwashed dishes and hands. If meat or fruit is cooked
+and kept tightly covered, it will remain good for years. Many persons
+save fruit and vegetables for use in winter by putting them in jars,
+which are heated to kill the germs, and sealed tight to keep out other
+germs.
+
+=Yeast or the Alcohol Plant.=--Sweet cider and other fruit juices are
+sometimes spoiled by a plant named yeast. This plant has the form of a
+football and is so small that a million of its kind together would not
+make a mass as large as the head of a pin. It floats about in the air
+and is present on the skins of fruits.
+
+Yeast is also called the alcohol plant because whenever it grows in a
+sweet substance like fruit juice it changes part of it into a biting
+substance called alcohol. At the same time it gives off a gas. It is
+this gas which forms the bubbling or frothing in beer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Yeast plants used in making bread and beer.
+Those on the right are growing new plants. Much enlarged.]
+
+The millions of yeast plants in the yeast cake bought at the store,
+when put into the dough for bread, grow and form gas. This pushes the
+bits of dough apart and makes it light. The little alcohol formed is
+all driven off in the baking.
+
+The alcohol which yeast forms by growing in sweet cider is in a few
+weeks changed to vinegar by other germs called the vinegar plants.
+Sour cider may make those who use it sick and drunk because it
+contains alcohol. Yeast makes wine out of grape juice.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Where are germs found?
+
+     2. What is the form of microbes?
+
+     3. Name some diseases caused by germs.
+
+     4. What is mold?
+
+     5. Why should food be kept covered when not in use?
+
+     6. What causes meat to spoil?
+
+     7. How may fruit be kept from spoiling?
+
+     8. Where is yeast found?
+
+     9. What effect has yeast on fruit juice?
+
+    10. Why should you not drink sour cider?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MILK MAY BE A FOOD OR A POISON
+
+
+=Of what Milk is Made.=--Milk is the most perfect food known. It
+contains everything needed to build and strengthen the body. In one
+gallon of milk there is about one teacupful of pure fat, nearly the
+same amount of sugar, one teacupful of body-building food needed to
+make muscle and blood. There is also some lime and other mineral
+matter to make the bones of the young grow strong. The remaining seven
+pints are water.
+
+=Kinds of Milk.=--When milk is left standing in a jar for several
+hours, much of the fat, which is present in the form of tiny balls,
+rises to the upper part. This upper layer of milk full of fat is
+called _cream_. If this is removed, the rest is called _skim milk_.
+
+Milk after standing in a warm place one or two days becomes sour. It
+is then sometimes put into a tight box or barrel and beat in such a
+way as to break up the little balls of fat. These are then pressed
+together into a mass called _butter_. It requires a whole gallon of
+milk to make one teacupful of butter. The milk remaining after the
+butter is taken out is called _buttermilk_. Cheese is made from milk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Two kinds of milk, showing the amount of fat
+in each.]
+
+=Milk as a Food.=--Milk is a healthful drink for nearly every one and
+especially useful for those with weak bodies. During sickness it is
+sometimes the only food the patient can take. It is well for children
+to use two or three glasses of milk daily with their meals. It should
+be sipped slowly so it will mix with the fluid in the mouth and not
+form lumps called curds in the stomach.
+
+A quart of milk contains more food for the body than a half pound of
+good beefsteak. A pint of milk will supply the body with about as much
+food as a pint of oysters. A bowl of milk and a half loaf of bread is
+a healthful supper for a boy or girl. Skim milk and buttermilk are
+healthful drinks which furnish much food for building bone, blood, and
+muscle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Germs which grow in milk and make it sour.]
+
+=When Milk is a Poison.=--In New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago it has
+been noticed for many years that large numbers of babies become sick
+in warm weather and many of them die. The doctors learned that most of
+the babies taken sick were being fed on cows' milk because their own
+mothers did not have enough for them. It was then found that the sick
+babies had been using milk from dairies where the stables were dirty,
+the cows soiled, and the hands of the milkers unclean. On this account
+much dirt got into the milk.
+
+Babies fed on clean milk from clean cows kept in clean stables
+remained strong and well. By much study the doctors learned that
+_dirty milk is poisonous milk_. The poison is made by the germs or
+bacteria living by the millions in unclean stables and in milk buckets
+not well washed in boiling water. Dirty milk becomes most poisonous in
+hot weather because warmth makes the germs grow very fast and become
+so numerous that millions are present in a teaspoonful of milk.
+
+=Keeping Milk Clean.=--During one week of hot weather in Cincinnati,
+over a hundred babies were poisoned with dirty milk. In the same week
+twice this number were made sick by unclean milk in Philadelphia.
+During the hot part of the year in our country bad milk kills more
+than a half dozen babies every hour of the day and night.
+
+The only way _to have milk clean is to have clean stables with clean
+cows, milked by clean hands, and the milk handled in clean pails, cans,
+and bottles which have been scalded after being washed_. The milk must
+then be kept cold until used, so that the germs will not grow in it.
+
+=Saving the Baby from Bad Milk.=--If possible, milk should be bought
+for the baby in bottles sealed with a pasteboard lid. If milk turns
+sour the same day it is delivered, it is not fit for the baby to take.
+Heating it makes most milk safer for use. The heating of milk to kill
+most of the germs is _pasteurizing_ it. It should be kept very hot for
+about fifteen minutes, but should not be allowed to boil. It should be
+cooled by placing the vessel on ice or in cold water.
+
+The baby's bottle and nipple should be washed in cold water and then
+well scalded immediately after being used. The bottle, the nipple, and
+the milk should be kept away from flies and dust. One fly has been
+known to carry on its body more germs than there are leaves on a large
+tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Plan of the prison at Easton, Pa. The crosses
+show into which cells the flies brought typhoid germs from the sewer
+and made the prisoners sick with fever.]
+
+=Flies and Fever in a Prison.=--In August, 1908, thirteen prisoners in
+the jail at Easton, Pennsylvania, were taken ill with typhoid fever.
+They had not been near any sick persons and their food and water were
+found to be pure. All those sick were in cells in one end of the
+prison. About twenty feet from this end a sewer had been uncovered two
+weeks before and left open. This sewer carried the waste from the
+hospital where several patients were sick with the fever. Flies fed on
+the waste in the sewer and then with the germs sticking to their feet
+flew into the cells of the prisoners and walked over their cups,
+spoons, and food. A little girl who played near this open sewer and
+shared her lunch with the flies had a severe attack of fever two weeks
+later because the germs scraped from the flies' feet on her food got
+into her body and grew.
+
+=Milk and Disease.=--We must be very careful to get not only clean
+milk but milk from healthy cows milked by persons who have no typhoid
+fever, scarlet fever, or diphtheria in their homes. If only one or two
+disease germs get into the milk from the hands of those who have
+nursed the sick, these will grow into immense numbers in a single day.
+Many of those who use the milk will then become ill. Hundreds are made
+sick in this way every year.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Why is milk a good food?
+
+     2. What does a gallon of milk contain?
+
+     3. What is cream?
+
+     4. How is butter made?
+
+     5. For whom is milk specially good?
+
+     6. How does milk become poisonous?
+
+     7. Why is dirty milk more poisonous in hot weather?
+
+     8. Tell what harm unclean milk does.
+
+     9. How may milk be kept clean?
+
+    10. Explain how milk is heated to make it safe for use.
+
+    11. Show how flies may cause fever.
+
+    12. Tell how milk may carry diphtheria into our homes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HOW THE BODY USES FOOD
+
+
+=Organs for making ready the Food.=--Before the food can get into the
+blood and be carried over the body to feed the muscles and the brain,
+it must be made into a fluid. This changing of the solid food into a
+liquid by the stomach and other organs is called _digestion_. The
+organs which do this work are known as _digestive organs_. They
+consist of a _food tube_ and several bodies called _glands_.
+
+=The Food Tube.=--The food canal is about thirty feet long. Its first
+part, the _mouth_, opens back of the tongue into the throat, named the
+_pharynx_. This leads into a tube, the gullet, passing down through
+the back part of the chest into the _stomach_ below the diaphragm. The
+stomach is a bent sac opening into a tube over twenty-five feet long
+called the _bowels_ or _intestines_. This tube is folded into a bunch
+which fills a large part of the cavity of the abdomen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--The plan of a gland. _a_ carries blood to the
+gland and _v_ takes it away after the gland has taken out what it
+needs. On the right side the top of the gland has been cut off.]
+
+=The Glands or Juice Makers.=--A gland is a little tube closed at one
+end, or a bunch of such tubes, which can take something out of the
+blood and make it into a juice. A gland under each ear and four others
+near the tongue make the juice called _saliva_ which flows into the
+mouth through tubes.
+
+A long, flat, pink gland back of the stomach is called the _sweetbread_
+or _pancreas_. This and a large brown gland, the _liver_, empty their
+juices into the intestines. The whole inner surface of the stomach and
+intestines is lined with tiny tubes, the glands. The juice of these with
+that of the other glands softens the food and makes it into a liquid.
+
+=The Work of the Mouth.=--The mouth has three things to do: It should
+break the lumps of food into fine bits so it can be well wet with the
+slippery fluid called _saliva_ and also easily swallowed. It must roll
+the food about so that it gets soaked with saliva. It must hold the
+food long enough to get much taste from it because this starts the
+juices to flowing into the stomach. Food gives out its taste only
+after it is changed to a liquid. It should not be washed down with
+water, as this weakens the juices in the stomach.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--The three glands which make the saliva for
+acting on the food in the mouth.]
+
+No food should be swallowed until it is broken into bits nearly as small
+as the head of a pin. Some foods, such as cheese, bananas, and nuts,
+should be made even finer than this. There is nothing in the stomach to
+crush to pieces large lumps of food. The juices of the stomach can do
+their full work only when the food is well chewed in the mouth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Photograph of a chestnut chewed a half minute
+by a boy who had poor teeth because he had not taken care of them. The
+lumps are so large that the juices of the stomach could not dissolve
+them.]
+
+=The Chewing of Food keeps away Sickness.=--Bread, meat, and potatoes
+should be cut into pieces no larger than half the size of your thumb
+and each piece put separately into your mouth with a fork. It should
+then be chewed from twenty to thirty times before another piece is put
+into the mouth. Food treated in this way will not cause headache or a
+sickness in the stomach called _indigestion_ or _dyspepsia_. It is
+said that there are so many persons with this kind of sickness that
+more than $5,000,000 are spent every year for medicine to help them.
+
+Too little chewing of the food while you are young may not cause many
+aches or pains, but if you form the habit of rapid eating it is hard
+to learn to eat slowly. No one who chews his food poorly can avoid
+sickness long or grow well and strong.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Photograph of a chestnut chewed a half minute
+by a boy with good teeth.]
+
+=The Work of the Stomach.=--When the food is swallowed, it passes
+through the gullet into the stomach. This is a sac holding more than
+a quart (Fig. 27). It is made of an outer wall of muscle and an inner
+skinlike coat full of tiny tubes called _gastric glands_. Millions of
+these give out drop by drop a watery fluid named _gastric juice_. This
+juice begins to flow as soon as we smell or taste food and continues
+to drop out as long as there is any food in the stomach.
+
+The use of the gastric juice is to help change part of the food into a
+more watery fluid. To do this it must be well mixed with the food.
+This mixing is done by the muscles in the outer wall of the stomach
+(Fig. 29). They squeeze together and then loosen up in such a way as
+to move the food about and turn it over until every particle is wet
+again and again with the gastric juice.
+
+=How long Food stays in the Stomach.=--A ring of muscle around the end
+of the stomach keeps the food from escaping until it has become a thin
+grayish liquid. The stomach can finish its work on some kinds of food
+in one or two hours. With other foods it must work four or five hours.
+
+The stomach can finish its work on soft boiled eggs, milk, roasted
+potatoes, and broiled lamb within two hours. With pork, veal, cabbage,
+and fried potatoes it must work four or five hours. When a person is
+sick the stomach is weak, and he should have only the food which
+causes the stomach the least work.
+
+=The Work of the Intestines.=--The last part of the work in getting
+the food ready for the blood is done in the long folded tube known as
+the intestine (Fig. 27). Here juices coming from the pancreas and
+liver mix with the food and change into a liquid those parts not acted
+on in the stomach.
+
+The intestine does quite as much work as the stomach. Sometimes when
+the stomach is sick, too much work is put off on the intestines and
+then they become sick and give much pain.
+
+The pint of watery fluid from the pancreas and the quart of greenish
+yellow fluid called _bile_ given out by the liver are carried through
+two tubes into the intestine (Fig. 27). To mix these juices with the
+food the intestine is being swung gently back and forth and the walls
+squeezed together by muscles forming its outer coat. As soon as the
+intestine has finished its work the food begins to enter the blood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--The organs which get the food ready to enter
+the blood.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Showing how the food in the dog is carried
+from the intestine to the liver and heart. The white tubes carry the
+fats up to the vein in the neck, and the dark tubes which are veins
+carry the other part of the food to the liver.]
+
+=How Food gets into the Blood.=--An hour or two after food has entered
+the intestine it is almost as thin a fluid as milk. Millions of tiny
+fingerlike growths stick out from the inner side of the intestines
+and drink in the watery food. These little fingers for drinking up the
+food are scarcely one fourth as large as the point of a pencil. They
+are called _villi_.
+
+The villi are filled with blood tubes having thin walls. The food passes
+through these walls into the blood stream. Much of it then goes to the
+liver, but the fatty parts flow up a tube along the backbone and empty
+into a blood tube in the neck. From the neck and the liver the food goes
+with the blood to the heart which sends it to all parts of the body.
+
+=What the Liver does.=--The liver is a dark red body nearly as large
+as the upper half of your head. It lies just below the diaphragm. It
+works night and day helping to keep the inner parts of the body clean
+and at the same time deal out food.
+
+The liver takes some waste out of the blood and sends it out into the
+intestine with the bile. When there is no food in the intestine, the
+bile is stored up in the _gall bladder_ under the liver. The liver
+changes certain waste matter in the blood into such form that other
+organs can cast it out of the body. It also stores up certain parts of
+the food coming from the intestines and gives it out to the body
+little by little as it is needed.
+
+=When and How much to Eat.=--When the food organs do not do their work
+rightly, the whole body becomes sick. Eating too much overworks the
+stomach. It becomes so full that the food cannot be moved about and
+well mixed with the juices. Germs then work on the food and make it
+sour. In fact the germs may change part of the food into a poison.
+This poison will cause headache and a bad feeling.
+
+Do not form a habit of taking powders to cure headache. They are likely
+to hurt the heart. Take less food, eat it more slowly, and do not wash
+it down with drink. Stop eating before your stomach feels full.
+
+Each meal gives the stomach about four hours of work to do. It then
+needs one hour of rest. This shows that the time from one meal to the
+next should be about five hours. Very young children and sick persons
+need food oftener. Boys and girls should not eat candies, cake, or
+other food between meals. It spoils the appetite and is likely to get
+the stomach out of working order.
+
+=Danger Signals.=--A white or yellowish coat on the tongue, a bad
+breath, pain in the bowels, or a headache is a danger signal. It tells
+that the food organs are not doing their work as they should and unless
+help is given sickness is likely to occur. Medicine may help, but using
+foods easy to digest, eating less, chewing more, and getting plenty of
+exercise in the fresh air are likely to be the greatest aids to health.
+
+=The Chewing of Tobacco and Digestion.=--Some men chew tobacco as much
+as ten hours every day. The taste of the tobacco makes the saliva flow
+from the glands into the mouth. This dissolves the poison out of the
+tobacco and it is then spit out. If the tobacco-soaked saliva were all
+swallowed, the man would be poisoned.
+
+The chewing of tobacco causes the loss of much saliva which is needed
+to help digest the food. Anyone who tires his jaw by chewing tobacco
+is not likely to chew his food well. Some of the poison in the tobacco
+is taken into the body through the blood vessels in the lining of the
+mouth. This is shown by the fact that a boy not used to tobacco
+becomes very sick after he has chewed a mouthful for only ten minutes.
+
+=Smoking and Digestion.=--Some persons think that the smoking of a
+cigar after a meal helps digestion. It may do so in some cases. If a
+lawyer is much excited about a case he is trying, or a business man is
+in trouble about his losses, the thinking causes the blood to flow to
+the head when it is needed in the stomach to give out digestive juices.
+
+The taste of the tobacco smoke may cause some gastric juice to run out
+into the stomach, but at the same time it is likely to hurt the nerves
+of taste so that food cannot give so much enjoyment as when the nerves
+are unharmed. Although smoking may at the time help digestion a
+little, the poison in the tobacco may afterward injure the body. This
+poison is especially harmful to growing bodies, and boys who are wise
+will refuse to smoke on all occasions.
+
+=Beer and Digestion.=--Some people drink beer with their meals because
+they think it makes the food taste better. It really prevents them
+from getting the full taste of the food because they wash it down
+before it is well soaked with the saliva.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--The stomach, showing the arrangement of the
+muscular fibers which alcohol may hinder from doing good work. At the
+right a piece is cut out of the top layer of muscle.]
+
+The flavor of beer may sometimes cause an extra flow of gastric juice
+into the stomach, but the alcohol in the beer is likely to make the
+movements of the stomach slower. This prevents the food from being
+well and quickly mixed with the juices. Several glasses of beer used
+at one meal will make the stomach do its work very slowly, and it will
+not do it well.
+
+=Wine and Digestion.=--Wine is taken by some people to give more
+appetite for food. It is likely, however, to do more harm than good
+because the alcohol in it makes the muscles which mix the food in the
+stomach act more slowly. Some of the food may sour before it gets wet
+with the juice. Much wine used at a meal is always harmful.
+
+=Natural Appetite.=--If one is in health, he should feel a desire for
+his food at every meal. This desire for a reasonable amount of food is
+a natural appetite. Fresh air and exercise will do much to give one
+the right kind of an appetite. The eating of much sweets and the
+breathing of bad air are likely to spoil the appetite.
+
+The use of some things, such as opium, tobacco, beer, wine, and
+whisky, creates an unnatural appetite. That is, after one has used
+these articles a few months he cannot stop their use without great
+suffering. The younger the person, the sooner the appetite becomes
+fixed. For this reason _young persons should never use tobacco or
+alcoholic drinks of any kind_.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. What is digestion?
+
+     2. Name the parts of the food tube.
+
+     3. Where does saliva come from?
+
+     4. Explain how the food is acted on in the mouth.
+
+     5. Why should food be well chewed?
+
+     6. What forms the gastric juice?
+
+     7. Of what use is the gastric juice?
+
+     8. How long does food stay in the stomach?
+
+     9. Name some foods easily digested.
+
+    10. What does the intestine do?
+
+    11. What are villi?
+
+    12. Tell how the food gets into the blood.
+
+    13. Of what use is the liver?
+
+    14. Why should we not eat too much?
+
+    15. Should we eat between meals?
+
+    16. Give three reasons why you should not use tobacco.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE CARE OF THE MOUTH
+
+
+=Sickness often begins in the Mouth.=--A clean mouth and sound teeth
+have much to do in keeping one well. The germs which cause nearly a
+half million deaths in the United States every year enter the body
+through the mouth. If the mouth is unclean, only one or two disease
+germs entering it may remain there and grow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--The teeth of the upper jaw at eleven years of
+age.]
+
+It is just as important to wash the mouth two or three times each day
+as it is to wash the hands and face. A few germs of diphtheria, sore
+throat, or tuberculosis are likely to get into the mouth any day, but
+if the mouth and teeth are well washed with a brush morning and night,
+the germs will not have time to grow and cause sickness.
+
+=The Teeth.=--The first twenty teeth that appear are called the _milk
+set_. The eight front teeth grow out during the first year of life and
+back of these twelve others appear during the second year. Between the
+seventh and the tenth year all of the milk teeth are lost because
+others grow beneath them and push them out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--The full set of teeth on the right side at
+twelve years of age. The numbers show at what year of age each one
+grows out of the gum.]
+
+The first four teeth of the second set appear in the sixth year, just
+behind the last milk teeth (Fig. 30). These teeth should be watched
+very closely and at the first sign of decay you should go to the
+dentist. As the milk teeth get loose and come out, the second set of
+teeth take their places.
+
+If you are ten or eleven years old, you should have twelve good teeth
+in the upper jaw and the same number below. The last ones to break
+through the gums are the four wisdom teeth at the back of the mouth.
+They appear after the seventeenth year.
+
+The front teeth are called _incisors_ because they are used to cut the
+food. The back teeth are named _molars_ because they are used in
+grinding the food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Photograph of teeth not kept clean, showing
+how germs and a sour substance called acid eat holes in them and thus
+cause decay and toothache.]
+
+=Toothache.=--Toothache is a common ailment, and yet it can be
+entirely prevented. A tooth does not ache until it has a hole in it.
+The tender nerve within gives us warning that it is being hurt. The
+dentist can stop the ache and mend the tooth so that it will not ache
+again. Look at your teeth every month and feel about them with a
+wooden tooth-pick to know when the decay begins. If the little holes
+are mended as soon as found, you will never have toothache, and you
+can keep your teeth as long as you live.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Slice down through a tooth showing _f_, the
+enamel, and _d_, the soft pulp with nerves and blood tubes from the
+root at _h_.]
+
+=How to keep the Teeth Sound.=--Every tooth is covered with a layer of
+hard shining substance called _enamel_ (Fig. 33). So long as this is
+unbroken the softer bony part of the tooth cannot decay. At the base
+of the tooth where the gum joins it the enamel is very thin, so that
+the scratch of a pin or other instrument may break it.
+
+Never pick the teeth with a pin or needle. The biting off of thread,
+finger nails, and other hard material may crack the enamel. It may
+also be softened and eaten away by acid formed where food remains
+about a tooth. For this reason a quill or wooden pick or piece of
+tough thread, called _dental floss_, should be used to clear the teeth
+of food after each meal. Slimy matter collects over the whole surface
+of the teeth, and is likely to cause decay in spots unless it is
+cleaned off night and morning with brush and water. The chewing of dry
+crusts of bread or crackers strengthens the teeth and keeps off decay.
+
+=Why Candy and other Sweets cause the Teeth to Decay.=--A sour
+substance called acid usually starts the decay of a tooth by eating
+through the enamel. Germs change sugar and other sweets into an acid.
+The acid is not made at once. An hour or more is needed for the germs
+to grow to form the acid. If, after eating sweet foods, the mouth is
+well cleaned, no acid will be formed. Sugar and candy do not,
+therefore, spoil the teeth unless it is left sticking about them.
+
+=How to brush the Teeth.=--Every boy and girl should own a toothbrush.
+_The teeth should be brushed every night and morning and kept white._
+Yellow or gray slimy teeth are very ugly. The teeth should be brushed
+on the inside as well as on the outside. It is best to brush the teeth
+crosswise for two minutes and then spend another two minutes brushing
+the upper teeth downwards and the lower teeth upwards. This prevents
+pushing the gum away from the teeth. Plenty of water should be used
+with the brush, and a little good powder is helpful once a day.
+
+=How the Dentist can Help.=--Sometimes the milk teeth do not get loose
+so that they can be pulled with the fingers at the right time. The
+second teeth then come in at one side and may never get straight in
+place. They then spoil the appearance of the face and do poor work in
+chewing. The dentist should be asked to help straighten the teeth as
+soon as they appear crooked.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Exact drawing of the teeth of two persons.
+Those in the lower picture began to decay over twenty-five years ago and
+they were then filled so as to remain perfect. The teeth in the upper
+picture began to decay less than ten years ago but were not filled.]
+
+It is wise to have the dentist examine the teeth once or twice every
+year and remove a limy substance called tartar collecting at their
+base. The dentist can stop the decay in a tooth by cleaning out the
+little hole and filling it with gold or some other material. It may
+cause a little pain and expense to have the teeth filled, but it will
+save a hundred times as much pain and expense later. The six year
+molars need special care as they are likely to decay early. Even the
+milk teeth often need filling so that they will not be lost too soon.
+
+=Bad Teeth cause Sickness.=--When anything decays, it is full of
+germs, and they are always giving off some poison. The poison may hurt
+the body and is likely to make parts of the mouth sore and tender so
+that other germs of disease can break through into the flesh. Disease
+germs can easily lodge in the holes of decaying teeth, grow in
+numbers, and finally cause diphtheria, sore throat, or other ailments.
+
+Four out of every five children suffering from diphtheria or other
+throat or ear troubles are found to have from one to ten bad teeth.
+You must keep good teeth if you wish to be well and strong.
+
+=The Value of Sound Teeth.=--Sound teeth which will do good work in
+chewing food are worth more than a foot or an arm. If the foot or arm
+is lost, the body is likely to get well and be as healthy as ever.
+_The health of the whole body depends upon the work done by the
+teeth._ Unless they do their part the stomach cannot get the food
+ready for the blood.
+
+A part of badly chewed food is turned into a poison farther down in
+the food canal. This is what makes many people feel so tired and
+miserable much of the time. Hundreds of men have been refused
+admission to our army because they have poor teeth. Soldiers must be
+strong and well to take long marches and fight battles. Sound teeth
+give strength and health.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Why should the mouth be washed out every day?
+
+     2. When do the milk teeth appear?
+
+     3. When are the milk teeth lost?
+
+     4. How many teeth have you?
+
+     5. How many show signs of decay?
+
+     6. How may toothache be prevented?
+
+     7. How may the teeth be kept sound?
+
+     8. Why do sweets cause the teeth to decay?
+
+     9. How should you brush your teeth?
+
+    10. Why should the dentist examine your teeth every year?
+
+    11. Why are sound teeth of great worth?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ALCOHOLIC DRINKS
+
+
+=Drink needed for Health.=--Water in the form of sweat and in other
+ways is constantly passing off from the body. This water carries with
+it the waste matter which, if it remained, would poison the body.
+There is some water in the food we eat, but not enough to supply the
+wants of the body.
+
+Some persons think that the body needs beer or wine to keep it in good
+order. These liquids, as well as whisky, brandy, and rum, are called
+_alcoholic drinks_. The latest experiments and studies show that the
+body never needs alcoholic drinks to keep it in the best of health.
+These drinks sometimes make the body sick, and if much alcohol is
+taken at one time, the person becomes dizzy, staggers, and may fall
+down and go to sleep.
+
+=The Desire for Drink.=--When parts of the body have too little water,
+there is a longing for drink. This is called _thirst_. As soon as a
+cup of water is drunk the desire is satisfied. There is no danger of
+drinking too much pure water.
+
+Persons who have been accustomed to use alcoholic drink have a thirst
+which water does not satisfy. It is an _unnatural thirst_. Even beer
+or wine will not satisfy such a thirst except for a few minutes. Very
+often a person's thirst is not satisfied until he has used so much
+wine or whisky that he becomes dull and unsteady in his walk. He is
+then said to be drunk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Yeast plants growing as in the making of beer
+and wine. Much enlarged.]
+
+=How the Yeast Plant makes Alcohol.=--In the cake of yeast bought at
+the grocery there are millions of tiny plants, each shaped somewhat
+like a potato. This strange little plant will grow very rapidly when
+put into any sweet watery substance. It sends out a bud which grows
+larger and larger until in a half hour the bud is as large as the old
+plant. It may then break loose and grow other buds, just like the
+mother plant.
+
+When yeast grows, it changes the sugar or sweet part of the water into
+alcohol and a gas called carbon dioxide. It is this gas which makes
+beer foam and bubble when opened. All alcohol used in beer, porter,
+ale, wine, brandy, rum, gin, and whisky is made by yeast plants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Photograph of sprouted barley grains called
+malt.]
+
+=How Beer is Made.=--There is more beer used than any other alcoholic
+drink. It is cheap and is much weaker in alcohol than wine or whisky.
+Only about one twentieth part of beer is alcohol.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Photograph of a spray of hops, which are used
+to flavor beer.]
+
+In making beer, a sweet watery mixture is first prepared by mashing
+sprouted barley grains in water. Barley or any other grain forms sugar
+as soon as it begins to grow. Yeast plants are added to the sweet
+mixture. By growing they change some of the sugar into alcohol. Hops
+are also put in to give the beer a fine flavor. After a time the clear
+liquid is separated from the barley grains and hops and put into tight
+casks and bottles.
+
+=The Making of Wine.=--Wine contains from two to four times as much
+alcohol as beer. Most of the wine is made in California, France, and
+Germany because grapes grow better in these countries than elsewhere.
+Wine may be made from the juice of any fruit, but the grape is
+generally used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--The quantity of grapes required to make this
+glass full of wine.]
+
+The grapes after being picked are thrown into large tubs and crushed
+so that the juice runs out. The wild yeast always present on the grape
+skins begins to grow in the juice and change some of the sugar into
+alcohol. This work of the yeast lasts from one to eight weeks. At the
+end of that time, the grape juice has become a kind of poor wine,
+consisting of alcohol, water, grape flavor, and some acid. To make the
+wine good it must be drawn off into casks, where the yeast causes
+further changes during several weeks. It is then put into bottles,
+where it should remain about five years to get the right flavor.
+
+=Sherry= is a strong wine used in flavoring food, such as puddings and
+sauces. A few teaspoonfuls of this wine will make a child drunk. The
+wines made at home from elderberries, blackberries, and cherries
+contain alcohol which will do just as much harm as that in the
+purchased wines.
+
+=How Brandy is Made.=--Brandy contains more alcohol than wine and
+almost as much as whisky. In fact brandy is only very strong wine.
+After the yeast plants have formed as much alcohol as they can in
+grape juice it becomes so strong that it kills them. This wine is then
+heated in such a way as to separate some of the water from it. The
+taking away of the water leaves the wine stronger in alcohol and it
+then forms brandy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--The shaded part at the bottom of each bottle
+shows the amount of alcohol in the drink.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--A still used in making whisky or brandy. The
+heat makes the alcohol fumes or vapor rise and pass over through the
+pipe coiled in a vessel of cold water. The cold changes the vapor to a
+liquid which is whisky.]
+
+=Whisky and Rum.=--These two drinks are strong in alcohol. Nearly one
+half of each is pure alcohol. Whisky is usually made from rye, corn,
+or wheat, or all three together. They furnish the food in which the
+yeast grows and makes alcohol. This watery mixture of grain and
+alcohol is then heated and the vapor or steam forms whisky after it
+goes off through a pipe into another vessel. This kind of heating is
+_distillation_. Rum is formed in somewhat the same way from molasses
+or cane juice.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Name some alcoholic drinks.
+
+     2. What is an unnatural thirst?
+
+     3. Explain how the yeast plant forms alcohol.
+
+     4. Tell how beer is made.
+
+     5. Tell how wine is made.
+
+     6. What is brandy?
+
+     7. Which drinks contain most alcohol?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ALCOHOL AND HEALTH
+
+
+=The Money spent for Alcoholic Drinks.=--If the money spent for
+alcoholic drinks were all collected together in silver dollars, it would
+more than fill ten schoolrooms of average size. Not only rich men spend
+large sums yearly for fine wines and brandies, but also the poor give
+their money for beer and other drinks which the body does not need.
+
+When parents waste their money on drink, they cannot buy the food and
+clothes needed to keep their families strong and well. In this way
+strong drink causes much sickness and suffering and sometimes even death.
+
+=Alcohol injures the Body.=--Some persons drink very little beer or
+wine, so they seem to have but little effect on the health. Others use
+strong drink every day and for a few years they may remain quite well.
+Later ill health often comes on, and they then find that some of the
+organs have been so much hurt that they will never be quite well again.
+
+A few years ago a group of fifty well-known men in the United States
+spent much time and thousands of dollars to learn how much alcohol was
+harming our country. After much study among many people they announced
+that there were about one million men and boys whose health had been
+injured by strong drink, such as beer, wine, and whisky. Because
+strong drink causes so much sorrow and sickness several states have
+passed laws forbidding its sale, and saloons have been closed by laws
+in parts of many other states.
+
+=How Alcohol affects Kittens.=--The body of a kitten is made very much
+like the body of a child. It has just the same organs that a child
+has, and they do the same kind of work. Doctor Hodge, a well-known
+scientist of Massachusetts, therefore concluded that alcohol would act
+on kittens in the same way as it would on a man or boy.
+
+The doctor got two healthy kittens and fed them a little alcohol every
+day for nearly two weeks. In a few days they stopped being playful,
+did not grow, and did not keep their fur clean and smooth as healthy
+kittens do. After using alcohol several days they became very ill.
+This experiment showed that alcohol stops kittens from growing and
+robs them of good health.
+
+=How Alcohol hurts Dogs.=--Doctor Hodge fed a little alcohol to two
+dogs nearly every day for three years. He also kept the brother and
+sister of these dogs, but gave them no alcohol. All the dogs had the
+same kind of food and were treated alike except that one pair got
+alcohol and the other pair did not.
+
+The two drinking dogs got sick more easily and staid sick much longer
+than the temperance dogs. The drinking dogs became lazy, and timid,
+while the others were strong, full of fun, and brave.
+
+Within four years the drinking dogs had born to them twenty-seven
+puppies, but only four of them lived to grow up. The others were too
+weak or sickly to live. During the same time the temperance dogs had
+forty-five puppies and forty-one of these lived. This shows that
+strong drink will not only injure the bodies of those who take it, but
+will make their children weak and sickly.
+
+=The Use of Strong Drink causes Disease.=--Many persons who take beer
+or wine every day become fat. They think this is a sign of health. It
+is really a sign of disease. They become short of breath. They can no
+longer run so fast or do so much work because the heart is covered
+with fat and even some of its wall is changed to fat. For this reason
+the heart cannot do its work easily or well.
+
+The kidneys which take the waste out of the blood often become injured
+by alcohol and a disease causing death follows. Sometimes the stomach
+becomes diseased so that it cannot do its work. This makes the whole
+body sick.
+
+The hardening of parts of the liver is nearly always caused by the use
+of beer. The liver is sure to suffer if one uses much alcoholic drink
+because the alcohol goes direct from the food tube to the liver. Long
+use of strong drink may bring on disease in the brain and nerves.
+
+=Alcoholic Drinks may cause Death.=--Every ten years the government
+appoints persons to visit each home in our land to take the census. A
+part of this census report consists of a table showing the disease of
+which people died. It is from the census report that we know that
+hundreds of people die every year from the use of alcohol.
+
+=Danger to Health in beginning the Use of Strong Drink.=--A large
+number of people take a drink of beer or wine occasionally because
+they do not see that it hurts the body. No one expects to become a
+steady drinker or a drunkard when he begins to drink. Reports show
+that every drunkard begins his downward course by taking a few drinks
+occasionally. Thousands of persons begin a drunkard's life every year
+because the appetite leads them on gently until they become slaves and
+cannot let drink alone.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+TOBACCO AND OTHER DRUGS WHICH INJURE THE HEALTH
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--The tobacco plant.]
+
+=How Tobacco is Made.=--Tobacco is made from the leaves of the tobacco
+plant. The plant may grow as tall as a man and bear more than a dozen
+leaves. Each leaf is two or three times as large as your hand. The
+seeds are planted in the springtime, and the plants are ready to be
+cut in the autumn. Most of our tobacco is raised in the Southern
+states and Cuba.
+
+After cutting, the tobacco must be dried and cared for in a special
+way to give it the right flavor. It is then sent to factories and made
+into cigars, smoking tobacco, or chewing tobacco.
+
+=How Tobacco is Used.=--Many million dollars are spent every year by
+the people of our country for tobacco. Most of the tobacco is used in
+smoking. Some men smoke it in pipes, while others smoke it in the form
+of cigars or cigarettes.
+
+Many men chew tobacco. When used in this way, something like licorice
+is generally mixed with the tobacco to give it a more pleasant taste.
+Sometimes the dry tobacco is ground into a fine powder called snuff.
+This is used by both men and women.
+
+=Tobacco contains a Poison.=--When boys chew or smoke tobacco for the
+first time, it always makes them sick. Chewing or smoking for fifteen
+minutes will make them grow dizzy and weak and feel so sick that they
+must lie down for a long time.
+
+The sickness is caused by a poison called _nicotine_ which is present
+in all tobacco. Much of this poison may be soaked out by boiling the
+tobacco in water. A cup of water in which a pipeful of tobacco has
+been boiled will kill goldfish in an hour when poured into a gallon
+jar of water with the fish. There is enough poison in a handful of
+tobacco to kill a boy who is not in the habit of using it.
+
+=Why Men can use Tobacco without becoming Sick.=--Experiments upon
+animals have shown that the body can learn to use a poison and not
+become sick from it. The poison of a rattlesnake is deadly to most
+animals; but if a tiny bit of the poison is put under the skin of the
+rabbit one day and then on each succeeding day a little larger dose of
+the poison is given the rabbit for a long time, the animal will become
+so accustomed to the poison that the bite of a rattlesnake will not
+harm it. It is the same way with tobacco. Little by little the body
+learns to overcome the effects of the poison, but much use of tobacco
+is likely to hurt certain parts of the body.
+
+=Tobacco is Harmful to the Young.=--A dose of poison which will kill a
+child may do but little harm to a man. Tobacco is certain to hurt boys
+more than it does men. The poison makes the body grow slower.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--There is more poison in the one on the right
+than in the one on the left.]
+
+A large number of measurements made by Doctor Seaver showed that the
+boys who did not use tobacco gained in four years one twentieth more
+in weight and one fourth more in girth and height than the users of
+tobacco. These boys were between sixteen and twenty-two years of age.
+It is likely that tobacco will have a more harmful effect on younger
+boys.
+
+=Laws to keep the Young Healthy.=--Boys ought to be wise and brave
+enough to let alone what keeps their bodies from growing and hurts
+their health, but some will not do it. For this reason some countries
+are trying to save the health of their boys by making laws against the
+use of tobacco.
+
+The Germans a few years ago passed a law in their land forbidding all
+boys and girls under sixteen years of age to use tobacco in any form.
+Seeing the good results of this law in Germany and the harm that
+tobacco was doing the boys in the United States, the Emperor of Japan
+on the 6th of March, 1900, proclaimed this law: "The smoking of
+tobacco by minors under the age of twenty is prohibited."
+
+In our own country several states have passed laws against the use of
+cigarettes by boys. One country after another is learning that if they
+want strong men, to fight, to work, and to win, tobacco must not be
+allowed to weaken the bodies of the young.
+
+=How the White Man becomes a Slave.=--Before the Civil War the black
+men of the South were slaves. They could not do as they pleased
+because they belonged to their masters whom they must obey or else
+they would suffer punishment. No boy can begin the use of tobacco
+without the danger of becoming a slave to it.
+
+The use of tobacco either by chewing or smoking gradually causes in
+any one the growth of an appetite which makes him feel miserable and
+unhappy unless it is kept satisfied. It can be satisfied only by the
+use of more and more tobacco.
+
+Many men would like to quit the use of tobacco if they could do so
+without suffering. They are slaves, and tobacco is their master.
+
+=Cigarettes and Health.=--A cigarette is a tube of paper filled with
+tobacco. The tobacco is usually not so strong as that used in cigars
+and pipes. For this reason, boys like it better, and because it is so
+mild they draw the smoke down into the lungs. This gives the poison a
+better chance to be taken up by the blood. On this account, and
+because one is likely to smoke oftener when he smokes a small piece of
+tobacco, cigarettes are thought by some to be more harmful than the
+use of tobacco in pipes and cigars.
+
+=Tea and Coffee.=--Tea is made from the dried leaves of the tea plant.
+Tea plants are raised in North Carolina, China, and Japan. The drink
+called tea used at the table is made by pouring boiling water on the
+tea leaves. The leaves should not be boiled as this draws out a
+substance which keeps the stomach from doing its work in the right way.
+
+Coffee is the seed of a plant growing in South America and Asia. It is
+roasted, then ground, and boiled in water to make the drink called
+coffee.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Branch of a tea plant.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Branch of a coffee plant with bunches of
+coffee berries near the bottom.]
+
+Children should not use either tea or coffee as they are likely to
+hurt the stomach and may injure the heart. One or two cups of tea or
+coffee daily seem to have little or no bad effect on the health of
+most grown persons. Coffee taken at supper may keep one awake by
+sending too much blood to the brain.
+
+=Opium and Morphine.=--Opium is a dangerous drug which is got from the
+heads of the white poppy plant grown mostly in the far East. From
+gashes cut in the poppy heads a juice runs out and hardens into a gum
+from which the pure drug is made.
+
+Some persons smoke opium for the drowsy and pleasant feeling it gives.
+Its use is very hurtful and ruins both body and mind. _Morphine_ is a
+pure form of opium. Persons take it to kill pain and make them sleep.
+You should never take it except when given by the doctor, as a habit
+is quickly formed which will make you miserable through life.
+
+=Patent Medicines.=--These are medicines advertised to cure ailments
+which generally cannot be cured by drugs. They are the medicines much
+advertised in the newspapers and magazines. Never use them unless your
+doctor tells you to do so. Many of them contain harmful drugs, such as
+morphine and alcohol. When you are sick, go to your doctor for advice.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Explain how tobacco is raised.
+
+     2. How is tobacco used?
+
+     3. How does tobacco affect a boy using it for the first time?
+
+     4. What is the name of the poison in tobacco?
+
+     5. Tell how tobacco keeps boys from growing.
+
+     6. What countries do not allow boys to use tobacco?
+
+     7. What is meant by being a slave to tobacco?
+
+     8. What is tea?
+
+     9. What is coffee?
+
+    10. Why should you not use opium or morphine?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE SKIN AND BATHING
+
+
+=Parts of the Skin.=--The skin is about as thick as the leather of
+your shoe. It is fastened to the muscles beneath with fine white
+threads like spider webs. This is called _connective tissue_ because
+it connects the skin to the lean meat.
+
+The skin is made of two layers (Fig. 45). The upper layer is formed of
+cells. This is named _epidermis_ or _scarfskin_. The deeper layer is
+made largely of fine threads woven together. It is the _true skin_ or
+_derma_. There is no blood in the scarfskin, but there is a network of
+blood tubes in the true skin. It is the crowding of these with blood
+that makes the skin look so red when we get hot or excited.
+
+=The Use of the Skin.=--The skin has three chief uses. It protects the
+softer parts of the body from being hurt by rough or hard things which
+might touch it. It contains the organs of feeling. It helps keep the
+right amount of heat in the body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--A thin slice through the skin, showing sweat
+glands, a nerve, and blood-tubes. Much enlarged.]
+
+The top part of the skin is dry and dead. This gives better protection
+than if it were moist and tender. Particles of it are wearing out and
+dropping off while other bits are growing beneath to take the place of
+the worn-out parts. The more this top skin is pressed on and rubbed,
+the thicker it becomes. For this reason it is twice as thick in the
+palms of the hand and on the soles of the feet.
+
+Scattered through the true skin are millions of tiny organs fastened
+to the ends of the nerve threads leading to the spinal cord and brain.
+These organs tell us when the skin is touched or when it is hot or
+cold or is being hurt.
+
+=The Pores and the Sweat Glands.=--On a warm day the skin becomes wet
+with a salty fluid called _sweat_ or _perspiration_. This flows from
+the tiny holes or pores in the skin. A good magnifying glass will show
+these pores arranged in rows on the ridges in the palm of the hand.
+
+From each pore a tube leads down into the true skin to a coiled tube
+forming the _sweat gland_ (Fig. 45). Sweat glands are present by the
+thousands in the skin of all parts of the body. They give out from
+one pint to a gallon of sweat daily. The more we work and the warmer
+the weather, the more the sweat flows.
+
+There is a little waste matter carried out of the body by the sweat,
+but its chief use is to cool the body. It does this by passing off in
+the air and carrying the heat with it. In this way the body is kept
+from getting too hot in summer.
+
+=The Color of the Skin.=--In the African race the color of the skin is
+black, in the Chinese it is yellowish, while in our race it is nearly
+white. The different hues are due to a coloring matter called
+_pigment_. This lies in the deep part of the scarfskin. Going out in
+the wind and sun causes more pigment to collect, and we say we are
+tanned. If the pigment collects in spots, it makes freckles.
+
+There is no way of removing at once freckles or tan. They usually
+disappear in the winter. No powders nor any other kind of medicine
+should be taken to make the skin white and smooth. Such medicines may
+contain poison and are likely in time to hurt the body. The skin may
+usually be kept soft and smooth by washing well with soft water and
+good soap. If it becomes harsh or cracked, a little glycerine rubbed
+on after each washing may help it.
+
+=The Nails and their Care.=--The nails are hardened parts of the
+epidermis. They are intended to prevent the ends of the fingers from
+being hurt and to give a neat appearance to the hand.
+
+The ends of the nails should never be chewed or torn off, as this
+makes the fingers blunt and the flesh sore. They should be filed or
+cut neatly with the scissors so that they do not stick out beyond the
+ends of the fingers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Photograph of hands showing at the right how
+the nails should appear, and at the left how biting off the nails
+makes the fingers blunt and sore.]
+
+Many boys and some girls spoil the appearance of their nails by
+letting a line of black dirt remain beneath them. A piece of a stick
+or a nail cleaner should be passed beneath the nails every time the
+hands are washed. If the fingers are much soiled, a stiff brush is
+useful in removing the dirt under the nails.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--A slice through a hair in its sac. Much
+enlarged.]
+
+=The Hair.=--Some hair grows on nearly all parts of the body. It is
+much thicker on the head than elsewhere. Each hair grows from a
+little knob at the bottom of a tiny tube in the skin called the _hair
+sac_ (Fig. 47). If hair is pulled out, another one will grow in its
+place if the knob at the bottom of the sac is not hurt.
+
+One or two _oil glands_ open into each hair sac and give out an oil to
+keep the scalp and hair soft. No other hair dressing is needed.
+
+After thirty or forty years of age the hair begins to turn gray. No
+medicine will prevent the hair from turning gray, and it is generally
+unwise to color the hair with a dye. There is poison in some of the
+mixtures sold to color the hair.
+
+=The Care of the Hair.=--When the hair is uncombed, the whole person
+looks untidy. The hair should be combed carefully every morning and
+again made tidy before each meal. You should use as little water as
+possible to moisten the hair. The glands can be made to give out their
+hair oil by squeezing parts of the scalp between the fingers.
+
+The scalp should be well cleansed with soap and warm water every three
+or four weeks. The hair should be dried quickly with a soft towel and
+by sitting in the sun or near a stove. One is likely to catch cold by
+going out of doors when the hair is wet. Hair oils and dandruff cures
+should not be used unless advised by a physician. Pinching and wrinkling
+the scalp twice weekly with the fingers makes the blood tubes grow
+larger and bring more food to the hair. It will also in many persons
+stop the hair from falling out and prevent dandruff and itching.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Photographs showing how keeping the hair tidy
+improves the appearance.]
+
+Do not use the hair brush of another person or exchange hats with your
+companions. Unclean persons and those living or playing much with them
+often have among their hairs little creatures called _head lice_. They
+suck blood and cause constant itching. The doctor will tell any one
+how to get rid of them easily.
+
+=Keeping the Skin Clean.=--The amount of dead matter carried out by the
+sweat on to the skin every day is equal to a mass as large as your
+thumb. Dust also works through the clothing and sticks fast to the moist
+skin. For this reason every one should wash the whole body once or twice
+each week. The feet should be washed oftener as they become more soiled.
+
+Many persons take a bath every day. A cold bath taken just after
+rising in the morning wakes up the nerves, makes the heart work
+better, and gives health and strength to the whole body. Afterward,
+the body should be well rubbed with a coarse towel. The bath may be
+taken by lying in a tub of water or by rubbing the body over quickly
+with a wet sponge. A hot bath is best for cleansing the skin. A warm
+bath makes one sleepy and should, therefore, be taken only at bedtime.
+
+_The hands should always be well washed before handling food._ Persons
+neglecting to do this have caused much sickness because of the disease
+germs on their hands. One hundred and fifty persons were given typhoid
+fever in one city in Massachusetts by a man who handled milk without
+washing his hands. Dirt and disease are companions. You must be clean
+if you would be healthy.
+
+=The Kidneys.=--The sweat glands do not take out of the blood one
+quarter as much waste matter as the kidneys. These are two bodies longer
+than the finger and more than twice as wide, and having the shape of a
+bean. One lies on either side of the backbone below the liver.
+
+The blood coming to the kidneys is full of waste and dead matter
+picked up from all parts of the body. This is passed out through the
+thin walls of the thousands of little blood tubes into the many tiny
+tubes of the kidneys.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--The blood tubes in a piece of skin as large
+as the head of a pin.]
+
+Water is required to keep the body clean within as well as without.
+For this reason you should drink more than a quart of water daily. A
+glass or two of water drunk a half hour before meals cleanses and
+rouses to action the digestive organs.
+
+=Alcohol and the Skin.=--The skin of those who use much beer or whisky
+often becomes rough, red, and pimply. Any alcoholic drink is likely to
+injure the skin because it may hinder good digestion. The drunkard has
+a red nose and a dark-colored skin. This is because alcohol weakens
+the walls of the blood tubes and lets them become gorged with blood.
+
+If a person takes a drink only once in a while, his face becomes red
+after each drink, and an hour or two later the effect of the alcohol
+passes off. The blood tubes have squeezed up to their natural size.
+
+=Alcohol and the Kidneys.=--Taking several glasses daily of even such
+weak alcoholic drink as beer often causes the kidneys to become sick.
+Some of their working parts become changed to fat and some parts
+become hard. The cells which let the waste matter pass out of the
+blood get hurt by the poison of the alcohol so that they let some of
+the food also pass out of the blood.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Name the two parts of the skin.
+
+     2. Give the three uses of the skin.
+
+     3. What is a sweat gland?
+
+     4. How much sweat is formed daily?
+
+     5. Of what use is the sweat?
+
+     6. How should the nails be cared for?
+
+     7. Tell what care should be given the hair.
+
+     8. Why should you not use another person's hair brush?
+
+     9. Why should the skin be washed often?
+
+    10. Of what use is a cold bath?
+
+    11. Why should the hands be well washed before handling
+        food?
+
+    12. Why does the drunkard have a red nose?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+CLOTHING AND HOW TO USE IT
+
+
+=Kinds of Clothing.=--People are beginning to learn that the wearing
+of the right kind of clothing has much to do with keeping them well.
+Many persons wear too heavy clothing in winter. Keeping the body too
+hot makes it weak.
+
+Some kinds of clothing are much warmer than others. Some are expensive
+and others are cheap. Cheap clothes will often serve the same purpose
+as the more costly ones. If you look at your handkerchief or
+stockings, you will see that they are made of threads running
+crosswise to each other. All clothing is made from threads. Some of
+these are wool, some are linen, a few are silk, and many are cotton.
+
+=Woolen Clothing.=--Woolen clothing, such as overcoats and fine cloth
+dresses and suits, is made from the wool cut from sheep. Enough wool
+can be sheared from two sheep in one year to make an entire suit of
+clothes. The raw wool is first twisted into threads and then woven by
+machines into cloth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--At the left is a bunch of flax gathered from
+the field, and on the right is a spool of thread made from the flax
+and ready to be woven into linen.]
+
+=Linen.=--Linen is used in making collars, cuffs, and handkerchiefs.
+It is made from fine threads taken from the flax plant. On a piece of
+ground as large as a schoolroom enough flax can be raised to make a
+half dozen collars. Garments to be worn in warm weather are sometimes
+made of linen.
+
+=Silk.=--Silk is used in making neckties, gloves, ribbons, and
+dresses. Silk cloth is woven from the cocoons made by silkworms. A
+silkworm is about as big as your largest finger. It grows to this
+size from the egg in one month. In three or four days it spins a shell
+of silk thread completely surrounding itself. This shell is called a
+_cocoon_. Within this it changes to a moth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Photograph of silkworms changing mulberry
+leaves into silk.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--These fibers from the lint about the seed of
+cotton are woven into cotton cloth.]
+
+When the cocoons are to be used for silk, the worm is killed by heat
+as soon as it has woven its home so that it may not change to a moth
+and eat off some of the silk in getting out. Many thousand worms are
+needed to get enough silk for a dress. The worms are raised largely in
+China, Japan, Italy, and France.
+
+=Cotton.=--All calico, muslin, and most cheap clothing are made from
+cotton thread. This is made from the cotton fibers surrounding the
+seeds of the cotton plant (Fig. 52). The cotton used in this country
+is raised in the Southern states.
+
+Cotton clothing is stronger and wears much longer than silk or wool,
+but it does not look so well and is not nearly so warm.
+
+=The Use of Wraps and Overcoats.=--_Outer wraps and overcoats should
+never be worn in a warm room or while working hard._ They cause much
+sweat to form on the body, and as soon as one goes out of doors the
+sweat begins to pass off. This makes the body feel cold and in some
+cases leads to a long sickness.
+
+When riding in cold weather, extra wraps should be worn. Scarfs and
+furs should not be worn about the throat except in extreme cold
+weather. Bundling up the neck and chin is likely to cause sore throat.
+
+=Danger from Wet Clothing.=--Many children have caught severe colds
+leading to serious sickness by wearing wet or damp clothing. Wet
+clothing causes the heat to pass off from the body quickly, so that it
+is chilled before we know it. This may be shown by wrapping two bottles
+of warm water in cloths. Wet one cloth and let the other remain dry. In
+twenty minutes the bottle with the wet cloth will be cool, but the other
+one will still be warm. _If your wet clothing cannot be changed at once,
+keep exercising or throw a heavy coat about you._
+
+=Untidy and Soiled Clothing.=--All boys and girls should learn to keep
+their clothing as clean as possible. Do not wipe the hands on the
+clothing, or sit down in the dirt, or let food smear the front of the
+coat or dress.
+
+The sweat is constantly bringing waste matter out of the body. This
+soils the clothing next to it. On this account clothing to be washed
+every week or oftener should be worn next to the skin. Very thin
+cotton underclothing should be worn in summer. Woolen clothes give
+more warmth for winter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Showing how to prevent the shoe from pressing
+on corns caused by wearing tight shoes or socks roughly darned.]
+
+=Shoes.=--Badly fitting shoes cause sore feet and much pain. A shoe
+that is tight across the toes is sure to cause corns. A _corn_ is a
+thickened part of the top skin which presses on the more tender part
+beneath. Soaking the feet in hot water and filing off the top of the
+corn or using a corn plaster will help it. Shoes should always be a
+half inch longer than the foot. Waterproof shoes or rubbers should be
+worn in wet weather. Rubbers should not be worn in the house.
+
+=Alcohol and Clothing.=--Many persons think that a drink of whisky will
+make them warm when taken on a cold day. For this reason whisky is
+sometimes used when clothing is really needed. The use of whisky or any
+other alcoholic drink will not make the body warm. It may make one feel
+warm because it loosens the muscles in the blood tubes of the skin and
+so lets more blood come to the surface. In this way the body becomes
+colder because too much blood gets into the skin and is then chilled by
+the cold air. As alcohol deadens the feeling it may prevent one from
+feeling cold when the body is really very cold. Too little clothing and
+too much alcohol have been known to cause men to freeze to death.
+
+=Experience in using Alcohol to keep the Body Warm.=--Doctor Hayes,
+who went as physician with Doctor Kane to explore in the Arctic
+regions, said that he would never again take alcoholic drink with him
+on such a trip. He declared alcohol was of no use in helping men to
+keep warm. He found from actual experience that those who use alcohol
+cannot endure cold so well as other people.
+
+Doctor Carpenter, a well-known physician, tells of a crew of sixty-six
+men who tried to stay in Hudson Bay all winter. They used some
+alcoholic drink. Only two of the party lived through the winter. Later
+another party of twenty-two men passed the winter in the same place.
+They used no strong drink at any time and as a consequence all but two
+of them were reported well and strong in the following spring.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+BREATHING
+
+
+=The Lungs.=--The lungs are two light spongy bodies filling up the
+greater part of the chest. The heart lies between the lungs. The
+lungs are formed largely of thousands of thin-walled sacs and two sets
+of tubes. One set of tubes carries air into and out of the lungs, and
+the other set is filled with blood. These sacs and tubes are held in
+place by a loose meshwork of tissue.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--The ribs and front wall of the chest cut away
+to show the lungs. A piece of one lung is cut off to show the heart.
+_A_ and _E_, parts of the breastbone; _F_, diaphragm.]
+
+=Why we Breathe.=--Breathing means taking air into the lungs and
+forcing it out. The air is made to go into the lungs in order that a
+part of it called oxygen may get into the blood. The blood then
+carries the oxygen to all parts of the body where it can help the
+organs do their work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Photograph of a salamander, showing the gills
+on either side of the head, which are used in breathing.]
+
+The air which comes out of the lungs is not the same as that which
+goes in. Some of the oxygen has been used up and in its place is a
+heavier gas named _carbon dioxide_, which has been given out by the
+body. This carbon dioxide is part of the waste formed in every part of
+the body from the used-up food and dying parts of the body. We breathe
+therefore to get oxygen into the body and to take out some of the
+waste matter.
+
+All animals must breathe. If our breath is shut off only four or five
+minutes, death results. In the earthworm the oxygen goes right through
+the skin into the blood. Bugs and flies have several little openings
+along the sides of the body which lead into tubes branching throughout
+the body to carry air. A fish gets air through its gills lying under a
+bony flap on each side of the head.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--The windpipe and lungs viewed from in front.
+On the right, the tissue is removed to show the air tubes.]
+
+=How the Air passes into the Lungs.=--The outer openings of the nose
+are called nostrils. From here two channels lead back through the nose
+to the throat. The cavity of the throat behind the nose and tongue is
+the _pharynx_. At the bottom of the pharynx is a tube made mostly of
+gristle. This tube is larger than your thumb and is named the
+_larynx_, or _voice box_. The bump on its front part forms the lump in
+the throat called the _Adam's Apple_.
+
+From the voice box extends the _windpipe_ called _trachea_, down to
+the lungs. The windpipe divides at its lower end between the lungs
+into two branches. One of these enters each lung.
+
+=The Air Tubes in the Lungs.=--As the branch of the windpipe enters
+each lung it divides into smaller branches just like the limbs of a
+tree. These divide into still smaller tubes, which branch again and
+again until they are as small as a hair. These hairlike tubes have
+swollen ends called _air sacs_. The walls of the air sacs are much
+thinner than tissue paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--A bunch of air cells at the end of an air
+tube in the lungs, showing the blood vessels which receive the oxygen
+and give out the carbon dioxide.]
+
+=How the Blood trades Waste for Oxygen in the Lungs.=--The blood,
+which is constantly running from all parts of the body to the lungs,
+collects waste formed from the burnt food and dying parts of the
+organs. When the blood comes to the lungs, it is full of this waste,
+called carbon dioxide. The blood tubes divide into fine branches with
+very thin walls and form a rich network over the air sacs. This allows
+the carbon dioxide and water to pass out of the blood tubes into the
+air sacs, while the oxygen at the same time goes through into the
+blood. More than a pint of water is given off in the breath daily.
+
+=How we Breathe.=--The bottom of the chest cavity is formed by an
+upward arching sheet of muscle called the _diaphragm_. This is
+fastened to the lower ribs. The ribs at rest slant downward and
+inward. When the ribs are pulled up or the arch of the diaphragm down,
+the cavity of the chest becomes larger. The air then runs into the
+lungs and swells them out. When the ribs are let drop or the arch of
+the diaphragm goes up, the air is pushed out of the lungs.
+
+Without thinking, we work the muscles to draw up the ribs about
+eighteen times every minute, because all parts of the body are calling
+for oxygen. The harder we work the oftener we breathe because the
+muscles need more oxygen to make them go.
+
+=Why we should breathe through the Nose.=--Most persons find it easy
+to breathe through the nose. In some, however, the passages in the
+nose are too small to carry the air without effort. On this account
+they let the mouth hang open and breathe through it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Face cut through the middle to show how the
+adenoids stop the air from passing through the nose. Arrows show the
+course which the air should take.]
+
+The air should pass only through the nose because it is lined with
+hairs and tiny waving threads which catch the dust. In this way germs
+and dirt are prevented from getting into the throat and lungs, and in
+winter the cold air is warmed.
+
+=Why Some Children cannot breathe through the Nose.=--When one has a
+cold, the lining of the nose becomes swollen and gives out a white
+substance called _mucus_. The swelling of the lining and the mucus fill
+up the passages. The nose should be kept clean by using a handkerchief
+and blowing out the mucus into it. _Never put the finger into the nose._
+Disease germs often get on the fingers from things touched.
+
+Children who have the habit of breathing through the mouth should be
+examined by a physician. He will, in most cases, find soft spongy
+growths called _adenoids_ in the back part of the nose. They should
+always be removed as soon as possible. They may cause disease or
+deafness and may even injure the mind.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--A view of the voice box from the top.]
+
+=The Voice.=--In the upper part of the voice box at the top of the
+windpipe is a fold of tissue stretched on either side. These two folds
+of tissue form the _vocal cords_. The air rushing past them causes
+sound. The different sounds are made by stretching the cords tight or
+loosely. By means of the tongue, teeth, and lips the sound is formed
+into words.
+
+=How to use the Voice.=--A cold or much shouting makes the vocal cords
+swell and we become hoarse. Rest is the best cure. It is not polite to
+shout or whistle in the house and you should never use an angry tone
+of voice. When talking to a person, always speak distinctly but
+pleasantly and turn your face toward his and look directly into his
+eyes. Never use a harsh, loud tone of voice.
+
+=Why you should not spit on Floors or Sidewalks.=--We used to think
+that any one well had no germs of sickness in his mouth, but we now
+know that many well persons have germs in their mouths which can cause
+long sickness when they get into other persons. If you are sick with
+diphtheria, scarlet fever, or sore throat, the germs of the disease
+are likely to remain in your mouth two or three months. Persons with
+tuberculosis throw out millions of these germs in their spit every day.
+
+Spitting is not only an unclean habit but a deadly curse. Spit often
+contains the seeds of death. Women's skirts and the soles of our shoes
+carry it into the houses. It becomes dry, but the germs live and float
+about in the dust, then enter the mouth to make us sick. Carelessness
+with spit is said to cause more than a hundred deaths every day in our
+land.
+
+=Do not use an Open Spittoon.=--It is much safer to have a smallpox
+patient in the house than an open spittoon in the summer. You can
+prevent the smallpox by vaccination, but you cannot keep the flies
+from carrying ten thousand germs of death from the spittoon to the
+food on the table. A million germs have been found on a single fly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Photograph of a house fly on a piece of bread.
+This fly had been feeding on spit and a study of its legs and body
+showed more germs present than there are hairs on a person's head.]
+
+Spit should be dropped into a cup which should be kept covered when
+not being used. The spit should be destroyed by fire or some
+germ-killing fluid, such as lye or formalin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--An exact drawing of the germs in a spot as
+large as a period, on the edge of a drinking cup.]
+
+=Keeping Sickness away from the Throat and Lungs.=--All sickness of
+the throat and lungs is caught from some one else. The germs are
+passed from one to another on the drinking cup, by sucking pencils,
+wetting the finger to turn the pages of a book, or putting the fingers
+in the nose or mouth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--A dish of beef broth jelly left open two
+minutes in a room being swept. Each spot is a city of thousands of
+germs which grew from one germ dropping on the jelly. By counting the
+spots you can tell how many germs fell from the dust on this dish
+three inches in diameter.]
+
+_Dust is the partner of disease._ It contains germs. Avoid dust. Wipe
+up the rooms with a damp cloth; never use a feather duster. Avoid dry
+sweeping. Use a suction cleaner or have rugs which can be cleaned out
+of doors.
+
+Give the lungs fresh air and deep breathing and the body good food and
+plenty of sleep to make it so strong that germs cannot overcome it
+when they enter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Photograph of consumption germs, the tiny
+rods which often grow and cause tuberculosis in bodies weakened by
+beer or whisky. Much enlarged.]
+
+=Alcoholic Drink and the Lungs.=--The most common disease of the lungs
+is _tuberculosis_. Nearly all bartenders who sell strong drink take
+some themselves. Lately it has been learned in Germany that
+tuberculosis causes one half of all the deaths among bartenders.
+Alcohol was once thought to be a good medicine for lung troubles, but
+it has been clearly proven that beer and whisky weaken the lungs and
+make them ready for the germs of disease. The body already weakened by
+the poison of the alcohol is then easily overcome by the disease.
+
+=Tobacco and the Lungs.=--The occasional use of tobacco does not seem
+to hurt the lungs when fully grown. A study of many young persons has
+shown that the chest of smokers grows much more slowly than in those
+who do not use tobacco. As the lungs cannot grow any faster than the
+chest, they must grow slowly in boys using much tobacco.
+
+Tobacco is a common cause of sore throat. Many smokers have been
+compelled to quit the habit because of throat troubles.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Where are the lungs located?
+
+     2. What do the tubes in the lungs carry?
+
+     3. What part of the air do we use in the body?
+
+     4. Tell how the air gets into the lungs.
+
+     5. What passes from the blood into the air sacs?
+
+     6. Why should we breathe through the nose?
+
+     7. Why should you keep the fingers away from the nose?
+
+     8. What are the vocal cords?
+
+     9. Give two reasons why no one should spit on the floor.
+
+    10. Tell how alcohol harms the lungs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FRESH AIR AND HEALTH
+
+
+=How much Air we Breathe.=--At every breath we take in about one pint
+of air. We breathe eighteen times each minute. Nine quarts of air
+therefore pass in and out of the lungs every minute. Air once breathed
+is not fit to breathe again. It contains waste and carbon dioxide
+which weaken the body.
+
+If you breathe three full breaths into a wide-mouthed jar or bottle,
+it will contain so much of the carbon dioxide that a lighted candle or
+splinter will at once go out when thrust into the jar. A cat shut in a
+tight box two feet square and one foot high will die in less than a
+half hour.
+
+Many years ago when the British and Hindoo soldiers were fighting each
+other, the Hindoos made prisoners of 146 of the British and locked
+them in a room about one half as large as a common schoolroom. There
+were only two small windows. During the night 123 of these men died
+because of the bad air.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--The direction of the flame of the candle
+shows how the fresh air enters and the bad air leaves a room.]
+
+=How much Air should enter a Room.=--The air laden with waste coming
+out of the lungs quickly mixes with the other air of the room. In this
+way all of the air in the room soon becomes impure. Forty children
+will give out nearly two barrels of air in one minute. In another
+minute this air has made all of the other air in the room unclean. It
+can still be breathed, but it makes children feel drowsy and lazy and
+may cause headache. They then do poor work.
+
+To keep the air pure in a room, fresh air must be let in from the
+outside. If there are many in the room, the openings must be large or
+fans on a wheel must be used to force the air in. In the New York
+schools a little over a cubic yard of fresh air is forced into the
+room for each child every minute.
+
+=How to get Fresh Air into a Room.=--When air is warmed it becomes
+lighter and rises. In many public buildings, fresh air heated by a
+furnace is forced into the rooms through pipes entering several feet
+above the floor. By a fan or heated flue the impure air is sucked out
+of the room through openings near the floor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--How the windows of your bedroom should be
+open to get the most fresh air.]
+
+Changing the air in a room is called _ventilation_. To get plenty of
+fresh air in a room there must be one or more places for it to enter
+and one or more places for it to pass out. Where there is no furnace
+or fan, windows on one side of the room may be opened at the bottom to
+let in the air and the same windows opened at the top to let the
+impure air escape. _Do not sit in a draft_, but use a board or curtain
+to throw the air upward as it enters the window. _A room should not be
+kept too warm._ Sitting in a very warm room weakens the body and
+prepares it to take cold. The temperature of a living room should be
+between 65 and 70 degrees.
+
+=Fresh Air while you Sleep.=--Thousands of people have weakened their
+bodies and brought on disease by sleeping in bad air. Many persons
+keep their windows so tightly closed during the night that the air
+smells bad in the morning. I knew a family who always slept with
+windows closed except in the very warmest weather. Three of the
+children died of tuberculosis, and a fourth one took the disease but
+was saved by keeping his windows wide open.
+
+Bad air in the sleeping room makes one feel drowsy in the morning
+instead of refreshed by sleep. _Your windows should always be open
+while you sleep._ In cold weather a window should be open a foot at
+both the bottom and the top, or if there are two windows in the room,
+both may be opened at the bottom. In moderate weather the openings
+should be twice as large. A cap may be worn to keep the head warm, and
+the bed should be out of the draft.
+
+=Fresh Air gives Health.=--Four hundred people die of tuberculosis in
+our country every day. A few years ago it was thought that no one
+could get well of this disease. Now three fourths of those in the
+first stages of the disease get well. The chief part of the cure is
+fresh air. Medicine is seldom used because no medicine will cure
+tuberculosis. Good food and rest are great helps.
+
+Many of those with tuberculosis stay out of doors all day and at night
+sleep in tents or with all of the windows wide open, even in the
+coldest weather. Snow may blow in and the water in the room may turn
+to solid ice, but fresh air, the good angel of health, will give the
+body new strength and make it well and strong again.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--This man is curing himself of tuberculosis by
+sleeping at night, and sitting by day, on this porch.]
+
+Many years ago when the Indians lived in tents and often slept
+outdoors none of them had this dirty air disease of tuberculosis.
+Since they have formed the habit of living in houses nearly one half
+of some tribes have become sick with this catching disease.
+
+=Making the Lungs Strong.=--It requires over three quarts of air to
+fill your lungs. When you breathe quietly, less than one pint of air
+passes in and out of your lungs. This shows that a large part of the
+lungs is not used. The air sacs at the top and in the bottom part of
+the lungs are seldom filled completely. It is in these places that
+disease begins.
+
+Several minutes should be spent two or three times each day in
+exercising the lungs. Fill them completely with air many times. _Learn
+to breathe deeply while you are walking in the fresh air._ Hold the
+head up and the shoulders back so that every part of the lungs can be
+filled. _Sit straight. Your life depends upon your lungs._ Give them a
+chance to do their work and teach them to do it well.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Unhealthful position which squeezes the lungs
+so that they cannot work freely.]
+
+=Tobacco and Pure Air.=--There is poison in the smoke of tobacco. This
+is shown by its effect on insects. Owners of greenhouses often buy the
+stems and other waste parts of tobacco. They pile it in a pan and after
+closing the doors and windows of the greenhouse tightly, set fire to it.
+The smoke rises and fills the whole house. In less than an hour it has
+killed many of the bugs and beetles which were destroying the plants.
+
+A person not used to tobacco will sometimes be made sick by sitting
+only an hour in a room where persons are smoking. It is wrong for
+smokers to poison the air which others must breathe. For this reason a
+smoking room should be well ventilated.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE BLOOD AND HOW IT FLOWS THROUGH THE BODY
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--The cells in the blood. The two white ones
+were drawn while crawling. Much enlarged.]
+
+=The Blood keeps the Body Clean within and gives it Food.=--Every tiny
+particle of the body, whether in the legs, arms, or head, must have
+food to keep it alive and help it do its work. It must also have
+oxygen, and it must be washed clean of its waste matter. All this is
+done by the streams of blood, which bathe every cell to bring it food
+and oxygen and to wash away its waste.
+
+=Parts of the Blood.=--Blood consists of a clear, watery part called
+_plasma_ and many little bodies named _cells_. The liquid found in a
+blister is the clear part of the blood. The cells which float in the
+watery part are so little and so close together that more than a
+million are in each drop of blood.
+
+A few of the cells are white, but most of them are red, and it is
+their color that makes the blood look red. Your body contains about
+one gallon of blood. It is carried through the body in branching tubes
+called _blood vessels_ (Fig. 70).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Photograph of the heart from in front with
+the lungs pinned aside. One fourth natural size.]
+
+=The Blood Vessels.=--There are four kinds of blood vessels. They are
+the _heart_, the _arteries_, the _capillaries_, and the _veins_. The
+heart lies in the chest between the lungs. It squeezes the blood into
+the arteries. These carry the blood to all parts of the body. It then
+runs into the capillaries, which are tiny tubes connecting the
+arteries with the veins. The veins return the blood to the heart.
+
+The blood flows so fast that it goes from the heart down to the toes
+and back again in a half minute.
+
+=The Heart or Pump of Life.=--When the heart stops we die, because the
+blood can no longer flow to carry food and oxygen to the hungry
+tissues. The heart is a sac with thick walls of muscle. It is shaped
+like a strawberry and is about as large as your fist. Its cavity is
+divided into four parts. The two upper ones are called _auricles_ and
+the lower ones are named _ventricles_. The blood enters the auricles
+and then pours through an opening into each ventricle, from which it
+passes out into the arteries.
+
+=The Arteries or Sending Tubes.=--The blood is sent out from the heart
+through the arteries leading to all parts of the body. The chief
+artery is the _aorta_. It is larger than your thumb and extends from
+the heart down through the body in front of the backbone. It has more
+than twenty branches. All of these branch again and again like the
+limbs of a tree until they are finer than hairs.
+
+A large tube, the _lung artery_, takes blood directly from the heart
+to the lungs. Here it branches into more than a thousand divisions, so
+that the blood can take in oxygen and give off to the lungs its waste.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Arteries, the tubes carrying the blood from
+the heart through the body. Only the chief vessels are shown on one
+side.]
+
+=The Capillaries or Feeding Tubes.=--These are the tiny tubes, finer
+than hairs, which join the smallest end branches of the arteries with
+the beginnings of the little veins. They are so thickly scattered in
+the flesh that you cannot stick it with a pin without piercing one.
+
+They are called feeding tubes because they have such very thin walls
+that the food in the blood and the oxygen brought from the lungs can
+pass through to feed the muscles and other organs. The dead parts of
+the body and also the ashes of the food used up, pass from the organs
+into the capillaries.
+
+=The Veins or Returning Tubes.=--The veins, beginning in fine branches
+formed by the capillaries, return the blood to the heart. The branches
+unite into larger and larger vessels and finally flow into one main
+vein, the _vena cava_. This extends along in front of the backbone and
+opens into the heart.
+
+=Why the Blood flows in only one Direction.=--The heart causes the
+flow of the blood. It does this by squeezing together its walls so as
+to make the blood go out into the arteries. When once in the arteries,
+the blood must go forward because there are little doors at the mouths
+of the arteries in the heart. These doors, called _valves_, open in
+only one direction, so that the blood cannot flow backward (Fig. 71).
+There are other valves between the upper and lower cavities of the
+heart, preventing the blood from being pushed back into the veins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--The heart with the front part cut away to
+show the four chambers and valves. The arrows show the direction in
+which the blood flows.]
+
+The movement of the walls of the heart in and out is called the _heart
+beat_. This can be plainly felt by placing the hand on the left side
+of the chest. The heart beats about seventy times each minute in grown
+persons, but much oftener in children. At each beat a wave of blood
+flows along the arteries. This is known as the _pulse_. It may be felt
+at the base of the thumb, where an artery runs just under the skin.
+
+=Why the Heart sometimes beats Faster.=--When we run or do hard work,
+the heart may beat twice as fast as when we are lying down. This is
+because the muscles need more oxygen to help them act. Work makes them
+get hungry, and they send word by the nerves to the heart to hurry
+along the blood to bring more oxygen from the lungs.
+
+When germs make the body sick, the heart often beats faster because it
+is affected by the poison made by the germs. The doctor then feels the
+pulse to tell how much the body is poisoned.
+
+=Use of Blood Cells.=--The red cells act like boats. They load up with
+oxygen in the lungs and carry it to all parts of the body. Here they
+trade it off for carbon dioxide, a waste substance. This they carry
+back to the lungs to be cast out of the body.
+
+There is one white blood cell to every four hundred red ones. The
+white cells are the body-guards. They change their shape and are able
+to crawl through the walls of the capillaries. Wherever the body is
+hurt, they collect in large numbers and eat the germs which are always
+trying to get into the body through sores. The white matter called
+_pus_ in a sore is largely made of white blood cells which came there
+to fight the germs and were killed in the battle.
+
+The germs of boils and fevers often get into the blood, but the white
+cells usually kill them before they have a chance to grow into large
+numbers and make the body sick.
+
+=How to stop Bleeding.=--Most of the larger arteries are deep in the
+flesh and seldom get cut. There are many veins just under the skin. If
+the blood comes out in spurts, it is from an artery; but if it flows
+steadily, it is from a vein. If the blood does not run out in a
+stream, it will stop without any special care. As soon as the blood
+gets to the air it forms a jellylike mass called a _clot_. This helps
+stop the flow. All hurt places in the skin should be tied up in a
+clean cloth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Stopping the flow of blood from an artery.]
+
+If a large artery is cut, a bandage twisted tight with a stick around
+the limb on the side of the wound next to the heart will stop the
+bleeding. If a vein is cut, the bandage should be placed on the side
+of the cut away from the heart.
+
+=Alcoholic Drinks weaken the Blood.=--It has been noticed for some
+years that when a user of beer or whisky is attacked with fever, the
+disease is more severe than in one not using alcohol. The reason for
+this has lately been explained by a well-known scientist working in
+Paris. He put certain disease germs in rabbits, but they did not
+become sick. When he gave them a little alcohol and put the same
+amount of disease germs in them as before, they became sick and died.
+By careful study he learned that the white blood cells had in the
+first case killed the germs. In the second experiment the blood cells
+were made so weak and lazy by the alcohol that they did not put up
+such a strong fight against the germs.
+
+=Tobacco and the Blood.=--Any one who chews or smokes tobacco
+regularly gets much of the poison into the blood. The vessels in the
+mouth and throat drink in some of the juice and also the poison from
+the smoke. How much this poison affects the blood cells is not known,
+but it is likely to do them some harm because it makes the growing
+cells of the body less active.
+
+=How Beer weakens the Heart.=--Whisky was at one time thought to
+strengthen the heart, but doctors generally agree now that it weakens
+the heart. It may make the heart beat a little stronger for a few
+minutes, but after that the beating is weaker than usual.
+
+Much use of beer is known to make fat collect around the heart and
+also cause some of the heart muscle itself to change into fat. In this
+way the heart becomes so weak that it can no longer do its work, and
+death results. The reports from Germany show that hundreds of persons
+die every year from weakened hearts made so by the use of much beer.
+
+=Alcohol hurts the Blood Vessels.=--Careful examination of the blood
+vessels of drunkards after death shows that in many cases the alcohol
+has caused the walls of the vessels to become thick and sometimes
+hard. The thickening of the wall makes the channel of the tube
+smaller. The heart must then work much harder to get the blood through
+to feed the tissues.
+
+=Tobacco and the Heart.=--Many boys who use tobacco regularly do not
+have a steady heart beat. This is specially true of those who smoke
+several cigarettes daily. A few years ago, when our country was at war
+with Spain, thousands of young men, wanted for soldiers, were examined
+to find out whether their bodies were strong enough to endure the
+hardships of war. Hundreds were refused admittance to the army because
+of weak bodies, and many of them were reported by the physicians as
+having hearts weakened by the use of tobacco.
+
+The boys preparing for the army at the Military Academy at West Point
+and for sea fighting at the Naval Academy at Annapolis are not allowed
+to smoke cigarettes. Our country must have strong men for hard work.
+Tobacco never gives strength, but often causes weakness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+INSECTS AND HEALTH
+
+
+=Malaria or Chills and Fever.=--Malaria is a disease in which the
+patient usually has a chill followed by a fever at the same time each
+day or every other day. Thousands of people suffer from this sickness
+in the warm parts of our country and hundreds of them die every year.
+In some regions people cannot live because this sickness attacks every
+one who comes there.
+
+Many years ago a doctor found in the blood of malaria patients tiny
+animals. He thought that they might be the cause of the illness, but
+he could not find out how they got into the blood.
+
+=Finding out how Malaria Germs get into the Blood.=--It had been
+noticed for many years that mosquitoes were always found wherever
+there was malaria. In the year 1900 two men decided to find out if
+they could live in a malaria region and not have the disease when the
+mosquitoes were kept from biting them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Position of the common humpback mosquito at
+rest with body full of blood sucked by thrusting the bill into the
+flesh.]
+
+They made their home a whole season in a cottage in the midst of many
+persons who were sick with malaria. They breathed the same air, ate
+the same kind of food, and drank the same kind of water as those who
+suffered from the disease, but they remained well. The only thing that
+they did different from those who got sick was to keep the mosquitoes
+out of their rooms at night by means of screens. This experiment and
+many other studies have shown that we catch malaria only by the bites
+of mosquitoes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Position of the malaria mosquito at rest.]
+
+=Only a Few Mosquitoes carry Malaria.=--Malaria is not common in all
+regions where mosquitoes live, and it has been found that only one
+group of mosquitoes carries the germs. The two common groups are the
+straight-backed and the humped. To prove that the straight-backed ones
+did the harm several of them were allowed to suck blood from a man
+sick with malaria in Italy. They were then sent to London and let
+bite a healthy man. In a few days he became sick with malaria. Many
+experiments with the humped-back mosquitoes, found nearly everywhere
+in our country, show that they do not carry malaria germs.
+
+=Yellow Fever.=--Until 1901 yellow fever was the scourge of many
+cities in the South. Thousands of persons lost their lives from it.
+Wherever the dread disease broke out in a city many persons would flee
+to the country because they thought that they could not breathe the
+air without getting the germs.
+
+Some persons thought that mosquitoes might cause the disease, and in
+1900 experiments were carried out in Cuba to learn whether mosquitoes
+really did carry yellow fever germs. Seven men made their home in a
+room well screened to keep out the mosquitoes. They used clothing
+which had been worn by others sick with the fever and even slept on
+pillows and blankets on which yellow fever victims had died. Many
+persons thought that these bedclothes were full of fever germs and
+that all the men would surely get the disease. Not one of them,
+however, got sick although they lived in the midst of these soiled
+materials for three weeks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--The yellow fever mosquito biting the finger.
+Note how the lower lip is bent.]
+
+Seven other men were chosen for another experiment. A large room was
+prepared and made thoroughly clean. Only clean bedding and clean
+clothes were used. The men were given pure food and pure water, but
+into the room were let loose mosquitoes which had been sucking blood
+from a person sick with the fever. In a few days six of the seven men
+became sick with the fever and one of them died. From these
+experiments and other studies we now know that _this dreadful fever is
+carried from the sick to the well only by the bites of mosquitoes_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--A bunch of mosquito eggs floating on the
+surface of the water. Enlarged about fifteen times.]
+
+=How Mosquitoes Live.=--Before we can get rid of any pests we must
+know where the eggs are hatched and the young pass their early life.
+The eggs of mosquitoes are laid on standing water. The water may be in
+an old tomato can, a rain barrel, a cistern, or a large pond. A day or
+two after the mother lays one or two hundred eggs, they hatch into
+dark, wriggling objects called _wigglers_. In from ten to twenty days
+later they change into flying mosquitoes. These habits of life show
+that the easiest time to kill them is when they are young.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Photograph of wigglers, the stage in which
+the mosquito lives a week or two in water.]
+
+=Getting rid of Mosquitoes.=--During warm weather mosquitoes cause the
+death of more than a thousand persons in the world every day besides
+making many others very sick. To get rid of mosquitoes is to prevent
+sickness and death. In one year yellow fever killed over five thousand
+people in New York and Philadelphia because the doctors did not know
+how to stop the disease from spreading.
+
+When this fever broke out in New Orleans in 1905, less than five
+hundred persons died of it because the doctors had then learned that
+the disease is spread only by the yellow fever mosquito. They
+therefore began killing the mosquitoes. Kerosene was poured over all
+the ponds and stagnant pools of water which could not be drained. This
+kills the young mosquitoes because the oil gets into their breathing
+tube which they stick up to the surface of the water to get air. All
+rain barrels and tin cans were emptied and cisterns were tightly
+covered. Men, women, and children worked week days and Sundays killing
+mosquitoes because they knew that they were saving human life. The
+destroying fever was stopped.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Photograph of eggs laid on waste matter by
+two flies in one hour.]
+
+=Flies cause much Sickness.=--Very few people are afraid of house
+flies because they do not bite. Although they are so small and
+seemingly harmless yet we know that they cause many more deaths every
+year than mad dogs, poisonous snakes, and all wild beasts.
+
+Flies crawl around among slops, in spittoons, and in other unclean
+places. In this way they get thousands of germs of tuberculosis,
+typhoid fever, and cholera on their feet and then scatter them over
+our food as they crawl about on the table, in the grocery store, or
+among the milk cans. In our last war with Spain more than a thousand
+of our soldiers were made sick with fever carried to them by flies.
+
+In Denver, Colorado, in 1908 fifty persons were made sick with the fever
+by flies which fed on the slops from a sick room and then crawled
+around in the milk cans from which those who became sick used milk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Photograph of the worm stage or larva of the
+fly at the left and three of the sleeping stage or pup� at the right.
+Twice the natural size.]
+
+=How to fight the Flies.=--House flies lay at one time about one
+hundred eggs in the dirt thrown out of horse stables, in garbage cans,
+or in any other unclean place. In a day or two the eggs hatch into
+little white worms which feed on the dirt. One or two weeks later the
+worms change to flies.
+
+Flies may be kept out of houses by putting screens in the windows and
+doors or by darkening the rooms when they are not in use. The few
+which gain entrance may be caught in fly traps. All food in the store
+or the home should be kept covered. It is not safe to eat candy on
+which flies have wiped their feet or to drink the milk in which they
+have washed them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Photograph of a half handful of manure which
+had been thrown out of a horse stable. Note more than one hundred
+houseflies in the sleeping stage.]
+
+The surest way to get rid of flies in any community is for all the
+people to work together and keep the entire neighborhood clean. No
+dead grass, weeds, or rags should be allowed to lie in the backyards
+or alleys. The cleanings from stables should be hauled away every
+week or stored in tightly covered boxes. Garbage cans must have
+close-fitting lids, so that there will be no place in which the young
+may hatch and grow.
+
+=Other Insects which carry Disease.=--In certain parts of Africa, the
+_sleeping sickness_ has made ruins of prosperous villages. Thousands
+of the natives are dying yearly from this disease. The germs are
+carried from one person to another by the bite of a fly.
+
+Some fleas carry the germs of _plague_, which a few centuries ago
+swept across Asia and Europe destroying hundreds of lives daily. The
+plague is now common in India and was present in California in 1908
+and 1910. The bedbug spreads several kinds of fevers in warm countries
+and may also be a carrier of leprosy and typhoid fever. These facts
+show that insects are dangerous and should be kept out of the home.
+
+Any one troubled with these little pests in the house may learn how to
+get rid of them by writing to the Department of Agriculture,
+Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+HOW THE BODY MOVES
+
+
+=The Need of a Framework.=--The body needs a stiff framework made of
+bones for three purposes. One purpose is to give it shape, a second
+purpose is to help the body move, and a third one is to protect from
+injury some of the delicate organs, such as the heart and brain.
+
+The bones are nowhere separate but are joined together with tough
+bands named _ligaments_. All the bones together form the _skeleton_.
+
+All animals from fish to man have a skeleton. Many of the lower
+creatures, such as worms and flies, have no bony skeleton. Most of
+these move sluggishly or have a hardened outer covering, like beetles
+and wasps. The skeleton of animals such as the cat, rabbit, or cow,
+has about the same number of bones as man, and they are arranged in
+the same way.
+
+=Of what a Bone is Made.=--Although the bones are so hard, they are
+not dead. They contain blood, have feeling, and are just as much
+alive as the softer parts of the body. It is the lime that makes them
+stiff. This can be eaten out by putting the bone in strong vinegar or
+other acid for a few days. A long bone will then become so limber that
+it can be tied into a knot.
+
+The living part of a bone can be burned out by placing it on hot coals
+for a half hour. At the end of this time the bone will look just as
+before, but when it is touched, will crumble to pieces.
+
+=Forms of Bones.=--The bones of the legs and arms are hollow. This
+form gives the greatest strength with the least weight. You can prove
+this by using two sheets of paper. Roll one sheet and fold the other
+one. Hang weights on both ends of each and use the finger for a
+support in the middle.
+
+The cavity of these bones is filled with a soft white substance called
+_marrow_. This is largely fat. Each bone is surrounded by a tough
+membrane to which the muscles are attached.
+
+=Arrangement of the Bones.=--The bones of the head form the _skull_.
+The other bones of the body not belonging to the _limbs_ make up the
+_trunk_. There are over two hundred bones in the entire body. Eight of
+these form a case for the brain. Fourteen give shape to the face. A
+chain of twenty-six bones named _vertebr�_ forms the backbone.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Photograph of the bones of the skeleton.]
+
+Twelve pairs of _ribs_ encircle the chest. They are fastened behind to
+the backbone. The front parts of the ribs are made of pieces of
+gristle. The seven upper pairs are joined to the breastbone. The five
+lower pairs are named _false ribs_.
+
+The _collar bone_ is in front of the shoulder and behind it is the flat
+_shoulder blade_. There is one bone in the upper part of each arm and
+leg and two bones in the lower part of each limb. Twenty-eight small
+bones are found in the hand, while twenty-seven are present in the foot.
+
+=How the Bones may be Injured.=--In the young some of the entire bones
+and parts of many others are soft like gristle. For this reason, the
+bones of the young seldom get broken, but they are easily bent and
+pressed out of their natural shape. On this account you should hold the
+body erect in sitting and walking. Bending over the table or desk day
+after day is not only likely to cause round shoulders, but is sure to
+squeeze up the lungs and other organs so they cannot do their best work.
+
+Sitting at a table or desk, so that one shoulder is higher than the
+other or carrying books at the side, so that they rest on the hip may
+cause a curve sidewise in the backbone. Tight clothing about the waist
+presses the ribs out of shape and hurts the other organs within the
+body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--How the bones are held together. A piece has
+been cut out of the tough ligament to show the cup of the hip bone
+into which the head of the thigh bone fits.]
+
+=Caring for Broken Bones.=--When a bone of the arm or leg is broken, the
+muscles tend to make the ends shove over each other. The broken ends are
+sometimes sharp, and if the limb is bent, these may tear through the
+flesh. This may be prevented by binding a board firmly on opposite sides
+of the limb across the broken part. This will hold the bones in place
+until the surgeon comes and will also allow the patient to be moved.
+
+The surgeon will set the broken bones by bringing the ends together
+and holding them in place by sheets of wood or metal firmly held by a
+bandage. In a few days the membrane around the bone begins to grow new
+bone to join the broken parts.
+
+=How the Bones are joined together.=--The two general classes of
+joints are the _movable_ and _immovable_. Except the lower jaw, the
+bones of the skull are so tightly joined together that there is no
+motion between them. The bones of the wrist and back have but little
+movement. The freest motion is at the shoulder joint, where the round
+head of one bone fits into the shallow cup of another. This is called
+a _ball and socket joint_. Such a joint is found also at the hip. At
+the elbow and knee the bones move back and forth like a hinge and
+these are named _hinge joints_.
+
+=Working Parts of a Joint.=--The ends of the bones are covered with a
+thin layer of gristle. The bones are held in place by several strong
+bands called _ligaments_ (Fig. 82). These entirely surround the joint.
+On their inner sides is a delicate membrane which gives out a slippery
+fluid to make the joint work easily.
+
+The ligaments are sometimes strained, stretched, or torn by a fall.
+The joint then swells because the watery part of the blood collects
+there. A sprained limb should be elevated to prevent swelling. Bathing
+it in very hot water is helpful.
+
+=The Muscles.=--The muscles form the lean meat in any animal. They make
+up about one half the weight of the body. Each muscle is a bundle of
+thousands of little threads held together by other finer threads, while
+the whole is surrounded by a thin sheet. Little bundles formed of
+several of these threads called fibers may be seen in a piece of cooked
+beef picked to pieces. There are over five hundred muscles in the body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Fifty of the muscles just under the skin.
+Note the white cords, the tendons in the regions of the hands and feet.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--The biceps muscle contracted above and
+relaxed or loosened below.]
+
+Some of the muscles are more than a foot long and have the shape of a
+ribbon. Some are circular like those around the mouth, eyes, and
+stomach, while others are large in the middle and taper toward the ends.
+
+=How the Muscles are fastened to the Bones.=--The two ends of a muscle
+are attached to different bones. In many cases the muscle is not
+joined directly to the bone, but is connected to a tough white cord
+called a _tendon_. The tendon is then fixed to the bone.
+
+Several of the muscles in the forearm run into tendons in the wrist
+because if the muscle part were to extend along the wrist, this part
+of the arm would be large and clumsy instead of graceful and slender.
+Some of these tendons may be seen to move by bending the wrist and
+then working the fingers.
+
+=How the Muscles do their Work.=--A tiny nerve thread runs from the
+spinal cord or brain to every muscle thread. Messages sent through the
+nerve threads to the muscles make them act. A muscle can act in only
+two ways (Fig. 84). It can become shorter or longer. When it gets
+shorter, we say it _contracts_. When it stretches out, it is said to
+_relax_.
+
+A muscle cannot contract more than one fourth of its length. To pull
+the forearm up, the brain sends a message to the muscle fixed by one
+end at the shoulder and by the other end to a bone at the elbow. The
+muscle at once becomes shorter and thicker, as may be felt by placing
+the fingers on it. Although it shortens only two inches it is fastened
+to the bone so near the elbow that it draws the hand up two feet.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Of what use are the bones?
+
+     2. What animals have bony skeletons?
+
+     3. What can you say of the form of bones?
+
+     4. How many bones in the body?
+
+     5. Name six bones.
+
+     6. What part of the arm has two bones side by side?
+
+     7. How many ribs have you?
+
+     8. Explain how a broken bone should be cared for.
+
+     9. Point out and name two kinds of joints.
+
+    10. What are ligaments?
+
+    11. Of what is a muscle made?
+
+    12. How many muscles in the body?
+
+    13. How many tendons can you feel in your wrist?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE MUSCLES AND HEALTH
+
+
+=Making the Muscles Strong.=--No persons use all of the five hundred
+muscles in the body every day. In slow walking only about twenty
+muscles are used, while in running more than four times that number
+are called into action. Muscles which are not used get lazy and weak.
+
+Every time a muscle is made to act the blood vessels enlarge and bring
+to it more blood to supply food. The more food the muscle has the
+stronger it grows. The right arm is used more than the left in most
+persons. This makes it so much stronger that some boys can lift
+twenty-five pounds more with the right arm than they can with the left.
+
+=Using the Muscles keeps the Body Well.=--All muscles must have more
+blood when they are used so that the heart is made to beat faster and
+stronger by exercise. In this way its valves and walls become able to
+do more work. Such a heart not only does its work better in a well
+person, but is able to keep pumping when the body is weakened by
+disease. Many persons die because the heart gets too weak to push the
+blood through the body.
+
+In all the little spaces between the muscles and parts of other organs
+is some watery part of the blood containing much waste given off from
+the tissues. Moving the muscles presses on this watery waste in such a
+way as to move it along into the blood channels. It then can be cast out
+of the body by the lungs and other organs. One reason why we feel so
+good after exercise is because the poisonous waste has been taken away.
+
+No one can remain well very long without taking exercise. Children as
+well as older persons should enjoy one or two hours of outdoor play
+every day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--Various ways of exercising the muscles to
+keep the body well.]
+
+=How to exercise the Muscles.=--Outdoor games give the best form of
+exercise. Tennis, baseball, cricket, rowing, and swimming are sports
+which bring nearly all the muscles into use. Every boy and girl should
+learn to swim. It is dangerous to go swimming alone or to swim in
+deep water. Cramp may seize the muscles at any time, so that the limbs
+cannot be moved. Hundreds of persons are drowned every year by
+venturing in deep water.
+
+Taking care of the yard and garden and helping with other work about
+the home is one of the best ways of getting exercise and at the same
+time doing some good.
+
+=Special Kinds of Exercise.=--A room with ropes, swings, and machines
+in it for exercise is called a _gymnasium_. Under the direction of a
+teacher the pupils can get quickly just the right kind of exercise to
+strengthen the weak parts of the body and keep every organ in health.
+The muscles oftenest neglected are those of the chest. Every one
+should keep his chest full and round by swinging the arms and
+_practicing deep breathing every day_.
+
+=Danger from too much Exercise.=--Lately it has been learned that very
+violent exercise for more than a few minutes often injures the heart.
+The running of many races until you are all out of breath or much
+jumping of the rope is likely to strain the heart. It is always
+harmful to urge the body on until it is completely tired out.
+
+=Alcohol makes the Muscles Weak.=--In the year 1903 two learned men in
+Switzerland spent much time to determine whether alcohol helped
+persons do more work. They tried more than two hundred experiments
+with men to whom they sometimes gave wine and sometimes food, and
+sometimes both were given together.
+
+The results of these tests showed that when wine was given alone, the
+man's ability to do work was increased for a short time, but later he
+could not do so much work as when he had taken no wine. When the man
+took both food and wine, he could do only about nine tenths as much
+work as when he took food alone.
+
+The most careful tests by other persons show that whisky will not help a
+man do more work, lift a heavier weight, or shoot straighter. In fact
+little or much whisky makes him less able to do any of these things.
+
+=Beer makes the Muscles Lazy.=--Doctor Parkes of Netley secured two
+gangs of soldiers to do the same kind of work. He allowed the first
+gang to drink some beer, but the second gang were not allowed to have
+any. During the first hour the beer gang did the most work, but after
+that the temperance gang did far more work during the entire day. The
+next week beer was refused the first gang and given to the second. The
+beer helped the second gang do more work than the first one for nearly
+two hours, but after that they did much less than the first gang.
+This shows that men who wish to do their best work during the entire
+day should not use beer.
+
+=Tobacco and the Muscles.=--Many experiments and studies have shown
+that the body cannot do its best work when even very small amounts of
+poison are taken day after day. The poison in tobacco is believed to
+weaken the muscles so much that no man on a football team in any of
+our large colleges or universities is allowed to smoke or chew during
+the season. Persons training for any contest where much strength is
+required do not use tobacco in any form.
+
+=Tobacco prevents Growth of the Muscles.=--The moderate use of tobacco
+by men has but little effect on the muscles. It may cause them to tire
+a little more easily when doing very hard work. Tobacco poison does,
+however, show a marked effect on the muscles of the young.
+
+Very careful measurements made at one of the large universities showed
+that the boys who did not smoke grew one tenth more in weight and one
+fourth more in height than those using tobacco regularly. This slow
+growth in tobacco users is partly due to the fact that tobacco makes
+the muscles in the walls of the blood vessels squeeze together so as
+to shut off some of the blood from the legs, arms, and other parts, so
+that they get too little food. Tobacco may also cause less food to be
+digested for the use of the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+HOW THE BODY IS GOVERNED
+
+
+=Making the Parts of the Body Work.=--Each of the hundreds of organs
+in the body has a certain work to do and this must be done at the
+right time. In order that all may work together and each one do its
+part when needed, there is a chief manager called the _brain_ and a
+helping manager named the _spinal cord_. Millions of tiny threads for
+sending messages connect the two managers with every part of the body.
+These threads form the _nerves_.
+
+=The Brain.=--The brain is a soft bunch of matter filling the inside
+of the skull. The bones of the skull are a quarter of an inch thick
+and prevent any common knocks from hurting the brain. It is surrounded
+by three coverings which also help shield it from injury.
+
+The surface of the brain is very uneven. There are a great many folds
+separated by grooves. Some of these are more than an inch deep.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--The under side of the brain and the spinal cord
+with the chief nerves of one side of the body viewed from in front.]
+
+=Parts of the Brain.=--The brain is divided into three chief parts.
+The upper and larger part is called the _big brain_ or _cerebrum_.
+The lower part behind is the _little brain_ or _cerebellum_. The part
+under the little brain and round like the thumb is the _stem_ of the
+brain. It connects the larger parts of the brain with the spinal cord.
+
+The big brain is partly separated into halves by a deep cut called a
+_fissure_. Each half is a _hemisphere_.
+
+The outer layer of the brain is gray. It is made of millions of tiny
+lumps of matter which are the bodies of nerve cells. These are
+connected by threads much finer than hairs with other parts of the
+brain and spinal cord. Over these threads called _nerve fibers_ one
+cell can talk to another somewhat as we talk over a telephone wire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Side of the skull cut away to show the brain.
+_B_, backbone.]
+
+=The Spinal Cord.=--This is a bundle of nerve matter about as thick as
+your finger. It extends from the stem of the brain down the canal in
+the backbone. The outer layer of the spinal cord is white because it
+is made of the tiny threads, _nerve fibers_. The inner part is made of
+the bodies of nerve cells and therefore looks gray. The fibers are
+branching threads from the cells in the cord and brain.
+
+=The Message Carriers or Nerve Fibers.=--In order that the managers may
+send messages, these fine threads, the nerve fibers, extend from them to
+all parts of the body. In many places from five to five hundred or more
+of these fibers are united in one white cord called a _nerve_.
+
+Twelve pairs of nerves are joined to the under side of the brain and
+thirty-one pairs are connected with the spinal cord (Fig. 86). The
+nerves of the brain branch to all parts of the head and neck, and one
+pair goes down to the lungs, heart, and stomach. The nerves connected
+with the spinal cord branch to every part of the muscles, bones, and
+skin of the arms, trunk, and legs.
+
+=How the Nerves do their Work.=--On a telephone wire we can send a
+message in either direction. A message can travel on a nerve in only
+one direction. For this reason there must be two kinds of nerves. One
+kind is called _sending nerves_ because the brain and cord send orders
+over them to make the organs act. The other kind carries messages to
+the brain from the eyes, ears, skin, or other organs of sense, telling
+it how they feel. On this account these are named _receiving nerves_.
+
+When we wish to catch a ball, the brain sends an order along the nerve
+threads down the spinal cord and out through the nerves of the arm to
+the fingers to get ready to seize a ball. The fingers are spread to
+grasp the ball, but they do not close until a message goes from the
+skin of the finger tips to the spinal cord, telling it that the ball
+is in the hand.
+
+=The Work of the Brain.=--The brain is not only the chief manager of
+the body, but the home of the mind. The mind acts through the brain.
+The mind receives through the brain what the eye sees, the ear hears,
+the nose smells, and the fingers feel. All this knowledge is stored up
+in the mind and called _memory_. These facts and others learned later
+are worked over by the mind. This is called _thought_.
+
+The mind rules and becomes good or bad according to whether it
+contains good thoughts or bad thoughts. _It is wrong to read books and
+papers about robberies and murders or to tell or to listen to bad
+stories_, because in this way evil thoughts get into the mind. The
+best way of keeping badness out of the mind is to fill it with
+goodness. It is said that Lincoln was so busy thinking how he could
+help others that there was no room in his mind for a bad thought.
+Doing some kindness every day helps much in the making of a good mind.
+
+=Habit.=--The doing of anything over and over again until the body
+goes through the same motions without any or very little thought is
+called _habit_. The brain and nerves are so formed that when they get
+used to obeying the same order of the mind again and again, they will
+carry out these orders when the mind no longer gives them. Sometimes
+they will continue to obey the old orders even when new ones are given.
+
+Many persons would like to break off the habit of drinking beer or
+whisky, of chewing tobacco, and using bad language, but they find it
+very hard to make the mind rule the body because they have let the
+nerves have their own way so long.
+
+Speaking cheerfully to those we meet, giving a kind word to our
+friends, and looking pleasant are good habits which every one ought to
+form in youth. They not only make the mind better, but they help the
+body to keep well and will prepare the way for success in life later.
+Nobody wants a grumbling clerk or a sour-faced housekeeper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--The difference in appearance between a
+pouting and a pleasant expression.]
+
+=Parts of the Body work without Orders from the Brain.=--A snake with
+its brain crushed will still squirm and a chicken with its head cut
+off jumps about. These movements are caused by orders sent from the
+spinal cord. When the hand or foot is being hurt, the spinal cord
+orders the muscles to draw the limb away even before we feel the pain
+in the brain. Many of the movements of the body which are often
+repeated may be directed by the spinal cord, while the brain is left
+free to do other work. This is why the spinal cord is called the
+helping manager.
+
+The action of the muscles in the walls of the blood vessels, the
+working of the stomach, the liver, pancreas, and other glands are not
+directed by the brain, but by the _sympathetic nerves_. These extend
+from a little cord on either side of the backbone to all parts of the
+body and make the organs, such as the heart and sweat glands, which we
+cannot make obey our will, do their work.
+
+=Injury to the Nerves.=--The nerves are so important for the welfare
+of the body that all the chief ones are placed deep in the flesh,
+where they are not likely to be hurt. If the nerves leading to the arm
+were cut, it could not be moved, and we should have no feeling in it.
+The hurting of a part of the brain, the spinal cord, or the nerves may
+cause loss of feeling or motion in the leg, arm, or other part of the
+body. Such a part then seems asleep or dead and is said to have
+_paralysis_.
+
+Pressing on a nerve prevents it from acting. Sitting so as to press on
+the nerve of the leg often makes the foot go to sleep. The bursting of
+a blood vessel in the brain may let a blood clot form and press on the
+nerves which govern the arm or the leg. This pressure may cause
+paralysis.
+
+=Resting the Brain.=--When there is no food in the stomach, it has
+time to rest. When we sit down or lie down, the muscles get rest. The
+brain is always busy except when we are asleep. No one can live even a
+week without sleep. If a dog is kept awake five days, it will die.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Sleeping in the position shown in the lower
+figure prevents free breathing and tends to cause round shoulders. The
+upper figure shows correct position.]
+
+Children need much more sleep than older persons. Men and women who
+work should have about eight hours of sleep daily to remain in good
+health. Children of twelve years should sleep nine hours each day;
+those of ten years, ten hours; those of seven years, eleven hours; and
+those of four years, twelve hours.
+
+=Getting the most out of Sleep.=--You should go to bed every night at
+about the same hour. This will help you to fall asleep as soon as you
+are in bed. Do not sleep in the clothes which you have worn during the
+day, but hang them up to air, and put on a night robe.
+
+Children should use a very low pillow, so that the body can lie
+straight in the bed. This gives the lungs and heart freedom to act. Do
+not lie on the back as this causes some of the organs to press on
+certain nerves and makes you dream. The windows should be opened wide
+because fresh air is the best aid to rest and health and keeps away
+tuberculosis.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. What makes the parts of the body work together?
+
+     2. Describe the surface of the brain.
+
+     3. Name the three parts of the brain.
+
+     4. Of what is the outer layer of the brain made?
+
+     5. Where is the spinal cord?
+
+     6. What are nerve fibers?
+
+     7. What work does the brain do?
+
+     8. What makes the mind good or bad?
+
+     9. What is habit?
+
+    10. How long should children sleep?
+
+    11. How can you get the most good out of sleep?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+HOW NARCOTICS AND STIMULANTS AFFECT THE BRAIN AND NERVES
+
+
+=What Narcotics and Stimulants Are.=--A _narcotic_ is something which
+when taken into the body makes the organs do their work more slowly
+and tends to cause sleepiness. Alcoholic drinks, tobacco, opium,
+soothing sirups, and pain killers are narcotics.
+
+A _stimulant_ is a substance which makes the organs of the body do
+more and quicker work and does not later make the organs work more
+slowly. Coffee and tea are stimulants. Beer, wine, and whisky were
+once thought to be stimulants, but experiments have shown them to be
+narcotics. They urge the brain to faster work for a few minutes, but a
+half hour later they make it act slower than usual.
+
+=Alcohol hurts the Brain.=--Within five minutes after a drink of beer
+or whisky has been swallowed, part of the alcohol has reached the
+blood. Within fifteen minutes much of the alcohol has gone from the
+stomach directly into the blood. In a minute after entering the blood
+vessels it reaches the brain.
+
+If much strong drink is taken, the cells of the brain become so numbed
+that they cannot give the right orders to the muscles to move the
+limbs. The person then staggers about and is said to be drunk. Much
+whisky taken will make the nerve cells so numb that a man cannot move,
+and he will then lie down as if in a deep sleep.
+
+A tablespoonful of whisky will make a child drunk and twice that
+amount may make him very sick. Much use of strong drink sometimes
+gives to the brain a terrible disease called _delirium tremens_. In
+this sickness the man thinks he sees horned animals, hissing snakes,
+and other creatures which annoy him.
+
+=Alcohol injures the Thinking Part of the Brain.=--It was once thought
+that wine or whisky would make a man think better. Now we know that
+either of these drinks makes his thoughts slower and also causes him
+to make mistakes.
+
+Two doctors in Europe made many tests with men to learn how alcohol
+affected their thinking. They found that when using wine the men could
+do about one tenth less work in adding numbers than when they took no
+strong drink. These doctors also tested the effect of alcohol on
+memory and discovered that the use of even small quantities of liquor
+caused their pupils to learn their lessons more slowly.
+
+When persons have taken only a very little drink, they often say and
+do very foolish things. They sometimes tell secrets, for which they
+are very sorry when they get sober. Often they become angry at the
+least cause and strike or even shoot any person who seems to speak or
+work against them in any way.
+
+=Alcohol makes People Steal and Kill.=--The alcohol in strong drink,
+when often used, appears to deaden that part of the brain which helps
+the mind know right from wrong. In one year the courts of Suffolk
+County in Massachusetts found 17,000 persons guilty of doing some
+wickedness and in over 12,000 of these cases alcohol was found to be
+the cause of doing the wrong for which they were arrested.
+
+Some time ago there were collected the records of 30,000 prisoners,
+and among these over 12,000 had done their wicked acts while alcohol
+was numbing the brain. Lately another careful record of over 13,000
+prisoners in twelve different states has been studied. In over 4000 of
+these men the use of strong drink was the first cause of their crimes.
+
+=Alcohol makes the Mind Sick.=--Since the mind depends upon certain
+parts of the brain, whatever hurts the brain is quite sure to hurt the
+mind. When the mind cannot reason rightly, the person is said to be
+_insane_. A study of 2000 insane men in New York State showed that the
+use of alcoholic drink was the cause of the mind sickness in over 500
+of them. Of 687 persons in Massachusetts who were so insane that they
+had to be cared for daily by others, more than 200 of them were
+brought to this sad condition by alcohol.
+
+=Brain of the Young easily overcome by Alcohol.=--No one expects to
+become a drunkard or a criminal when he first begins to drink. The
+continued use of alcohol, however, soon numbs the brain and weakens
+the mind, so that the person's will power is lost. He is then not able
+to quit drinking even though he wants to stop. He has become a slave
+to alcohol.
+
+_The brain of a young person is injured much more quickly by alcohol
+than that of an older person and he_ is much more likely to become a
+slave than one who begins the use of drink late in life. Doctor
+Lambert, of New York, studied the cases of 259 slaves to alcohol. He
+learned that four began to drink before six years of age; thirteen
+between six and twelve years of age; sixty, between twelve and sixteen
+years; 102 between sixteen and twenty-one years; seventy-one, between
+twenty-one and thirty years; and only eight after thirty years of age.
+These facts teach that it is dangerous for the young to take strong
+drink at any time.
+
+=Laws against Alcohol.=--The men who make laws for the good of the
+people are learning that alcohol is injuring the mind and body of many
+persons every year. For this reason laws have lately been passed
+forbidding the sale of strong drink in several entire states and in
+large parts of many other states.
+
+=Tobacco makes the Brain work Slower.=--An examination of the age and
+habits of hundreds of the students entering a large university in New
+England showed that those who smoked required more than a year longer
+than those who did not use tobacco, to learn enough to enter the first
+classes in this school. Moreover, out of every hundred of those who
+took the highest rank in their work in the university, ninety-five did
+not use tobacco. It is likely that tobacco makes the mind work slower
+by preventing the full amount of blood from going to the brain. It
+does this by making the blood vessels smaller.
+
+So far as known tobacco has but little effect upon the brains of older
+persons.
+
+Superintendent Ogg of Indiana reports that the occasional users of
+cigarettes are a year, and the regular users two years, behind those
+who do not smoke. The conduct and honesty of the smokers were also
+found to be lower than among those who did not smoke.
+
+=Opium, Morphine, and Cocaine.=--All of these harmful drugs are widely
+used in our country. They act on the brain in a strange way. All of
+them deaden pain. When a person first begins their use, only a small
+amount is required to produce the effect wanted on the body. Later
+the doses must be increased. After a few months' use the person
+becomes a slave to the habit of using them, and he cannot stop their
+use without the help of a doctor. It is therefore dangerous to use
+these drugs at any time.
+
+Powders used for colds in the nose, also paregoric and laudanum,
+contain these harmful drugs.
+
+=Pain Killers and Soothing Sirups.=--All pain killers contain opium or
+morphine or other harmful drugs. They are therefore dangerous to use.
+Pain is useful in telling us that some organ is out of order and needs
+care. Killing the pain does not help the sick organ, and it may let
+the organ get so sick as to cause death.
+
+One use of the nerves is to tell us when any part of the body is hurt
+or sick. Pain is nature's warning, and to numb the nerves which tell
+us about it is as foolish as to kill a person because he brings us bad
+news. _No medicine should ever be given children to make them sleep or
+stop their crying except by the advice of the physician._
+
+=Powders and Pills.=--If you get sick, do not try to cure yourself
+with pills or powders bought at the store. Some of these medicines
+contain poisons which hurt the heart or other organs. A number of
+persons have been killed by taking such medicines. When you are sick,
+go to a good doctor who understands how the organs should work, and he
+will find which one is out of order and tell you exactly what
+medicine you need and what to eat in order to get well quickly.
+
+=Tea and Coffee.=--These drinks usually wake up the brain and make it
+work better for a time. If too much of them is used, they may excite
+the brain in such a way as to make persons nervous. If taken for
+supper, they may prevent sleep. Children should not use either tea or
+coffee. Tea sometimes disturbs digestion, and coffee may injure both
+the stomach and the heart.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. What is a narcotic?
+
+     2. Name some narcotics.
+
+     3. What is a stimulant?
+
+     4. Name some stimulants.
+
+     5. How long before alcohol taken reaches the brain?
+
+     6. What effect does strong drink have on the brain?
+
+     7. Does alcohol help us think better?
+
+     8. What facts show that alcohol sends men to prison?
+
+     9. What shows that alcohol makes the mind sick?
+
+    10. Why is it dangerous for the young to take strong drink?
+
+    11. What shows that tobacco makes the brain work slower?
+
+    12. Why should you not use opium or morphine?
+
+    13. What do pain killers contain?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE SENSES, OR DOORS OF KNOWLEDGE
+
+
+=The Organs of Sense.=--In order that our body may keep out of the way
+of other persons and find food and drink and do its work, the brain
+must have some way of receiving news about what is near us, how it
+looks, and of what it is made. Special organs for receiving knowledge
+of people and things about us are scattered over the surface of the
+body. They are called _sense organs_. The chief ones are the two eyes,
+the two ears, the nose, and many organs of taste in the mouth, and the
+thousands of tiny organs of feeling in the skin.
+
+=The Eye.=--The eye consists of a globe called the _eyeball_ and parts
+which move this and protect it from injury. Each eyeball is attached
+at its back part to the large nerve of sight (Fig. 90). This carries
+messages to the brain, telling it what the eye sees.
+
+The eyeball is held in a socket in the front of the skull. A layer of
+fat lines the socket and keeps the eye from being injured by jars. The
+_eyebrows_ at the lower edge of the forehead prevent the sweat from
+running into the eyeball.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Side of the face cut away to show the eyeball
+in its socket. _n_ is the nerve of sight; the other letters show the
+muscles which move the eyeball.]
+
+The _eyelids_ can close over the front of the eyeball to shut out dirt
+or anything else likely to hurt it. The lids have learned to do their
+work so well that we do not need to think to close them when anything
+flies toward the eye, for they are shut before we can think.
+
+A salty fluid called _tears_ flows from the tear gland at the upper
+and outer side of the eyeball. The tears keep the front of the eyeball
+clean.
+
+=Parts of the Eyeball.=--The outside of the eyeball is a tough white
+coat except in front, where it is as clear as glass. Within the outer
+coat is a very thin black lining to keep the light from scattering. In
+front the lining is not against the outer coat, but hangs loose and
+has in it a round hole called the _pupil_ to let the light pass
+through. The part around the hole is the _iris_. It may be blue,
+black, or brown, and can squeeze up so as to make the pupil very small
+when the light is strong.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--A slice from before backward through the eye.]
+
+The end of the nerve of sight forms a tender pink covering over most
+of the inner surface of the eyeball. The cavity within the eyeball is
+filled with three clear substances. The _lens_, shaped like a flat
+door knob, is fixed just behind the pupil. In front of the lens is a
+_watery fluid_ and behind it is a clear _jellylike mass_. The use of
+the lens and also the other substances is to bend the rays of light
+together so that they will meet at one place.
+
+=How the Eyeball is Moved.=--Six muscles fixed to the bones of the
+socket holding the eye have their other ends fastened to the tough
+coat of the eyeball. One muscle turns the ball upward, another turns
+it downward, one turns it inward and another turns it outward. If an
+inner or an outer muscle is too strong, a person may have cross eyes.
+
+=Keeping the Eye Strong.=--Nearly all young children have perfect
+eyes. After a year or two in school the eyes of some children become
+weak. Many children get weak eyes after they are ten or twelve years
+old. This is because they have not taken care of the eyes.
+
+The eyes are often hurt by reading a book with fine print, reading in
+a dim light, or by leaning over the book so that the eyes look
+downward instead of straight forward. As the eyes are very weak after
+measles and most other diseases, they should not be used much until a
+week or more after recovery.
+
+In reading the book should be held a little over a foot in front of
+the chest and you should sit nearly straight and let the light fall on
+the page from one side. Never read while lying down because it strains
+the eyes. Stop reading as soon as the eyes smart.
+
+=Helping the Eyes to See.=--Very few old people can see to read
+without the help of glasses, because the lens of the eye hardens in
+old age. To see things near by, the shape of the lens must be changed.
+In some children, the shape of the eyes has become so changed by
+straining them to read fine print or see things in a dim light that
+the eyes hurt after being used for any kind of work, and the head may
+often ache and make the whole body feel bad. Such eyes need help. You
+should have them examined by an eye doctor who can fit you with
+glasses which will help you see clearly without headache.
+
+=Keeping the Eyes Well.=--Bits of dirt often get beneath the eyelids
+and cause much pain. By taking hold of the eyelashes the lid may be
+pulled out from the eye and any dirt removed with the corner of a
+clean handkerchief passed gently along the lid.
+
+The eyes sometimes become sore because they are rubbed with soiled
+fingers on which are germs. These germs get inside the lids and grow,
+and in this way poison the eyes. Unless care is used sore eyes are
+likely to spread from one child to another in the school. The sick child
+rubs its eyes and then handles a book or pencil on which the germs are
+smeared by the fingers which touched the eyes. The next child picks up
+the same book later, gets the germs on the fingers, and then rubs the
+eyes. For this reason you should never rub the eyes. If you have sore
+eyes, _be careful that no one else catches the sickness from you_.
+
+=The Ear.=--The ear is made of three parts called the _outer ear_, the
+_middle ear_ or _eardrum_, and the _inner ear_. The outer ear is made
+of a plate of skin and gristle and a slightly bent tube about one inch
+long. At the inner end of this tube is a thin membrane or _drumhead_.
+Beyond the drumhead is the cavity of the middle ear about as large as
+a pea. A chain of three tiny bones stretches from the outer drumhead
+across this cavity to a tiny _inner drumhead_. Beyond the inner
+drumhead is the inner ear.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--View of the ear from in front. Three little
+bones stretch across the middle ear.]
+
+The middle ear is kept full of air by means of a tube leading from it
+to the throat. A cold or other sickness may cause this tube to fill up
+and make you deaf. The inner ear consists of a sac and four bent tubes
+filled with a watery fluid. They are also surrounded by watery fluid
+contained in channels in a bone of the skull. The end of the nerve of
+hearing is on one of the tubes.
+
+=How we Hear.=--Throwing a stone in the water makes waves which move
+farther and farther outward. In the same way a noise causes waves in
+the air. These waves pass into the ear tube, strike the outer
+drumhead, and make it move. This moves the chain of bones in the
+middle ear so that they cause motion in the inner drumhead. This in
+moving back and forth makes waves in the fluid of the inner ear which
+strike on the ends of the nerve of hearing and cause messages to be
+carried to the brain.
+
+=Care of the Ears.=--The ears should not be struck or pulled, as the
+eardrum is easily broken. Do not put pencils, pins, or anything else
+in your ears. Wax naturally forms in the ear tube to keep out bugs and
+flies. The outer part of the tube may be kept clean by wiping it with
+a moist cloth over the little finger. If you often have earache or a
+running ear, you should have it examined by a physician. _Neglecting a
+sick ear may cause deafness._
+
+Some persons are deaf in one ear and do not know it. Test each ear by
+covering the other one with a heavy cloth and note how far off you can
+hear the ticks of a watch.
+
+=The Nose.=--The nose has a skin-like lining, but it is always kept
+moist by little glands which give out a watery fluid. The endings of
+the nerve of smell are in the lining in the upper part of the nose.
+Two nerves lead from the nose to the brain.
+
+When we catch cold, much blood rushes to the lining of the nose and it
+becomes swollen. It then gives out a thick white mucus. This covers
+the nerve endings, so that we cannot smell.
+
+Smell is of great use in telling us whether our food is good, by
+helping us to enjoy food with a pleasant odor, and by warning us
+against bad air.
+
+=The Sense of Taste.=--The nerves by which we taste end in the soft
+covering of the tongue and some other parts of the mouth. A food
+cannot be tasted while it is dry. For this reason much slippery fluid
+flows into the mouth from glands under the ears and tongue. This
+fluid, called _saliva_, softens the solid food when it is well chewed,
+so we can taste it.
+
+=The Senses of the Skin.=--There are endings of nerves in the skin all
+over the body. They are of three or four different kinds. Some of them
+tell us about heat, others tell us about cold. Some tell us about the
+shape, the smoothness, or hardness of objects, while others tell us
+when the skin gets hurt.
+
+Most of the nerve endings are in the deeper part of the skin, so that
+they are covered by the epidermis and cannot be hurt by the rough
+things handled.
+
+=Alcohol and the Senses.=--The senses are but little affected by a
+small amount of alcoholic drink. The sense of taste, after being
+accustomed to the sharpness of strong drink, may be less easily
+pleased with the taste of common food and drink.
+
+The use of large amounts of alcohol blunts all the senses. In a
+drunken man the senses of the skin are so numbed that he does not know
+when anything touches him, and he may be badly burned before he feels
+the pain.
+
+Heavy drinking makes the hearing less keen, enlarges the blood vessels
+of the eyes, and makes them appear red and bloodshot.
+
+=Tobacco and the Senses.=--The use of tobacco does not injure the
+senses of the skin and usually has no effect on hearing. Both chewing
+and smoking, if much practiced, make the sense of taste less delicate,
+so that one cannot enjoy his food to the fullest extent.
+
+Much smoking of tobacco may hurt the nerve of sight and in a few cases
+it has made men blind. Many boys have weakened their eyes by the use
+of cigarettes.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Name the chief sense organs.
+
+     2. Of what use are the eyelids and tears?
+
+     3. Name four parts of the eyeball.
+
+     4. What is the iris?
+
+     5. Of what use is the lens?
+
+     6. What moves the eyeball?
+
+     7. When do children get weak eyes?
+
+     8. How are the eyes often hurt?
+
+     9. How may poor eyes be helped?
+
+    10. What makes the eyes sore?
+
+    11. How do germs get into the eyes?
+
+    12. Name the three parts of the ear.
+
+    13. What does the inner ear contain?
+
+    14. What may result from neglecting a sick ear?
+
+    15. Of what use is smell?
+
+    16. Why should food be well chewed?
+
+    17. In what part of the skin are most of the nerve endings?
+
+    18. What effect does tobacco have on the sense of taste?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+KEEPING AWAY SICKNESS
+
+
+=Too Much Sickness.=--Many diseases are caused by our own carelessness
+and our bad habits of living. We have about one doctor for every one
+hundred families. There are enough people sick every day to make a
+city as large as New York or to equal the number of people living in
+the thirteen states of Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Arizona, New Mexico,
+Utah, Delaware, Montana, Vermont, New Hampshire, North Dakota and
+South Dakota, and Oklahoma.
+
+A careful study of disease and its cause shows that at least one half
+of all the sickness in our land can be avoided by right living.
+
+=The Cause of Sickness.=--Some people are so foolish as to make
+themselves sick. They weaken the body by using much beer or wine, by
+breathing bad air, by lack of exercise, or by fast eating. When the
+body becomes weak, it is likely to get sick at any time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--The germs of diseases. Much enlarged.]
+
+It is not always our own fault when we are sick. It may be caused by
+the carelessness of others who have let germs escape from their bodies
+so that they are able to reach us. One half of the sickness in our
+land is catching sickness. That is, it is sickness which passes from
+one person to another and is caused by tiny germs or microbes. A
+catching sickness is called a _contagious disease_. Some of the common
+catching diseases are sore throat, colds, diphtheria, pneumonia,
+typhoid fever, measles, grippe, and whooping cough.
+
+=How we get a Catching Sickness.=--We get a catching sickness by
+taking into our bodies the germs from some other person. The germs of
+the sick do not pass off in the breath, but in the spit or anything
+else which comes from their bodies. This is why the spit and all slops
+from the sick room should be burned, buried, or destroyed in some way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--How the germs of disease start on their
+mission of death. This sewer carries slops from the houses of the sick
+and well and empties into a stream used below for drinking water.]
+
+We should think it very wicked if a showman should turn his lions and
+tigers loose in a crowd of women and children. Somebody would surely
+be killed and others hurt. It is just as wrong to turn loose the
+germs of the sick by throwing the spit and the slops where they will
+get into a stream or where the flies may find them and by soiling
+their feet leave death in their trail wherever they crawl.
+
+=How the Germs of Sickness catch Us.=--The germs of sickness have no
+feet to walk and no wings to fly, yet they easily travel from the sick
+to the well. They are not killed by being frozen, or drowned by
+floating in water, or destroyed by drying. For this reason they can
+travel with the ice, water, milk, and dust.
+
+In Buffalo, New York, fifty-seven children caught the scarlet fever in
+one week by using milk cared for by a boy who was getting well from
+the scarlet fever.
+
+The germs of sickness are so small that a million can hang to the
+hands or clothing and not be seen. For this reason they are often left
+clinging to the fingers, desks, books, and pencils, and travel in
+large numbers on the feet of flies. The surest way the germs have of
+getting from one person to another is by the common drinking cup.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Photograph of clear beef broth jelly in which
+a fly walked five minutes scattering germs. Two days later each germ
+brushed off the fly's feet grew into a city of germs appearing as a
+white spot.]
+
+=The Common Drinking Cup is an Exchange Station for Germs.=--The most
+careful examinations have shown that there are thousands of children
+as well as grown persons who have very light attacks of scarlet fever,
+tuberculosis, or other diseases and go to school or about their work
+scattering the germs of sickness in their spit. A child seldom drinks
+from a cup without leaving on it thousands of germs. Some of these may
+be germs which will cause sickness. On one drinking cup used in a
+school, the germs were found to be as thick as the leaves on a maple
+tree in June.
+
+In an Ohio school one warm day, a boy with beginning measles drank
+from the cup which was afterward used on the same day by the teacher
+and all the other pupils. In less than two weeks every pupil and the
+teacher were suffering from measles. _Put nothing into your mouth
+which has been in another's mouth._
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--A schoolhouse in Morgan county, Ohio, where
+sixteen pupils and the teacher caught the measles in one day by drinking
+from a cup which had been used by a boy sick with the measles.]
+
+=The Golden Rule.=--If you have a catching sickness, such as measles,
+chicken pox, or whooping cough, stay away from others. Since the germs
+of some diseases, like scarlet fever and diphtheria, remain in the
+spit sometimes several months after you feel well, don't scatter your
+spit. Hold a handkerchief before your face when you sneeze or cough.
+_Wash your hands before handling food._
+
+=Some Animals carry Sickness.=--Mosquitoes carry malaria and yellow
+fever and some other diseases. Flies carry typhoid fever, grippe,
+diphtheria, and tuberculosis. Bedbugs and fleas carry the plague and
+leprosy. Rats carry the plague. Cats sometimes carry diphtheria. Many
+cows have tuberculosis and the germs of this disease are then
+sometimes found in their milk. Some children have caught tuberculosis
+from drinking such milk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--A pane of glass held about two feet before the
+face of a boy who sneezed. The spots are the droplets of spit thrown
+out. Each spot showed under the microscope from 50 to 1000 germs.]
+
+=Keeping away Smallpox.=--Smallpox was once the most terrible of all
+diseases. It is so catching that two or three were often sick with it
+at one time in the same family. Sometimes nearly one half the people
+of a whole town would have the disease in one year. Over a hundred
+years ago nearly every grown up person had little pits scattered over
+his face as a result of having had smallpox.
+
+You can always keep away smallpox by being vaccinated. The doctor can
+vaccinate you by putting on the freshly scraped skin of your arm some
+weak smallpox germs from a clean healthy calf which has been
+vaccinated. Your arm will in a few days get sore and you will not feel
+well for about one week, but you will be made safe from smallpox for
+several years.
+
+Fifty nurses were vaccinated in Philadelphia and cared for many sick
+with the smallpox, staying with them day after day, but not one of the
+nurses took the disease. _Every one should be vaccinated when a year
+old and again at the age of ten or twelve years._
+
+=Colds.=--Some colds are catching, but we generally take cold because
+we have weak bodies or have been careless. If you want to be free from
+colds, remember these six rules:--
+
+Don't sit still in wet clothes or with wet feet.
+
+Don't sit in a cold draft or in a cold room.
+
+Don't sit on the damp ground or on the ice when you are resting from
+skating.
+
+Don't cool off quickly after exercising.
+
+Sleep in a room with the windows _wide_ open.
+
+Take a cold bath every morning and draw fresh air to the bottom of the
+lungs many times every day.
+
+=Tuberculosis or Consumption.=--This disease is so common and deadly
+that twenty persons die from it in our country every hour. It is
+caused by tiny germs (Fig. 63) which lodge in the lungs, glands,
+bones, or other parts of the body, where they give off poison and hurt
+the tissues. We take these germs into the body with dust or food, and
+also by putting to the lips a drinking cup or other things used by a
+consumptive. Generally the germs will not grow in a strong body, even
+when they have lodged there.
+
+=Preventing Consumption.=--Living in poorly lighted houses without
+much fresh air, working in dusty rooms, using much strong drink and
+tobacco, eating poor food, losing sleep, neglecting a cough, and
+taking little or no outdoor exercise weaken the body so that the
+consumption germs can grow in it. Deep breathing, sitting and walking
+erect, living in rooms with sunshine, sleeping with the windows open
+eight or nine hours every night, and eating good food will prevent one
+from taking consumption and will often cure the disease. Persons with
+this sickness give out the germs in their spit, which should be caught
+in a cup and burned.
+
+=The Hookworm Disease.=--This is a sickness affecting thousands of
+persons in the South. It is caused by tiny worms half as large as a pin
+hanging fast to the lining of the bowels. The worm is sometimes called
+the lazy germ because it destroys the red blood cells and makes the body
+feel weak and lazy. Children with these worms grow slowly, have a dry
+skin, and a swollen abdomen with a tender spot below the stomach.
+
+The disease is easily cured by a physician, but it is better to
+prevent it by killing the germs in the waste from the bowels. For
+directions, address the Department of Health at the capital of your
+state. If the germs reach the ground they crawl around and may get
+into the well, and enter the body again with the drinking water.
+Generally, however, the worms enter through the skin of those going
+barefooted, and are carried by the blood to the lungs. From here they
+go up the windpipe to the throat, and then down the gullet to the
+bowels. It is their entrance through the skin that causes ground itch
+or dew itch. Wearing shoes will help prevent the disease.
+
+=A Strong Body Wins.=--Nobody wants to be weak and sickly. Most all of
+us could keep well if we would try in the right way to keep the body
+strong.
+
+To keep the body in health it must have plenty of sleep, enough good
+food well chewed, plenty of clean water, exercise every day, and an
+abundance of fresh air. The body is the temple of the soul. Don't hurt
+it with bad habits.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. How many people are sick to-day in our country?
+
+     2. How can much sickness be avoided?
+
+     3. What causes sickness?
+
+     4. What is a contagious disease?
+
+     5. Name some contagious diseases.
+
+     6. How do we get a catching sickness?
+
+     7. Why should we be careful with the slops from the sick
+        room?
+
+     8. Tell how children in Buffalo caught scarlet fever.
+
+     9. What is the danger in using a cup from which others
+        have drunk?
+
+    10. How can you prevent others from getting your sickness?
+
+    11. Name some animals which carry sickness.
+
+    12. How can we keep away smallpox?
+
+    13. Give six rules to keep away colds.
+
+    14. How may the body be kept strong?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+HELPING BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES
+
+
+=The Need of Quick Help.=--In many places in the country, or when out
+camping, it is impossible to get a doctor in less than two or three
+hours. Unless some one at hand can give aid before the doctor comes,
+much suffering and even death may result when a simple accident
+occurs. For this reason every one should know how to help in case of
+such accidents as burns, bleeding, choking, and sunstroke.
+
+=Clothing on Fire.=--Children should never play about an open fire. A
+single spark lighting on a cotton dress may cause it to burst into a
+blaze so that within a few minutes the child is enveloped in flames.
+
+The quickest way to put out such a fire is to wrap the child in a
+blanket, a piece of carpet, a coat, or any part of your clothing
+quickly removed. If nothing is at hand to wrap the sufferer in, roll
+him over and over in the dirt or weeds until the flames are smothered.
+When your clothing is on fire, you must not run, because this fans the
+fire and makes it burn.
+
+=Burns and Scalds.=--If there is clothing on the part burned, it
+should be taken off slowly so as not to tear the skin. If the clothing
+sticks, soak it in oil a few minutes until it gets loose. Cover the
+burned part as quickly as possible with vaseline or a clean cloth
+soaked in a quart of boiled water containing a cup of washing soda.
+Let nothing dirty touch the burned surface and keep it well wrapped.
+
+=Bleeding.=--A person can lose a quart of blood without danger of
+death and may live after more than two quarts have been lost, but it
+is wise to try to stop any flow of blood as quickly as possible. Tying
+a clean cloth folded several times over the cut will in most cases
+stop the flow. This will help a clot to form and will also close the
+ends of the cut vessels if the bandage is twisted tight with a stick.
+
+If the cut is on a limb and the blood comes out in spurts, a bandage
+tied about the limb between the cut and the body may be twisted tight
+with a stick so as to press upon the artery and close it. A piece of
+wood or folded cloth placed over the artery under the bandage before
+it is tightened is helpful.
+
+=Nosebleed.=--Some persons are troubled frequently with bleeding from
+the nose. The least knock may cause it to bleed for more than an hour.
+It may generally be stopped without sending for a doctor.
+
+Sit up straight to keep the blood out of the head and press the
+middle part of the nose firmly between the fingers. Apply a cold wet
+cloth or a lump of ice wrapped in a cloth to the back of the neck. Put
+a bag of pounded ice on the root of the nose. If it does not stop in a
+half hour, wet a soft rag or a piece of cotton with cold tea or alum
+water and put it gently into the bleeding nostril so as to entirely
+close it. Do not blow the nose for several hours after the bleeding
+has stopped as this may start it again.
+
+=Fainting.=--Fainting may be caused by bad air, an overheated room, by
+fear, or by some other excitement. A fainting person falls down and
+appears to be asleep. The lips are pale and there may be cold sweat on
+the forehead. There is too little blood in the brain, and the heart is
+weak.
+
+A fainting person should be laid flat on the floor or on a couch, and
+all doors and windows opened wide. Loosen all tight clothing and apply
+to the forehead a cloth wet with cold water. A faint usually lasts
+only a few minutes.
+
+=Sunstroke.=--A person with sunstroke becomes giddy, sick at the
+stomach, and weak. He then gets drowsy and may seem as if asleep, but
+he cannot be aroused. The skin is hot and dry instead of being cold
+and pale, as in fainting. The doctor should be sent for at once.
+
+The first aid for sunstroke is to put the patient in a cool cellar or
+an icehouse, raise the head, and wet the head, neck, and back of the
+chest with cold water. As soon as he wakens put him in a cool room.
+
+=Frostbite.=--When out in very cold weather, the end of the nose, the
+tips of the ears, and the toes and fingers are sometimes frozen. If a
+person comes into a warm room, these frozen parts will give much pain.
+The parts should be rubbed with snow or ice water until a tingling
+sensation is felt.
+
+=Breaks in the Skin.=--A small cut or tear in the skin may become very
+sore and cause much trouble if not cared for so as to keep the germs
+out. If there is dirt in the wound, as when made with a rusty nail or
+by the bite of a dog, it should be squeezed and washed with boiled
+water to make it perfectly clean. It may then be bound up in a clean
+cloth. A little turpentine poured on the wound will help kill the
+germs which may make it sore. If the dog is thought to be mad or the
+wound is too deep to be easily washed out to the bottom, a doctor
+should be called.
+
+=Snakebite.=--The scratches made by the little teeth of most snakes,
+such as the milk snake, garter snake, and black snake, do no more harm
+than the scratch of a pin. The _copperhead_, the _southern moccasin_,
+and the _rattlesnake_ have a pair of long teeth called _fangs_ in the
+upper jaw. These teeth have little canals in them through which the
+snake presses poison into the bite.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Photograph of a copperhead snake whose bite
+may cause death.]
+
+If a person is bitten by one of these snakes, the doctor must be sent
+for and help given at once. Put a bandage above the bite and twist it
+tight with a stick. Make two or three deep cuts into the bitten place
+to let out the poisoned blood. Suck the wound to draw out the poison
+and apply ammonia.
+
+=Choking.=--A hard piece of meat, a bone, or a peach seed may slip
+back into the throat and press so hard on the windpipe as to cut off
+the air from the lungs. If the object is not far back in the throat,
+it may be seized with the first finger. A few smart slaps on the upper
+part of the back while the body is bent forward may drive enough air
+out of the lungs to push the object outward.
+
+=Drowning.=--Every one should learn to swim while young, but no one
+should venture in deep water. Stiffening of the muscles called cramps
+often causes the best swimmer to drown.
+
+After a person has been under the water two or three minutes he
+appears lifeless. He may, however, be brought to life if laid face
+downward, his clothes loosened, and the lungs made to breathe. A heavy
+folded coat, a piece of sod, or a bunch of weeds should be put under
+the chest. Then standing astride of him place the hands on the lower
+ribs and bend forward gradually so as to press on the ribs and push
+the air out of the lungs. Then straighten your body and slowly lessen
+pressure on the patient's ribs so that the air will run into the
+lungs. In this way make the air go in and out of the lungs about
+fifteen times each minute.
+
+=Poisoning.=--Whenever a person has taken poison, a physician should
+be sent for at once. In most cases an effort should be made to get the
+poison out of the stomach by causing vomiting. A glass or two of weak,
+warm soapsuds, a pint of water with a tablespoonful of mustard, or a
+glass of water with two tablespoonfuls of salt may be taken to make
+the stomach throw out the poison. Tickling the throat back of the
+tongue will help cause vomiting.
+
+If a strong acid such as carbolic acid or a strong alkali such as
+ammonia has been taken, do not cause vomiting. For acids give chalk in
+warm water and a pint of milk. For an alkali give vinegar in water.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Ab do�men, 15.
+
+  Ad�e noids, 105, 106.
+
+  Air and health, 111-116.
+
+  Air sacs, 102, 103.
+
+  Air tubes, 103.
+
+  Alcohol, 20, 35.
+    and blood, 124, 125.
+    and blood vessels, 126.
+    and brain, 158-162.
+    and clothing, 98, 99.
+    and crime, 160, 161.
+    and digestion, 57, 58.
+    and health, 74, 75.
+    and kidneys, 93.
+    and lungs, 109, 110.
+    and muscles, 146-148.
+    and senses, 172.
+    and skin, 92, 93.
+
+  Alcoholic drinks, 68-73.
+    as food, 27, 29.
+
+  A or�ta, 16.
+
+  Appetite, 58, 59.
+
+  Arteries, 19, 119.
+
+
+  Backbone, 16.
+
+  Bac te�ria, 36, 39.
+    of disease, 175-177.
+    of milk, 43.
+
+  Bathing, 91.
+
+  Beans, 24.
+
+  Bedbugs and disease, 134, 178.
+
+  Beef tea, 31.
+
+  Beer and digestion, 57, 58.
+    as a food, 27, 35.
+    and heart, 125.
+    making of, 70.
+
+  Bile, 52, 55.
+
+  Blackdeath, 11.
+
+  Bleeding, to stop, 123, 124, 184, 185.
+
+  Blood, 17, 117, 118.
+
+  Blood vessels, 19, 118-122.
+
+  Body, parts of, 15-19.
+
+  Bones, 135-139.
+
+  Bowels, 47, 52, 53.
+
+  Brain, 149-153.
+
+  Brain, use of, 18.
+
+  Brandy, 72.
+
+  Bread, 23.
+
+  Breathing, 100-107.
+
+  Building foods, 22, 23.
+
+  Burns and scalds, 184.
+
+  Butter, 41.
+
+
+  Capillaries, 119, 120.
+
+  Carbon dioxide, 102, 111.
+
+  Cells, 20.
+
+  Cereals, 33.
+
+  Cer�e brum, 150, 151.
+
+  Chest, 15.
+
+  Chewing and health, 49-50.
+
+  Choking, 187.
+
+  Cholera, 175.
+
+  Cider, 40.
+
+  Cigarettes, 82, 162.
+
+  Cleanliness, 44, 91.
+
+  Clothing, 94-99.
+
+  Co�ca ine, 162.
+
+  Coffee, 82, 83, 164.
+
+  Colds, 180.
+
+  Consumption, 109, 180-181.
+
+  Cooking of eggs, 34.
+    of meat, 30, 31.
+
+  Corns, 98.
+
+  Cotton, 96.
+
+  Cream, 41.
+
+
+  Deafness, 171.
+
+  Diaphragm (_di�a fram_), 16, 104
+
+  Digestion, organs of, 47-52.
+
+  Diphtheria, 175, 178.
+
+  Disease, cause of, 25-27.
+    from alcohol, 76, 77.
+    from bad air, 114.
+    from drinking cup, 108, 177.
+    from dust, 108, 109.
+    of eyes, 169.
+    from flies, 108.
+    from insects, 127-134.
+    from milk, 43-46, 178.
+    prevention of, 174-182.
+
+  Disease, from spit, 107, 108, 178, 179.
+    victory over, 12.
+
+  Dis til la�tion, 73.
+
+  Drinking cup and disease, 108, 177.
+
+  Drowning, 187.
+
+  Drunkards, cause of, 14.
+
+  Dust and disease, 37, 108, 109.
+
+  Dys pep�si a, 50.
+
+
+  Ear, 169-171.
+
+  Eggs, 23, 33, 34.
+
+  Epidermis, 85, 86.
+
+  Exercise, 144-146.
+
+  Eye, 165-168.
+
+
+  Fainting, 185.
+
+  Fat, 24.
+
+  Fats, 22, 23.
+
+  Feeding of body, 21.
+
+  Feeling, 172.
+
+  Feet, care of, 98.
+
+  Fish as food, 30.
+
+  Fleas and disease, 134.
+
+  Flies and disease, 45-46, 108, 132-134, 176, 178.
+
+  Food, amount needed, 27.
+    and health, 30-35.
+    digestion of, 47-55.
+    entrance to blood, 52, 54.
+
+  Foods, 22.
+
+  Freckles, 87.
+
+  Frostbite, 186.
+
+  Fruits, 33, 34.
+
+  Fuel foods, 23, 24.
+
+
+  Gastric juice, 51.
+
+  Germs, 36-40.
+    of disease, 175, 176.
+    of milk, 43.
+    of spit, 107.
+
+  Glands, 47-49.
+
+  Growth of body, 20.
+
+  Gullet, 16, 53.
+
+
+  Habit, 133, 154.
+
+  Habits, 14.
+
+  Hair, 88-90.
+
+  Headache, 55.
+
+  Hearing, 170.
+
+  Heart, 16, 100, 118, 122.
+
+  Hookworm disease, 181, 182.
+
+  Hookworms, 175.
+
+  Hy�gi ene, 10.
+
+
+  Insects and health, 129-134.
+
+  Intestine, 16.
+
+  Intestines, 47, 52, 53.
+
+
+  Joints, 139, 140.
+
+
+  Kidney, 16.
+
+  Kidneys, 17, 92.
+
+
+  Larynx (_lar�inks_), 102.
+
+  Leprosy, 134.
+
+  Life, length of, 9.
+
+  Ligaments, 135, 139, 140.
+
+  Linen, 95.
+
+  Liver, 16, 53, 54, 55, 100.
+
+  Lung, 16.
+
+  Lungs, 100-101.
+
+
+  Malaria, 175.
+
+  Measles, 175.
+
+  Meat, 23.
+    cooking of, 30.
+    spoiling of, 38, 39.
+
+  Meats, 30.
+
+  Mi�crobes, 36, 37.
+
+  Milk, 23, 29, 41-46.
+    and scarlet fever, 176.
+    as a food, 31.
+    souring of, 39.
+
+  Mineral foods, 24.
+
+  Mold, 37, 38.
+
+  Morphine, 83, 84, 162, 163.
+
+  Mosquitoes and disease, 127-132.
+
+  Mouth, 60-67.
+
+  Muscles, 140-143.
+
+  Muscles and health, 144-148.
+
+
+  Nails, 87, 88.
+
+  Nar cot�ics, 158-164.
+
+  Nerves, 19, 149, 151, 152.
+
+  Nose, 104-106, 171.
+
+  Nose bleed, 181.
+
+
+  Opium, 83, 84, 162, 163.
+
+  Organ, 18.
+
+  Organs of body, 16.
+
+  Oxygen, 22.
+
+  Oysters as a food, 30.
+
+
+  Painkillers, 163.
+
+  Pan�cre as, 16, 48, 52, 53.
+
+  Pa ral�y sis, 155.
+
+  Patent medicines, 84.
+
+  Pharynx (_far�inks_), 47.
+
+  Plague, 134, 175.
+
+  Poisoning, 188.
+
+  Pro�te ids, 22.
+
+  Pus, 123.
+
+
+  Radius, 137.
+
+  Ribs, 137.
+
+  Rum, 73.
+
+
+  Sa li�va, 48, 49.
+
+  Salt, 34.
+
+  Scarlet fever, 175, 176, 178.
+
+  Sense organs, 165-173.
+
+  Shoes, 98.
+
+  Sick, number of, 9.
+
+  Sickness, how caused, 11.
+    prevention of, 174-182.
+
+  Silk, 95.
+
+  Skin, 85-93.
+    senses of, 172.
+
+  Skull, 136.
+
+  Sleep, 156, 157.
+    and disease, 113, 114.
+
+  Sleeping sickness, 134.
+
+  Slops, care of, 175.
+
+  Smallpox, 12, 178-180.
+
+  Smell, 171.
+
+  Smoking, 57.
+
+  Snakebites, 186, 187.
+
+  Sore throat, 175.
+
+  Soups, 31.
+
+  Spinal cord, 16, 19, 151, 154, 155.
+
+  Spit, care of, 175, 178.
+
+  Spitting and health, 107, 108.
+
+  Spleen, 54.
+
+  Starch, 23, 24.
+
+  Stimulants, 158, 164.
+
+  Stomach, 16, 47, 50-53, 100.
+
+  Sugars, 22, 23.
+
+  Sunstroke, 185.
+
+  Sweeping and health, 37.
+
+  Sweetbread, 48.
+
+  Swimming, 145, 146, 187.
+
+  Sym pa thet�ic nerves, 155.
+
+
+  Taste, 171, 172.
+
+  Tea, 82, 83, 164.
+
+  Teeth, 60-67.
+
+  Thigh, 15.
+
+  Tissue, 18.
+
+  Tobacco, 20.
+    and air, 116.
+    and blood, 125.
+    and brain, 162.
+    and digestion, 56, 57.
+    as food, 34, 35.
+    and health, 78-82.
+    and heart, 126.
+    and lungs, 110.
+    and muscles, 148.
+    and senses, 172, 173.
+
+  Tonsil, 105, 106.
+
+  Toothache, 62, 63.
+
+  Tuberculosis, 107, 108, 175.
+    and bad air, 114, 115.
+    cause of, 178, 180.
+    prevention of, 107-109, 111-116, 180-181.
+
+  Trunk, 15.
+
+  Typhoid fever, 175.
+    how caused, 25-27, 28, 134.
+
+
+  Vaccination, 179, 180.
+
+  Vegetables as food, 32, 33.
+
+  Veins, 28, 121.
+
+  Ventilation, 111-115.
+
+  Villi, 54.
+
+  Vocal cords, 105, 106.
+
+  Voice, 106, 107.
+
+  Voice box, 102.
+
+
+  War, deaths from, 11.
+
+  Waste, giving out of, 17.
+
+  Water, use of, 24, 92.
+
+  Water and health, 25-27, 28.
+
+  Water in food, 25.
+
+  Whisky, 72, 73.
+
+  Whooping cough, 175.
+
+  Wigglers, 130-131.
+
+  Windpipe, 16, 102, 103.
+
+  Wine, 27, 28.
+    and digestion, 58.
+    making of, 70-71.
+
+  Wounds, 186.
+
+
+  Yeast, 39, 40, 69.
+
+  Yellow fever, 12, 13, 129, 130.
+
+
+
+
+BALDWIN AND BENDER'S READERS
+
+Reading with Expression
+
+     By JAMES BALDWIN, Author of Baldwin's School Readers, Harper's
+     Readers, etc. and IDA C. BENDER, Supervisor of Primary Grades,
+     Buffalo, New York.
+
+     AN EIGHT BOOK SERIES or A FIVE BOOK SERIES
+
+
+The authorship of this series is conclusive evidence of its rare
+worth, of its happy union of the ideal and the practical. The chief
+design of the books is to help pupils to acquire the art and habit of
+reading so well as to give pleasure both to themselves and to those
+who listen to them. They teach reading with expression, and the
+selections have, to a large extent, been chosen for this purpose.
+
+� These readers are very teachable and readable, and are unusually
+interesting both in selections and in illustrations. The selections
+are of a very high literary quality. Besides the choicest schoolbook
+classics, there are a large number which have never before appeared in
+school readers. The contents are well balanced between prose and
+poetry, and the subject matter is unusually varied. Beginning with the
+Third Reader, selections relating to similar subjects or requiring
+similar methods of study or recitation, are grouped together. Many
+selections are in dialogue form and suitable for dramatization.
+
+� The First Reader may be used with any method of teaching reading,
+for it combines the best ideas of each. A number of helpful new
+features are also included. Each reading lesson is on a right-hand
+page, and is approached by a series of preparatory exercises on the
+preceding left-hand page.
+
+� The illustrations constitute the finest and most attractive
+collection ever brought together in a series of readers. There are
+over 600 in all, every one made especially for these books by an
+artist of national reputation.
+
+AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+HICKS'S CHAMPION SPELLING BOOK
+
+By WARREN E. HICKS, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio
+
+Complete, $0.25--Part One, $0.18--Part Two, $0.18
+
+
+This book embodies the method that enabled the pupils in the Cleveland
+schools after two years to win the National Education Association
+Spelling Contest of 1908.
+
+� By this method a spelling lesson of ten words is given each day from
+the spoken vocabulary of the pupil. Of these ten words two are
+selected for intensive study, and in the spelling book are made
+prominent in both position and type at the head of each day's lessons,
+these two words being followed by the remaining eight words in smaller
+type. Systematic review is provided throughout the book. Each of the
+ten prominent words taught intensively in a week is listed as a
+subordinate word in the next two weeks; included in a written spelling
+contest at the end of eight weeks; again in the annual contest at the
+end of the year; and again as a subordinate word in the following
+year's work;--used five times in all within two years.
+
+� The Champion Spelling Book consists of a series of lessons arranged
+as above for six school years, from the third to the eighth,
+inclusive. It presents about 1,200 words each year, and teaches 312 of
+them with especial clearness and intensity. It also includes
+occasional supplementary exercises which serve as aids in teaching
+sounds, vowels, homonyms, rules of spelling, abbreviated forms,
+suffixes, prefixes, the use of hyphens, plurals, dictation work, and
+word building. The words have been selected from lists, supplied by
+grade teachers of Cleveland schools, of words ordinarily misspelled by
+the pupils of their respective grades.
+
+AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+SPENCERS' PRACTICAL WRITING
+
+By PLATT R. SPENCER'S SONS
+
+  Books 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8       Per dozen, $0.60
+
+
+SPENCERS' PRACTICAL WRITING has been devised because of the distinct and
+wide-spread reaction from the use of vertical writing in schools. It is
+thoroughly up-to-date, embodying all the advantages of the old and of
+the new. Each word can be written by one continuous movement of the pen.
+
+� The books teach a plain, practical hand, moderate in slant, and free
+from ornamental curves, shades, and meaningless lines. The stem
+letters are long enough to be clear and unmistakable. The capitals are
+about two spaces in height.
+
+� The copies begin with words and gradually develop into sentences.
+The letters, both large and small, are taught systematically. In the
+first two books the writing is somewhat larger than is customary
+because it is more easily learned by young children. These books also
+contain many illustrations in outline. The ruling is very simple.
+
+� Instruction is afforded showing how the pupil should sit at the
+desk, and hold the pen and paper. A series of drill movement
+exercises, thirty-three in number, with directions for their use,
+accompanies each book.
+
+
+SPENCERIAN PRACTICAL WRITING SPELLER
+
+Per dozen, $0.48
+
+This simple, inexpensive device provides abundant drill in writing
+words. At the same time it trains pupils to form their copies in
+accordance with the most modern and popular system of penmanship, and
+saves much valuable time for both teacher and pupil.
+
+AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+MAXWELL'S NEW GRAMMARS
+
+By WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, Ph.D., LL.D. Superintendent of Schools, City of
+New York
+
+  Elementary Grammar       $0.40
+
+  School Grammar           $0.60
+
+
+The ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR presents in very small space all the grammar
+usually taught in elementary schools.
+
+� It gives the pupil an insight into the general forms in which
+thought is expressed, and enables him to see the meaning of
+complicated sentences. The explanatory matter is made clear by the use
+of simple language, by the elimination of unnecessary technical terms,
+and by the frequent introduction of illustrative sentences. The
+definitions are simple and precise. The exercises are abundant and
+peculiarly ingenious. A novel device for parsing and analysis permits
+these two subjects to be combined in one exercise for purposes of drill.
+
+� The SCHOOL GRAMMAR contains everything needed by students in upper
+grammar grades and secondary schools. It covers fully the requirements
+of the Syllabus in English issued by the New York State Education
+Department.
+
+� The book treats of grammar only, and presents many exercises which
+call for considerable reflection on the meaning of the expressions to
+be analyzed. Throughout, stress is laid on the broader distinctions of
+thought and expression. The common errors of written and spoken
+language are so classified as to make it comparatively easy for pupils
+to detect and correct them through the application of the rules of
+grammar. The book ends with an historical sketch of the English
+language, an article on the formation of words, and a list of
+equivalent terms employed by other grammarians. The full index makes
+the volume useful for reference.
+
+AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+
+  * Inconsistent hyphenation in the word "skinlike" retained.
+
+  * Pg 91 Added period after "Clean" located in "Keeping the Skin
+    Clean".
+
+  * Pg 182 Added period after "sickness" located in "animals which
+    carry sickness".
+
+  * Pg 188 Removed extraneous comma after "back" located in "throat
+    back, of the tongue".
+
+  * Pg 190 Index page reference "47" amended to "67" located in "Mouth,
+    60-47".
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Health Lessons, by Alvin Davison
+
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Health Lessons, Book I by Alvin Davison.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Health Lessons, by Alvin Davison
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Health Lessons
+       Book 1
+
+Author: Alvin Davison
+
+Release Date: March 13, 2010 [EBook #31616]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HEALTH LESSONS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Larry B. Harrison, D. Alexander and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p class="gap">
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="icover" id="icover"></a>
+<img src="images/icover.jpg" width="500" height="791" alt="Health Lessons by Alvin Davison" title="Book Cover"/>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h1>HEALTH LESSONS</h1>
+
+<h2>BOOK I</h2>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">ALVIN DAVISON, M.S., A.M., Ph.D.</span></h3>
+
+<h5>PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY IN LAFAYETTE COLLEGE</h5>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 75px;">
+<a name="i001" id="i001"></a>
+<img src="images/i001.jpg" width="75" height="84" alt="American Book Company" title="Publisher Symbol"/>
+</div>
+
+<h4>NEW YORK &#10070; CINCINNATI &#10070; CHICAGO</h4>
+
+<h3>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h3>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1910, by</span></h5>
+
+<h4>ALVIN DAVISON.</h4>
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.</span></h5>
+
+<h5>HEALTH LESSONS. BK. 1.</h5>
+
+<h5>W. P. 6</h5>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i003" id="i003"></a>
+<img src="images/i003.jpg" width="500" height="750" alt="A strong and healthy body." title=""/>
+<p class="caption">Exercise, clean air, and well-chewed food make a strong and
+<br />healthy body.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>Scarcely one half of the children of our country
+continue in school much beyond the fifth grade. It is
+important, therefore, that so far as possible the knowledge
+which has most to do with human welfare should be
+presented in the early years of school life.</p>
+
+<p>Fisher, Metchnikoff, Sedgwick, and others have shown
+that the health of a people influences the prosperity and
+happiness of a nation more than any other one thing.
+The highest patriotism is therefore the conservation of
+health. The seven hundred thousand lives annually
+destroyed by infectious diseases and the million other
+serious cases of sickness from contagious maladies, with
+all their attendant suffering, are largely sacrifices on the
+altar of ignorance. The loving mother menaces the life
+of her babe by feeding it milk with a germ content nearly
+half as great as that of sewage, the anemic girl sleeps
+with fast-closed windows, wondering in the morning why
+she feels so lifeless, and the one-time vigorous boy goes
+to a consumptive's early grave, because they did not know
+(what every school ought to teach) the way to health.</p>
+
+<p>Doctor Price, the Secretary of the State Board of Health
+of Maryland, recently said before the American Public
+Health Association that the text-books of our schools show
+a marked disregard for the urgent problems which enter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+our daily life, such as the prevention of tuberculosis,
+typhoid fever, and acute infectious diseases.</p>
+
+<p>Since the observing public have seen educated communities
+decrease their death rate from typhoid fever,
+tuberculosis, and diphtheria from one third to three
+fourths by heeding the health call, lawmakers are becoming
+convinced that the needless waste of human life should
+be stopped. Michigan has already decreed that every
+school child shall be taught the cause and prevention of
+the communicable diseases, and several other states are
+contemplating like action. This book meets fully the
+demands of all such laws as are contemplated, and presents
+the important truths not by dogmatic assertion, but by
+citing specific facts appealing to the child mind in such
+a way as to make a lasting impression.</p>
+
+<p>After the eleventh year of age, the first cause of death
+among school children is tuberculosis. The chief aim of
+the author has been to show the child the sure way of
+preventing this disease and others of like nature, and
+to establish an undying faith in the motto of Pasteur,
+"It is within the power of man to rid himself of every
+parasitic disease."</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all of the illustrations used are from photographs
+and drawings specially prepared for this book. These,
+together with the large amount of material gleaned from
+original sources and from the author's experiments in the
+laboratory, will, it is hoped, make this little volume
+worthy of the same generous welcome accorded the two
+earlier books of this series.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table class="toc" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="c1"><small>CHAPTER</small></td><td class="c2">&nbsp;</td><td class="c3"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">I.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Caring for the Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">II.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Parts of the Body</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">III.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Feeding the Body</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">IV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Food and Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">V.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">How Plants sour or spoil Food</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">VI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Milk may be a Food or a Poison</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">VII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">How the Body uses Food</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">VIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Care of the Mouth</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">IX.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Alcoholic Drinks</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">X.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Alcohol and Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Tobacco and the Drugs which injure the Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Skin and Bathing</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Clothing and how to use It</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XIV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Breathing</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Fresh Air and Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XVI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Blood and how it flows through the Body</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XVII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Insects and Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XVIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">How the Body Moves</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_135">135</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XIX.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Muscles and Health</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XX.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">How the Body is Governed</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XXI.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">How Narcotics and Stimulants affect the Brain and Nerves</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XXII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">The Senses, or Doors of Knowledge</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XXIII.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Keeping away Sickness</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1">XXIV.</td><td class="c2"><span class="smcap">Helping before the Doctor Comes</span></td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="c1"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td class="c2">&nbsp;</td><td class="c3"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<h1>HEALTH LESSONS</h1>
+
+<hr />
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+<h3>CARING FOR THE HEALTH</h3>
+
+<p><b>Good Health better than Gold.</b>&mdash;Horses and houses,
+balls and dolls, and much else that people think they
+want to make them happy can be bought with
+money. The one thing which is worth more than
+all else cannot be bought with even a houseful of
+gold. This thing is good health. Over three million
+persons in our country are now sick, and many
+of them are suffering much pain. Some of them
+would give all the money they have to gain once
+more the good health which the poorest may usually
+enjoy by right living day by day.</p>
+
+<p><b>How long shall you live?</b>&mdash;In this country most of
+the persons born live to be over forty years of age, and
+some live more than one hundred years. A hundred
+years ago most persons died before the age of thirty-five
+years. In London three hundred years ago only about
+one half of those born reached the age of twenty-five
+years. Scarcely one half of the people in India to-day
+live beyond the age of twenty-five years. In fact,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+people in India are dying nearly twice as fast as in
+our own country. This is because they have not
+learned how to take care of the body in India so well
+as we have.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i009" id="i009"></a>
+<img src="images/i009.jpg" width="150" height="204" alt="Elderly Lady" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 1</span>
+&mdash;By right living this woman remained in good health for several years
+after she was a century old.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The study which
+tells how to keep well
+is <i>Hygiene</i>. Whether
+you keep well and live
+long, or suffer much
+from headaches, cold,
+and other sickness,
+depends largely on
+how you care for your
+body.</p>
+
+<p><b>Working together
+for Health.</b>&mdash;One cannot
+always keep well
+and strong by his own
+efforts. The grocer
+and milkman may sell to you bad food, the town
+may furnish impure water, churches and schools may
+injure your health by failing to supply fresh air in
+their buildings. More than a hundred thousand people
+were made very sick last year through the use of
+water poisoned by waste matter which other persons
+carelessly let reach the streams and wells. Many of
+the sick died of the fever caused by this water.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+Although it cannot be said that we are engaged in
+real war, yet we are surely killing one another by
+our thoughtless habits in scattering disease. We
+must therefore not only know how to care for our
+own bodies, but teach all to help one another to keep
+well.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Lesson from War.</b>&mdash;The mention of war makes
+those who know its terrors shudder. Disease has
+caused more than ten times as much suffering and
+death as war with its harvest of mangled bodies,
+shattered limbs, and blinded eyes. In our four
+months' war with Spain in 1898 only 268 soldiers
+were killed in battle, while nearly 4000 brave men
+died from disease. We lost more than ten men by
+disease to every one killed by bullets.</p>
+
+<p>In the late war between Japan and Russia the
+Japanese soldiers cared for their health so carefully
+that only one fourth as many died from disease as
+perished in battle. This shows that with care for
+the health the small men of Japan saved themselves
+from disease, and thus won a victory told around the
+world.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i011" id="i011"></a>
+<img src="images/i011.jpg" width="150" height="245" alt="Surgeon General" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 2</span>
+&mdash;The Surgeon General who, by keeping the soldiers well, helped Japan
+win in the war against Russia.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Battle with Disease.</b>&mdash;For long ages sickness
+has caused more sorrow, misery, and death
+than famine, war, and wild beasts. Many years ago
+a plague called the <i>black death</i> swept over most
+of the earth, and killed nearly one third of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+inhabitants. A little more than a hundred years
+ago yellow fever killed thousands of people in
+Philadelphia and New York in a few weeks. When
+Boston was a city
+with a population of
+11,000, more than
+one half of the persons
+had smallpox in
+one year. Within a
+few years one half
+of the sturdy red men
+of our forests were
+slain by smallpox
+when it first visited
+our shores. Before
+the year 1798 few
+boys or girls reached
+the age of twenty
+years without a pit-marked
+face due to
+the dreadful disease
+of smallpox. This
+disease was formerly more common than measles and
+chicken pox now are because we had not yet learned
+how to prevent it as we do to-day.</p>
+
+<p><b>Victory over Disease.</b>&mdash;Cholera, yellow fever,
+black death, and smallpox no longer cause people to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+flee into the wilderness to escape them when they
+occasionally break out in a town or city. We have
+learned how to prevent these ailments among people
+who will obey the
+laws of health.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i012" id="i012"></a>
+<img src="images/i012.jpg" width="150" height="218" alt="A Native American" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 3</span>
+&mdash;One of the thousands of sturdy red men which smallpox slew before
+we learned how to prevent the disease.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Until the year
+1900, people fled from
+a city when yellow
+fever was announced,
+but now any one can
+sleep with a fever
+patient and not catch
+the disease, because
+we have learned how
+to prevent it. Nurses
+and doctors no longer
+hesitate to sit for
+hours in the rooms of
+those sick with smallpox
+because they
+know how to treat the body to keep away this disease.
+By studying this book, boys and girls may learn not
+only how to keep free from these diseases, but how to
+manage their bodies to make them strong enough to
+escape other diseases.</p>
+
+<p><b>As the Twig is bent so the Tree is inclined.</b>&mdash;This
+old saying means that a strong, straight, healthy, full-grown<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+tree cannot come from a weak and bent young
+tree. Health in manhood and womanhood depends
+on how the health is cared for in childhood. The
+foundation for disease is often laid during school
+years. The making of strong bodies that will live
+joyous lives for long years must begin in boyhood
+and girlhood.</p>
+
+<p>In youth is the time to begin right living. Bad
+habits formed in early life often cause much sorrow
+in later years. It is said that over one half the
+drunkards began drinking liquor before they were
+twenty years of age and most of the smokers began
+to use tobacco before they were twenty years old.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. What is worth most in this world?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. How many people are sick in our country?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. How long do most people live?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Why do people not live long in India?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. What is hygiene?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How many more deaths are caused by disease than by</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">war?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Give some facts about smallpox.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Why do we have no fear of yellow fever and smallpox</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">now?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Why should you be careful of your health while young?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. When do most smokers and drinkers begin their bad</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">habits?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+<h3>PARTS OF THE BODY</h3>
+
+<p><b>Regions of the Body.</b>&mdash;In order to talk about any
+part of the body it must have a name. The main
+portion of the body is called the <i>trunk</i>. At the top
+of the trunk is the <i>head</i>. The arms and legs are
+known as <i>limbs</i> or <i>extremities</i>. The part of the arm
+between the elbow and wrist is the <i>forearm</i>. The
+<i>thigh</i> is the part of the leg between the knee and hip.</p>
+
+<p>The upper part of the trunk is called the <i>chest</i> and
+is encircled by the ribs. The lower part of the trunk
+is named the <i>abdomen</i>. A large cavity within the
+chest contains the lungs and heart. The cavity of
+the abdomen is filled with the liver, stomach, food
+tube, and other working parts.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Plan of the Body.</b>&mdash;All parts of the body are
+not the same. One part has one kind of work to do
+while another performs quite a different duty. The
+covering of the body is the <i>skin</i>. Beneath is the red
+meat called <i>muscle</i>. It looks just like the beef bought
+at the butcher shop which is the muscle of a cow or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+ox. Nearly one half of the weight of the body is
+made of muscle.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 175px;">
+<a name="i015" id="i015"></a>
+<img src="images/i015.jpg" width="175" height="322" alt="The Organs" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 4</span>
+&mdash;General plan of the organs of the body.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The muscle is fastened to the <i>bones</i> which support
+the body and give
+it stiffness. The
+muscle by pulling
+on the bones helps
+the body to do all
+kinds of work.
+The muscles and
+bones cannot work
+day after day
+without being fed.
+For this reason a
+food tube leads
+from the mouth
+down into the
+trunk to prepare
+milk, meat, bread,
+or other food, for
+the use of the
+body.</p>
+
+<p><b>Feeding the
+Body.</b>&mdash;The
+mouth receives
+the food and chews it so that it may be easily
+swallowed. It then goes into a sac called the <i>stomach</i>.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+Here the hard parts are broken up into tiny bits
+and float about in a watery fluid. This goes out of
+the stomach into a long crooked tube, the <i>intestine</i>.
+Here the particles are made still finer, and the whole
+mass is then ready to be carried to every part of the
+muscles, bones, and brain to build up what is being
+worn out in work and play.</p>
+
+<p><b>Carrying Food through the Body.</b>&mdash;In all parts of
+the body are little branching tubes. These unite into
+larger tubes leading to the heart. Through these
+tubes flows <i>blood</i>. Hundreds of tiny tubes in the
+walls of the intestine drink in the watery food, and
+it flows with the blood to the heart. The heart then
+pushes this blood with its food out through another
+set of tubes which divide into fine branches as they
+lead to every part of the body (<a href="#i018">Fig. 5</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Getting rid of Ashes and Worn-out Parts.</b>&mdash;The
+body works like a machine. Food is used somewhat
+as a locomotive uses coal to give it power
+to work. Some ashes are left from the used food,
+and other waste matter is formed by the dead
+and worn-out parts of the body. This waste is
+gathered up by the richly branching blood tubes
+and carried to the lungs. Here some of it passes
+out at every breath. Part of the waste goes out
+through the skin with the sweat and part passes
+out through the kidneys. In this way the dead<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]<br />[Pg 19]</a></span>
+matter is kept from collecting in the body and
+clogging its parts.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the Parts of the Body are made to work Together.</b>&mdash;The
+mass of red flesh covering the bones is
+made up of many pieces called muscles. Whenever
+we catch a ball or run or even speak, more than a
+dozen muscles must be made to act together just in
+the right way. When food goes into the stomach,
+something must tell the juice to flow out of the walls
+to act on the food. The boss or manager of all the
+work carried on by the thousands of parts of the body
+is known as the <i>brain</i> and <i>spinal cord</i> with their tiny
+threads, the <i>nerves</i>, spreading everywhere through
+bones and muscles. The brain and spinal cord give
+the orders and the nerves carry them (<a href="#i018">Fig. 5</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The Servants of the Body.</b>&mdash;The parts of the body
+are much like the servants in a large house or the
+clerks in a store. One servant or clerk does one kind
+of work while another does something entirely different.
+Each portion of the body does a different
+kind of work. Each one of these parts doing a particular
+work is called an <i>organ</i>. The stomach is an
+organ to prepare food and the heart is an organ for
+sending the blood through the body.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i018" id="i018"></a>
+<img src="images/i018.jpg" width="500" height="626" alt="Blood Vessels and Nervous System" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 5</span>
+&mdash;On the left are shown the branching tubes which carry blood to all
+parts of the body; on the right are the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
+which direct the work of the organs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The entire body is composed of several hundred
+organs. Each of them is formed of several kinds of
+materials named <i>tissue</i>. A skinlike tissue makes up<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+the lining of the stomach, while its outside is made of
+muscular tissue. The smallest parts of a tissue are little
+bodies named <i>cells</i>, and very fine threads called <i>fibers</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Growth of the Body.</b>&mdash;The body grows rapidly in
+childhood and more slowly after the sixteenth year,
+but it continues to get larger until about the twenty-fifth
+year of age. Some children always grow slowly,
+have weak bones, and frail bodies. This is generally
+so because they have poor food or do not chew it
+well, and get too little fresh air, sunshine, and sleep.</p>
+
+<p>The use of beer, wine, or tobacco may hinder the
+body from using food for growth, or they may poison
+the body so that it will never be large and strong.
+The body should grow about a hundred pounds in
+weight during the first thirteen years of life. Whether
+children grow little or much generally depends on the
+food they give their bodies.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Point out and name four parts of the body.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Name the two parts of the trunk.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What does the chest contain?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. What is muscle?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. How is the body fed?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. Give three parts taking waste out of the body.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Of what use are the brain and nerves?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Name two organs.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. How long does the body continue to grow?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Why are some children weak and of slow growth?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER III</h2>
+<h3>FEEDING THE BODY</h3>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i020" id="i020"></a>
+<img src="images/i020.jpg" width="150" height="133" alt="Black Snake" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 6</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of the outer dead skin pushed off from a black snake crawling through the brush.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Why the Body needs Food.</b>&mdash;Every living thing,
+whether a plant or an animal, needs food. While the
+whole body lives, a part of it is constantly dying.
+The entire outer layer
+of a snake's skin dies
+three or four times
+during a year and is
+cast off, sometimes in
+a single piece. We
+can scrape dead bits
+of skin from the surface
+of our body at
+any time. Tiny particles
+are dying in all
+regions of the body,
+and we should soon waste away if food were not
+taken to make up the loss for the worn-out parts.</p>
+
+<p>The body also needs food to help it do its work
+and keep warm. The body has the strange power of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+using food eaten to make the legs and arms move
+and the brain to think. In doing this the body is
+said to burn the food.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the Body burns itself and also Food.</b>&mdash;If a
+boy is weighed just before playing a game of ball and
+again afterward, he will find that part of his body
+has been used up and given off in the breath and
+sweat. He has burned part of his body, and the
+breath and sweat are like the smoke given off when
+a match is burned.</p>
+
+<p>One fifth of the air is made of a gas called <i>oxygen</i>.
+When anything becomes very hot, this oxygen makes
+it burst into a flame and burn. We breathe in oxygen
+with the air and the living action of the body
+causes such a slow union of the oxygen and the tissues
+that there is no blaze although there is a little heat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kinds of Food.</b>&mdash;There are four general classes of
+foods. These are the <i>building foods</i>, the <i>sugars</i> and
+<i>starches</i>, the <i>fats</i>, and the <i>mineral foods</i>. The building
+foods are those which help largely in forming new
+muscle and blood or other parts of the body. <i>Proteids</i>
+is another name for building foods.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sugars</i> and <i>starches</i> are placed in one group because
+starch changes to sugar within the body. If
+you chew a starchy food like bread for a few minutes,
+it will begin to taste sweet because the starch
+is becoming sugar.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>Fats are got not only from fat meat but also
+from eggs, butter, milk, and many other foods.
+There is some mineral matter, such as potash and
+soda, in many of the vegetables and meats eaten, and
+we use much table salt to season other foods.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i022" id="i022"></a>
+<img src="images/i022.jpg" width="500" height="292" alt="Good Foods" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 7</span>
+&mdash;Good foods for building muscles, blood, and bone.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Body-building Foods.</b>&mdash;A person with all the sugar,
+molasses, starch, butter, and lard he could eat would
+starve to death in a few weeks because none of these
+foods would help to build up the dying parts of the
+body. A large amount of body builder is found in
+lean meat, eggs, milk, peas, beans, corn meal, and
+bread. Bread and milk is a good food to make
+the body grow. If the body takes in more building
+food than it needs for repairs, it may store it up in the
+form of fat or burn it to help the body do its work.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Fuel Foods.</b>&mdash;The fuel foods are the sugars,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+starches, and fats. These are the foods which the
+body can easily burn to keep it warm and give it
+power to act. Candy, molasses, or sugar in any form,
+taken in small quantities, is a good food. Starch,
+which the body quickly changes to sugar, is a much
+cheaper food. Meats contain very little starch, but
+nearly all vegetables contain much starch. Three
+fourths of corn meal, rice, wheat flour, and soda
+crackers consists of starch. More than one half of
+white bread, dried beans, and peas is made of pure
+starch, and there is much starch in potatoes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fat</i> is more abundant in animal than in vegetable
+food. Castor oil and cotton-seed oil are fats from
+vegetables. The fat of the cow is called <i>suet</i> or
+<i>tallow</i>, while the fat of the hog is known as <i>lard</i>.
+<i>Butter</i> is the fat collected from milk. Cream and
+eggs contain much fat. When persons eat too much
+of the sugars, starches, or fats, the body may store
+them up as fat. For this reason thin persons wishing
+to gain in flesh eat eggs, nuts, and rich milk.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Mineral Foods.</b>&mdash;The body must have not only
+lime to help form the bones, but iron, salt, soda, and
+potash for other parts of the body. All these minerals
+except salt are found in many of the common foods.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i024" id="i024"></a>
+<img src="images/i024.jpg" width="500" height="329" alt="Good Foods" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 8</span>
+&mdash;Good foods for giving the body power and heat.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Water is one of the most important of the mineral
+foods because it helps the body use all the other
+foods. Most people drink too little water to enjoy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+the best health. The body needs more than two
+quarts of water every day. There is much water in
+our foods. More than one half of eggs, meat, and
+potatoes is made of water, and more than three
+fourths of tomatoes, green corn, onions, cabbage, and
+string beans is composed of water. We should drink
+one quart or more of water daily. It should not be used
+ice cold, and very little should be taken at meal time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i025" id="i025"></a>
+<img src="images/i025.jpg" width="500" height="235" alt="Home drainage" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 9</span>
+&mdash;Diagram showing how the drainage from a house with a sick person
+caused one hundred and twenty cases of typhoid fever at Mount Savage, Maryland.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Water and Health.</b>&mdash;One of the common causes
+of sickness is bad water. Water from shallow wells
+within a hundred feet of barnyards, pigpens, or
+other outhouses is usually unsafe to drink. At Newport,
+Rhode Island, more than eighty persons were
+made sick with the fever by drinking the water
+from a well only ten feet deep. The impure water<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+from one spring at Trenton, New Jersey, gave the fever
+to nearly a hundred persons in one season. At Mount
+Savage, Maryland, a hundred and
+twenty persons were made ill
+by using the water
+from a spring near a
+house drain.</p>
+
+<p>Water from rivers and streams running near where
+many people live is likely to be made impure and is
+sure to bring sickness and death to some of those who
+use it. Water from a small stream at Plymouth,
+Pennsylvania, running past a house occupied by a
+typhoid patient, gave the fever to over a thousand
+persons in one month. The water from a small stream
+at Ithaca, New York, gave the fever to over thirteen
+hundred people in one season, and an almost equal
+number caught the fever in a few weeks at Butler,
+Pennsylvania, by drinking water from a small creek
+along which some sick persons lived.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preventing Sickness from Bad Water.</b>&mdash;It is better
+to go thirsty than to drink water which is likely to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]<br />[Pg 28]</a></span>
+cause sickness. Any water can be made safe by boiling
+it one minute. Boiled water is the most healthful
+kind of water to use. The people of China and
+Japan seldom use water that has not been boiled.</p>
+
+<p>Many cities using water from rivers run it through a
+layer of sand and gravel to remove the tiny things
+that cause so much sickness and death. This makes
+the water very much purer, but it is not so certain to
+make the water safe as is boiling it. Bad water
+makes nearly a quarter of a million of our people sick
+every year and kills twenty thousand of them.</p>
+
+<p><b>How much Food does the Body Need?</b>&mdash;Most people
+eat too much. Overeating overworks the stomach,
+poisons the body, makes one feel lazy, and causes
+headache. If you chew your food fine and stop eating
+as soon as hunger is satisfied without tempting the
+appetite with sweets, you are not likely to overeat.</p>
+
+<p>About one seventh of a pound of building food is
+needed daily to keep the body in repair, and a quarter
+of a pound of fat and a pound of starches and sugars
+are required to help the body do a hard day's work.
+A half pound of bread, beans, and meat each, a
+pound of potatoes, a pint of milk, and a quarter of a
+pound of butter and sugar each, will give a working
+man all the food he needs for a day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i027" id="i027"></a>
+<img src="images/i027.jpg" width="500" height="697" alt="Plymouth, Pennsylvania" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 10</span>
+&mdash;Bird's-eye view of Plymouth, Pennsylvania, showing where the
+waste from one sick room was thrown on the bank of a stream which
+several miles below supplied the town with water and caused over one
+thousand cases of fever and more than a hundred deaths within seven weeks.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Beer and Wine as Foods.</b>&mdash;It was once thought
+that beer and wine were good foods, but hundreds of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 28]<br />[Pg 29]</a></span>
+late experiments show that these drinks are very poor
+and expensive foods. A half glass of milk is of more
+use to the body as a food than a full quart of beer.
+The use of much wine or beer may seem to satisfy
+the appetite because they deaden the real feeling of
+hunger. Neither of these drinks can be used by the
+young without danger of doing much harm.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i028" id="i028"></a>
+<img src="images/i028.jpg" width="500" height="328" alt="Milk" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 11</span>
+&mdash;The little glass of milk contains nearly twice as much food
+for building flesh and blood as the large glass of beer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Why does the body need food?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Why do you weigh less after working?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What is oxygen?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. From what do we get body-building foods?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. In what is starch found?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How much water does the body need?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Where have people been made sick by using bad water?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. How can we prevent sickness from bad water?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What harm does overeating do?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. What can you say of beer as a food?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+<h3>FOOD AND HEALTH</h3>
+
+<p><b>Meats.</b>&mdash;Beef is the best of all meat for food.
+Nearly one fifth of it can be used to repair the worn-out
+parts of the body. Mutton, the meat of sheep,
+is almost as good for food as beef. Veal and pork
+also contain much body-building matter, but the
+stomach must work hard to prepare them for use.</p>
+
+<p>Fish is an excellent food, but it has only little more
+than one half as much flesh-building matter as good
+beef. Poultry is a healthful food, especially for the
+weak and sick, but it is more expensive than the
+other meats. Oysters are largely made of water and
+do not contain much to strengthen the body.</p>
+
+<p>In all meat there is some waste matter. This may
+harm the body if we eat too much meat. It is no
+longer thought healthful for most persons to eat meat
+more than once a day. Too much meat used daily
+for several years is likely to cause disease.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i030" id="i030"></a>
+<img src="images/i030.jpg" width="150" height="262" alt="Bread" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 12</span>
+&mdash;Each of these articles costs the same, but the bread will furnish four
+times as much food for the body as the cabbage, more than twice as much as
+the fish, and nearly twice as much as the milk.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Cooking of Meat.</b>&mdash;The best meat if poorly
+cooked is unfit for eating. Broiled and roasted meats
+are more healthful than boiled or fried meat. Meat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+is broiled by holding it in a wire frame over a
+flame or hot coals. It is roasted by placing it
+in a covered pan in a
+hot oven for two or
+three hours. It is
+boiled by keeping it
+in hot water several
+hours.</p>
+
+<p>Meat is fried by
+cooking it in lard or
+other fat in a pan.
+Only those who have
+strong bodies should
+eat fried meat.</p>
+
+<p>The cheap cuts of
+meat from the neck,
+breast, and legs have
+about as much food
+matter in them as
+the more costly parts.
+Such meat may be
+made more tender
+by boiling than by
+roasting.</p>
+
+<p><b>Soup.</b>&mdash;Soup, broth, and beef tea furnish but little
+food for the body. They are very useful in giving us
+a good appetite for the real food to be eaten later.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+They make the stomach go to work more quickly
+than other food. Soup or broth is made from meat
+by placing it on the stove in cold water, gradually
+heating it, and then keeping it hot several hours.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i031" id="i031"></a>
+<img src="images/i031.jpg" width="500" height="517" alt="Groups of foods" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 13</span>
+&mdash;Either group of foods will give the body the same strength
+and nourishment for work and growth.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Vegetables.</b>&mdash;Some persons never eat meat of any
+kind because they enjoy better health when using
+only vegetables, milk, and eggs. Peas and beans contain
+much matter for making new flesh and blood
+and also much starch to give heat and power to the
+body. Potatoes form a valuable food. Roasted potatoes
+are more healthful than those boiled or fried.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i032" id="i032"></a>
+<img src="images/i032.jpg" width="500" height="428" alt="Real food" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 14</span>
+&mdash;The amount of real food in these articles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Radishes, onions, and cucumbers are made largely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+of water. Only a small amount of these should be
+eaten at one meal as the stomach must work hard to
+make use of them. Young beets, lettuce, and ripe
+tomatoes may be eaten by young and old. They
+contain useful minerals and help keep the body in
+a healthful condition.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Cereals or Grain Foods.</b>&mdash;These foods are eaten
+in the form of bread, oatmeal, corn meal, rice, and
+breakfast foods. All of these furnish much matter
+to strengthen the body and make it grow. Bread
+and butter with rice are excellent foods for children.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 100px;">
+<a name="i034" id="i034"></a>
+<img src="images/i034.jpg" width="100" height="320" alt="Beer" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 15</span>
+&mdash;A bottle of beer. The dotted part at the top shows
+how much body-building food it contains.</p>
+</div>
+<p><b>Fruits.</b>&mdash;Very few people can remain well long
+without eating fruit of some kind. Ripe apples,
+pears, plums, peaches, berries, and cherries furnish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+useful salts to the body and also help the stomach
+and food tube do their work in a more healthful way.
+Fruits also increase the appetite. Green fruit and
+fruit which is overripe should never be eaten.</p>
+
+<p><b>Eggs.</b>&mdash;Eggs form a good food for nearly everybody,
+but they are specially needed by the young and
+other persons with weak bodies. They can repair the
+worn-out parts of the body and also help it do its
+work.</p>
+
+<p>Eggs are most healthful when eaten raw or soft
+cooked. The best way to cook them through evenly
+is to put them in a pan off the stove and add about
+a quart of boiling water for every three eggs. Cover
+and let them cook fifteen minutes.</p>
+
+<p>Eggs should be kept in a cold room or cellar until
+used. They become stale in less than a week when
+left in a warm living room and may get a bad taste
+when only three or four days old.</p>
+
+<p><b>Salt, Pepper, and Vinegar.</b>&mdash;Eating much salt is
+harmful. A small quantity of salt and pepper increases
+the appetite and makes the stomach do its
+work better. Children should use very little pepper
+and almost no vinegar and mustard.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco.</b>&mdash;Some people think tobacco is a food because
+it is made from the leaves of a plant. Other
+people think tobacco is a food because they do not
+feel hungry after smoking or chewing it. The truth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+is that tobacco is of no use to the body
+as a food and may do it much harm
+because of the poison it contains.
+Tobacco satisfies hunger somewhat by
+deadening the parts of the body that
+are calling for food.</p>
+
+<p><b>Beer.</b>&mdash;The people who make beer
+and sell it say that it is a food. Men
+who have no interest in selling beer,
+and have experimented with it to find
+out whether it strengthens the body, say
+that beer should never be used as a food.
+It often tends to weaken the body.
+Children should never use beer at any
+time, and older people can sometimes avoid disease
+by letting it alone.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Which are the best meats for food?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Why should we not eat meat at every meal?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. How should meat be cooked to make it most tender?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. How is soup or broth made?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Name the best vegetables for food.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. Name some good grain foods.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Of what use are fruits?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. What can you say of the use of eggs?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. How should eggs be cared for?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. What can you say of the use of salt and pepper?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Why does tobacco satisfy hunger?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Of what value is beer for food?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+<h3>HOW PLANTS SOUR OR SPOIL FOOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>Germs, Microbes, or Bacteria.</b>&mdash;The dust and dirt of
+all sorts contain thousands of tiny plants too small
+to be seen by the eye without help. An instrument
+called a <i>microscope</i> makes them appear so large that
+their form and growth are easily studied. These
+little plants are called <i>germs</i> or <i>microbes</i>. They are
+also named <i>bacteria</i>. They are so small that a million
+laid side by side would not cover the head of a pin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i035" id="i035"></a>
+<img src="images/i035.jpg" width="500" height="169" alt="Bacteria" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 16</span>
+&mdash;Bacteria or microbes found in water, dust, and waste. They help
+change straw and other dead matter into food for plants. Much enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are hundreds of different kinds of germs.
+Some are round like little balls and others are the
+shape of tiny rods. Many of them which look just<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+alike act very different in growing. There are more
+than twenty different kinds that grow in our bodies
+and cause diphtheria, tuberculosis, and other diseases.
+We have measles and scarlet fever because we have
+gotten these disease germs from some one else in
+whom they were growing.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i036" id="i036"></a>
+<img src="images/i036.jpg" width="150" height="94" alt="Mold" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 17</span>
+&mdash;Mold which grew on moist bread in two days. 5, seed bodies breaking out of the
+sack; 1, 2, and 4, one of the seed bodies after one, two, and four hours' growth. Much
+enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Most germs feed on dead matter instead of our
+living bodies and make it melt away or change into
+another form. An
+apple or a piece of
+meat thrown out
+on the ground will
+soon change and
+become like the
+earth on which it
+lies. The change,
+called decay, is
+caused by millions
+of germs. The
+farmer's best friends are certain germs which help
+make the ground rich, so that the crops will grow.</p>
+
+<p><b>Mold.</b>&mdash;The dust raised in sweeping contains tiny
+living seedlike bodies. If these fall on bread, cheese,
+or fruit, and this food is afterward kept moist in a
+warm room for a day or two, they will grow into
+grayish fluffy spots. These spots are mold. The
+greenish white growth on the top of some canned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+fruit and on berries left in the warm kitchen over
+night is also mold.</p>
+
+<p>Mold is a plant which grows from tiny round
+bodies acting like seeds (<a href="#i036">Fig. 17</a>). These seed bodies
+of mold are common in all dust and often fly through
+the air. On this account food should be kept covered
+when possible and especially when one is sweeping.
+Some mold gives bread, cheese, and other food a bad
+taste, but it will not make one sick.</p>
+
+<p><b>How Germs Grow.</b>&mdash;Germs will not grow where it
+is very cold, but freezing the germs does not kill them.
+Boiling one minute kills most germs. Drying will
+stop the germs from growing, but will not kill all of
+them. Sunlight kills many of them.</p>
+
+<p>Moisture and warmth make germs grow rapidly.
+A germ in growing lengthens out a little and then
+divides in the middle. It does this so quickly that
+one germ may become two in fifteen minutes. Each
+of these will then divide. In this way one germ can
+make many million germs in a single day (<a href="#i038">Fig. 18</a>).</p>
+
+<p><b>The Spoiling of Meat.</b>&mdash;Fresh meat will not remain
+good even one day if left in a warm place. A large
+greenish blue fly seen buzzing about in warm weather
+will sometimes lay its eggs on meat. These will hatch
+the next day into little worms, called maggots. They
+grow rapidly and a few days later change into flies.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i038" id="i038"></a>
+<img src="images/i038.jpg" width="150" height="141" alt="Growing germ" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 18</span>
+&mdash;Drawing of the germ at the top every ten minutes, showing how
+it grew into two germs in a half hour. Much enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Germs will also spoil meat not kept cold. They<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+feed on the meat and give off a poison, making it
+unfit to eat. The bad odor tells when the germs are
+at work. Every home should have
+a cold cellar or an ice box to keep
+food from spoiling.</p>
+
+<p><b>Saving Food from Souring.</b>&mdash;The
+souring of milk and of cooked food
+of any kind is due to the germs
+always present in the air and clinging
+by the thousands to unwashed
+dishes and hands. If meat or fruit
+is cooked and kept tightly covered,
+it will remain good for years. Many persons save
+fruit and vegetables for use in winter by putting
+them in jars, which are heated to kill the germs, and
+sealed tight to keep out other germs.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i039" id="i039"></a>
+<img src="images/i039.jpg" width="150" height="140" alt="Yeast plants" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 19</span>
+&mdash;Yeast plants used in making bread and beer. Those on
+the right are growing new plants. Much enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Yeast or the Alcohol Plant.</b>&mdash;Sweet cider and other
+fruit juices are sometimes spoiled by a plant named
+yeast. This plant has the form of a football and is
+so small that a million of its kind together would not
+make a mass as large as the head of a pin. It floats
+about in the air and is present on the skins of fruits.</p>
+
+<p>Yeast is also called the alcohol plant because whenever
+it grows in a sweet substance like fruit juice it
+changes part of it into a biting substance called alcohol.
+At the same time it gives off a gas. It is this
+gas which forms the bubbling or frothing in beer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>The millions of yeast plants in the yeast cake
+bought at the store, when put into the dough for
+bread, grow and form gas.
+This pushes the bits of
+dough apart and makes it
+light. The little alcohol
+formed is all driven off in
+the baking.</p>
+
+<p>The alcohol which yeast
+forms by growing in sweet
+cider is in a few weeks
+changed to vinegar by
+other germs called the
+vinegar plants. Sour cider may make those who
+use it sick and drunk because it contains alcohol.
+Yeast makes wine out of grape juice.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Where are germs found?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. What is the form of microbes?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Name some diseases caused by germs.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. What is mold?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Why should food be kept covered when not in use?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What causes meat to spoil?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. How may fruit be kept from spoiling?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Where is yeast found?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What effect has yeast on fruit juice?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Why should you not drink sour cider?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+<h3>MILK MAY BE A FOOD OR A POISON</h3>
+
+<p><b>Of what Milk is Made.</b>&mdash;Milk is the most perfect
+food known. It contains everything needed to build
+and strengthen the body. In one gallon of milk
+there is about one teacupful of pure fat, nearly the
+same amount of sugar, one teacupful of body-building
+food needed to make muscle and blood. There is also
+some lime and other mineral matter to make the
+bones of the young grow strong. The remaining
+seven pints are water.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kinds of Milk.</b>&mdash;When milk is left standing in a jar
+for several hours, much of the fat, which is present in
+the form of tiny balls, rises to the upper part. This
+upper layer of milk full of fat is called <i>cream</i>. If
+this is removed, the rest is called <i>skim milk</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Milk after standing in a warm place one or two
+days becomes sour. It is then sometimes put into a
+tight box or barrel and beat in such a way as to break
+up the little balls of fat. These are then pressed together
+into a mass called <i>butter</i>. It requires a whole<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+gallon of milk to make one teacupful of butter. The
+milk remaining after the butter is taken out is called
+<i>buttermilk</i>. Cheese is made from milk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i041" id="i041"></a>
+<img src="images/i041.jpg" width="500" height="161" alt="Fat in Milk" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 20</span>
+&mdash;Two kinds of milk, showing the amount of fat in each.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Milk as a Food.</b>&mdash;Milk is a healthful drink for
+nearly every one and especially useful for those with
+weak bodies. During sickness it is sometimes the
+only food the patient can take. It is well for children
+to use two or three glasses of milk daily with their
+meals. It should be sipped slowly so it will mix with
+the fluid in the mouth and not form lumps called
+curds in the stomach.</p>
+
+<p>A quart of milk contains more food for the body
+than a half pound of good beefsteak. A pint of milk
+will supply the body with about as much food as a
+pint of oysters. A bowl of milk and a half loaf of
+bread is a healthful supper for a boy or girl. Skim
+milk and buttermilk are healthful drinks which
+furnish much food for building bone, blood, and
+muscle.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i042" id="i042"></a>
+<img src="images/i042.jpg" width="150" height="148" alt="Germs" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 21</span>
+&mdash;Germs which grow in milk and make it sour.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span><b>When Milk is a Poison.</b>&mdash;In New York, Cincinnati,
+and Chicago it has been noticed for many years that
+large numbers of babies become sick in warm weather
+and many of them die.
+The doctors learned
+that most of the babies
+taken sick were being
+fed on cows' milk
+because their own
+mothers did not have
+enough for them. It
+was then found that
+the sick babies had
+been using milk from
+dairies where the
+stables were dirty, the cows soiled, and the hands of
+the milkers unclean. On this account much dirt got
+into the milk.</p>
+
+<p>Babies fed on clean milk from clean cows kept in
+clean stables remained strong and well. By much
+study the doctors learned that <i>dirty milk is poisonous
+milk</i>. The poison is made by the germs or bacteria
+living by the millions in unclean stables and in milk
+buckets not well washed in boiling water. Dirty milk
+becomes most poisonous in hot weather because warmth
+makes the germs grow very fast and become so numerous
+that millions are present in a teaspoonful of milk.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span><b>Keeping Milk Clean.</b>&mdash;During one week of hot
+weather in Cincinnati, over a hundred babies were
+poisoned with dirty milk. In the same week twice
+this number were made sick by unclean milk in Philadelphia.
+During the hot part of the year in our
+country bad milk kills more than a half dozen babies
+every hour of the day and night.</p>
+
+<p>The only way <i>to have milk clean is to have clean
+stables with clean cows, milked by clean hands, and the
+milk handled in clean pails, cans, and bottles which have
+been scalded after being washed</i>. The milk must then
+be kept cold until used, so that the germs will not
+grow in it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Saving the Baby from Bad Milk.</b>&mdash;If possible, milk
+should be bought for the baby in bottles sealed with
+a pasteboard lid. If milk turns sour the same day
+it is delivered, it is not fit for the baby to take.
+Heating it makes most milk safer for use. The
+heating of milk to kill most of the germs is <i>pasteurizing</i>
+it. It should be kept very hot for about
+fifteen minutes, but should not be allowed to boil.
+It should be cooled by placing the vessel on ice or in
+cold water.</p>
+
+<p>The baby's bottle and nipple should be washed in
+cold water and then well scalded immediately after
+being used. The bottle, the nipple, and the milk
+should be kept away from flies and dust. One fly has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+been known to carry on its body more germs than
+there are leaves on a large tree.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i044" id="i044"></a>
+<img src="images/i044.jpg" width="500" height="199" alt="Prison" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 22</span>
+&mdash;Plan of the prison at Easton, Pa. The crosses show into which
+cells the flies brought typhoid germs from the sewer and made the prisoners
+sick with fever.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Flies and Fever in a Prison.</b>&mdash;In August, 1908,
+thirteen prisoners in the jail at Easton, Pennsylvania,
+were taken ill with typhoid fever. They had not been
+near any sick persons and their food and water were
+found to be pure. All those sick were in cells in one
+end of the prison. About twenty feet from this end
+a sewer had been uncovered two weeks before and
+left open. This sewer carried the waste from the
+hospital where several patients were sick with the
+fever. Flies fed on the waste in the sewer and then
+with the germs sticking to their feet flew into the
+cells of the prisoners and walked over their cups,
+spoons, and food. A little girl who played near
+this open sewer and shared her lunch with the flies
+had a severe attack of fever two weeks later because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+the germs scraped from the flies' feet on her food got
+into her body and grew.</p>
+
+<p><b>Milk and Disease.</b>&mdash;We must be very careful to
+get not only clean milk but milk from healthy cows
+milked by persons who have no typhoid fever, scarlet
+fever, or diphtheria in their homes. If only one or
+two disease germs get into the milk from the hands
+of those who have nursed the sick, these will grow
+into immense numbers in a single day. Many of
+those who use the milk will then become ill. Hundreds
+are made sick in this way every year.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Why is milk a good food?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. What does a gallon of milk contain?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What is cream?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. How is butter made?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. For whom is milk specially good?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How does milk become poisonous?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Why is dirty milk more poisonous in hot weather?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Tell what harm unclean milk does.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. How may milk be kept clean?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Explain how milk is heated to make it safe for use.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Show how flies may cause fever.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Tell how milk may carry diphtheria into our homes.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+<h3>HOW THE BODY USES FOOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>Organs for making ready the Food.</b>&mdash;Before the
+food can get into the blood and be carried over the
+body to feed the muscles and the brain, it must be
+made into a fluid. This changing of the solid food
+into a liquid by the stomach and other organs is called
+<i>digestion</i>. The organs which do this work are known
+as <i>digestive organs</i>. They consist of a <i>food tube</i> and
+several bodies called <i>glands</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Food Tube.</b>&mdash;The food canal is about thirty
+feet long. Its first part, the <i>mouth</i>, opens back of the
+tongue into the throat, named the <i>pharynx</i>. This
+leads into a tube, the gullet, passing down through
+the back part of the chest into the <i>stomach</i> below the
+diaphragm. The stomach is a bent sac opening into
+a tube over twenty-five feet long called the <i>bowels</i> or
+<i>intestines</i>. This tube is folded into a bunch which
+fills a large part of the cavity of the abdomen.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i047" id="i047"></a>
+<img src="images/i047.jpg" width="150" height="186" alt="A Gland" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 23</span>
+&mdash;The plan of a gland. <i>a</i> carries blood to the gland and <i>v</i> takes it away
+after the gland has taken out what it needs. On the right side the top of
+the gland has been cut off.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Glands or Juice Makers.</b>&mdash;A gland is a little
+tube closed at one end, or a bunch of such tubes, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+can take something out of the blood and make
+it into a juice. A gland under each ear and four
+others near the tongue
+make the juice called
+<i>saliva</i> which flows into
+the mouth through
+tubes.</p>
+
+<p>A long, flat, pink
+gland back of the
+stomach is called the
+<i>sweetbread</i> or <i>pancreas</i>.
+This and a large brown
+gland, the <i>liver</i>, empty
+their juices into the
+intestines. The whole
+inner surface of the
+stomach and intestines
+is lined with tiny tubes,
+the glands. The juice of these with that of the other
+glands softens the food and makes it into a liquid.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Work of the Mouth.</b>&mdash;The mouth has three
+things to do: It should break the lumps of food
+into fine bits so it can be well wet with the slippery
+fluid called <i>saliva</i> and also easily swallowed. It
+must roll the food about so that it gets soaked with
+saliva. It must hold the food long enough to get
+much taste from it because this starts the juices to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+flowing into the stomach. Food gives out its taste
+only after it is changed to a liquid. It should not be
+washed down with water, as this weakens the juices
+in the stomach.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i048" id="i048"></a>
+<img src="images/i048.jpg" width="500" height="692" alt="Glands" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 24</span>
+&mdash;The three glands which make the saliva for acting on the food in the mouth.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>No food should be swallowed until it is broken
+into bits nearly as small as the head of a pin. Some
+foods, such as cheese, bananas, and nuts, should be
+made even finer than this. There is nothing in the
+stomach to crush to pieces large lumps of food. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+juices of the stomach can do their full work only
+when the food is well chewed in the mouth.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i049" id="i049"></a>
+<img src="images/i049.jpg" width="150" height="148" alt="A chewed chestnut" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 25</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of a chestnut chewed a half minute by a boy who
+had poor teeth because he had not taken care of them. The lumps
+are so large that the juices of the stomach could not dissolve them.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Chewing of Food keeps away Sickness.</b>&mdash;Bread,
+meat, and potatoes should be cut into pieces no larger
+than half the size of your
+thumb and each piece
+put separately into your
+mouth with a fork. It
+should then be chewed
+from twenty to thirty
+times before another piece
+is put into the mouth.
+Food treated in this way
+will not cause headache
+or a sickness in the
+stomach called <i>indigestion</i>
+or <i>dyspepsia</i>. It is
+said that there are so many persons with this kind of
+sickness that more than $5,000,000 are spent every
+year for medicine to help them.</p>
+
+<p>Too little chewing of the food while you are young
+may not cause many aches or pains, but if you form
+the habit of rapid eating it is hard to learn to eat
+slowly. No one who chews his food poorly can avoid
+sickness long or grow well and strong.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i050" id="i050"></a>
+<img src="images/i050.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="A chewed chestnut" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 26</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of a chestnut chewed a half minute by a boy with good teeth.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Work of the Stomach.</b>&mdash;When the food is swallowed,
+it passes through the gullet into the stomach.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+This is a sac holding more than a quart (<a href="#i052">Fig. 27</a>).
+It is made of an outer wall of muscle and an inner
+skinlike coat full of tiny tubes called <i>gastric glands</i>.
+Millions of these give
+out drop by drop a watery
+fluid named <i>gastric juice</i>.
+This juice begins to flow
+as soon as we smell or
+taste food and continues
+to drop out as long as
+there is any food in the
+stomach.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the gastric
+juice is to help change
+part of the food into a more watery fluid. To do this
+it must be well mixed with the food. This mixing is
+done by the muscles in the outer wall of the stomach
+(<a href="#i057">Fig. 29</a>). They squeeze together and then loosen up
+in such a way as to move the food about and turn it
+over until every particle is wet again and again with
+the gastric juice.</p>
+
+<p><b>How long Food stays in the Stomach.</b>&mdash;A ring of
+muscle around the end of the stomach keeps the food
+from escaping until it has become a thin grayish
+liquid. The stomach can finish its work on some
+kinds of food in one or two hours. With other
+foods it must work four or five hours.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]<br />[Pg 53]</a></span>The stomach can finish its work on soft boiled
+eggs, milk, roasted potatoes, and broiled lamb within
+two hours. With pork, veal, cabbage, and fried potatoes
+it must work four or five hours. When a person
+is sick the stomach is weak, and he should have only
+the food which causes the stomach the least work.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Work of the Intestines.</b>&mdash;The last part of the
+work in getting the food ready for the blood is done in
+the long folded tube known as the intestine (<a href="#i052">Fig. 27</a>).
+Here juices coming from the pancreas and liver mix
+with the food and change into a liquid those parts
+not acted on in the stomach.</p>
+
+<p>The intestine does quite as much work as the stomach.
+Sometimes when the stomach is sick, too much
+work is put off on the intestines and then they become
+sick and give much pain.</p>
+
+<p>The pint of watery fluid from the pancreas and the
+quart of greenish yellow fluid called <i>bile</i> given out by
+the liver are carried through two tubes into the intestine
+(<a href="#i052">Fig. 27</a>). To mix these juices with the food
+the intestine is being swung gently back and forth
+and the walls squeezed together by muscles forming
+its outer coat. As soon as the intestine has finished
+its work the food begins to enter the blood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i052" id="i052"></a>
+<img src="images/i052.jpg" width="500" height="1136" alt="Getting food ready" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 27</span>
+&mdash;The organs which get the food ready to enter the blood.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i053" id="i053"></a>
+<img src="images/i053.jpg" width="150" height="298" alt="View of a canine" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 28</span>
+&mdash;Showing how the food in the dog is carried from the intestine to the liver
+and heart. The white tubes carry the fats up to the vein in the neck, and the
+dark tubes which are veins carry the other part of the food to the liver.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>How Food gets into the Blood.</b>&mdash;An hour or two
+after food has entered the intestine it is almost as
+thin a fluid as milk. Millions of tiny fingerlike<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+growths stick out from the inner side of the intestines
+and drink in the watery food. These little fingers
+for drinking up the
+food are scarcely one
+fourth as large as the
+point of a pencil.
+They are called <i>villi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The villi are filled
+with blood tubes having
+thin walls. The
+food passes through
+these walls into the
+blood stream. Much
+of it then goes to the
+liver, but the fatty
+parts flow up a tube
+along the backbone
+and empty into a
+blood tube in the neck.
+From the neck and
+the liver the food goes
+with the blood to the
+heart which sends it
+to all parts of the
+body.</p>
+
+<p><b>What the Liver does.</b>&mdash;The liver is a dark red body
+nearly as large as the upper half of your head. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+lies just below the diaphragm. It works night and
+day helping to keep the inner parts of the body clean
+and at the same time deal out food.</p>
+
+<p>The liver takes some waste out of the blood and
+sends it out into the intestine with the bile. When
+there is no food in the intestine, the bile is stored up
+in the <i>gall bladder</i> under the liver. The liver
+changes certain waste matter in the blood into such
+form that other organs can cast it out of the body.
+It also stores up certain parts of the food coming
+from the intestines and gives it out to the body little
+by little as it is needed.</p>
+
+<p><b>When and How much to Eat.</b>&mdash;When the food
+organs do not do their work rightly, the whole body
+becomes sick. Eating too much overworks the
+stomach. It becomes so full that the food cannot
+be moved about and well mixed with the juices.
+Germs then work on the food and make it sour. In
+fact the germs may change part of the food into a
+poison. This poison will cause headache and a bad
+feeling.</p>
+
+<p>Do not form a habit of taking powders to cure headache.
+They are likely to hurt the heart. Take less
+food, eat it more slowly, and do not wash it down
+with drink. Stop eating before your stomach feels full.</p>
+
+<p>Each meal gives the stomach about four hours of
+work to do. It then needs one hour of rest. This<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+shows that the time from one meal to the next should
+be about five hours. Very young children and sick persons
+need food oftener. Boys and girls should not
+eat candies, cake, or other food between meals. It
+spoils the appetite and is likely to get the stomach
+out of working order.</p>
+
+<p><b>Danger Signals.</b>&mdash;A white or yellowish coat on the
+tongue, a bad breath, pain in the bowels, or a headache
+is a danger signal. It tells that the food organs
+are not doing their work as they should and unless
+help is given sickness is likely to occur. Medicine
+may help, but using foods easy to digest, eating less,
+chewing more, and getting plenty of exercise in the
+fresh air are likely to be the greatest aids to health.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Chewing of Tobacco and Digestion.</b>&mdash;Some men
+chew tobacco as much as ten hours every day. The
+taste of the tobacco makes the saliva flow from the
+glands into the mouth. This dissolves the poison out
+of the tobacco and it is then spit out. If the tobacco-soaked
+saliva were all swallowed, the man would be
+poisoned.</p>
+
+<p>The chewing of tobacco causes the loss of much
+saliva which is needed to help digest the food. Anyone
+who tires his jaw by chewing tobacco is not likely
+to chew his food well. Some of the poison in the
+tobacco is taken into the body through the blood vessels
+in the lining of the mouth. This is shown by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+the fact that a boy not used to tobacco becomes very
+sick after he has chewed a mouthful for only ten
+minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Smoking and Digestion.</b>&mdash;Some persons think that
+the smoking of a cigar after a meal helps digestion.
+It may do so in some cases. If a lawyer is much
+excited about a case he is trying, or a business man
+is in trouble about his losses, the thinking causes the
+blood to flow to the head when it is needed in the
+stomach to give out digestive juices.</p>
+
+<p>The taste of the tobacco smoke may cause some
+gastric juice to run out into the stomach, but at the
+same time it is likely to hurt the nerves of taste so
+that food cannot give so much enjoyment as when
+the nerves are unharmed. Although smoking may
+at the time help digestion a little, the poison in the
+tobacco may afterward injure the body. This poison
+is especially harmful to growing bodies, and boys who
+are wise will refuse to smoke on all occasions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Beer and Digestion.</b>&mdash;Some people drink beer with
+their meals because they think it makes the food
+taste better. It really prevents them from getting
+the full taste of the food because they wash it down
+before it is well soaked with the saliva.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i057" id="i057"></a>
+<img src="images/i057.jpg" width="150" height="121" alt="Stomach" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 29</span>
+&mdash;The stomach, showing the arrangement of the muscular fibers which alcohol may
+hinder from doing good work. At the right a piece is cut out of the top layer of muscle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The flavor of beer may sometimes cause an extra
+flow of gastric juice into the stomach, but the alcohol
+in the beer is likely to make the movements of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+stomach slower. This prevents the food from being
+well and quickly mixed with the juices. Several
+glasses of beer used at one meal
+will make the stomach do its
+work very slowly, and it will not
+do it well.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wine and Digestion.</b>&mdash;Wine
+is taken by some
+people to give
+more appetite for
+food. It is likely,
+however, to do
+more harm than
+good because the alcohol in it makes the muscles
+which mix the food in the stomach act more slowly.
+Some of the food may sour before it gets wet with the
+juice. Much wine used at a meal is always harmful.</p>
+
+<p><b>Natural Appetite.</b>&mdash;If one is in health, he should
+feel a desire for his food at every meal. This desire
+for a reasonable amount of food is a natural appetite.
+Fresh air and exercise will do much to give one the
+right kind of an appetite. The eating of much sweets
+and the breathing of bad air are likely to spoil the
+appetite.</p>
+
+<p>The use of some things, such as opium, tobacco,
+beer, wine, and whisky, creates an unnatural appetite.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+That is, after one has used these articles a few months
+he cannot stop their use without great suffering. The
+younger the person, the sooner the appetite becomes
+fixed. For this reason <i>young persons should never
+use tobacco or alcoholic drinks of any kind</i>.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. What is digestion?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Name the parts of the food tube.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Where does saliva come from?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Explain how the food is acted on in the mouth.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Why should food be well chewed?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What forms the gastric juice?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Of what use is the gastric juice?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. How long does food stay in the stomach?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Name some foods easily digested.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. What does the intestine do?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. What are villi?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Tell how the food gets into the blood.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. Of what use is the liver?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">14. Why should we not eat too much?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">15. Should we eat between meals?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">16. Give three reasons why you should not use tobacco.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+<h3>THE CARE OF THE MOUTH</h3>
+
+<p><b>Sickness often begins in the Mouth.</b>&mdash;A clean
+mouth and sound teeth have much to do in keeping
+one well. The germs which cause nearly a half
+million deaths in the United States every year enter
+the body through the mouth. If the mouth is unclean,
+only one or two disease germs entering it may
+remain there and grow.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i059" id="i059"></a>
+<img src="images/i059.jpg" width="150" height="94" alt="Upper jaw" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 30</span>
+&mdash;The teeth of the upper jaw at eleven years of age.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is just as important to wash the mouth two
+or three times each day as it is to wash the hands
+and face. A few
+germs of diphtheria,
+sore throat,
+or tuberculosis are
+likely to get into
+the mouth any
+day, but if the
+mouth and teeth
+are well washed
+with a brush morning and night, the germs will not
+have time to grow and cause sickness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span><b>The Teeth.</b>&mdash;The first twenty teeth that appear
+are called the <i>milk set</i>. The eight front teeth grow
+out during the first year of life and back of these
+twelve others appear during the second year. Between
+the seventh and the tenth year all of the milk
+teeth are lost because others grow beneath them and
+push them out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i060" id="i060"></a>
+<img src="images/i060.jpg" width="500" height="464" alt="Full set of teeth" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 31</span>
+&mdash;The full set of teeth on the right side at twelve years of age. The
+numbers show at what year of age each one grows out of the gum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first four teeth of the second set appear in the
+sixth year, just behind the last milk teeth (<a href="#i059">Fig. 30</a>).
+These teeth should be watched very closely and at
+the first sign of decay you should go to the dentist.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+As the milk teeth get loose and come out, the second
+set of teeth take their places.</p>
+
+<p>If you are ten or eleven years old, you should
+have twelve good teeth in the upper jaw and the
+same number below. The last ones to break through
+the gums are the four wisdom teeth at the back of
+the mouth. They appear after the seventeenth year.</p>
+
+<p>The front teeth are called <i>incisors</i> because they are
+used to cut the food. The back teeth are named
+<i>molars</i> because they are used in grinding the food.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i061" id="i061"></a>
+<img src="images/i061.jpg" width="500" height="244" alt="Bad teeth" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 32</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of teeth not kept clean, showing how germs and a
+sour substance called acid eat holes in them and thus cause decay and toothache.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Toothache.</b>&mdash;Toothache is a common ailment, and
+yet it can be entirely prevented. A tooth does not
+ache until it has a hole in it. The tender nerve
+within gives us warning that it is being hurt. The
+dentist can stop the ache and mend the tooth so that
+it will not ache again. Look at your teeth every
+month and feel about them with a wooden tooth-pick
+to know when the decay begins. If the little<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+holes are mended as soon as found, you will never
+have toothache, and you can keep your teeth as
+long as you live.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i062" id="i062"></a>
+<img src="images/i062.jpg" width="150" height="274" alt="A tooth" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 33</span>
+&mdash;Slice down through a tooth showing <i>f</i>, the enamel, and <i>d</i>, the
+soft pulp with nerves and blood tubes from the root at <i>h</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>How to keep the Teeth Sound.</b>&mdash;Every tooth is
+covered with a layer of hard shining substance
+called <i>enamel</i> (<a href="#i062">Fig. 33</a>). So long as
+this is unbroken the softer bony
+part of the tooth cannot decay. At
+the base of the tooth where the gum
+joins it the enamel is very thin,
+so that the scratch of a pin or other
+instrument may break it.</p>
+
+<p>Never pick the teeth with a pin
+or needle. The biting off of thread,
+finger nails, and other hard material
+may crack the enamel. It may also
+be softened and eaten away by acid
+formed where food remains about
+a tooth. For this reason a quill or
+wooden pick or piece of tough thread,
+called <i>dental floss</i>, should be used to clear the teeth
+of food after each meal. Slimy matter collects over
+the whole surface of the teeth, and is likely to cause
+decay in spots unless it is cleaned off night and morning
+with brush and water. The chewing of dry crusts
+of bread or crackers strengthens the teeth and keeps
+off decay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span><b>Why Candy and other Sweets cause the Teeth to
+Decay.</b>&mdash;A sour substance called acid usually starts
+the decay of a tooth by eating through the enamel.
+Germs change sugar and other sweets into an acid.
+The acid is not made at once. An hour or more is
+needed for the germs to grow to form the acid. If,
+after eating sweet foods, the mouth is well cleaned,
+no acid will be formed. Sugar and candy do not,
+therefore, spoil the teeth unless it is left sticking
+about them.</p>
+
+<p><b>How to brush the Teeth.</b>&mdash;Every boy and girl
+should own a toothbrush. <i>The teeth should be
+brushed every night and morning and kept white.</i>
+Yellow or gray slimy teeth are very ugly. The
+teeth should be brushed on the inside as well as on
+the outside. It is best to brush the teeth crosswise
+for two minutes and then spend another two minutes
+brushing the upper teeth downwards and the lower
+teeth upwards. This prevents pushing the gum away
+from the teeth. Plenty of water should be used with
+the brush, and a little good powder is helpful once a
+day.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the Dentist can Help.</b>&mdash;Sometimes the milk
+teeth do not get loose so that they can be pulled
+with the fingers at the right time. The second teeth
+then come in at one side and may never get straight
+in place. They then spoil the appearance of the face<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+and do poor work in chewing. The dentist should
+be asked to help straighten the teeth as soon as they
+appear crooked.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i064" id="i064"></a>
+<img src="images/i064.jpg" width="500" height="472" alt="Bad and good teeth" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 34</span>
+&mdash;Exact drawing of the teeth of two persons. Those in the lower
+picture began to decay over twenty-five years ago and they were then
+filled so as to remain perfect. The teeth in the upper picture began to
+decay less than ten years ago but were not filled.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is wise to have the dentist examine the teeth
+once or twice every year and remove a limy substance
+called tartar collecting at their base. The
+dentist can stop the decay in a tooth by cleaning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+out the little hole and filling it with gold or some
+other material. It may cause a little pain and expense
+to have the teeth filled, but it will save a hundred
+times as much pain and expense later. The
+six year molars need special care as they are likely
+to decay early. Even the milk teeth often need filling
+so that they will not be lost too soon.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bad Teeth cause Sickness.</b>&mdash;When anything decays,
+it is full of germs, and they are always giving off
+some poison. The poison may hurt the body and is
+likely to make parts of the mouth sore and tender so
+that other germs of disease can break through into
+the flesh. Disease germs can easily lodge in the holes
+of decaying teeth, grow in numbers, and finally cause
+diphtheria, sore throat, or other ailments.</p>
+
+<p>Four out of every five children suffering from
+diphtheria or other throat or ear troubles are found to
+have from one to ten bad teeth. You must keep
+good teeth if you wish to be well and strong.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Value of Sound Teeth.</b>&mdash;Sound teeth which will
+do good work in chewing food are worth more than a
+foot or an arm. If the foot or arm is lost, the body is
+likely to get well and be as healthy as ever. <i>The
+health of the whole body depends upon the work done
+by the teeth.</i> Unless they do their part the stomach
+cannot get the food ready for the blood.</p>
+
+<p>A part of badly chewed food is turned into a poison<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+farther down in the food canal. This is what makes
+many people feel so tired and miserable much of the
+time. Hundreds of men have been refused admission
+to our army because they have poor teeth. Soldiers
+must be strong and well to take long marches and
+fight battles. Sound teeth give strength and health.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Why should the mouth be washed out every day?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. When do the milk teeth appear?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. When are the milk teeth lost?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. How many teeth have you?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. How many show signs of decay?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How may toothache be prevented?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. How may the teeth be kept sound?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Why do sweets cause the teeth to decay?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. How should you brush your teeth?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Why should the dentist examine your teeth every year?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Why are sound teeth of great worth?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+<h3>ALCOHOLIC DRINKS</h3>
+
+<p><b>Drink needed for Health.</b>&mdash;Water in the form of
+sweat and in other ways is constantly passing off
+from the body. This water carries with it the waste
+matter which, if it remained, would poison the body.
+There is some water in the food we eat, but not enough
+to supply the wants of the body.</p>
+
+<p>Some persons think that the body needs beer or
+wine to keep it in good order. These liquids, as well
+as whisky, brandy, and rum, are called <i>alcoholic drinks</i>.
+The latest experiments and studies show that the body
+never needs alcoholic drinks to keep it in the best
+of health. These drinks sometimes make the body
+sick, and if much alcohol is taken at one time, the
+person becomes dizzy, staggers, and may fall down and
+go to sleep.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Desire for Drink.</b>&mdash;When parts of the body
+have too little water, there is a longing for drink.
+This is called <i>thirst</i>. As soon as a cup of water is
+drunk the desire is satisfied. There is no danger of
+drinking too much pure water.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>Persons who have been accustomed to use alcoholic
+drink have a thirst which water does not satisfy. It
+is an <i>unnatural thirst</i>. Even beer or wine will not
+satisfy such a thirst except for a few minutes. Very
+often a person's thirst is not satisfied until he has
+used so much wine or whisky that he becomes dull and
+unsteady in his walk. He is then said to be drunk.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i068" id="i068"></a>
+<img src="images/i068.jpg" width="150" height="88" alt="Yeast plants" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 35</span>
+&mdash;Yeast plants growing as in the making of beer and wine. Much enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>How the Yeast Plant makes Alcohol.</b>&mdash;In the cake
+of yeast bought at the grocery there are millions of
+tiny plants, each shaped
+somewhat like a potato.
+This strange little plant
+will grow very rapidly
+when put into any
+sweet watery substance.
+It sends out a bud
+which grows larger and
+larger until in a half
+hour the bud is as large as the old plant. It may
+then break loose and grow other buds, just like the
+mother plant.</p>
+
+<p>When yeast grows, it changes the sugar or sweet
+part of the water into alcohol and a gas called carbon
+dioxide. It is this gas which makes beer foam and
+bubble when opened. All alcohol used in beer, porter,
+ale, wine, brandy, rum, gin, and whisky is made by
+yeast plants.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i069top" id="i069top"></a>
+<img src="images/i069top.jpg" width="150" height="107" alt="Malt" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 36</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of sprouted barley grains called malt.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span><b>How Beer is Made.</b>&mdash;There is more beer used than
+any other alcoholic drink. It is cheap and is much
+weaker in alcohol than
+wine or whisky. Only
+about one twentieth
+part of beer is alcohol.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i069bottom" id="i069bottom"></a>
+<img src="images/i069bottom.jpg" width="150" height="205" alt="Hops" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 37</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of a spray of hops, which are used to flavor beer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In making beer, a
+sweet watery mixture
+is first prepared by
+mashing sprouted barley
+grains in water.
+Barley or any other
+grain forms sugar as soon as it begins to grow. Yeast
+plants are added to the
+sweet mixture. By
+growing they change
+some of the sugar into
+alcohol. Hops are also
+put in to give the beer
+a fine flavor. After a
+time the clear liquid is
+separated from the barley
+grains and hops and
+put into tight casks and
+bottles.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Making of Wine.</b>&mdash;Wine
+contains from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+two to four times as much alcohol as beer. Most
+of the wine is made in California, France, and
+Germany because grapes grow better in these countries
+than elsewhere. Wine may be made from
+the juice of any fruit, but the grape is generally
+used.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i070" id="i070"></a>
+<img src="images/i070.jpg" width="150" height="98" alt="Grapes and wine" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 38</span>
+&mdash;The quantity of grapes required to make this glass full of wine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The grapes after being picked are thrown into
+large tubs and crushed so that the juice runs out.
+The wild yeast
+always present
+on the grape
+skins begins
+to grow in
+the juice and
+change some
+of the sugar
+into alcohol.
+This work of
+the yeast lasts
+from one to
+eight weeks. At the end of that time, the grape
+juice has become a kind of poor wine, consisting
+of alcohol, water, grape flavor, and some acid. To
+make the wine good it must be drawn off into casks,
+where the yeast causes further changes during several
+weeks. It is then put into bottles, where it should
+remain about five years to get the right flavor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span><b>Sherry</b> is a strong wine used in flavoring food,
+such as puddings and sauces. A few teaspoonfuls of
+this wine will make a child drunk. The wines made
+at home from elderberries, blackberries, and cherries
+contain alcohol which will do just as much harm as
+that in the purchased wines.</p>
+
+<p><b>How Brandy is Made.</b>&mdash;Brandy contains more
+alcohol than wine and almost as much as whisky.
+In fact brandy is only very strong wine. After the
+yeast plants have formed as much alcohol as they can
+in grape juice it becomes so strong that it kills them.
+This wine is then heated in such a way as to separate
+some of the water from it. The taking away of the
+water leaves the wine stronger in alcohol and it then
+forms brandy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i071" id="i071"></a>
+<img src="images/i071.jpg" width="500" height="258" alt="Alcohol content" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 39</span>
+&mdash;The shaded part at the bottom of each bottle shows the amount of alcohol in the drink.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i072" id="i072"></a>
+<img src="images/i072.jpg" width="150" height="151" alt="A still" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 40</span>
+&mdash;A still used in making whisky or brandy. The heat makes the alcohol fumes
+or vapor rise and pass over through the pipe coiled in a vessel of cold water. The cold
+changes the vapor to a liquid which is whisky.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span><b>Whisky and Rum.</b>&mdash;These two drinks are strong in
+alcohol. Nearly one half of each is pure alcohol.
+Whisky is usually
+made from rye,
+corn, or wheat,
+or all three together.
+They furnish
+the food in
+which the yeast
+grows and makes
+alcohol. This
+watery mixture of
+grain and alcohol
+is then heated
+and the vapor
+or steam forms
+whisky after it
+goes off through a pipe into another vessel. This
+kind of heating is <i>distillation</i>. Rum is formed in somewhat
+the same way from molasses or cane juice.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Name some alcoholic drinks.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. What is an unnatural thirst?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Explain how the yeast plant forms alcohol.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Tell how beer is made.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Tell how wine is made.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What is brandy?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Which drinks contain most alcohol?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
+<h3>ALCOHOL AND HEALTH</h3>
+
+<p><b>The Money spent for Alcoholic Drinks.</b>&mdash;If the money
+spent for alcoholic drinks were all collected together
+in silver dollars, it would more than fill ten schoolrooms
+of average size. Not only rich men spend
+large sums yearly for fine wines and brandies, but
+also the poor give their money for beer and other
+drinks which the body does not need.</p>
+
+<p>When parents waste their money on drink, they
+cannot buy the food and clothes needed to keep their
+families strong and well. In this way strong drink
+causes much sickness and suffering and sometimes
+even death.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcohol injures the Body.</b>&mdash;Some persons drink
+very little beer or wine, so they seem to have but
+little effect on the health. Others use strong drink
+every day and for a few years they may remain
+quite well. Later ill health often comes on, and they
+then find that some of the organs have been so much
+hurt that they will never be quite well again.</p>
+
+<p>A few years ago a group of fifty well-known men<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+in the United States spent much time and thousands
+of dollars to learn how much alcohol was harming
+our country. After much study among many
+people they announced that there were about one million
+men and boys whose health had been injured
+by strong drink, such as beer, wine, and whisky. Because
+strong drink causes so much sorrow and sickness
+several states have passed laws forbidding its
+sale, and saloons have been closed by laws in parts of
+many other states.</p>
+
+<p><b>How Alcohol affects Kittens.</b>&mdash;The body of a kitten
+is made very much like the body of a child. It has
+just the same organs that a child has, and they do
+the same kind of work. Doctor Hodge, a well-known
+scientist of Massachusetts, therefore concluded that
+alcohol would act on kittens in the same way as it
+would on a man or boy.</p>
+
+<p>The doctor got two healthy kittens and fed them
+a little alcohol every day for nearly two weeks. In
+a few days they stopped being playful, did not grow,
+and did not keep their fur clean and smooth as
+healthy kittens do. After using alcohol several days
+they became very ill. This experiment showed that
+alcohol stops kittens from growing and robs them of
+good health.</p>
+
+<p><b>How Alcohol hurts Dogs.</b>&mdash;Doctor Hodge fed a
+little alcohol to two dogs nearly every day for three<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+years. He also kept the brother and sister of these
+dogs, but gave them no alcohol. All the dogs had
+the same kind of food and were treated alike except
+that one pair got alcohol and the other pair did not.</p>
+
+<p>The two drinking dogs got sick more easily and
+staid sick much longer than the temperance dogs.
+The drinking dogs became lazy, and timid, while the
+others were strong, full of fun, and brave.</p>
+
+<p>Within four years the drinking dogs had born to
+them twenty-seven puppies, but only four of them
+lived to grow up. The others were too weak or
+sickly to live. During the same time the temperance
+dogs had forty-five puppies and forty-one of these
+lived. This shows that strong drink will not only
+injure the bodies of those who take it, but will make
+their children weak and sickly.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Use of Strong Drink causes Disease.</b>&mdash;Many
+persons who take beer or wine every day become fat.
+They think this is a sign of health. It is really a
+sign of disease. They become short of breath. They
+can no longer run so fast or do so much work because
+the heart is covered with fat and even some
+of its wall is changed to fat. For this reason the
+heart cannot do its work easily or well.</p>
+
+<p>The kidneys which take the waste out of the blood
+often become injured by alcohol and a disease causing
+death follows. Sometimes the stomach becomes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+diseased so that it cannot do its work. This makes
+the whole body sick.</p>
+
+<p>The hardening of parts of the liver is nearly
+always caused by the use of beer. The liver is sure
+to suffer if one uses much alcoholic drink because the
+alcohol goes direct from the food tube to the liver.
+Long use of strong drink may bring on disease in the
+brain and nerves.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcoholic Drinks may cause Death.</b>&mdash;Every ten
+years the government appoints persons to visit each
+home in our land to take the census. A part of this
+census report consists of a table showing the disease
+of which people died. It is from the census report
+that we know that hundreds of people die every year
+from the use of alcohol.</p>
+
+<p><b>Danger to Health in beginning the Use of Strong
+Drink.</b>&mdash;A large number of people take a drink of
+beer or wine occasionally because they do not see
+that it hurts the body. No one expects to become a
+steady drinker or a drunkard when he begins to
+drink. Reports show that every drunkard begins his
+downward course by taking a few drinks occasionally.
+Thousands of persons begin a drunkard's life every
+year because the appetite leads them on gently until
+they become slaves and cannot let drink alone.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+<h3>TOBACCO AND OTHER DRUGS WHICH INJURE THE<br />
+HEALTH</h3>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i077" id="i077"></a>
+<img src="images/i077.jpg" width="150" height="375" alt="Tobacco" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 41</span>
+&mdash;The tobacco plant.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>How Tobacco is Made.</b>&mdash;Tobacco is made from the
+leaves of the tobacco plant. The plant may grow as
+tall as a man and bear more than a
+dozen leaves. Each leaf is two or
+three times as large as your hand.
+The seeds are planted in the springtime,
+and the plants are ready to be
+cut in the autumn. Most of our
+tobacco is raised in the Southern
+states and Cuba.</p>
+
+<p>After cutting, the tobacco must be
+dried and cared for in a special way
+to give it the right flavor. It is then
+sent to factories and made into cigars,
+smoking tobacco, or chewing tobacco.</p>
+
+<p><b>How Tobacco is Used.</b>&mdash;Many million
+dollars are spent every year by
+the people of our country for tobacco. Most of the
+tobacco is used in smoking. Some men smoke it in
+pipes, while others smoke it in the form of cigars or
+cigarettes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>Many men chew tobacco. When used in this way,
+something like licorice is generally mixed with the
+tobacco to give it a more pleasant taste. Sometimes
+the dry tobacco is ground into a fine powder called
+snuff. This is used by both men and women.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco contains a Poison.</b>&mdash;When boys chew or
+smoke tobacco for the first time, it always makes
+them sick. Chewing or smoking for fifteen minutes
+will make them grow dizzy and weak and feel so
+sick that they must lie down for a long time.</p>
+
+<p>The sickness is caused by a poison called <i>nicotine</i>
+which is present in all tobacco. Much of this poison
+may be soaked out by boiling the tobacco in water.
+A cup of water in which a pipeful of tobacco has
+been boiled will kill goldfish in an hour when poured
+into a gallon jar of water with the fish. There is
+enough poison in a handful of tobacco to kill a boy
+who is not in the habit of using it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Why Men can use Tobacco without becoming Sick.</b>&mdash;Experiments
+upon animals have shown that the body
+can learn to use a poison and not become sick from
+it. The poison of a rattlesnake is deadly to most
+animals; but if a tiny bit of the poison is put under
+the skin of the rabbit one day and then on each
+succeeding day a little larger dose of the poison is
+given the rabbit for a long time, the animal will
+become so accustomed to the poison that the bite of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+a rattlesnake will not harm it. It is the same way
+with tobacco. Little by little the body learns to
+overcome the effects of the poison, but much use of
+tobacco is likely to hurt certain parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco is Harmful to the Young.</b>&mdash;A dose of poison
+which will kill a child may do but little harm to
+a man. Tobacco is certain to hurt boys more than
+it does men. The poison makes the body grow
+slower.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i079" id="i079"></a>
+<img src="images/i079.jpg" width="500" height="222" alt="Poison" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 42</span>
+&mdash;There is more poison in the one on the right than in the one on the left.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A large number of measurements made by Doctor
+Seaver showed that the boys who did not use tobacco
+gained in four years one twentieth more in weight
+and one fourth more in girth and height than the
+users of tobacco. These boys were between sixteen
+and twenty-two years of age. It is likely that tobacco
+will have a more harmful effect on younger boys.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span><b>Laws to keep the Young Healthy.</b>&mdash;Boys ought to
+be wise and brave enough to let alone what keeps
+their bodies from growing and hurts their health,
+but some will not do it. For this reason some
+countries are trying to save the health of their boys
+by making laws against the use of tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>The Germans a few years ago passed a law in their
+land forbidding all boys and girls under sixteen
+years of age to use tobacco in any form. Seeing the
+good results of this law in Germany and the harm
+that tobacco was doing the boys in the United States,
+the Emperor of Japan on the 6th of March, 1900,
+proclaimed this law: "The smoking of tobacco by
+minors under the age of twenty is prohibited."</p>
+
+<p>In our own country several states have passed laws
+against the use of cigarettes by boys. One country
+after another is learning that if they want strong
+men, to fight, to work, and to win, tobacco must not
+be allowed to weaken the bodies of the young.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the White Man becomes a Slave.</b>&mdash;Before the
+Civil War the black men of the South were slaves.
+They could not do as they pleased because they
+belonged to their masters whom they must obey
+or else they would suffer punishment. No boy can
+begin the use of tobacco without the danger of becoming
+a slave to it.</p>
+
+<p>The use of tobacco either by chewing or smoking<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+gradually causes in any one the growth of an appetite
+which makes him feel miserable and unhappy unless
+it is kept satisfied. It can be satisfied only by the
+use of more and more tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>Many men would like to quit the use of tobacco if
+they could do so without suffering. They are slaves,
+and tobacco is their master.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cigarettes and Health.</b>&mdash;A cigarette is a tube of
+paper filled with tobacco. The tobacco is usually not
+so strong as that used in cigars and pipes. For this
+reason, boys like it better, and because it is so mild
+they draw the smoke down into the lungs. This
+gives the poison a better chance to be taken up by
+the blood. On this account, and because one is likely
+to smoke oftener when he smokes a small piece of tobacco,
+cigarettes are thought by some to be more
+harmful than the use of tobacco in pipes and cigars.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tea and Coffee.</b>&mdash;Tea is made from the dried leaves
+of the tea plant. Tea plants are raised in North Carolina,
+China, and Japan. The drink called tea used
+at the table is made by pouring boiling water on the
+tea leaves. The leaves should not be boiled as this
+draws out a substance which keeps the stomach from
+doing its work in the right way.</p>
+
+<p>Coffee is the seed of a plant growing in South
+America and Asia. It is roasted, then ground, and
+boiled in water to make the drink called coffee.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i082" id="i082"></a>
+<img src="images/i082.jpg" width="500" height="395" alt="Tea and coffee plants" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 43/44</span>
+&mdash;Branch of a tea plant.&mdash;Branch of a coffee plant
+with bunches of coffee berries near the bottom.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>Children should not use either tea or coffee as they
+are likely to hurt the stomach and may injure the
+heart. One or two cups of tea or coffee daily seem
+to have little or no bad effect on the health of most
+grown persons. Coffee taken at supper may keep
+one awake by sending too much blood to the brain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Opium and Morphine.</b>&mdash;Opium is a dangerous drug
+which is got from the heads of the white poppy plant
+grown mostly in the far East. From gashes cut in
+the poppy heads a juice runs out and hardens into a
+gum from which the pure drug is made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>Some persons smoke opium for the drowsy and
+pleasant feeling it gives. Its use is very hurtful and
+ruins both body and mind. <i>Morphine</i> is a pure form
+of opium. Persons take it to kill pain and make
+them sleep. You should never take it except when
+given by the doctor, as a habit is quickly formed
+which will make you miserable through life.</p>
+
+<p><b>Patent Medicines.</b>&mdash;These are medicines advertised
+to cure ailments which generally cannot be cured by
+drugs. They are the medicines much advertised in
+the newspapers and magazines. Never use them unless
+your doctor tells you to do so. Many of them
+contain harmful drugs, such as morphine and alcohol.
+When you are sick, go to your doctor for advice.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Explain how tobacco is raised.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. How is tobacco used?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. How does tobacco affect a boy using it for the first time?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. What is the name of the poison in tobacco?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Tell how tobacco keeps boys from growing.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What countries do not allow boys to use tobacco?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. What is meant by being a slave to tobacco?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. What is tea?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What is coffee?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Why should you not use opium or morphine?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+<h3>THE SKIN AND BATHING</h3>
+
+<p><b>Parts of the Skin.</b>&mdash;The skin is about as thick as
+the leather of your shoe. It is fastened to the
+muscles beneath with fine white threads like spider
+webs. This is called <i>connective tissue</i> because it connects
+the skin to the lean meat.</p>
+
+<p>The skin is made of two layers (<a href="#i085">Fig. 45</a>). The
+upper layer is formed of cells. This is named <i>epidermis</i>
+or <i>scarfskin</i>. The deeper layer is made largely of
+fine threads woven together. It is the <i>true skin</i> or
+<i>derma</i>. There is no blood in the scarfskin, but there
+is a network of blood tubes in the true skin. It is
+the crowding of these with blood that makes the
+skin look so red when we get hot or excited.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Use of the Skin.</b>&mdash;The skin has three chief uses.
+It protects the softer parts of the body from being
+hurt by rough or hard things which might touch it.
+It contains the organs of feeling. It helps keep the
+right amount of heat in the body.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i085" id="i085"></a>
+<img src="images/i085.jpg" width="150" height="159" alt="View below the skin" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 45</span>
+&mdash;A thin slice through the skin, showing sweat glands, a nerve, and
+blood-tubes. Much enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The top part of the skin is dry and dead. This
+gives better protection than if it were moist and tender.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+Particles of it are wearing out and dropping off
+while other bits are growing beneath to take the place
+of the worn-out parts.
+The more this top
+skin is pressed on
+and rubbed, the thicker
+it becomes. For this
+reason it is twice as
+thick in the palms of
+the hand and on the
+soles of the feet.</p>
+
+<p>Scattered through
+the true skin are millions
+of tiny organs
+fastened to the ends of
+the nerve threads leading to the spinal cord and brain.
+These organs tell us when the skin is touched or when
+it is hot or cold or is being hurt.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Pores and the Sweat Glands.</b>&mdash;On a warm day
+the skin becomes wet with a salty fluid called <i>sweat</i>
+or <i>perspiration</i>. This flows from the tiny holes or
+pores in the skin. A good magnifying glass will
+show these pores arranged in rows on the ridges in
+the palm of the hand.</p>
+
+<p>From each pore a tube leads down into the true skin
+to a coiled tube forming the <i>sweat gland</i> (<a href="#i085">Fig. 45</a>).
+Sweat glands are present by the thousands in the skin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+of all parts of the body. They give out from one pint
+to a gallon of sweat daily. The more we work and
+the warmer the weather, the more the sweat flows.</p>
+
+<p>There is a little waste matter carried out of the
+body by the sweat, but its chief use is to cool the
+body. It does this by passing off in the air and
+carrying the heat with it. In this way the body is
+kept from getting too hot in summer.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Color of the Skin.</b>&mdash;In the African race the
+color of the skin is black, in the Chinese it is yellowish,
+while in our race it is nearly white. The different
+hues are due to a coloring matter called <i>pigment</i>.
+This lies in the deep part of the scarfskin. Going out
+in the wind and sun causes more pigment to collect,
+and we say we are tanned. If the pigment collects
+in spots, it makes freckles.</p>
+
+<p>There is no way of removing at once freckles or
+tan. They usually disappear in the winter. No
+powders nor any other kind of medicine should be
+taken to make the skin white and smooth. Such
+medicines may contain poison and are likely in time
+to hurt the body. The skin may usually be kept soft
+and smooth by washing well with soft water and good
+soap. If it becomes harsh or cracked, a little glycerine
+rubbed on after each washing may help it.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Nails and their Care.</b>&mdash;The nails are hardened
+parts of the epidermis. They are intended to prevent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+the ends of the fingers from being hurt and to
+give a neat appearance to the hand.</p>
+
+<p>The ends of the nails should never be chewed or
+torn off, as this makes the fingers blunt and the flesh
+sore. They should be filed or cut neatly with the
+scissors so that they do not stick out beyond the ends
+of the fingers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i087" id="i087"></a>
+<img src="images/i087.jpg" width="500" height="311" alt="Nails" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 46</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of hands showing at the right how the nails should
+appear, and at the left how biting off the nails makes the fingers blunt and sore.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many boys and some girls spoil the appearance of
+their nails by letting a line of black dirt remain beneath
+them. A piece of a stick or a nail cleaner
+should be passed beneath the nails every time the hands
+are washed. If the fingers are much soiled, a stiff
+brush is useful in removing the dirt under the nails.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i088" id="i088"></a>
+<img src="images/i088.jpg" width="150" height="229" alt="Hair" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 47</span>
+&mdash;A slice through a hair in its sac. Much enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Hair.</b>&mdash;Some hair grows on nearly all parts of
+the body. It is much thicker on the head than elsewhere.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+Each hair grows from a little knob at the
+bottom of a tiny tube in the skin called the <i>hair sac</i>
+(<a href="#i088">Fig. 47</a>). If hair is pulled out, another one will
+grow in its place if the knob
+at the bottom of the sac is
+not hurt.</p>
+
+<p>One or two <i>oil glands</i> open
+into each hair sac and give
+out an oil to keep the scalp
+and hair soft. No other hair
+dressing is needed.</p>
+
+<p>After thirty or forty years
+of age the hair begins to turn
+gray. No medicine will prevent
+the hair from turning
+gray, and it is generally unwise
+to color the hair with a dye. There is poison in
+some of the mixtures sold to color the hair.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Care of the Hair.</b>&mdash;When the hair is uncombed,
+the whole person looks untidy. The hair should be
+combed carefully every morning and again made tidy
+before each meal. You should use as little water as
+possible to moisten the hair. The glands can be made
+to give out their hair oil by squeezing parts of the
+scalp between the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>The scalp should be well cleansed with soap and
+warm water every three or four weeks. The hair<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+should be dried quickly with a soft towel and by sitting
+in the sun or near a stove. One is likely to
+catch cold by going out of doors when the hair is wet.
+Hair oils and dandruff cures should not be used unless
+advised by a physician. Pinching and wrinkling the
+scalp twice weekly with the fingers makes the blood
+tubes grow larger and bring more food to the hair.
+It will also in many persons stop the hair from falling
+out and prevent dandruff and itching.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i089" id="i089"></a>
+<img src="images/i089.jpg" width="500" height="294" alt="Appearance" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 48</span>
+&mdash;Photographs showing how keeping the hair tidy improves the appearance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Do not use the hair brush of another person or exchange
+hats with your companions. Unclean persons
+and those living or playing much with them often have
+among their hairs little creatures called <i>head lice</i>.
+They suck blood and cause constant itching. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+doctor will tell any one how to get rid of them
+easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>Keeping the Skin <a name="Clean" id="Clean"></a>Clean.</b>&mdash;The amount of dead matter
+carried out by the sweat on to the skin every day
+is equal to a mass as large as your thumb. Dust also
+works through the clothing and sticks fast to the
+moist skin. For this reason every one should wash
+the whole body once or twice each week. The feet
+should be washed oftener as they become more soiled.</p>
+
+<p>Many persons take a bath every day. A cold bath
+taken just after rising in the morning wakes up the
+nerves, makes the heart work better, and gives health
+and strength to the whole body. Afterward, the body
+should be well rubbed with a coarse towel. The bath
+may be taken by lying in a tub of water or by rubbing
+the body over quickly with a wet sponge. A
+hot bath is best for cleansing the skin. A warm bath
+makes one sleepy and should, therefore, be taken only
+at bedtime.</p>
+
+<p><i>The hands should always be well washed before
+handling food.</i> Persons neglecting to do this have
+caused much sickness because of the disease germs on
+their hands. One hundred and fifty persons were
+given typhoid fever in one city in Massachusetts by
+a man who handled milk without washing his hands.
+Dirt and disease are companions. You must be clean
+if you would be healthy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span><b>The Kidneys.</b>&mdash;The sweat glands do not take out
+of the blood one quarter as much waste matter as the
+kidneys. These are two bodies longer than the finger
+and more than twice as wide, and having the shape
+of a bean. One lies on either side of the backbone
+below the liver.</p>
+
+<p>The blood coming to the kidneys is full of waste
+and dead matter picked up from all parts of the body.
+This is passed out through the thin walls of the
+thousands of little blood tubes into the many tiny
+tubes of the kidneys.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i091" id="i091"></a>
+<img src="images/i091.jpg" width="150" height="128" alt="Blood tubes" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 49</span>
+&mdash;The blood tubes in a piece of skin as large as the head of a pin.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Water is required to keep the body clean within as
+well as without. For this reason you should drink
+more than a quart of
+water daily. A glass
+or two of water drunk
+a half hour before
+meals cleanses and
+rouses to action the
+digestive organs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcohol and the
+Skin.</b>&mdash;The skin of
+those who use much
+beer or whisky often
+becomes rough, red, and pimply. Any alcoholic drink
+is likely to injure the skin because it may hinder good
+digestion. The drunkard has a red nose and a dark-colored<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+skin. This is because alcohol weakens the
+walls of the blood tubes and lets them become gorged
+with blood.</p>
+
+<p>If a person takes a drink only once in a while, his
+face becomes red after each drink, and an hour or two
+later the effect of the alcohol passes off. The blood
+tubes have squeezed up to their natural size.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcohol and the Kidneys.</b>&mdash;Taking several glasses
+daily of even such weak alcoholic drink as beer often
+causes the kidneys to become sick. Some of their
+working parts become changed to fat and some parts
+become hard. The cells which let the waste matter
+pass out of the blood get hurt by the poison of the
+alcohol so that they let some of the food also pass
+out of the blood.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Name the two parts of the skin.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Give the three uses of the skin.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What is a sweat gland?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. How much sweat is formed daily?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Of what use is the sweat?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How should the nails be cared for?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Tell what care should be given the hair.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Why should you not use another person's hair brush?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Why should the skin be washed often?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Of what use is a cold bath?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Why should the hands be well washed before handling</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">food?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Why does the drunkard have a red nose?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+<h3>CLOTHING AND HOW TO USE IT</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Kinds of Clothing.</b>&mdash;People are beginning to learn
+that the wearing of the right kind of clothing has
+much to do with keeping them well. Many persons
+wear too heavy clothing in winter. Keeping the
+body too hot makes it weak.</p>
+
+<p>Some kinds of clothing are much warmer than
+others. Some are expensive and others are cheap.
+Cheap clothes will often serve the same purpose as the
+more costly ones. If you look at your handkerchief or
+stockings, you will see that they are made of threads
+running crosswise to each other. All clothing is made
+from threads. Some of these are wool, some are linen,
+a few are silk, and many are cotton.</p>
+
+<p><b>Woolen Clothing.</b>&mdash;Woolen clothing, such as overcoats
+and fine cloth dresses and suits, is made from
+the wool cut from sheep. Enough wool can be sheared
+from two sheep in one year to make an entire suit of
+clothes. The raw wool is first twisted into threads
+and then woven by machines into cloth.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i094top" id="i094top"></a>
+<img src="images/i094top.jpg" width="150" height="88" alt="Flax" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 50</span>
+&mdash;At the left is a bunch of flax gathered from the field, and on the right is a spool of
+thread made from the flax and ready to be woven into linen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span><b>Linen.</b>&mdash;Linen is used in making collars, cuffs, and
+handkerchiefs. It is made from fine threads taken
+from the flax plant. On a piece of ground as large
+as a schoolroom
+enough flax can
+be raised to make
+a half dozen collars.
+Garments to
+be worn in warm
+weather are sometimes
+made of
+linen.</p>
+
+<p><b>Silk.</b>&mdash;Silk is
+used in making neckties, gloves, ribbons, and dresses.
+Silk cloth is woven from the cocoons made by silkworms.
+A silkworm is about as big as your largest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+finger. It grows to this size from the egg in one
+month. In three or four days it spins a shell of silk
+thread completely surrounding itself. This shell is
+called a <i>cocoon</i>. Within this it changes to a moth.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i094bottom" id="i094bottom"></a>
+<img src="images/i094bottom.jpg" width="500" height="382" alt="Silkworms" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 51</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of silkworms changing mulberry leaves into silk.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i095" id="i095"></a>
+<img src="images/i095.jpg" width="150" height="113" alt="Lint fiber" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 52</span>
+&mdash;These fibers from the lint about the seed of cotton are woven into cotton cloth.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the cocoons are to be used for silk, the worm
+is killed by heat as soon as it has woven its home so
+that it may not change to a moth and eat off some of
+the silk in getting
+out. Many thousand
+worms are needed to
+get enough silk for a
+dress. The worms are
+raised largely in China,
+Japan, Italy, and
+France.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cotton.</b>&mdash;All calico,
+muslin, and most cheap
+clothing are made from
+cotton thread. This is made from the cotton fibers
+surrounding the seeds of the cotton plant (<a href="#i095">Fig. 52</a>).
+The cotton used in this country is raised in the Southern
+states.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton clothing is stronger and wears much longer
+than silk or wool, but it does not look so well and is
+not nearly so warm.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Use of Wraps and Overcoats.</b>&mdash;<i>Outer wraps
+and overcoats should never be worn in a warm room<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+or while working hard.</i> They cause much sweat to
+form on the body, and as soon as one goes out of
+doors the sweat begins to pass off. This makes the
+body feel cold and in some cases leads to a long
+sickness.</p>
+
+<p>When riding in cold weather, extra wraps should
+be worn. Scarfs and furs should not be worn about
+the throat except in extreme cold weather. Bundling
+up the neck and chin is likely to cause sore
+throat.</p>
+
+<p><b>Danger from Wet Clothing.</b>&mdash;Many children have
+caught severe colds leading to serious sickness by
+wearing wet or damp clothing. Wet clothing causes
+the heat to pass off from the body quickly, so that it
+is chilled before we know it. This may be shown by
+wrapping two bottles of warm water in cloths. Wet
+one cloth and let the other remain dry. In twenty
+minutes the bottle with the wet cloth will be cool, but
+the other one will still be warm. <i>If your wet clothing
+cannot be changed at once, keep exercising or throw
+a heavy coat about you.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Untidy and Soiled Clothing.</b>&mdash;All boys and girls
+should learn to keep their clothing as clean as possible.
+Do not wipe the hands on the clothing, or sit down in
+the dirt, or let food smear the front of the coat or dress.</p>
+
+<p>The sweat is constantly bringing waste matter out
+of the body. This soils the clothing next to it. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+this account clothing to be washed every week or
+oftener should be worn next to the skin. Very thin
+cotton underclothing should be worn in summer.
+Woolen clothes give more warmth for winter.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i097" id="i097"></a>
+<img src="images/i097.jpg" width="500" height="256" alt="Corns" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 53</span>
+&mdash;Showing how to prevent the shoe from pressing on corns caused
+by wearing tight shoes or socks roughly darned.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Shoes.</b>&mdash;Badly fitting shoes cause sore feet and
+much pain. A shoe that is tight across the toes is
+sure to cause corns. A <i>corn</i> is a thickened part of
+the top skin which presses on the more tender part
+beneath. Soaking the feet in hot water and filing off
+the top of the corn or using a corn plaster will help
+it. Shoes should always be a half inch longer than
+the foot. Waterproof shoes or rubbers should be
+worn in wet weather. Rubbers should not be worn
+in the house.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcohol and Clothing.</b>&mdash;Many persons think that a
+drink of whisky will make them warm when taken
+on a cold day. For this reason whisky is sometimes
+used when clothing is really needed. The use of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+whisky or any other alcoholic drink will not make
+the body warm. It may make one feel warm because
+it loosens the muscles in the blood tubes of the skin
+and so lets more blood come to the surface. In this
+way the body becomes colder because too much blood
+gets into the skin and is then chilled by the cold air.
+As alcohol deadens the feeling it may prevent one
+from feeling cold when the body is really very cold.
+Too little clothing and too much alcohol have been
+known to cause men to freeze to death.</p>
+
+<p><b>Experience in using Alcohol to keep the Body Warm.</b>&mdash;Doctor
+Hayes, who went as physician with Doctor
+Kane to explore in the Arctic regions, said that he
+would never again take alcoholic drink with him on
+such a trip. He declared alcohol was of no use in
+helping men to keep warm. He found from actual
+experience that those who use alcohol cannot endure
+cold so well as other people.</p>
+
+<p>Doctor Carpenter, a well-known physician, tells of
+a crew of sixty-six men who tried to stay in Hudson
+Bay all winter. They used some alcoholic drink.
+Only two of the party lived through the winter.
+Later another party of twenty-two men passed the
+winter in the same place. They used no strong
+drink at any time and as a consequence all but two
+of them were reported well and strong in the following
+spring.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+<h3>BREATHING</h3>
+
+<p><b>The Lungs.</b>&mdash;The lungs are two light spongy
+bodies filling up the greater part of the chest. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+heart lies between the lungs. The lungs are formed
+largely of thousands of thin-walled sacs and two sets
+of tubes. One set of tubes carries air into and out of
+the lungs, and the other set is filled with blood. These
+sacs and tubes are held in place by a loose meshwork
+of tissue.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i099" id="i099"></a>
+<img src="images/i099.jpg" width="500" height="624" alt="Lungs" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 54</span>
+&mdash;The ribs and front wall of the chest cut away to show the lungs.
+A piece of one lung is cut off to show the heart. <i>A</i> and <i>E</i>, parts of the
+breastbone; <i>F</i>, diaphragm.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Why we Breathe.</b>&mdash;Breathing means taking air into
+the lungs and forcing it out. The air is made to go
+into the lungs in order that a part of it called oxygen
+may get into the blood. The blood then carries the
+oxygen to all parts of the body where it can help the
+organs do their work.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i100" id="i100"></a>
+<img src="images/i100.jpg" width="150" height="74" alt="Gills" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 55</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of a salamander, showing the gills on either side of the head,
+which are used in breathing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The air which comes out of the lungs is not the
+same as that which goes in. Some of the oxygen has
+been used up and in
+its place is a heavier
+gas named <i>carbon
+dioxide</i>, which has
+been given out by
+the body. This carbon
+dioxide is part
+of the waste formed
+in every part of the
+body from the used-up food and dying parts of the
+body. We breathe therefore to get oxygen into the
+body and to take out some of the waste matter.</p>
+
+<p>All animals must breathe. If our breath is shut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+off only four or five minutes, death results. In the
+earthworm the oxygen goes right through the skin
+into the blood. Bugs and flies have several little
+openings along the sides of the body which lead into
+tubes branching throughout the body to carry air.
+A fish gets air through its gills lying under a bony
+flap on each side of the head.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i101" id="i101"></a>
+<img src="images/i101.jpg" width="150" height="168" alt="Windpipe and lungs" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 56</span>
+&mdash;The windpipe and lungs viewed from in front. On the right, the tissue is removed
+to show the air tubes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>How the Air passes into the Lungs.</b>&mdash;The outer openings
+of the nose
+are called nostrils.
+From here
+two channels lead
+back through the
+nose to the throat.
+The cavity of the
+throat behind the
+nose and tongue
+is the <i>pharynx</i>.
+At the bottom of
+the pharynx is a
+tube made mostly
+of gristle. This
+tube is larger than
+your thumb and is named the <i>larynx</i>, or <i>voice box</i>.
+The bump on its front part forms the lump in the
+throat called the <i>Adam's Apple</i>.</p>
+
+<p>From the voice box extends the <i>windpipe</i> called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+<i>trachea</i>, down to the lungs. The windpipe divides at
+its lower end between the lungs into two branches.
+One of these enters each lung.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Air Tubes in the Lungs.</b>&mdash;As the branch of
+the windpipe enters each lung it divides into smaller
+branches just like the limbs of a tree. These divide
+into still smaller tubes, which branch again and again
+until they are as small as a hair. These hairlike
+tubes have swollen ends called <i>air sacs</i>. The walls
+of the air sacs are much thinner than tissue paper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i102" id="i102"></a>
+<img src="images/i102.jpg" width="500" height="233" alt="Air cells" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 57</span>
+&mdash;A bunch of air cells at the end of an air tube in the lungs, showing
+the blood vessels which receive the oxygen and give out the carbon dioxide.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>How the Blood trades Waste for Oxygen in the Lungs.</b>&mdash;The
+blood, which is constantly running from all
+parts of the body to the lungs, collects waste formed
+from the burnt food and dying parts of the organs.
+When the blood comes to the lungs, it is full of this
+waste, called carbon dioxide. The blood tubes divide<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+into fine branches with very thin walls and form a
+rich network over the air sacs. This allows the carbon
+dioxide and water to pass out of the blood tubes
+into the air sacs, while the oxygen at the same time
+goes through into the blood. More than a pint of
+water is given off in the breath daily.</p>
+
+<p><b>How we Breathe.</b>&mdash;The bottom of the chest cavity
+is formed by an upward arching sheet of muscle
+called the <i>diaphragm</i>. This is fastened to the lower
+ribs. The ribs at rest slant downward and inward.
+When the ribs are pulled up or the arch of the diaphragm
+down, the cavity of the chest becomes larger.
+The air then runs into the lungs and swells them out.
+When the ribs are let drop or the arch of the diaphragm
+goes up, the air is pushed out of the lungs.</p>
+
+<p>Without thinking, we work the muscles to draw
+up the ribs about eighteen times every minute, because
+all parts of the body are calling for oxygen.
+The harder we work the oftener we breathe because
+the muscles need more oxygen to make them go.</p>
+
+<p><b>Why we should breathe through the Nose.</b>&mdash;Most
+persons find it easy to breathe through the nose. In
+some, however, the passages in the nose are too small
+to carry the air without effort. On this account they
+let the mouth hang open and breathe through it.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i104" id="i104"></a>
+<img src="images/i104.jpg" width="150" height="228" alt="Air way" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 58</span>
+&mdash;Face cut through the middle to show how the adenoids stop the air from passing
+through the nose. Arrows show the course which the air should take.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The air should pass only through the nose because
+it is lined with hairs and tiny waving threads which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+catch the dust. In this way germs and dirt are
+prevented from
+getting into the
+throat and lungs,
+and in winter the
+cold air is warmed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Why Some Children
+cannot
+breathe through
+the Nose.</b>&mdash;When
+one has a cold, the
+lining of the nose
+becomes swollen
+and gives out a
+white substance
+called <i>mucus</i>.
+The swelling of
+the lining and the
+mucus fill up the
+passages. The
+nose should be
+kept clean by using a handkerchief and blowing out
+the mucus into it. <i>Never put the finger into the nose.</i>
+Disease germs often get on the fingers from things
+touched.</p>
+
+<p>Children who have the habit of breathing through
+the mouth should be examined by a physician. He<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+will, in most cases, find soft spongy growths called
+<i>adenoids</i> in the back part of the nose. They should
+always be removed as soon as possible. They may
+cause disease or deafness and may even injure the
+mind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i105" id="i105"></a>
+<img src="images/i105.jpg" width="500" height="437" alt="Voice box" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 59</span>
+&mdash;A view of the voice box from the top.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Voice.</b>&mdash;In the upper part of the voice box at
+the top of the windpipe is a fold of tissue stretched
+on either side. These two folds of tissue form the
+<i>vocal cords</i>. The air rushing past them causes sound.
+The different sounds are made by stretching the cords
+tight or loosely. By means of the tongue, teeth, and
+lips the sound is formed into words.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span><b>How to use the Voice.</b>&mdash;A cold or much shouting
+makes the vocal cords swell and we become hoarse.
+Rest is the best cure. It is not polite to shout or
+whistle in the house and you should never use an
+angry tone of voice. When talking to a person, always
+speak distinctly but pleasantly and turn your
+face toward his and look directly into his eyes.
+Never use a harsh, loud tone of voice.</p>
+
+<p><b>Why you should not spit on Floors or Sidewalks.</b>&mdash;We
+used to think that any one well had no germs
+of sickness in his mouth, but we now know that many
+well persons have germs in their mouths which can
+cause long sickness when they get into other persons.
+If you are sick with diphtheria, scarlet fever, or sore
+throat, the germs of the disease are likely to remain
+in your mouth two or three months. Persons with
+tuberculosis throw out millions of these germs in
+their spit every day.</p>
+
+<p>Spitting is not only an unclean habit but a deadly
+curse. Spit often contains the seeds of death.
+Women's skirts and the soles of our shoes carry it
+into the houses. It becomes dry, but the germs live
+and float about in the dust, then enter the mouth to
+make us sick. Carelessness with spit is said to cause
+more than a hundred deaths every day in our land.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i107top" id="i107top"></a>
+<img src="images/i107top.jpg" width="150" height="167" alt="Fly feeding on bread" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 60</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of a house fly on a piece of bread. This fly had been feeding on spit
+and a study of its legs and body showed more germs present than there are hairs on a
+person's head.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Do not use an Open Spittoon.</b>&mdash;It is much safer to
+have a smallpox patient in the house than an open<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+spittoon in the summer. You can prevent the smallpox
+by vaccination, but you cannot keep the flies from
+carrying ten thousand germs
+of death from the spittoon
+to the food on the table. A
+million germs have been
+found on a single fly.</p>
+
+<p>Spit should be dropped
+into a cup which should be
+kept covered when not being
+used. The spit should
+be destroyed by fire or
+some germ-killing fluid,
+such as lye or formalin.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i107bottom" id="i107bottom"></a>
+<img src="images/i107bottom.jpg" width="150" height="99" alt="Germs" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 61</span>
+&mdash;An exact drawing of the germs in a spot as large as a period, on the
+edge of a drinking cup.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Keeping Sickness away
+from the Throat and Lungs.</b>&mdash;All
+sickness of the throat and lungs is caught from
+some one else. The germs are passed from one to
+another on the drinking
+cup, by sucking
+pencils, wetting the
+finger to turn the
+pages of a book, or
+putting the fingers in
+the nose or mouth.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i108top" id="i108top"></a>
+<img src="images/i108top.jpg" width="150" height="146" alt="Beef broth jelly" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 62</span>
+&mdash;A dish of beef broth jelly left open two minutes in a room
+being swept. Each spot is a city of thousands of germs which grew
+from one germ dropping on the jelly. By counting the spots you
+can tell how many germs fell from the dust on this dish three inches
+in diameter.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Dust is the partner
+of disease.</i> It contains<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+germs. Avoid dust.
+Wipe up the rooms with
+a damp cloth; never use
+a feather duster. Avoid
+dry sweeping. Use a
+suction cleaner or have
+rugs which can be cleaned
+out of doors.</p>
+
+<p>Give the lungs fresh
+air and deep breathing
+and the body good food
+and plenty of sleep to
+make it so strong that
+germs cannot overcome
+it when they enter.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i108bottom" id="i108bottom"></a>
+<img src="images/i108bottom.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="Consumption germs" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 63</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of consumption germs, the tiny rods which often
+grow and cause tuberculosis in bodies weakened by beer or whisky.
+Much enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Alcoholic Drink and
+the Lungs.</b>&mdash;The most
+common disease of the
+lungs is <i>tuberculosis</i>.
+Nearly all bartenders
+who sell strong drink
+take some themselves.
+Lately it has been learned
+in Germany that tuberculosis
+causes one half of
+all the deaths among bartenders.
+Alcohol was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+once thought to be a good medicine for lung troubles,
+but it has been clearly proven that beer and whisky
+weaken the lungs and make them ready for the germs
+of disease. The body already weakened by the poison
+of the alcohol is then easily overcome by the disease.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco and the Lungs.</b>&mdash;The occasional use of tobacco
+does not seem to hurt the lungs when fully
+grown. A study of many young persons has shown
+that the chest of smokers grows much more slowly
+than in those who do not use tobacco. As the lungs
+cannot grow any faster than the chest, they must
+grow slowly in boys using much tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>Tobacco is a common cause of sore throat. Many
+smokers have been compelled to quit the habit because
+of throat troubles.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Where are the lungs located?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. What do the tubes in the lungs carry?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What part of the air do we use in the body?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Tell how the air gets into the lungs.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. What passes from the blood into the air sacs?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. Why should we breathe through the nose?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Why should you keep the fingers away from the nose?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. What are the vocal cords?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Give two reasons why no one should spit on the floor.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Tell how alcohol harms the lungs.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+<h3>FRESH AIR AND HEALTH</h3>
+
+<p><b>How much Air we Breathe.</b>&mdash;At every breath we
+take in about one pint of air. We breathe eighteen
+times each minute. Nine quarts of air therefore
+pass in and out of the lungs every minute. Air
+once breathed is not fit to breathe again. It contains
+waste and carbon dioxide which weaken the body.</p>
+
+<p>If you breathe three full breaths into a wide-mouthed
+jar or bottle, it will contain so much of the
+carbon dioxide that a lighted candle or splinter will
+at once go out when thrust into the jar. A cat shut
+in a tight box two feet square and one foot high will
+die in less than a half hour.</p>
+
+<p>Many years ago when the British and Hindoo
+soldiers were fighting each other, the Hindoos made
+prisoners of 146 of the British and locked them in a
+room about one half as large as a common schoolroom.
+There were only two small windows. During
+the night 123 of these men died because of the bad air.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i111" id="i111"></a>
+<img src="images/i111.jpg" width="150" height="311" alt="Fresh air path" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 64</span>
+&mdash;The direction of the flame of the candle shows how the fresh air enters and the
+bad air leaves a room.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>How much Air should enter a Room.</b>&mdash;The air
+laden with waste coming out of the lungs quickly
+mixes with the other air of the room. In this way<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+all of the air in the room soon becomes impure.
+Forty children will give out nearly two barrels of air
+in one minute. In another
+minute this air has made all
+of the other air in the room
+unclean. It can still be
+breathed, but it makes children
+feel drowsy and lazy
+and may cause headache.
+They then do poor work.</p>
+
+<p>To keep the air pure in
+a room, fresh air must be let
+in from the outside. If there
+are many in the room, the
+openings must be large or
+fans on a wheel must be
+used to force the air in. In
+the New York schools a little
+over a cubic yard of fresh
+air is forced into the room
+for each child every minute.</p>
+
+<p><b>How to get Fresh Air into a Room.</b>&mdash;When air is
+warmed it becomes lighter and rises. In many public
+buildings, fresh air heated by a furnace is forced into
+the rooms through pipes entering several feet above the
+floor. By a fan or heated flue the impure air is sucked
+out of the room through openings near the floor.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i112" id="i112"></a>
+<img src="images/i112.jpg" width="150" height="180" alt="Open windows" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 65</span>
+&mdash;How the windows of your bedroom should be open to get the most fresh air.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>Changing the air in a room is called <i>ventilation</i>.
+To get plenty of fresh air in a room there must be
+one or more places for it to enter and one or more
+places for it to pass out. Where there is no furnace
+or fan, windows on one side of the room may be
+opened at the bottom
+to let in the air and
+the same windows
+opened at the top to
+let the impure air
+escape. <i>Do not sit
+in a draft</i>, but use a
+board or curtain to
+throw the air upward
+as it enters the window.
+<i>A room should
+not be kept too warm.</i>
+Sitting in a very
+warm room weakens
+the body and prepares
+it to take cold. The temperature of a living
+room should be between 65 and 70 degrees.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fresh Air while you Sleep.</b>&mdash;Thousands of people
+have weakened their bodies and brought on disease by
+sleeping in bad air. Many persons keep their windows
+so tightly closed during the night that the air smells
+bad in the morning. I knew a family who always<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+slept with windows closed except in the very warmest
+weather. Three of the children died of tuberculosis,
+and a fourth one took the disease but was saved by
+keeping his windows wide open.</p>
+
+<p>Bad air in the sleeping room makes one feel
+drowsy in the morning instead of refreshed by sleep.
+<i>Your windows should always be open while you sleep.</i>
+In cold weather a window should be open a foot at
+both the bottom and the top, or if there are two windows
+in the room, both may be opened at the bottom.
+In moderate weather the openings should be twice
+as large. A cap may be worn to keep the head
+warm, and the bed should be out of the draft.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fresh Air gives Health.</b>&mdash;Four hundred people die of
+tuberculosis in our country every day. A few years ago
+it was thought that no one could get well of this disease.
+Now three fourths of those in the first stages of the disease
+get well. The chief part of the cure is fresh air.
+Medicine is seldom used because no medicine will cure
+tuberculosis. Good food and rest are great helps.</p>
+
+<p>Many of those with tuberculosis stay out of doors
+all day and at night sleep in tents or with all of
+the windows wide open, even in the coldest weather.
+Snow may blow in and the water in the room may
+turn to solid ice, but fresh air, the good angel of
+health, will give the body new strength and make it
+well and strong again.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i114" id="i114"></a>
+<img src="images/i114.jpg" width="150" height="206" alt="Being cured" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 66</span>
+&mdash;This man is curing himself of
+tuberculosis by sleeping at night, and sitting by day, on this porch.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>Many years ago when the Indians lived in tents
+and often slept outdoors none of them had this dirty
+air disease of tuberculosis.
+Since they
+have formed the habit
+of living in houses
+nearly one half of
+some tribes have become
+sick with this
+catching disease.</p>
+
+<p><b>Making the Lungs
+Strong.</b>&mdash;It requires
+over three quarts of
+air to fill your lungs.
+When you breathe
+quietly, less than one
+pint of air passes in
+and out of your lungs.
+This shows that a large part of the lungs is not used.
+The air sacs at the top and in the bottom part of the
+lungs are seldom filled completely. It is in these
+places that disease begins.</p>
+
+<p>Several minutes should be spent two or three times
+each day in exercising the lungs. Fill them completely
+with air many times. <i>Learn to breathe deeply
+while you are walking in the fresh air.</i> Hold the head
+up and the shoulders back so that every part of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+lungs can be filled. <i>Sit straight. Your life depends
+upon your lungs.</i> Give them a chance to do their
+work and teach them to do it well.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i115" id="i115"></a>
+<img src="images/i115.jpg" width="150" height="213" alt="Unhealthful position" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 67</span>
+&mdash;Unhealthful position which squeezes the lungs so that they cannot
+work freely.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco and Pure Air.</b>&mdash;There is poison in the smoke
+of tobacco. This is shown by its effect on insects.
+Owners of greenhouses
+often buy the stems
+and other waste parts
+of tobacco. They pile
+it in a pan and after
+closing the doors and
+windows of the greenhouse
+tightly, set fire
+to it. The smoke
+rises and fills the
+whole house. In less
+than an hour it has
+killed many of the
+bugs and beetles
+which were destroying
+the plants.</p>
+
+<p>A person not used
+to tobacco will sometimes be made sick by sitting
+only an hour in a room where persons are smoking.
+It is wrong for smokers to poison the air which
+others must breathe. For this reason a smoking
+room should be well ventilated.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+<h3>THE BLOOD AND HOW IT FLOWS THROUGH THE BODY</h3>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i116" id="i116"></a>
+<img src="images/i116.jpg" width="150" height="117" alt="Blood cells" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 68</span>
+&mdash;The cells in the blood. The two white ones were drawn while crawling. Much enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Blood keeps the Body Clean within and gives it
+Food.</b>&mdash;Every tiny particle of the body, whether in
+the legs, arms, or head, must have food to keep it alive
+and help it do its work. It must also have oxygen,
+and it must be washed clean of its waste matter.
+All this is done by the streams of blood, which bathe
+every cell to
+bring it food
+and oxygen
+and to wash
+away its waste.</p>
+
+<p><b>Parts of the
+Blood.</b>&mdash;Blood
+consists of a
+clear, watery
+part called
+<i>plasma</i> and
+many little
+bodies named <i>cells</i>. The liquid found in a blister is
+the clear part of the blood. The cells which float in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+the watery part are so little and so close together
+that more than a million are in each drop of blood.</p>
+
+<p>A few of the cells are white, but most of them are
+red, and it is their color that makes the blood look
+red. Your body contains about one gallon of blood.
+It is carried through the body in branching tubes
+called <i>blood vessels</i> (<a href="#i119">Fig. 70</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i117" id="i117"></a>
+<img src="images/i117.jpg" width="150" height="154" alt="The heart" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 69</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of the heart from in front with the lungs pinned aside. One fourth natural
+size.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Blood Vessels.</b>&mdash;There are four kinds of blood
+vessels. They are the <i>heart</i>, the <i>arteries</i>, the <i>capillaries</i>,
+and the <i>veins</i>.
+The heart lies in
+the chest between
+the lungs. It
+squeezes the
+blood into the
+arteries. These
+carry the blood
+to all parts of the
+body. It then
+runs into the capillaries,
+which are
+tiny tubes connecting
+the arteries
+with the veins. The veins return the blood to
+the heart.</p>
+
+<p>The blood flows so fast that it goes from the heart
+down to the toes and back again in a half minute.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]<br />[Pg 120]</a></span><b>The Heart or Pump of Life.</b>&mdash;When the heart
+stops we die, because the blood can no longer flow to
+carry food and oxygen to the hungry tissues. The
+heart is a sac with thick walls of muscle. It is
+shaped like a strawberry and is about as large as
+your fist. Its cavity is divided into four parts. The
+two upper ones are called <i>auricles</i> and the lower ones
+are named <i>ventricles</i>. The blood enters the auricles
+and then pours through an opening into each ventricle,
+from which it passes out into the arteries.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Arteries or Sending Tubes.</b>&mdash;The blood is sent
+out from the heart through the arteries leading to all
+parts of the body. The chief artery is the <i>aorta</i>. It
+is larger than your thumb and extends from the heart
+down through the body in front of the backbone.
+It has more than twenty branches. All of these
+branch again and again like the limbs of a tree until
+they are finer than hairs.</p>
+
+<p>A large tube, the <i>lung artery</i>, takes blood directly
+from the heart to the lungs. Here it branches into
+more than a thousand divisions, so that the blood
+can take in oxygen and give off to the lungs its
+waste.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i119" id="i119"></a>
+<img src="images/i119.jpg" width="500" height="860" alt="Arteries" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 70</span>
+&mdash;Arteries, the tubes carrying the blood from the heart through the
+body. Only the chief vessels are shown on one side.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Capillaries or Feeding Tubes.</b>&mdash;These are the
+tiny tubes, finer than hairs, which join the smallest
+end branches of the arteries with the beginnings of
+the little veins. They are so thickly scattered in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+flesh that you cannot stick it with a pin without
+piercing one.</p>
+
+<p>They are called feeding tubes because they have
+such very thin walls that the food in the blood and
+the oxygen brought from the lungs can pass through
+to feed the muscles and other organs. The dead
+parts of the body and also the ashes of the food used
+up, pass from the organs into the capillaries.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Veins or Returning Tubes.</b>&mdash;The veins, beginning
+in fine branches formed by the capillaries, return
+the blood to the heart. The branches unite into
+larger and larger vessels and finally flow into one
+main vein, the <i>vena cava</i>. This extends along in
+front of the backbone and opens into the heart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Why the Blood flows in only one Direction.</b>&mdash;The
+heart causes the flow of the blood. It does this by
+squeezing together its walls so as to make the blood
+go out into the arteries. When once in the arteries,
+the blood must go forward because there are little
+doors at the mouths of the arteries in the heart.
+These doors, called <i>valves</i>, open in only one direction,
+so that the blood cannot flow backward (<a href="#i121">Fig. 71</a>).
+There are other valves between the upper and lower
+cavities of the heart, preventing the blood from being
+pushed back into the veins.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i121" id="i121"></a>
+<img src="images/i121.jpg" width="150" height="182" alt="The heart" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 71</span>
+&mdash;The heart with the front part cut away to show the four chambers and
+valves. The arrows show the direction in which the blood flows.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The movement of the walls of the heart in and
+out is called the <i>heart beat</i>. This can be plainly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+felt by placing the hand on the left side of the chest.
+The heart beats about seventy times each minute
+in grown persons, but
+much oftener in
+children. At each
+beat a wave of blood
+flows along the arteries.
+This is known
+as the <i>pulse</i>. It may
+be felt at the base of
+the thumb, where an
+artery runs just
+under the skin.</p>
+
+<p><b>Why the Heart
+sometimes beats
+Faster.</b>&mdash;When we
+run or do hard work,
+the heart may beat twice as fast as when we are
+lying down. This is because the muscles need more
+oxygen to help them act. Work makes them get
+hungry, and they send word by the nerves to the
+heart to hurry along the blood to bring more oxygen
+from the lungs.</p>
+
+<p>When germs make the body sick, the heart often
+beats faster because it is affected by the poison made
+by the germs. The doctor then feels the pulse to tell
+how much the body is poisoned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span><b>Use of Blood Cells.</b>&mdash;The red cells act like boats.
+They load up with oxygen in the lungs and carry it
+to all parts of the body. Here they trade it off for
+carbon dioxide, a waste substance. This they carry
+back to the lungs to be cast out of the body.</p>
+
+<p>There is one white blood cell to every four
+hundred red ones. The white cells are the body-guards.
+They change their shape and are able to
+crawl through the walls of the capillaries. Wherever
+the body is hurt, they collect in large numbers
+and eat the germs which are always trying to get
+into the body through sores. The white matter
+called <i>pus</i> in a sore is largely made of white blood
+cells which came there to fight the germs and were
+killed in the battle.</p>
+
+<p>The germs of boils and fevers often get into the
+blood, but the white cells usually kill them before
+they have a chance to grow into large numbers and
+make the body sick.</p>
+
+<p><b>How to stop Bleeding.</b>&mdash;Most of the larger arteries
+are deep in the flesh and seldom get cut. There are
+many veins just under the skin. If the blood comes
+out in spurts, it is from an artery; but if it flows
+steadily, it is from a vein. If the blood does not run
+out in a stream, it will stop without any special care.
+As soon as the blood gets to the air it forms a jellylike
+mass called a <i>clot</i>. This helps stop the flow.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+All hurt places in the skin should be tied up in a
+clean cloth.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i123" id="i123"></a>
+<img src="images/i123.jpg" width="150" height="281" alt="Stopping blood flow" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 72</span>
+&mdash;Stopping the flow of blood from an artery.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If a large artery is cut, a bandage twisted tight
+with a stick around
+the limb on the side
+of the wound next to
+the heart will stop the
+bleeding. If a vein
+is cut, the bandage
+should be placed on
+the side of the cut
+away from the heart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcoholic Drinks
+weaken the Blood.</b>&mdash;It
+has been noticed
+for some years that
+when a user of beer
+or whisky is attacked
+with fever, the disease
+is more severe
+than in one not using
+alcohol. The reason
+for this has lately been
+explained by a well-known scientist working in Paris.
+He put certain disease germs in rabbits, but they did
+not become sick. When he gave them a little alcohol
+and put the same amount of disease germs in them<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+as before, they became sick and died. By careful
+study he learned that the white blood cells had in
+the first case killed the germs. In the second experiment
+the blood cells were made so weak and lazy
+by the alcohol that they did not put up such a strong
+fight against the germs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco and the Blood.</b>&mdash;Any one who chews or
+smokes tobacco regularly gets much of the poison into
+the blood. The vessels in the mouth and throat
+drink in some of the juice and also the poison from
+the smoke. How much this poison affects the blood
+cells is not known, but it is likely to do them some
+harm because it makes the growing cells of the body
+less active.</p>
+
+<p><b>How Beer weakens the Heart.</b>&mdash;Whisky was at
+one time thought to strengthen the heart, but doctors
+generally agree now that it weakens the heart. It
+may make the heart beat a little stronger for a few
+minutes, but after that the beating is weaker than
+usual.</p>
+
+<p>Much use of beer is known to make fat collect
+around the heart and also cause some of the heart
+muscle itself to change into fat. In this way the
+heart becomes so weak that it can no longer do its
+work, and death results. The reports from Germany
+show that hundreds of persons die every year from
+weakened hearts made so by the use of much beer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span><b>Alcohol hurts the Blood Vessels.</b>&mdash;Careful examination
+of the blood vessels of drunkards after death
+shows that in many cases the alcohol has caused the
+walls of the vessels to become thick and sometimes
+hard. The thickening of the wall makes the channel
+of the tube smaller. The heart must then work
+much harder to get the blood through to feed the
+tissues.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco and the Heart.</b>&mdash;Many boys who use tobacco
+regularly do not have a steady heart beat.
+This is specially true of those who smoke several
+cigarettes daily. A few years ago, when our country
+was at war with Spain, thousands of young men,
+wanted for soldiers, were examined to find out
+whether their bodies were strong enough to endure
+the hardships of war. Hundreds were refused admittance
+to the army because of weak bodies, and
+many of them were reported by the physicians as
+having hearts weakened by the use of tobacco.</p>
+
+<p>The boys preparing for the army at the Military
+Academy at West Point and for sea fighting at the
+Naval Academy at Annapolis are not allowed to smoke
+cigarettes. Our country must have strong men for
+hard work. Tobacco never gives strength, but often
+causes weakness.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+<h3>INSECTS AND HEALTH</h3>
+
+<p><b>Malaria or Chills and Fever.</b>&mdash;Malaria is a disease
+in which the patient usually has a chill followed by
+a fever at the same time each day or every other day.
+Thousands of people suffer from this sickness in the
+warm parts of our country and hundreds of them die
+every year. In some regions people cannot live because
+this sickness attacks every one who comes there.</p>
+
+<p>Many years ago a doctor found in the blood of
+malaria patients tiny animals. He thought that
+they might be the cause of the illness, but he could
+not find out how they got into the blood.</p>
+
+<p><b>Finding out how Malaria Germs get into the Blood.</b>&mdash;It
+had been noticed for many years that mosquitoes
+were always found wherever there was malaria.
+In the year 1900 two men decided to find out if they
+could live in a malaria region and not have the disease
+when the mosquitoes were kept from biting
+them.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i127top" id="i127top"></a>
+<img src="images/i127top.jpg" width="150" height="201" alt="Humpback mosquito" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 73</span>
+&mdash;Position of the common humpback mosquito at rest with body full of
+blood sucked by thrusting the bill into the flesh.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>They made their home a whole season in a cottage
+in the midst of many persons who were sick with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+malaria. They breathed the same air, ate the same
+kind of food, and drank the same kind of water as
+those who suffered from the
+disease, but they remained
+well. The only thing that
+they did different from those
+who got sick was to keep the
+mosquitoes out of their rooms
+at night by means of screens.
+This experiment and many
+other studies have shown that
+we catch malaria only by the
+bites of mosquitoes.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i127bottom" id="i127bottom"></a>
+<img src="images/i127bottom.jpg" width="150" height="83" alt="Malaria mosquito" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 74</span>
+&mdash;Position of the malaria mosquito at rest.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Only a Few Mosquitoes carry
+Malaria.</b>&mdash;Malaria is not common
+in all regions where mosquitoes live, and it has
+been found that only one group of mosquitoes carries
+the germs. The two common
+groups are the straight-backed
+and the humped. To
+prove that the
+straight-backed
+ones did the
+harm several of
+them were allowed
+to suck blood from a man sick with malaria
+in Italy. They were then sent to London and let bite<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+a healthy man. In a few days he became sick with
+malaria. Many experiments with the humped-back
+mosquitoes, found nearly everywhere in our country,
+show that they do not carry malaria germs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Yellow Fever.</b>&mdash;Until 1901 yellow fever was the
+scourge of many cities in the South. Thousands of
+persons lost their lives from it. Wherever the dread
+disease broke out in a city many persons would flee
+to the country because they thought that they could
+not breathe the air without getting the germs.</p>
+
+<p>Some persons thought that mosquitoes might cause
+the disease, and in 1900 experiments were carried out
+in Cuba to learn whether mosquitoes really did carry
+yellow fever germs. Seven men made their home in
+a room well screened to keep out the mosquitoes.
+They used clothing which had been worn by others
+sick with the fever and even slept on pillows and
+blankets on which yellow fever victims had died.
+Many persons thought that these bedclothes were full
+of fever germs and that all the men would surely get
+the disease. Not one of them, however, got sick
+although they lived in the midst of these soiled materials
+for three weeks.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i129top" id="i129top"></a>
+<img src="images/i129top.jpg" width="150" height="105" alt="Yellow fever mosquito" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 75</span>
+&mdash;The yellow fever mosquito biting the finger. Note how the lower lip is bent.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Seven other men were chosen for another experiment.
+A large room was prepared and made thoroughly
+clean. Only clean bedding and clean clothes
+were used. The men were given pure food and pure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+water, but into the room were let loose mosquitoes
+which had been sucking blood from a person sick
+with the fever. In
+a few days six of
+the seven men became
+sick with the
+fever and one of
+them died. From
+these experiments
+and other studies
+we now know that
+<i>this dreadful fever
+is carried from the sick to the well only by the bites of
+mosquitoes</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i129bottom" id="i129bottom"></a>
+<img src="images/i129bottom.jpg" width="150" height="46" alt="Mosquito eggs" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 76</span>
+&mdash;A bunch of mosquito eggs floating on the surface of the water. Enlarged about
+fifteen times.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>How Mosquitoes Live.</b>&mdash;Before we can get rid of
+any pests we must know where the eggs are hatched
+and the young
+pass their early
+life. The eggs of
+mosquitoes are
+laid on standing
+water. The water
+may be in an old
+tomato can, a rain barrel, a cistern, or a large pond.
+A day or two after the mother lays one or two
+hundred eggs, they hatch into dark, wriggling objects
+called <i>wigglers</i>. In from ten to twenty days later<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+they change into flying mosquitoes. These habits
+of life show that the easiest time to kill them is when
+they are young.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i130" id="i130"></a>
+<img src="images/i130.jpg" width="150" height="122" alt="Wigglers" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 77</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of wigglers, the stage in which the mosquito lives a
+week or two in water.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Getting rid of Mosquitoes.</b>&mdash;During warm weather
+mosquitoes cause the death of more than a thousand
+persons in the world every day besides making many
+others very sick. To get rid of mosquitoes is to prevent
+sickness and death. In one year yellow fever
+killed over five thousand people in New York and
+Philadelphia because
+the doctors did not
+know how to stop the
+disease from spreading.</p>
+
+<p>When this fever
+broke out in New
+Orleans in 1905, less
+than five hundred persons
+died of it because
+the doctors had then
+learned that the disease
+is spread only by the yellow fever mosquito.
+They therefore began killing the mosquitoes. Kerosene
+was poured over all the ponds and stagnant
+pools of water which could not be drained. This
+kills the young mosquitoes because the oil gets into
+their breathing tube which they stick up to the surface<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+of the water to get air. All rain barrels and tin
+cans were emptied and cisterns were tightly covered.
+Men, women, and children worked week days and
+Sundays killing mosquitoes because they knew that
+they were saving human life. The destroying fever
+was stopped.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i131" id="i131"></a>
+<img src="images/i131.jpg" width="150" height="99" alt="Fly eggs" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 78</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of eggs laid on waste matter by two flies in one hour.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Flies cause much Sickness.</b>&mdash;Very few people are
+afraid of house flies because they do not bite. Although
+they are so small and seemingly harmless yet
+we know that they
+cause many more
+deaths every year
+than mad dogs, poisonous
+snakes, and all
+wild beasts.</p>
+
+<p>Flies crawl around
+among slops, in spittoons,
+and in other
+unclean places. In
+this way they get thousands of germs of tuberculosis,
+typhoid fever, and cholera on their feet and then scatter
+them over our food as they crawl about on the table, in
+the grocery store, or among the milk cans. In our last
+war with Spain more than a thousand of our soldiers
+were made sick with fever carried to them by flies.</p>
+
+<p>In Denver, Colorado, in 1908 fifty persons were
+made sick with the fever by flies which fed on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+slops from a sick room and then crawled around in the
+milk cans from which those who became sick used milk.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i132" id="i132"></a>
+<img src="images/i132.jpg" width="150" height="108" alt="Fly larva" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 79</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of the worm stage or larva of the fly at the left and three
+of the sleeping stage or pup� at the right. Twice the natural size.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>How to fight the Flies.</b>&mdash;House flies lay at one
+time about one hundred eggs in the dirt thrown out
+of horse stables, in
+garbage cans, or in
+any other unclean
+place. In a day or
+two the eggs hatch
+into little white
+worms which feed on
+the dirt. One or two
+weeks later the
+worms change to flies.</p>
+
+<p>Flies may be kept
+out of houses by putting screens in the windows and
+doors or by darkening the rooms when they are not
+in use. The few which gain entrance may be
+caught in fly traps. All food in the store or
+the home should be kept covered. It is not safe
+to eat candy on which flies have wiped their feet or
+to drink the milk in which they have washed them.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i133" id="i133"></a>
+<img src="images/i133.jpg" width="150" height="129" alt="Handful of manure" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 80</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of a half handful of manure which had been thrown out of a
+horse stable. Note more than one hundred houseflies in the sleeping stage.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The surest way to get rid of flies in any community
+is for all the people to work together and keep the
+entire neighborhood clean. No dead grass, weeds, or
+rags should be allowed to lie in the backyards or
+alleys. The cleanings from stables should be hauled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+away every week or stored in tightly covered boxes.
+Garbage cans must have close-fitting lids, so that
+there will be no place
+in which the young
+may hatch and grow.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Insects which
+carry Disease.</b>&mdash;In
+certain parts of
+Africa, the <i>sleeping
+sickness</i> has made
+ruins of prosperous
+villages. Thousands
+of the natives are dying
+yearly from this
+disease. The germs are carried from one person to
+another by the bite of a fly.</p>
+
+<p>Some fleas carry the germs of <i>plague</i>, which a few
+centuries ago swept across Asia and Europe destroying
+hundreds of lives daily. The plague is now
+common in India and was present in California in
+1908 and 1910. The bedbug spreads several kinds
+of fevers in warm countries and may also be a carrier
+of leprosy and typhoid fever. These facts show that insects
+are dangerous and should be kept out of the home.</p>
+
+<p>Any one troubled with these little pests in the
+house may learn how to get rid of them by writing
+to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+<h3>HOW THE BODY MOVES</h3>
+
+<p><b>The Need of a Framework.</b>&mdash;The body needs a stiff
+framework made of bones for three purposes. One
+purpose is to give it shape, a second purpose is to
+help the body move, and a third one is to protect
+from injury some of the delicate organs, such as the
+heart and brain.</p>
+
+<p>The bones are nowhere separate but are joined
+together with tough bands named <i>ligaments</i>. All
+the bones together form the <i>skeleton</i>.</p>
+
+<p>All animals from fish to man have a skeleton.
+Many of the lower creatures, such as worms and flies,
+have no bony skeleton. Most of these move sluggishly
+or have a hardened outer covering, like beetles
+and wasps. The skeleton of animals such as the
+cat, rabbit, or cow, has about the same number of
+bones as man, and they are arranged in the same
+way.</p>
+
+<p><b>Of what a Bone is Made.</b>&mdash;Although the bones are
+so hard, they are not dead. They contain blood,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]<br />[Pg 137]</a></span>
+have feeling, and are just as much alive as the
+softer parts of the body. It is the lime that makes
+them stiff. This can be eaten out by putting the
+bone in strong vinegar or other acid for a few days.
+A long bone will then become so limber that it can
+be tied into a knot.</p>
+
+<p>The living part of a bone can be burned out by
+placing it on hot coals for a half hour. At the end
+of this time the bone will look just as before, but
+when it is touched, will crumble to pieces.</p>
+
+<p><b>Forms of Bones.</b>&mdash;The bones of the legs and arms
+are hollow. This form gives the greatest strength
+with the least weight. You can prove this by using
+two sheets of paper. Roll one sheet and fold the
+other one. Hang weights on both ends of each and
+use the finger for a support in the middle.</p>
+
+<p>The cavity of these bones is filled with a soft
+white substance called <i>marrow</i>. This is largely fat.
+Each bone is surrounded by a tough membrane to
+which the muscles are attached.</p>
+
+<p><b>Arrangement of the Bones.</b>&mdash;The bones of the head
+form the <i>skull</i>. The other bones of the body not
+belonging to the <i>limbs</i> make up the <i>trunk</i>. There
+are over two hundred bones in the entire body.
+Eight of these form a case for the brain. Fourteen
+give shape to the face. A chain of twenty-six bones
+named <i>vertebr�</i> forms the backbone.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i136" id="i136"></a>
+<img src="images/i136.jpg" width="500" height="879" alt="The skeleton" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 81</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of the bones of the skeleton.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>Twelve pairs of <i>ribs</i> encircle the chest. They are
+fastened behind to the backbone. The front parts of
+the ribs are made of pieces of gristle. The seven
+upper pairs are joined to the breastbone. The five
+lower pairs are named <i>false ribs</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>collar bone</i> is in front of the shoulder and
+behind it is the flat <i>shoulder blade</i>. There is one
+bone in the upper part of each arm and leg and two
+bones in the lower part of each limb. Twenty-eight
+small bones are found in the hand, while twenty-seven
+are present in the foot.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the Bones may be Injured.</b>&mdash;In the young
+some of the entire bones and parts of many others
+are soft like gristle. For this reason, the bones of
+the young seldom get broken, but they are easily
+bent and pressed out of their natural shape. On this
+account you should hold the body erect in sitting and
+walking. Bending over the table or desk day after
+day is not only likely to cause round shoulders, but is
+sure to squeeze up the lungs and other organs so they
+cannot do their best work.</p>
+
+<p>Sitting at a table or desk, so that one shoulder is
+higher than the other or carrying books at the side,
+so that they rest on the hip may cause a curve sidewise
+in the backbone. Tight clothing about the
+waist presses the ribs out of shape and hurts the
+other organs within the body.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i138" id="i138"></a>
+<img src="images/i138.jpg" width="150" height="135" alt="A ligament" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 82</span>
+&mdash;How the bones are held together. A piece has been cut out of the tough ligament to show
+the cup of the hip bone into which the head of the thigh bone fits.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span><b>Caring for Broken Bones.</b>&mdash;When a bone of the
+arm or leg is broken, the muscles tend to make the
+ends shove over
+each other. The
+broken ends are
+sometimes sharp,
+and if the limb
+is bent, these
+may tear through
+the flesh. This
+may be prevented
+by binding a
+board firmly on
+opposite sides of
+the limb across
+the broken part. This will hold the bones in place
+until the surgeon comes and will also allow the
+patient to be moved.</p>
+
+<p>The surgeon will set the broken bones by bringing
+the ends together and holding them in place by sheets
+of wood or metal firmly held by a bandage. In a
+few days the membrane around the bone begins to
+grow new bone to join the broken parts.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the Bones are joined together.</b>&mdash;The two
+general classes of joints are the <i>movable</i> and <i>immovable</i>.
+Except the lower jaw, the bones of the skull are so
+tightly joined together that there is no motion between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]<br />[Pg 141]</a></span>
+them. The bones of the wrist and back have but
+little movement. The freest motion is at the shoulder
+joint, where the round head of one bone fits into the
+shallow cup of another. This is called a <i>ball and
+socket joint</i>. Such a joint is found also at the hip.
+At the elbow and knee the bones move back and forth
+like a hinge and these are named <i>hinge joints</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Working Parts of a Joint.</b>&mdash;The ends of the bones
+are covered with a thin layer of gristle. The bones
+are held in place by several strong bands called <i>ligaments</i>
+(<a href="#i138">Fig. 82</a>). These entirely surround the joint.
+On their inner sides is a delicate membrane which gives
+out a slippery fluid to make the joint work easily.</p>
+
+<p>The ligaments are sometimes strained, stretched,
+or torn by a fall. The joint then swells because the
+watery part of the blood collects there. A sprained
+limb should be elevated to prevent swelling. Bathing
+it in very hot water is helpful.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Muscles.</b>&mdash;The muscles form the lean meat in
+any animal. They make up about one half the
+weight of the body. Each muscle is a bundle of
+thousands of little threads held together by other
+finer threads, while the whole is surrounded by a thin
+sheet. Little bundles formed of several of these
+threads called fibers may be seen in a piece of cooked
+beef picked to pieces. There are over five hundred
+muscles in the body.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i140" id="i140"></a>
+<img src="images/i140.jpg" width="500" height="685" alt="50 muscles" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 83</span>
+&mdash;Fifty of the muscles just under the skin. Note the white cords,
+the tendons in the regions of the hands and feet.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i141" id="i141"></a>
+<img src="images/i141.jpg" width="150" height="172" alt="The biceps" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 84</span>
+&mdash;The biceps muscle contracted above and relaxed or loosened below.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>Some of the muscles are more than a foot long and
+have the shape of a ribbon. Some are circular like
+those around the mouth, eyes, and stomach, while
+others are large in
+the middle and
+taper toward the
+ends.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the Muscles
+are fastened
+to the Bones.</b>&mdash;The
+two ends of
+a muscle are
+attached to different
+bones. In
+many cases the
+muscle is not
+joined directly to
+the bone, but is
+connected to a tough white cord called a <i>tendon</i>.
+The tendon is then fixed to the bone.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the muscles in the forearm run into tendons
+in the wrist because if the muscle part were to
+extend along the wrist, this part of the arm would be
+large and clumsy instead of graceful and slender.
+Some of these tendons may be seen to move by bending
+the wrist and then working the fingers.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the Muscles do their Work.</b>&mdash;A tiny nerve<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+thread runs from the spinal cord or brain to every
+muscle thread. Messages sent through the nerve
+threads to the muscles make them act. A muscle
+can act in only two ways (<a href="#i141">Fig. 84</a>). It can become
+shorter or longer. When it gets shorter, we say it
+<i>contracts</i>. When it stretches out, it is said to <i>relax</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A muscle cannot contract more than one fourth of
+its length. To pull the forearm up, the brain sends a
+message to the muscle fixed by one end at the shoulder
+and by the other end to a bone at the elbow. The
+muscle at once becomes shorter and thicker, as may
+be felt by placing the fingers on it. Although it
+shortens only two inches it is fastened to the bone
+so near the elbow that it draws the hand up two feet.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Of what use are the bones?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. What animals have bony skeletons?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What can you say of the form of bones?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. How many bones in the body?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Name six bones.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What part of the arm has two bones side by side?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. How many ribs have you?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Explain how a broken bone should be cared for.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. Point out and name two kinds of joints.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. What are ligaments?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Of what is a muscle made?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. How many muscles in the body?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. How many tendons can you feel in your wrist?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h3>THE MUSCLES AND HEALTH</h3>
+
+<p><b>Making the Muscles Strong.</b>&mdash;No persons use all
+of the five hundred muscles in the body every day.
+In slow walking only about twenty muscles are used,
+while in running more than four times that number
+are called into action. Muscles which are not used
+get lazy and weak.</p>
+
+<p>Every time a muscle is made to act the blood
+vessels enlarge and bring to it more blood to supply
+food. The more food the muscle has the stronger
+it grows. The right arm is used more than the left
+in most persons. This makes it so much stronger
+that some boys can lift twenty-five pounds more with
+the right arm than they can with the left.</p>
+
+<p><b>Using the Muscles keeps the Body Well.</b>&mdash;All
+muscles must have more blood when they are used so
+that the heart is made to beat faster and stronger by
+exercise. In this way its valves and walls become
+able to do more work. Such a heart not only does
+its work better in a well person, but is able to keep
+pumping when the body is weakened by disease.
+Many persons die because the heart gets too weak to
+push the blood through the body.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>In all the little spaces between the muscles and
+parts of other organs is some watery part of the blood
+containing much waste given off from the tissues.
+Moving the muscles presses on this watery waste in
+such a way as to move it along into the blood channels.
+It then can be cast out of the body by the
+lungs and other organs. One reason why we feel so
+good after exercise is because the poisonous waste
+has been taken away.</p>
+
+<p>No one can remain well very long without taking
+exercise. Children as well as older persons should
+enjoy one or two hours of outdoor play every day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i144" id="i144"></a>
+<img src="images/i144.jpg" width="500" height="220" alt="Exercises" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 85</span>
+&mdash;Various ways of exercising the muscles to keep the body well.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>How to exercise the Muscles.</b>&mdash;Outdoor games
+give the best form of exercise. Tennis, baseball,
+cricket, rowing, and swimming are sports which bring
+nearly all the muscles into use. Every boy and girl
+should learn to swim. It is dangerous to go swimming<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+alone or to swim in deep water. Cramp may
+seize the muscles at any time, so that the limbs cannot
+be moved. Hundreds of persons are drowned
+every year by venturing in deep water.</p>
+
+<p>Taking care of the yard and garden and helping
+with other work about the home is one of the best
+ways of getting exercise and at the same time doing
+some good.</p>
+
+<p><b>Special Kinds of Exercise.</b>&mdash;A room with ropes,
+swings, and machines in it for exercise is called a
+<i>gymnasium</i>. Under the direction of a teacher the
+pupils can get quickly just the right kind of exercise
+to strengthen the weak parts of the body and keep
+every organ in health. The muscles oftenest neglected
+are those of the chest. Every one should keep
+his chest full and round by swinging the arms and
+<i>practicing deep breathing every day</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Danger from too much Exercise.</b>&mdash;Lately it has
+been learned that very violent exercise for more than
+a few minutes often injures the heart. The running
+of many races until you are all out of breath or much
+jumping of the rope is likely to strain the heart. It
+is always harmful to urge the body on until it is completely
+tired out.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcohol makes the Muscles Weak.</b>&mdash;In the year
+1903 two learned men in Switzerland spent much
+time to determine whether alcohol helped persons do<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+more work. They tried more than two hundred
+experiments with men to whom they sometimes gave
+wine and sometimes food, and sometimes both were
+given together.</p>
+
+<p>The results of these tests showed that when wine
+was given alone, the man's ability to do work was
+increased for a short time, but later he could not do
+so much work as when he had taken no wine.
+When the man took both food and wine, he could
+do only about nine tenths as much work as when he
+took food alone.</p>
+
+<p>The most careful tests by other persons show that
+whisky will not help a man do more work, lift a
+heavier weight, or shoot straighter. In fact little
+or much whisky makes him less able to do any of
+these things.</p>
+
+<p><b>Beer makes the Muscles Lazy.</b>&mdash;Doctor Parkes of
+Netley secured two gangs of soldiers to do the same
+kind of work. He allowed the first gang to drink
+some beer, but the second gang were not allowed to
+have any. During the first hour the beer gang
+did the most work, but after that the temperance
+gang did far more work during the entire day. The
+next week beer was refused the first gang and given
+to the second. The beer helped the second gang
+do more work than the first one for nearly two hours,
+but after that they did much less than the first gang.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+This shows that men who wish to do their best work
+during the entire day should not use beer.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco and the Muscles.</b>&mdash;Many experiments and
+studies have shown that the body cannot do its best
+work when even very small amounts of poison are taken
+day after day. The poison in tobacco is believed
+to weaken the muscles so much that no man on a
+football team in any of our large colleges or universities
+is allowed to smoke or chew during the season.
+Persons training for any contest where much strength
+is required do not use tobacco in any form.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco prevents Growth of the Muscles.</b>&mdash;The
+moderate use of tobacco by men has but little effect
+on the muscles. It may cause them to tire a little
+more easily when doing very hard work. Tobacco
+poison does, however, show a marked effect on the
+muscles of the young.</p>
+
+<p>Very careful measurements made at one of the large
+universities showed that the boys who did not smoke
+grew one tenth more in weight and one fourth more
+in height than those using tobacco regularly. This
+slow growth in tobacco users is partly due to the fact
+that tobacco makes the muscles in the walls of the
+blood vessels squeeze together so as to shut off some
+of the blood from the legs, arms, and other parts, so
+that they get too little food. Tobacco may also cause
+less food to be digested for the use of the body.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+<h3>HOW THE BODY IS GOVERNED</h3>
+
+<p><b>Making the Parts of the Body Work.</b>&mdash;Each of the
+hundreds of organs in the body has a certain work to
+do and this must be done at the right time. In order
+that all may work together and each one do its part
+when needed, there is a chief manager called the <i>brain</i>
+and a helping manager named the <i>spinal cord</i>. Millions
+of tiny threads for sending messages connect the
+two managers with every part of the body. These
+threads form the <i>nerves</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Brain.</b>&mdash;The brain is a soft bunch of matter
+filling the inside of the skull. The bones of the skull
+are a quarter of an inch thick and prevent any common
+knocks from hurting the brain. It is surrounded
+by three coverings which also help shield it from
+injury.</p>
+
+<p>The surface of the brain is very uneven. There
+are a great many folds separated by grooves. Some of
+these are more than an inch deep.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i149" id="i149"></a>
+<img src="images/i149.jpg" width="150" height="317" alt="Brain and spinal cord" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 86</span>
+&mdash;The under side of the brain and the spinal cord with the chief nerves
+of one side of the body viewed from in front.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Parts of the Brain.</b>&mdash;The brain is divided into three
+chief parts. The upper and larger part is called the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+<i>big brain</i> or <i>cerebrum</i>. The lower part behind is the
+<i>little brain</i> or <i>cerebellum</i>.
+The part under
+the little brain and
+round like the thumb
+is the <i>stem</i> of the brain.
+It connects the larger
+parts of the brain with
+the spinal cord.</p>
+
+<p>The big brain is
+partly separated into
+halves by a deep cut
+called a <i>fissure</i>. Each
+half is a <i>hemisphere</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The outer layer of
+the brain is gray. It
+is made of millions of
+tiny lumps of matter
+which are the bodies
+of nerve cells. These
+are connected by
+threads much finer
+than hairs with other
+parts of the brain
+and spinal cord. Over
+these threads called <i>nerve fibers</i> one cell can talk to
+another somewhat as we talk over a telephone wire.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i150" id="i150"></a>
+<img src="images/i150.jpg" width="150" height="137" alt="The brain" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 87</span>
+&mdash;Side of the skull cut away to show the brain. <i>B</i>, backbone.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span><b>The Spinal Cord.</b>&mdash;This is a bundle of nerve matter
+about as thick as your finger. It extends from the
+stem of the brain
+down the canal
+in the backbone.
+The outer layer
+of the spinal cord
+is white because
+it is made of the
+tiny threads, <i>nerve
+fibers</i>. The inner
+part is made of
+the bodies of nerve
+cells and therefore
+looks gray. The fibers are branching threads
+from the cells in the cord and brain.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Message Carriers or Nerve Fibers.</b>&mdash;In order
+that the managers may send messages, these fine
+threads, the nerve fibers, extend from them to all
+parts of the body. In many places from five to five
+hundred or more of these fibers are united in one
+white cord called a <i>nerve</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Twelve pairs of nerves are joined to the under side
+of the brain and thirty-one pairs are connected with
+the spinal cord (<a href="#i149">Fig. 86</a>). The nerves of the brain
+branch to all parts of the head and neck, and one
+pair goes down to the lungs, heart, and stomach.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+The nerves connected with the spinal cord branch to
+every part of the muscles, bones, and skin of the arms,
+trunk, and legs.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the Nerves do their Work.</b>&mdash;On a telephone
+wire we can send a message in either direction. A
+message can travel on a nerve in only one direction.
+For this reason there must be two kinds of nerves.
+One kind is called <i>sending nerves</i> because the brain
+and cord send orders over them to make the organs
+act. The other kind carries messages to the brain
+from the eyes, ears, skin, or other organs of sense,
+telling it how they feel. On this account these are
+named <i>receiving nerves</i>.</p>
+
+<p>When we wish to catch a ball, the brain sends an
+order along the nerve threads down the spinal cord
+and out through the nerves of the arm to the fingers
+to get ready to seize a ball. The fingers are spread
+to grasp the ball, but they do not close until a
+message goes from the skin of the finger tips to
+the spinal cord, telling it that the ball is in the
+hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Work of the Brain.</b>&mdash;The brain is not only
+the chief manager of the body, but the home of the
+mind. The mind acts through the brain. The mind
+receives through the brain what the eye sees, the
+ear hears, the nose smells, and the fingers feel. All
+this knowledge is stored up in the mind and called<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+<i>memory</i>. These facts and others learned later are
+worked over by the mind. This is called <i>thought</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The mind rules and becomes good or bad according
+to whether it contains good thoughts or bad thoughts.
+<i>It is wrong to read books and papers about robberies
+and murders or to tell or to listen to bad stories</i>,
+because in this way evil thoughts get into the mind.
+The best way of keeping badness out of the mind is
+to fill it with goodness. It is said that Lincoln was
+so busy thinking how he could help others that there
+was no room in his mind for a bad thought. Doing
+some kindness every day helps much in the making
+of a good mind.</p>
+
+<p><b>Habit.</b>&mdash;The doing of anything over and over
+again until the body goes through the same motions
+without any or very little thought is called <i>habit</i>.
+The brain and nerves are so formed that when they
+get used to obeying the same order of the mind again
+and again, they will carry out these orders when the
+mind no longer gives them. Sometimes they will
+continue to obey the old orders even when new ones
+are given.</p>
+
+<p>Many persons would like to break off the habit of
+drinking beer or whisky, of chewing tobacco, and using
+bad language, but they find it very hard to make the
+mind rule the body because they have let the nerves
+have their own way so long.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>Speaking cheerfully to those we meet, giving a kind
+word to our friends, and looking pleasant are good
+habits which every one ought to form in youth.
+They not only make the mind better, but they help
+the body to keep well and will prepare the way for
+success in life later. Nobody wants a grumbling
+clerk or a sour-faced housekeeper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i153" id="i153"></a>
+<img src="images/i153.jpg" width="500" height="244" alt="Expressions" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 88</span>
+&mdash;The difference in appearance between a pouting and a pleasant expression.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Parts of the Body work without Orders from the
+Brain.</b>&mdash;A snake with its brain crushed will still
+squirm and a chicken with its head cut off jumps
+about. These movements are caused by orders sent
+from the spinal cord. When the hand or foot is
+being hurt, the spinal cord orders the muscles to
+draw the limb away even before we feel the pain
+in the brain. Many of the movements of the body
+which are often repeated may be directed by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>
+spinal cord, while the brain is left free to do other
+work. This is why the spinal cord is called the helping
+manager.</p>
+
+<p>The action of the muscles in the walls of the blood
+vessels, the working of the stomach, the liver, pancreas,
+and other glands are not directed by the brain,
+but by the <i>sympathetic nerves</i>. These extend from
+a little cord on either side of the backbone to all
+parts of the body and make the organs, such as the
+heart and sweat glands, which we cannot make obey
+our will, do their work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Injury to the Nerves.</b>&mdash;The nerves are so important
+for the welfare of the body that all the chief ones are
+placed deep in the flesh, where they are not likely to
+be hurt. If the nerves leading to the arm were cut,
+it could not be moved, and we should have no
+feeling in it. The hurting of a part of the brain, the
+spinal cord, or the nerves may cause loss of feeling or
+motion in the leg, arm, or other part of the body.
+Such a part then seems asleep or dead and is said to
+have <i>paralysis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Pressing on a nerve prevents it from acting. Sitting
+so as to press on the nerve of the leg often makes
+the foot go to sleep. The bursting of a blood vessel
+in the brain may let a blood clot form and press on
+the nerves which govern the arm or the leg. This
+pressure may cause paralysis.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span><b>Resting the Brain.</b>&mdash;When there is no food in the
+stomach, it has time to rest. When we sit down or
+lie down, the muscles get rest. The brain is always
+busy except when we are asleep. No one can live
+even a week without sleep. If a dog is kept awake
+five days, it will die.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i155" id="i155"></a>
+<img src="images/i155.jpg" width="500" height="337" alt="Sleeping positions" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 89</span>
+&mdash;Sleeping in the position shown in the lower figure prevents free
+breathing and tends to cause round shoulders. The upper figure shows
+correct position.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Children need much more sleep than older persons.
+Men and women who work should have about eight
+hours of sleep daily to remain in good health. Children
+of twelve years should sleep nine hours each day;
+those of ten years, ten hours; those of seven years,
+eleven hours; and those of four years, twelve hours.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span><b>Getting the most out of Sleep.</b>&mdash;You should go to
+bed every night at about the same hour. This will help
+you to fall asleep as soon as you are in bed. Do not
+sleep in the clothes which you have worn during the
+day, but hang them up to air, and put on a night
+robe.</p>
+
+<p>Children should use a very low pillow, so that the
+body can lie straight in the bed. This gives the lungs
+and heart freedom to act. Do not lie on the back as
+this causes some of the organs to press on certain
+nerves and makes you dream. The windows should
+be opened wide because fresh air is the best aid to
+rest and health and keeps away tuberculosis.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. What makes the parts of the body work together?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Describe the surface of the brain.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Name the three parts of the brain.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Of what is the outer layer of the brain made?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Where is the spinal cord?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What are nerve fibers?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. What work does the brain do?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. What makes the mind good or bad?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What is habit?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. How long should children sleep?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. How can you get the most good out of sleep?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXI</h2>
+<h3>HOW NARCOTICS AND STIMULANTS AFFECT THE<br />
+BRAIN AND NERVES</h3>
+
+<p><b>What Narcotics and Stimulants Are.</b>&mdash;A <i>narcotic</i>
+is something which when taken into the body makes
+the organs do their work more slowly and tends to
+cause sleepiness. Alcoholic drinks, tobacco, opium,
+soothing sirups, and pain killers are narcotics.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>stimulant</i> is a substance which makes the organs
+of the body do more and quicker work and does not
+later make the organs work more slowly. Coffee
+and tea are stimulants. Beer, wine, and whisky were
+once thought to be stimulants, but experiments have
+shown them to be narcotics. They urge the brain to
+faster work for a few minutes, but a half hour later
+they make it act slower than usual.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcohol hurts the Brain.</b>&mdash;Within five minutes
+after a drink of beer or whisky has been swallowed,
+part of the alcohol has reached the blood. Within
+fifteen minutes much of the alcohol has gone from
+the stomach directly into the blood. In a minute
+after entering the blood vessels it reaches the brain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>If much strong drink is taken, the cells of the brain
+become so numbed that they cannot give the right
+orders to the muscles to move the limbs. The person
+then staggers about and is said to be drunk. Much
+whisky taken will make the nerve cells so numb that
+a man cannot move, and he will then lie down as if
+in a deep sleep.</p>
+
+<p>A tablespoonful of whisky will make a child drunk
+and twice that amount may make him very sick.
+Much use of strong drink sometimes gives to the
+brain a terrible disease called <i>delirium tremens</i>. In
+this sickness the man thinks he sees horned animals,
+hissing snakes, and other creatures which annoy him.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcohol injures the Thinking Part of the Brain.</b>&mdash;It
+was once thought that wine or whisky would
+make a man think better. Now we know that either
+of these drinks makes his thoughts slower and also
+causes him to make mistakes.</p>
+
+<p>Two doctors in Europe made many tests with men
+to learn how alcohol affected their thinking. They
+found that when using wine the men could do about
+one tenth less work in adding numbers than when
+they took no strong drink. These doctors also tested
+the effect of alcohol on memory and discovered that
+the use of even small quantities of liquor caused their
+pupils to learn their lessons more slowly.</p>
+
+<p>When persons have taken only a very little drink,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+they often say and do very foolish things. They
+sometimes tell secrets, for which they are very sorry
+when they get sober. Often they become angry at the
+least cause and strike or even shoot any person who
+seems to speak or work against them in any way.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcohol makes People Steal and Kill.</b>&mdash;The alcohol
+in strong drink, when often used, appears to deaden
+that part of the brain which helps the mind know
+right from wrong. In one year the courts of Suffolk
+County in Massachusetts found 17,000 persons guilty
+of doing some wickedness and in over 12,000 of these
+cases alcohol was found to be the cause of doing the
+wrong for which they were arrested.</p>
+
+<p>Some time ago there were collected the records of
+30,000 prisoners, and among these over 12,000 had
+done their wicked acts while alcohol was numbing the
+brain. Lately another careful record of over 13,000
+prisoners in twelve different states has been studied.
+In over 4000 of these men the use of strong drink
+was the first cause of their crimes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcohol makes the Mind Sick.</b>&mdash;Since the mind
+depends upon certain parts of the brain, whatever
+hurts the brain is quite sure to hurt the mind.
+When the mind cannot reason rightly, the person is
+said to be <i>insane</i>. A study of 2000 insane men in
+New York State showed that the use of alcoholic
+drink was the cause of the mind sickness in over 500<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
+of them. Of 687 persons in Massachusetts who were
+so insane that they had to be cared for daily by
+others, more than 200 of them were brought to this
+sad condition by alcohol.</p>
+
+<p><b>Brain of the Young easily overcome by Alcohol.</b>&mdash;No
+one expects to become a drunkard or a criminal
+when he first begins to drink. The continued use of
+alcohol, however, soon numbs the brain and weakens
+the mind, so that the person's will power is lost. He
+is then not able to quit drinking even though he
+wants to stop. He has become a slave to alcohol.</p>
+
+<p><i>The brain of a young person is injured much more
+quickly by alcohol than that of an older person and he</i>
+is much more likely to become a slave than one who
+begins the use of drink late in life. Doctor Lambert,
+of New York, studied the cases of 259 slaves to alcohol.
+He learned that four began to drink before
+six years of age; thirteen between six and twelve
+years of age; sixty, between twelve and sixteen
+years; 102 between sixteen and twenty-one years;
+seventy-one, between twenty-one and thirty years;
+and only eight after thirty years of age. These facts
+teach that it is dangerous for the young to take
+strong drink at any time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Laws against Alcohol.</b>&mdash;The men who make laws
+for the good of the people are learning that alcohol
+is injuring the mind and body of many persons every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+year. For this reason laws have lately been passed
+forbidding the sale of strong drink in several entire
+states and in large parts of many other states.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco makes the Brain work Slower.</b>&mdash;An examination
+of the age and habits of hundreds of the students
+entering a large university in New England
+showed that those who smoked required more than a
+year longer than those who did not use tobacco, to
+learn enough to enter the first classes in this school.
+Moreover, out of every hundred of those who took
+the highest rank in their work in the university,
+ninety-five did not use tobacco. It is likely that
+tobacco makes the mind work slower by preventing
+the full amount of blood from going to the brain. It
+does this by making the blood vessels smaller.</p>
+
+<p>So far as known tobacco has but little effect upon
+the brains of older persons.</p>
+
+<p>Superintendent Ogg of Indiana reports that the occasional
+users of cigarettes are a year, and the regular
+users two years, behind those who do not smoke. The
+conduct and honesty of the smokers were also found
+to be lower than among those who did not smoke.</p>
+
+<p><b>Opium, Morphine, and Cocaine.</b>&mdash;All of these harmful
+drugs are widely used in our country. They act
+on the brain in a strange way. All of them deaden
+pain. When a person first begins their use, only a
+small amount is required to produce the effect wanted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+on the body. Later the doses must be increased.
+After a few months' use the person becomes a slave
+to the habit of using them, and he cannot stop their
+use without the help of a doctor. It is therefore
+dangerous to use these drugs at any time.</p>
+
+<p>Powders used for colds in the nose, also paregoric
+and laudanum, contain these harmful drugs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pain Killers and Soothing Sirups.</b>&mdash;All pain killers
+contain opium or morphine or other harmful drugs.
+They are therefore dangerous to use. Pain is useful
+in telling us that some organ is out of order and needs
+care. Killing the pain does not help the sick organ,
+and it may let the organ get so sick as to cause death.</p>
+
+<p>One use of the nerves is to tell us when any part
+of the body is hurt or sick. Pain is nature's warning,
+and to numb the nerves which tell us about it is as
+foolish as to kill a person because he brings us bad
+news. <i>No medicine should ever be given children to
+make them sleep or stop their crying except by the
+advice of the physician.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Powders and Pills.</b>&mdash;If you get sick, do not try to
+cure yourself with pills or powders bought at the store.
+Some of these medicines contain poisons which hurt
+the heart or other organs. A number of persons have
+been killed by taking such medicines. When you are
+sick, go to a good doctor who understands how the
+organs should work, and he will find which one is out<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+of order and tell you exactly what medicine you need
+and what to eat in order to get well quickly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tea and Coffee.</b>&mdash;These drinks usually wake up the
+brain and make it work better for a time. If too much
+of them is used, they may excite the brain in such a way
+as to make persons nervous. If taken for supper, they
+may prevent sleep. Children should not use either
+tea or coffee. Tea sometimes disturbs digestion, and
+coffee may injure both the stomach and the heart.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. What is a narcotic?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Name some narcotics.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What is a stimulant?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. Name some stimulants.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. How long before alcohol taken reaches the brain?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What effect does strong drink have on the brain?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Does alcohol help us think better?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. What facts show that alcohol sends men to prison?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What shows that alcohol makes the mind sick?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. Why is it dangerous for the young to take strong drink?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. What shows that tobacco makes the brain work slower?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Why should you not use opium or morphine?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. What do pain killers contain?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXII</h2>
+<h3>THE SENSES, OR DOORS OF KNOWLEDGE</h3>
+
+<p><b>The Organs of Sense.</b>&mdash;In order that our body
+may keep out of the way of other persons and find
+food and drink and do its work, the brain must have
+some way of receiving news about what is near
+us, how it looks, and of what it is made. Special
+organs for receiving knowledge of people and things
+about us are scattered over the surface of the body.
+They are called <i>sense organs</i>. The chief ones are
+the two eyes, the two ears, the nose, and many
+organs of taste in the mouth, and the thousands of
+tiny organs of feeling in the skin.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Eye.</b>&mdash;The eye consists of a globe called the
+<i>eyeball</i> and parts which move this and protect it
+from injury. Each eyeball is attached at its back
+part to the large nerve of sight (<a href="#i165">Fig. 90</a>). This carries
+messages to the brain, telling it what the eye sees.</p>
+
+<p>The eyeball is held in a socket in the front of the
+skull. A layer of fat lines the socket and keeps the
+eye from being injured by jars. The <i>eyebrows</i> at
+the lower edge of the forehead prevent the sweat
+from running into the eyeball.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i165" id="i165"></a>
+<img src="images/i165.jpg" width="150" height="106" alt="The eyeball" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 90</span>
+&mdash;Side of the face cut away to show the eyeball in its socket. <i>n</i> is the nerve of sight;
+the other letters show the muscles which move the eyeball.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>The <i>eyelids</i> can close over the front of the eyeball
+to shut out dirt or anything else likely to hurt it. The
+lids have learned
+to do their work
+so well that we do
+not need to think
+to close them when
+anything flies toward
+the eye, for
+they are shut before
+we can think.</p>
+
+<p>A salty fluid
+called <i>tears</i> flows
+from the tear gland at the upper and outer side of the
+eyeball. The tears keep the front of the eyeball clean.</p>
+
+<p><b>Parts of the Eyeball.</b>&mdash;The outside of the eyeball
+is a tough white coat except in front, where it is as
+clear as glass. Within the outer coat is a very thin
+black lining to keep the light from scattering. In
+front the lining is not against the outer coat, but
+hangs loose and has in it a round hole called the
+<i>pupil</i> to let the light pass through. The part around
+the hole is the <i>iris</i>. It may be blue, black, or brown,
+and can squeeze up so as to make the pupil very
+small when the light is strong.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i166" id="i166"></a>
+<img src="images/i166.jpg" width="150" height="132" alt="Another view of the eyeball" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 91</span>
+&mdash;A slice from before backward through the eye.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The end of the nerve of sight forms a tender pink
+covering over most of the inner surface of the eyeball.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
+The cavity within the eyeball is filled with three
+clear substances. The
+<i>lens</i>, shaped like a
+flat door knob, is
+fixed just behind the
+pupil. In front of the
+lens is a <i>watery fluid</i>
+and behind it is a clear
+<i>jellylike mass</i>. The use
+of the lens and also
+the other substances
+is to bend the rays of
+light together so that they will meet at one place.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the Eyeball is Moved.</b>&mdash;Six muscles fixed to
+the bones of the socket holding the eye have their
+other ends fastened to the tough coat of the eyeball.
+One muscle turns the ball upward, another turns it
+downward, one turns it inward and another turns
+it outward. If an inner or an outer muscle is
+too strong, a person may have cross eyes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Keeping the Eye Strong.</b>&mdash;Nearly all young children
+have perfect eyes. After a year or two in
+school the eyes of some children become weak.
+Many children get weak eyes after they are ten or
+twelve years old. This is because they have not
+taken care of the eyes.</p>
+
+<p>The eyes are often hurt by reading a book with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+fine print, reading in a dim light, or by leaning over
+the book so that the eyes look downward instead of
+straight forward. As the eyes are very weak after
+measles and most other diseases, they should not be
+used much until a week or more after recovery.</p>
+
+<p>In reading the book should be held a little over a
+foot in front of the chest and you should sit nearly
+straight and let the light fall on the page from one
+side. Never read while lying down because it strains
+the eyes. Stop reading as soon as the eyes smart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Helping the Eyes to See.</b>&mdash;Very few old people
+can see to read without the help of glasses, because
+the lens of the eye hardens in old age. To see things
+near by, the shape of the lens must be changed. In
+some children, the shape of the eyes has become so
+changed by straining them to read fine print or see
+things in a dim light that the eyes hurt after being
+used for any kind of work, and the head may often
+ache and make the whole body feel bad. Such eyes
+need help. You should have them examined by
+an eye doctor who can fit you with glasses which
+will help you see clearly without headache.</p>
+
+<p><b>Keeping the Eyes Well.</b>&mdash;Bits of dirt often get
+beneath the eyelids and cause much pain. By taking
+hold of the eyelashes the lid may be pulled out from
+the eye and any dirt removed with the corner of a
+clean handkerchief passed gently along the lid.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>The eyes sometimes become sore because they are
+rubbed with soiled fingers on which are germs. These
+germs get inside the lids and grow, and in this way
+poison the eyes. Unless care is used sore eyes are
+likely to spread from one child to another in the
+school. The sick child rubs its eyes and then handles
+a book or pencil on which the germs are smeared by
+the fingers which touched the eyes. The next child
+picks up the same book later, gets the germs on the
+fingers, and then rubs the eyes. For this reason you
+should never rub the eyes. If you have sore eyes, <i>be
+careful that no one else catches the sickness from you</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Ear.</b>&mdash;The ear is made of three parts called
+the <i>outer ear</i>, the <i>middle ear</i> or <i>eardrum</i>, and the
+<i>inner ear</i>. The outer ear is made of a plate of skin
+and gristle and a slightly bent tube about one inch
+long. At the inner end of this tube is a thin membrane
+or <i>drumhead</i>. Beyond the drumhead is the
+cavity of the middle ear about as large as a pea. A
+chain of three tiny bones stretches from the outer
+drumhead across this cavity to a tiny <i>inner drumhead</i>.
+Beyond the inner drumhead is the inner ear.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter bord" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="i169" id="i169"></a>
+<img src="images/i169.jpg" width="500" height="335" alt="The ear" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 92</span>
+&mdash;View of the ear from in front. Three little bones stretch across
+the middle ear.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The middle ear is kept full of air by means of a
+tube leading from it to the throat. A cold or other
+sickness may cause this tube to fill up and make you
+deaf. The inner ear consists of a sac and four bent
+tubes filled with a watery fluid. They are also surrounded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+by watery fluid contained in channels in a
+bone of the skull. The end of the nerve of hearing
+is on one of the tubes.</p>
+
+<p><b>How we Hear.</b>&mdash;Throwing a stone in the water
+makes waves which move farther and farther outward.
+In the same way a noise causes waves in the air.
+These waves pass into the ear tube, strike the outer
+drumhead, and make it move. This moves the chain
+of bones in the middle ear so that they cause motion
+in the inner drumhead. This in moving back and
+forth makes waves in the fluid of the inner ear which
+strike on the ends of the nerve of hearing and cause
+messages to be carried to the brain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Care of the Ears.</b>&mdash;The ears should not be struck
+or pulled, as the eardrum is easily broken. Do not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+put pencils, pins, or anything else in your ears. Wax
+naturally forms in the ear tube to keep out bugs and
+flies. The outer part of the tube may be kept clean
+by wiping it with a moist cloth over the little finger.
+If you often have earache or a running ear, you
+should have it examined by a physician. <i>Neglecting
+a sick ear may cause deafness.</i></p>
+
+<p>Some persons are deaf in one ear and do not know
+it. Test each ear by covering the other one with a
+heavy cloth and note how far off you can hear the
+ticks of a watch.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Nose.</b>&mdash;The nose has a skinlike lining, but it
+is always kept moist by little glands which give out
+a watery fluid. The endings of the nerve of smell
+are in the lining in the upper part of the nose. Two
+nerves lead from the nose to the brain.</p>
+
+<p>When we catch cold, much blood rushes to the lining
+of the nose and it becomes swollen. It then gives
+out a thick white mucus. This covers the nerve endings,
+so that we cannot smell.</p>
+
+<p>Smell is of great use in telling us whether our food
+is good, by helping us to enjoy food with a pleasant
+odor, and by warning us against bad air.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sense of Taste.</b>&mdash;The nerves by which we
+taste end in the soft covering of the tongue and some
+other parts of the mouth. A food cannot be tasted
+while it is dry. For this reason much slippery fluid<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+flows into the mouth from glands under the ears and
+tongue. This fluid, called <i>saliva</i>, softens the solid food
+when it is well chewed, so we can taste it.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Senses of the Skin.</b>&mdash;There are endings of
+nerves in the skin all over the body. They are of
+three or four different kinds. Some of them tell us
+about heat, others tell us about cold. Some tell us
+about the shape, the smoothness, or hardness of objects,
+while others tell us when the skin gets hurt.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the nerve endings are in the deeper part of
+the skin, so that they are covered by the epidermis
+and cannot be hurt by the rough things handled.</p>
+
+<p><b>Alcohol and the Senses.</b>&mdash;The senses are but little
+affected by a small amount of alcoholic drink. The
+sense of taste, after being accustomed to the sharpness
+of strong drink, may be less easily pleased with the
+taste of common food and drink.</p>
+
+<p>The use of large amounts of alcohol blunts all the
+senses. In a drunken man the senses of the skin are
+so numbed that he does not know when anything
+touches him, and he may be badly burned before he
+feels the pain.</p>
+
+<p>Heavy drinking makes the hearing less keen, enlarges
+the blood vessels of the eyes, and makes them
+appear red and bloodshot.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tobacco and the Senses.</b>&mdash;The use of tobacco does
+not injure the senses of the skin and usually has no<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+effect on hearing. Both chewing and smoking, if
+much practiced, make the sense of taste less delicate,
+so that one cannot enjoy his food to the fullest extent.</p>
+
+<p>Much smoking of tobacco may hurt the nerve of
+sight and in a few cases it has made men blind. Many
+boys have weakened their eyes by the use of cigarettes.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. Name the chief sense organs.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. Of what use are the eyelids and tears?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. Name four parts of the eyeball.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. What is the iris?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Of what use is the lens?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. What moves the eyeball?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. When do children get weak eyes?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. How are the eyes often hurt?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. How may poor eyes be helped?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. What makes the eyes sore?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. How do germs get into the eyes?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. Name the three parts of the ear.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. What does the inner ear contain?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">14. What may result from neglecting a sick ear?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">15. Of what use is smell?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">16. Why should food be well chewed?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">17. In what part of the skin are most of the nerve endings?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">18. What effect does tobacco have on the sense of taste?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIII</h2>
+
+<h3>KEEPING AWAY SICKNESS</h3>
+
+<p><b>Too Much Sickness.</b>&mdash;Many diseases are caused by
+our own carelessness and our bad habits of living.
+We have about one doctor for every one hundred
+families. There are enough people sick every day to
+make a city as large as New York or to equal the
+number of people living in the thirteen states of
+Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Arizona, New Mexico,
+Utah, Delaware, Montana, Vermont, New Hampshire,
+North Dakota and South Dakota, and Oklahoma.</p>
+
+<p>A careful study of disease and its cause shows that
+at least one half of all the sickness in our land can
+be avoided by right living.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Cause of Sickness.</b>&mdash;Some people are so foolish
+as to make themselves sick. They weaken the body
+by using much beer or wine, by breathing bad air, by
+lack of exercise, or by fast eating. When the body
+becomes weak, it is likely to get sick at any time.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i174" id="i174"></a>
+<img src="images/i174.jpg" width="150" height="140" alt="Germs" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 93</span>
+&mdash;The germs of diseases. Much enlarged.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not always our own fault when we are sick.
+It may be caused by the carelessness of others who
+have let germs escape from their bodies so that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
+are able to reach us. One half of the sickness in our
+land is catching sickness. That is, it is sickness which
+passes from one
+person to another
+and is caused by
+tiny germs or microbes.
+A catching
+sickness is
+called a <i>contagious
+disease</i>. Some of
+the common catching
+diseases are
+sore throat, colds,
+diphtheria, pneumonia,
+typhoid fever, measles, grippe, and whooping
+cough.</p>
+
+<p><b>How we get a Catching Sickness.</b>&mdash;We get a catching
+sickness by taking into our bodies the germs from
+some other person. The germs of the sick do not pass
+off in the breath, but in the spit or anything else which
+comes from their bodies. This is why the spit and
+all slops from the sick room should be burned, buried,
+or destroyed in some way.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i175" id="i175"></a>
+<img src="images/i175.jpg" width="150" height="195" alt="The path of germs" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 94</span>
+&mdash;How the germs of disease start on their mission of death. This sewer
+carries slops from the houses of the sick and well and empties into a stream
+used below for drinking water.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We should think it very wicked if a showman should
+turn his lions and tigers loose in a crowd of women
+and children. Somebody would surely be killed and
+others hurt. It is just as wrong to turn loose the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+germs of the sick by throwing the spit and the slops
+where they will get into a stream or where the flies
+may find them and by
+soiling their feet leave
+death in their trail
+wherever they crawl.</p>
+
+<p><b>How the Germs of
+Sickness catch Us.</b>&mdash;The
+germs of sickness
+have no feet to walk
+and no wings to fly,
+yet they easily travel
+from the sick to the
+well. They are not
+killed by being frozen,
+or drowned by floating
+in water, or destroyed
+by drying.
+For this reason they can travel with the ice, water,
+milk, and dust.</p>
+
+<p>In Buffalo, New York, fifty-seven children caught
+the scarlet fever in one week by using milk cared for
+by a boy who was getting well from the scarlet fever.</p>
+
+<p>The germs of sickness are so small that a million
+can hang to the hands or clothing and not be seen.
+For this reason they are often left clinging to the
+fingers, desks, books, and pencils, and travel in large<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
+numbers on the feet of flies. The surest way the
+germs have of getting from one person to another is
+by the common drinking cup.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i176" id="i176"></a>
+<img src="images/i176.jpg" width="150" height="150" alt="Clear beef broth jelly" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 95</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of clear beef broth jelly in which a fly walked
+five minutes scattering germs. Two days later each germ brushed
+off the fly's feet grew into a city of germs appearing as a white spot.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Common Drinking Cup is an Exchange Station
+for Germs.</b>&mdash;The most careful examinations have
+shown that there are
+thousands of children as
+well as grown persons
+who have very light attacks
+of scarlet fever,
+tuberculosis, or other diseases
+and go to school or
+about their work scattering
+the germs of sickness
+in their spit. A child
+seldom drinks from a
+cup without leaving on
+it thousands of germs.
+Some of these may be germs which will cause sickness.
+On one drinking cup used in a school, the
+germs were found to be as thick as the leaves on a
+maple tree in June.</p>
+
+<p>In an Ohio school one warm day, a boy with beginning
+measles drank from the cup which was afterward
+used on the same day by the teacher and all the
+other pupils. In less than two weeks every pupil
+and the teacher were suffering from measles. <i>Put<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+nothing into your mouth which has been in another's
+mouth.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figleft bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i177" id="i177"></a>
+<img src="images/i177.jpg" width="150" height="103" alt="Schoolhouse" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 96</span>
+&mdash;A schoolhouse in Morgan county, Ohio, where sixteen pupils and the
+teacher caught the measles in one day by drinking from a cup which had been
+used by a boy sick with the measles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>The Golden Rule.</b>&mdash;If you have a catching sickness,
+such as measles, chicken pox, or whooping
+cough, stay away from others. Since the germs of
+some diseases, like
+scarlet fever and diphtheria,
+remain in the
+spit sometimes several
+months after you feel
+well, don't scatter
+your spit. Hold a
+handkerchief before
+your face when you
+sneeze or cough. <i>Wash
+your hands before
+handling food.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Some Animals carry Sickness.</b>&mdash;Mosquitoes carry
+malaria and yellow fever and some other diseases.
+Flies carry typhoid fever, grippe, diphtheria, and
+tuberculosis. Bedbugs and fleas carry the plague and
+leprosy. Rats carry the plague. Cats sometimes
+carry diphtheria. Many cows have tuberculosis and
+the germs of this disease are then sometimes found
+in their milk. Some children have caught tuberculosis
+from drinking such milk.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i178" id="i178"></a>
+<img src="images/i178.jpg" width="150" height="114" alt="Splatter from a sneeze" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 97</span>
+&mdash;A pane of glass held about two feet before the face of a boy who sneezed. The spots are the
+droplets of spit thrown out. Each spot showed under the microscope from 50 to 1000 germs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>Keeping away Smallpox.</b>&mdash;Smallpox was once the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span>
+most terrible of all diseases. It is so catching that
+two or three were often sick with it at one time in the
+same family. Sometimes nearly one half the people
+of a whole town would have the disease in one year.
+Over a hundred
+years ago
+nearly every
+grown up person
+had little
+pits scattered
+over his face
+as a result of
+having had
+smallpox.</p>
+
+<p>You can always
+keep
+away smallpox
+by being vaccinated. The doctor can vaccinate you
+by putting on the freshly scraped skin of your arm
+some weak smallpox germs from a clean healthy calf
+which has been vaccinated. Your arm will in a few
+days get sore and you will not feel well for about one
+week, but you will be made safe from smallpox for
+several years.</p>
+
+<p>Fifty nurses were vaccinated in Philadelphia and
+cared for many sick with the smallpox, staying with
+them day after day, but not one of the nurses took<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+the disease. <i>Every one should be vaccinated when a
+year old and again at the age of ten or twelve years.</i></p>
+
+<p><b>Colds.</b>&mdash;Some colds are catching, but we generally
+take cold because we have weak bodies or have been
+careless. If you want to be free from colds, remember
+these six rules:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Don't sit still in wet clothes or with wet feet.</p>
+
+<p>Don't sit in a cold draft or in a cold room.</p>
+
+<p>Don't sit on the damp ground or on the ice when
+you are resting from skating.</p>
+
+<p>Don't cool off quickly after exercising.</p>
+
+<p>Sleep in a room with the windows <i>wide</i> open.</p>
+
+<p>Take a cold bath every morning and draw fresh
+air to the bottom of the lungs many times every day.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tuberculosis or Consumption.</b>&mdash;This disease is so
+common and deadly that twenty persons die from it
+in our country every hour. It is caused by tiny
+germs (<a href="#i108bottom">Fig. 63</a>) which lodge in the lungs, glands,
+bones, or other parts of the body, where they give off
+poison and hurt the tissues. We take these germs
+into the body with dust or food, and also by putting
+to the lips a drinking cup or other things used by a
+consumptive. Generally the germs will not grow in
+a strong body, even when they have lodged there.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preventing Consumption.</b>&mdash;Living in poorly lighted
+houses without much fresh air, working in dusty
+rooms, using much strong drink and tobacco, eating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+poor food, losing sleep, neglecting a cough, and taking
+little or no outdoor exercise weaken the body so
+that the consumption germs can grow in it. Deep
+breathing, sitting and walking erect, living in rooms
+with sunshine, sleeping with the windows open eight
+or nine hours every night, and eating good food
+will prevent one from taking consumption and will
+often cure the disease. Persons with this sickness
+give out the germs in their spit, which should be
+caught in a cup and burned.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Hookworm Disease.</b>&mdash;This is a sickness affecting
+thousands of persons in the South. It is caused
+by tiny worms half as large as a pin hanging fast to
+the lining of the bowels. The worm is sometimes
+called the lazy germ because it destroys the red blood
+cells and makes the body feel weak and lazy. Children
+with these worms grow slowly, have a dry skin,
+and a swollen abdomen with a tender spot below the
+stomach.</p>
+
+<p>The disease is easily cured by a physician, but it is
+better to prevent it by killing the germs in the waste
+from the bowels. For directions, address the Department
+of Health at the capital of your state. If the
+germs reach the ground they crawl around and may
+get into the well, and enter the body again with the
+drinking water. Generally, however, the worms
+enter through the skin of those going barefooted, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+are carried by the blood to the lungs. From here
+they go up the windpipe to the throat, and then down
+the gullet to the bowels. It is their entrance through
+the skin that causes ground itch or dew itch. Wearing
+shoes will help prevent the disease.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Strong Body Wins.</b>&mdash;Nobody wants to be weak
+and sickly. Most all of us could keep well if we
+would try in the right way to keep the body strong.</p>
+
+<p>To keep the body in health it must have plenty of
+sleep, enough good food well chewed, plenty of clean
+water, exercise every day, and an abundance of fresh
+air. The body is the temple of the soul. Don't hurt
+it with bad habits.</p>
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL QUESTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1. How many people are sick to-day in our country?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">2. How can much sickness be avoided?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">3. What causes sickness?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">4. What is a contagious disease?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">5. Name some contagious diseases.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">6. How do we get a catching sickness?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">7. Why should we be careful with the slops from the sick</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">room?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">8. Tell how children in Buffalo caught scarlet fever.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">9. What is the danger in using a cup from which others</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3em;">have drunk?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">10. How can you prevent others from getting your sickness?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">11. Name some animals which carry <a name="sickness" id="sickness"></a>sickness.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">12. How can we keep away smallpox?</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">13. Give six rules to keep away colds.</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">14. How may the body be kept strong?</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XXIV</h2>
+<h3>HELPING BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES</h3>
+
+<p><b>The Need of Quick Help.</b>&mdash;In many places in the
+country, or when out camping, it is impossible to get
+a doctor in less than two or three hours. Unless
+some one at hand can give aid before the doctor
+comes, much suffering and even death may result
+when a simple accident occurs. For this reason
+every one should know how to help in case of such
+accidents as burns, bleeding, choking, and sunstroke.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clothing on Fire.</b>&mdash;Children should never play
+about an open fire. A single spark lighting on a
+cotton dress may cause it to burst into a blaze so that
+within a few minutes the child is enveloped in flames.</p>
+
+<p>The quickest way to put out such a fire is to wrap
+the child in a blanket, a piece of carpet, a coat, or any
+part of your clothing quickly removed. If nothing
+is at hand to wrap the sufferer in, roll him over and
+over in the dirt or weeds until the flames are smothered.
+When your clothing is on fire, you must not
+run, because this fans the fire and makes it burn.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span><b>Burns and Scalds.</b>&mdash;If there is clothing on the
+part burned, it should be taken off slowly so as not to
+tear the skin. If the clothing sticks, soak it in oil a
+few minutes until it gets loose. Cover the burned
+part as quickly as possible with vaseline or a clean
+cloth soaked in a quart of boiled water containing a
+cup of washing soda. Let nothing dirty touch the
+burned surface and keep it well wrapped.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bleeding.</b>&mdash;A person can lose a quart of blood
+without danger of death and may live after more
+than two quarts have been lost, but it is wise to try
+to stop any flow of blood as quickly as possible.
+Tying a clean cloth folded several times over the cut
+will in most cases stop the flow. This will help a
+clot to form and will also close the ends of the cut
+vessels if the bandage is twisted tight with a stick.</p>
+
+<p>If the cut is on a limb and the blood comes out in
+spurts, a bandage tied about the limb between the cut
+and the body may be twisted tight with a stick so as
+to press upon the artery and close it. A piece of
+wood or folded cloth placed over the artery under the
+bandage before it is tightened is helpful.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nosebleed.</b>&mdash;Some persons are troubled frequently
+with bleeding from the nose. The least knock may
+cause it to bleed for more than an hour. It may
+generally be stopped without sending for a doctor.</p>
+
+<p>Sit up straight to keep the blood out of the head<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+and press the middle part of the nose firmly between
+the fingers. Apply a cold wet cloth or a lump of ice
+wrapped in a cloth to the back of the neck. Put a
+bag of pounded ice on the root of the nose. If it
+does not stop in a half hour, wet a soft rag or a piece
+of cotton with cold tea or alum water and put it
+gently into the bleeding nostril so as to entirely close
+it. Do not blow the nose for several hours after the
+bleeding has stopped as this may start it again.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fainting.</b>&mdash;Fainting may be caused by bad air, an
+overheated room, by fear, or by some other excitement.
+A fainting person falls down and appears to be
+asleep. The lips are pale and there may be cold
+sweat on the forehead. There is too little blood in
+the brain, and the heart is weak.</p>
+
+<p>A fainting person should be laid flat on the floor or
+on a couch, and all doors and windows opened wide.
+Loosen all tight clothing and apply to the forehead
+a cloth wet with cold water. A faint usually lasts
+only a few minutes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sunstroke.</b>&mdash;A person with sunstroke becomes
+giddy, sick at the stomach, and weak. He then gets
+drowsy and may seem as if asleep, but he cannot be
+aroused. The skin is hot and dry instead of being
+cold and pale, as in fainting. The doctor should be
+sent for at once.</p>
+
+<p>The first aid for sunstroke is to put the patient in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+a cool cellar or an icehouse, raise the head, and wet
+the head, neck, and back of the chest with cold
+water. As soon as he wakens put him in a cool
+room.</p>
+
+<p><b>Frostbite.</b>&mdash;When out in very cold weather, the
+end of the nose, the tips of the ears, and the toes and
+fingers are sometimes frozen. If a person comes into
+a warm room, these frozen parts will give much pain.
+The parts should be rubbed with snow or ice water
+until a tingling sensation is felt.</p>
+
+<p><b>Breaks in the Skin.</b>&mdash;A small cut or tear in the
+skin may become very sore and cause much trouble
+if not cared for so as to keep the germs out. If there
+is dirt in the wound, as when made with a rusty nail
+or by the bite of a dog, it should be squeezed and
+washed with boiled water to make it perfectly clean.
+It may then be bound up in a clean cloth. A little
+turpentine poured on the wound will help kill the
+germs which may make it sore. If the dog is thought
+to be mad or the wound is too deep to be easily
+washed out to the bottom, a doctor should be called.</p>
+
+<p><b>Snakebite.</b>&mdash;The scratches made by the little
+teeth of most snakes, such as the milk snake, garter
+snake, and black snake, do no more harm than the
+scratch of a pin. The <i>copperhead</i>, the <i>southern moccasin</i>,
+and the <i>rattlesnake</i> have a pair of long teeth
+called <i>fangs</i> in the upper jaw. These teeth have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+little canals in them through which the snake presses
+poison into the bite.</p>
+
+<div class="figright bord" style="width: 150px;">
+<a name="i186" id="i186"></a>
+<img src="images/i186.jpg" width="150" height="145" alt="Copperhead snake" title=""/>
+<p class="caption"><span class="fig">Fig. 98</span>
+&mdash;Photograph of a copperhead snake whose bite may cause death.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If a person is bitten
+by one of these snakes,
+the doctor must be sent
+for and help given at
+once. Put a bandage
+above the bite and twist
+it tight with a stick.
+Make two or three deep
+cuts into the bitten place
+to let out the poisoned
+blood. Suck the wound to draw out the poison and
+apply ammonia.</p>
+
+<p><b>Choking.</b>&mdash;A hard piece of meat, a bone, or a peach
+seed may slip back into the throat and press so hard
+on the windpipe as to cut off the air from the lungs.
+If the object is not far back in the throat, it may be
+seized with the first finger. A few smart slaps on
+the upper part of the back while the body is bent
+forward may drive enough air out of the lungs to
+push the object outward.</p>
+
+<p><b>Drowning.</b>&mdash;Every one should learn to swim while
+young, but no one should venture in deep water. Stiffening
+of the muscles called cramps often causes the
+best swimmer to drown.</p>
+
+<p>After a person has been under the water two or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+three minutes he appears lifeless. He may, however,
+be brought to life if laid face downward, his clothes
+loosened, and the lungs made to breathe. A heavy
+folded coat, a piece of sod, or a bunch of weeds should
+be put under the chest. Then standing astride of
+him place the hands on the lower ribs and bend forward
+gradually so as to press on the ribs and push
+the air out of the lungs. Then straighten your body
+and slowly lessen pressure on the patient's ribs so
+that the air will run into the lungs. In this way
+make the air go in and out of the lungs about fifteen
+times each minute.</p>
+
+<p><b>Poisoning.</b>&mdash;Whenever a person has taken poison, a
+physician should be sent for at once. In most cases
+an effort should be made to get the poison out of the
+stomach by causing vomiting. A glass or two of
+weak, warm soapsuds, a pint of water with a tablespoonful
+of mustard, or a glass of water with two
+tablespoonfuls of salt may be taken to make the
+stomach throw out the poison. Tickling the throat
+<a name="back" id="back"></a>back of the tongue will help cause vomiting.</p>
+
+<p>If a strong acid such as carbolic acid or a strong
+alkali such as ammonia has been taken, do not cause
+vomiting. For acids give chalk in warm water and
+a pint of milk. For an alkali give vinegar in water.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<ul class="index">
+    <li>Ab do&acute;men, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+    <li>Ad&acute;e noids, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+    <li>Air and health, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+    <li>Air sacs, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+    <li>Air tubes, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+    <li>Alcohol, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>and blood, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+            <li>and blood vessels, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+            <li>and brain, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+            <li>and clothing, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+            <li>and crime, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+            <li>and digestion, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+            <li>and health, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+            <li>and kidneys, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+            <li>and lungs, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+            <li>and muscles, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+            <li>and senses, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+            <li>and skin, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Alcoholic drinks, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>as food, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>A or&acute;ta, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+    <li>Appetite, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
+    <li>Arteries, <a href="#Page_18">19</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Backbone, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bac te&acute;ria, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>of disease, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>-<a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+            <li>of milk, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Bathing, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+    <li>Beans, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bedbugs and disease, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+    <li>Beef tea, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+    <li>Beer and digestion, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>as a food, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+            <li>and heart, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+            <li>making of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Bile, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+    <li>Blackdeath, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bleeding, to stop, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+    <li>Blood, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+    <li>Blood vessels, <a href="#Page_18">19</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+    <li>Body, parts of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>-<a href="#Page_18">19</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bones, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bowels, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>.</li>
+    <li>Brain, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+    <li>Brain, use of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+    <li>Brandy, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+    <li>Bread, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+    <li>Breathing, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+    <li>Building foods, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+    <li>Burns and scalds, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+    <li>Butter, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Capillaries, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_119">120</a>.</li>
+    <li>Carbon dioxide, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cells, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cereals, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cer&acute;e brum, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+    <li>Chest, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+    <li>Chewing and health, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+    <li>Choking, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cholera, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cider, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cigarettes, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cleanliness, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+    <li>Clothing, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-<a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+    <li>Co&acute;ca ine, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+    <li>Coffee, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+    <li>Colds, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+    <li>Consumption, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cooking of eggs, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>of meat, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Corns, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cotton, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+    <li>Cream, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Deafness, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+    <li>Diaphragm (<i>di&acute;a fram</i>), <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+    <li>Digestion, organs of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+    <li>Diphtheria, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+    <li>Disease, cause of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>from alcohol, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+            <li>from bad air, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+            <li>from drinking cup, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+            <li>from dust, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+            <li>of eyes, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+            <li>from flies, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+            <li>from insects, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+            <li>from milk, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+            <li>prevention of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+         Disease, from spit, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>victory over, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Dis til la&acute;tion, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+    <li>Drinking cup and disease, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</li>
+    <li>Drowning, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+    <li>Drunkards, cause of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+    <li>Dust and disease, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+    <li>Dys pep&acute;si a, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Ear, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+    <li>Eggs, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+    <li>Epidermis, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+    <li>Exercise, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+    <li>Eye, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>-<a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Fainting, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fat, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fats, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+    <li>Feeding of body, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+    <li>Feeling, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+    <li>Feet, care of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fish as food, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fleas and disease, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+    <li>Flies and disease, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+    <li>Food, amount needed, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>and health, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+            <li>digestion of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+            <li>entrance to blood, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Foods, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+    <li>Freckles, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+    <li>Frostbite, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fruits, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+    <li>Fuel foods, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Gastric juice, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+    <li>Germs, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_40">40</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>of disease, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+            <li>of milk, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+            <li>of spit, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Glands, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+    <li>Growth of body, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+    <li>Gullet, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Habit, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+    <li>Habits, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+    <li>Hair, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+    <li>Headache, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+    <li>Hearing, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+    <li>Heart, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+    <li>Hookworm disease, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+    <li>Hookworms, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+    <li>Hy&acute;gi ene, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Insects and health, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+    <li>Intestine, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+    <li>Intestines, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Joints, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Kidney, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+    <li>Kidneys, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Larynx (<i>lar&acute;inks</i>), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+    <li>Leprosy, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+    <li>Life, length of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+    <li>Ligaments, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+    <li>Linen, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+    <li>Liver, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+    <li>Lung, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+    <li>Lungs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Malaria, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+    <li>Measles, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+    <li>Meat, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>cooking of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+            <li>spoiling of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Meats, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+    <li>Mi&acute;crobes, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+    <li>Milk, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_46">46</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>and scarlet fever, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+            <li>as a food, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+            <li>souring of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Mineral foods, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+    <li>Mold, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+    <li>Morphine, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+    <li>Mosquitoes and disease, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+    <li>Mouth<a name="Mouth" id="Mouth"></a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+    <li>Muscles, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>-<a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+    <li>Muscles and health, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Nails, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+    <li>Nar cot&acute;ics, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+    <li>Nerves, <a href="#Page_18">19</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+    <li>Nose, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+    <li>Nose bleed, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Opium, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+    <li>Organ, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+    <li>Organs of body, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+    <li>Oxygen, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+    <li>Oysters as a food, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>Painkillers, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pan&acute;cre as, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_52">53</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pa ral&acute;y sis, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+    <li>Patent medicines, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pharynx (<i>far&acute;inks</i>), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+    <li>Plague, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+    <li>Poisoning, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pro&acute;te ids, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+    <li>Pus, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Radius, <a href="#Page_136">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Ribs, <a href="#Page_136">137</a>.</li>
+    <li>Rum, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Sa li&acute;va, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+    <li>Salt, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
+    <li>Scarlet fever, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sense organs, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>-<a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+    <li>Shoes, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sick, number of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sickness, how caused, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>prevention of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Silk, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+    <li>Skin, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_93">93</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>senses of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Skull, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sleep, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>and disease, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Sleeping sickness, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+    <li>Slops, care of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+    <li>Smallpox, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+    <li>Smell, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+    <li>Smoking, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+    <li>Snakebites, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sore throat, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+    <li>Soups, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+    <li>Spinal cord, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">19</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+    <li>Spit, care of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+    <li>Spitting and health, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+    <li>Spleen, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+    <li>Starch, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+    <li>Stimulants, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+    <li>Stomach, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_52">53</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sugars, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sunstroke, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sweeping and health, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sweetbread, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
+    <li>Swimming, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+    <li>Sym pa thet&acute;ic nerves, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Taste, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tea, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+    <li>Teeth, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+    <li>Thigh, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tissue, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tobacco, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>and air, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+            <li>and blood, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+            <li>and brain, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
+            <li>and digestion, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+            <li>as food, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+            <li>and health, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+            <li>and heart, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+            <li>and lungs, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+            <li>and muscles, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+            <li>and senses, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Tonsil, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+    <li>Toothache, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+    <li>Tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>and bad air, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+            <li>cause of, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+            <li>prevention of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>-<a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
+                <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-<a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Trunk, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
+    <li>Typhoid fever, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>how caused, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_27">28</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Vaccination, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+    <li>Vegetables as food, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+    <li>Veins, <a href="#Page_27">28</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+    <li>Ventilation, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+    <li>Villi, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+    <li>Vocal cords, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+    <li>Voice, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+    <li>Voice box, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>War, deaths from, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
+    <li>Waste, giving out of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+    <li>Water, use of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+    <li>Water and health, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_27">28</a>.</li>
+    <li>Water in food, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+    <li>Whisky, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+    <li>Whooping cough, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+    <li>Wigglers, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-<a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+    <li>Windpipe, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+    <li>Wine, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_27">28</a>.
+        <ul>
+            <li>and digestion, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
+            <li>making of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+        </ul>
+    </li>
+    <li>Wounds, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+    <li class="pad"> &nbsp; </li>
+
+    <li>Yeast, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+    <li>Yellow fever, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<div class="frame">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
+<h2>BALDWIN AND BENDER'S<br />
+READERS</h2>
+
+<p class="center">Reading with Expression</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By JAMES BALDWIN, Author of Baldwin's School Readers,
+Harper's Readers, etc. and IDA C. BENDER,
+Supervisor of Primary Grades, Buffalo, New York.</p>
+
+<p>AN EIGHT BOOK SERIES or A FIVE BOOK SERIES</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The authorship of this series is conclusive evidence of
+its rare worth, of its happy union of the ideal and the
+practical. The chief design of the books is to help pupils
+to acquire the art and habit of reading so well as to give pleasure
+both to themselves and to those who listen to them. They
+teach reading with expression, and the selections have, to a
+large extent, been chosen for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>&para; These readers are very teachable and readable, and are unusually
+interesting both in selections and in illustrations. The
+selections are of a very high literary quality. Besides the
+choicest schoolbook classics, there are a large number which
+have never before appeared in school readers. The contents
+are well balanced between prose and poetry, and the subject
+matter is unusually varied. Beginning with the Third Reader,
+selections relating to similar subjects or requiring similar
+methods of study or recitation, are grouped together. Many
+selections are in dialogue form and suitable for dramatization.</p>
+
+<p>&para; The First Reader may be used with any method of teaching
+reading, for it combines the best ideas of each. A number
+of helpful new features are also included. Each reading lesson
+is on a right-hand page, and is approached by a series of preparatory
+exercises on the preceding left-hand page.</p>
+
+<p>&para; The illustrations constitute the finest and most attractive
+collection ever brought together in a series of readers. There
+are over 600 in all, every one made especially for these books
+by an artist of national reputation.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class="frame">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
+<h2>HICKS'S CHAMPION<br />
+SPELLING BOOK</h2>
+
+<p class="center">By WARREN E. HICKS, Assistant Superintendent of<br />
+Schools, Cleveland, Ohio</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">Complete, $0.25&mdash;Part One, $0.18&mdash;Part Two, $0.18</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>This book embodies the method that enabled the pupils
+in the Cleveland schools after two years to win the National
+Education Association Spelling Contest of 1908.</p>
+
+<p>&para; By this method a spelling lesson of ten words is given each
+day from the spoken vocabulary of the pupil. Of these ten
+words two are selected for intensive study, and in the spelling
+book are made prominent in both position and type at the head
+of each day's lessons, these two words being followed by the
+remaining eight words in smaller type. Systematic review is
+provided throughout the book. Each of the ten prominent
+words taught intensively in a week is listed as a subordinate
+word in the next two weeks; included in a written spelling
+contest at the end of eight weeks; again in the annual contest
+at the end of the year; and again as a subordinate word in the
+following year's work;&mdash;used five times in all within two
+years.</p>
+
+<p>&para; The Champion Spelling Book consists of a series of lessons
+arranged as above for six school years, from the third to the
+eighth, inclusive. It presents about 1,200 words each year,
+and teaches 312 of them with especial clearness and intensity.
+It also includes occasional supplementary exercises which serve
+as aids in teaching sounds, vowels, homonyms, rules of spelling,
+abbreviated forms, suffixes, prefixes, the use of hyphens,
+plurals, dictation work, and word building. The words have
+been selected from lists, supplied by grade teachers of Cleveland
+schools, of words ordinarily misspelled by the pupils of
+their respective grades.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class="frame">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p>
+<h2>SPENCERS' PRACTICAL<br />
+WRITING</h2>
+
+<h3>By PLATT R. SPENCER'S SONS</h3>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">Books 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  Per dozen, $0.60</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>SPENCERS' PRACTICAL WRITING has been devised
+because of the distinct and wide-spread reaction from the
+use of vertical writing in schools. It is thoroughly up-to-date,
+embodying all the advantages of the old and of the
+new. Each word can be written by one continuous movement
+of the pen.</p>
+
+<p>&para; The books teach a plain, practical hand, moderate in slant,
+and free from ornamental curves, shades, and meaningless
+lines. The stem letters are long enough to be clear and unmistakable.
+The capitals are about two spaces in height.</p>
+
+<p>&para; The copies begin with words and gradually develop into
+sentences. The letters, both large and small, are taught
+systematically. In the first two books the writing is somewhat
+larger than is customary because it is more easily learned
+by young children. These books also contain many illustrations
+in outline. The ruling is very simple.</p>
+
+<p>&para; Instruction is afforded showing how the pupil should sit at
+the desk, and hold the pen and paper. A series of drill movement
+exercises, thirty-three in number, with directions for
+their use, accompanies each book.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>SPENCERIAN PRACTICAL WRITING SPELLER</h3>
+
+<p class="center">Per dozen, $0.48</p>
+
+<p>This simple, inexpensive device provides abundant drill in writing
+words. At the same time it trains pupils to form their copies in
+accordance with the most modern and popular system of penmanship,
+and saves much valuable time for both teacher and pupil.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h2>
+</div>
+
+<div class="frame">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p>
+<h2>MAXWELL'S<br />
+NEW GRAMMARS</h2>
+
+<p class="center">By WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, Ph.D., LL.D.<br />
+Superintendent of Schools, City of New York</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="center">Elementary Grammar &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; $0.40 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; School Grammar &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; $0.60</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>The ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR presents in very
+small space all the grammar usually taught in elementary
+schools.</p>
+
+<p>&para; It gives the pupil an insight into the general forms in which
+thought is expressed, and enables him to see the meaning of
+complicated sentences. The explanatory matter is made
+clear by the use of simple language, by the elimination of
+unnecessary technical terms, and by the frequent introduction
+of illustrative sentences. The definitions are simple and precise.
+The exercises are abundant and peculiarly ingenious.
+A novel device for parsing and analysis permits these two
+subjects to be combined in one exercise for purposes of drill.</p>
+
+<p>&para; The SCHOOL GRAMMAR contains everything needed
+by students in upper grammar grades and secondary schools.
+It covers fully the requirements of the Syllabus in English
+issued by the New York State Education Department.</p>
+
+<p>&para; The book treats of grammar only, and presents many
+exercises which call for considerable reflection on the meaning
+of the expressions to be analyzed. Throughout, stress
+is laid on the broader distinctions of thought and expression.
+The common errors of written and spoken language are so
+classified as to make it comparatively easy for pupils to
+detect and correct them through the application of the rules
+of grammar. The book ends with an historical sketch of
+the English language, an article on the formation of words,
+and a list of equivalent terms employed by other grammarians.
+The full index makes the volume useful for reference.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</h2>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="tn">
+<h4>Transcriber's Note:</h4>
+<ul class="corrections">
+<li>Inconsistent hyphenation in the word "skinlike" retained.</li>
+<li><a href="#Clean">Pg 91</a> Added period after "Clean" located in "Keeping the Skin Clean".</li>
+<li><a href="#sickness">Pg 182</a> Added period after "sickness" located in "animals which carry sickness".</li>
+<li><a href="#back">Pg 188</a> Removed extraneous comma after "back" located in "throat back, of the tongue".</li>
+<li><a href="#Mouth">Pg 190</a> Amended "47" to "67" located in "Mouth, 60-47".</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Health Lessons, by Alvin Davison
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,5346 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Health Lessons, by Alvin Davison
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Health Lessons
+       Book 1
+
+Author: Alvin Davison
+
+Release Date: March 13, 2010 [EBook #31616]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HEALTH LESSONS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Larry B. Harrison, D. Alexander and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Book Cover]
+
+
+
+
+  HEALTH LESSONS
+  BOOK I
+
+  BY
+  ALVIN DAVISON, M.S., A.M., PH.D.
+  PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY IN LAFAYETTE COLLEGE
+
+  [Illustration: Publisher Symbol]
+
+  NEW YORK . CINCINNATI . CHICAGO
+  AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY
+  ALVIN DAVISON.
+
+  ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON.
+
+  HEALTH LESSONS. BK. 1.
+  W. P. 6
+
+[Illustration: Exercise, clean air, and well-chewed food make a strong
+and healthy body.]
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Scarcely one half of the children of our country continue in school
+much beyond the fifth grade. It is important, therefore, that so far
+as possible the knowledge which has most to do with human welfare
+should be presented in the early years of school life.
+
+Fisher, Metchnikoff, Sedgwick, and others have shown that the health
+of a people influences the prosperity and happiness of a nation more
+than any other one thing. The highest patriotism is therefore the
+conservation of health. The seven hundred thousand lives annually
+destroyed by infectious diseases and the million other serious cases
+of sickness from contagious maladies, with all their attendant
+suffering, are largely sacrifices on the altar of ignorance. The
+loving mother menaces the life of her babe by feeding it milk with a
+germ content nearly half as great as that of sewage, the anemic girl
+sleeps with fast-closed windows, wondering in the morning why she
+feels so lifeless, and the one-time vigorous boy goes to a
+consumptive's early grave, because they did not know (what every
+school ought to teach) the way to health.
+
+Doctor Price, the Secretary of the State Board of Health of Maryland,
+recently said before the American Public Health Association that the
+text-books of our schools show a marked disregard for the urgent
+problems which enter our daily life, such as the prevention of
+tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and acute infectious diseases.
+
+Since the observing public have seen educated communities decrease
+their death rate from typhoid fever, tuberculosis, and diphtheria from
+one third to three fourths by heeding the health call, lawmakers are
+becoming convinced that the needless waste of human life should be
+stopped. Michigan has already decreed that every school child shall be
+taught the cause and prevention of the communicable diseases, and
+several other states are contemplating like action. This book meets
+fully the demands of all such laws as are contemplated, and presents
+the important truths not by dogmatic assertion, but by citing specific
+facts appealing to the child mind in such a way as to make a lasting
+impression.
+
+After the eleventh year of age, the first cause of death among school
+children is tuberculosis. The chief aim of the author has been to show
+the child the sure way of preventing this disease and others of like
+nature, and to establish an undying faith in the motto of Pasteur, "It
+is within the power of man to rid himself of every parasitic disease."
+
+Nearly all of the illustrations used are from photographs and drawings
+specially prepared for this book. These, together with the large
+amount of material gleaned from original sources and from the author's
+experiments in the laboratory, will, it is hoped, make this little
+volume worthy of the same generous welcome accorded the two earlier
+books of this series.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                  PAGE
+
+       I. CARING FOR THE HEALTH                               9
+
+      II. PARTS OF THE BODY                                  15
+
+     III. FEEDING THE BODY                                   21
+
+      IV. FOOD AND HEALTH                                    30
+
+       V. HOW PLANTS SOUR OR SPOIL FOOD                      36
+
+      VI. MILK MAY BE A FOOD OR A POISON                     41
+
+     VII. HOW THE BODY USES FOOD                             47
+
+    VIII. THE CARE OF THE MOUTH                              60
+
+      IX. ALCOHOLIC DRINKS                                   68
+
+       X. ALCOHOL AND HEALTH                                 74
+
+      XI. TOBACCO AND THE DRUGS WHICH INJURE THE
+            HEALTH                                           78
+
+     XII. THE SKIN AND BATHING                               85
+
+    XIII. CLOTHING AND HOW TO USE IT                         94
+
+     XIV. BREATHING                                         100
+
+      XV. FRESH AIR AND HEALTH                              111
+
+     XVI. THE BLOOD AND HOW IT FLOWS THROUGH THE BODY       117
+
+    XVII. INSECTS AND HEALTH                                127
+
+   XVIII. HOW THE BODY MOVES                                135
+
+     XIX. THE MUSCLES AND HEALTH                            144
+
+      XX. HOW THE BODY IS GOVERNED                          149
+
+     XXI. HOW NARCOTICS AND STIMULANTS AFFECT THE
+            BRAIN AND NERVES                                158
+
+    XXII. THE SENSES, OR DOORS OF KNOWLEDGE                 165
+
+   XXIII. KEEPING AWAY SICKNESS                             174
+
+    XXIV. HELPING BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES                   183
+
+  INDEX                                                     189
+
+
+
+
+HEALTH LESSONS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+CARING FOR THE HEALTH
+
+
+=Good Health better than Gold.=--Horses and houses, balls and dolls,
+and much else that people think they want to make them happy can be
+bought with money. The one thing which is worth more than all else
+cannot be bought with even a houseful of gold. This thing is good
+health. Over three million persons in our country are now sick, and
+many of them are suffering much pain. Some of them would give all the
+money they have to gain once more the good health which the poorest
+may usually enjoy by right living day by day.
+
+=How long shall you live?=--In this country most of the persons born
+live to be over forty years of age, and some live more than one
+hundred years. A hundred years ago most persons died before the age of
+thirty-five years. In London three hundred years ago only about one
+half of those born reached the age of twenty-five years. Scarcely one
+half of the people in India to-day live beyond the age of twenty-five
+years. In fact, people in India are dying nearly twice as fast as in
+our own country. This is because they have not learned how to take
+care of the body in India so well as we have.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--By right living this woman remained in good
+health for several years after she was a century old.]
+
+The study which tells how to keep well is _Hygiene_. Whether you keep
+well and live long, or suffer much from headaches, cold, and other
+sickness, depends largely on how you care for your body.
+
+=Working together for Health.=--One cannot always keep well and strong
+by his own efforts. The grocer and milkman may sell to you bad food, the
+town may furnish impure water, churches and schools may injure your
+health by failing to supply fresh air in their buildings. More than a
+hundred thousand people were made very sick last year through the use of
+water poisoned by waste matter which other persons carelessly let reach
+the streams and wells. Many of the sick died of the fever caused by this
+water. Although it cannot be said that we are engaged in real war, yet
+we are surely killing one another by our thoughtless habits in
+scattering disease. We must therefore not only know how to care for our
+own bodies, but teach all to help one another to keep well.
+
+=A Lesson from War.=--The mention of war makes those who know its
+terrors shudder. Disease has caused more than ten times as much
+suffering and death as war with its harvest of mangled bodies,
+shattered limbs, and blinded eyes. In our four months' war with Spain
+in 1898 only 268 soldiers were killed in battle, while nearly 4000
+brave men died from disease. We lost more than ten men by disease to
+every one killed by bullets.
+
+In the late war between Japan and Russia the Japanese soldiers cared
+for their health so carefully that only one fourth as many died from
+disease as perished in battle. This shows that with care for the
+health the small men of Japan saved themselves from disease, and thus
+won a victory told around the world.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--The Surgeon General who, by keeping the
+soldiers well, helped Japan win in the war against Russia.]
+
+=The Battle with Disease.=--For long ages sickness has caused more
+sorrow, misery, and death than famine, war, and wild beasts. Many
+years ago a plague called the _black death_ swept over most of the
+earth, and killed nearly one third of the inhabitants. A little more
+than a hundred years ago yellow fever killed thousands of people in
+Philadelphia and New York in a few weeks. When Boston was a city with
+a population of 11,000, more than one half of the persons had smallpox
+in one year. Within a few years one half of the sturdy red men of our
+forests were slain by smallpox when it first visited our shores.
+Before the year 1798 few boys or girls reached the age of twenty years
+without a pit-marked face due to the dreadful disease of smallpox.
+This disease was formerly more common than measles and chicken pox now
+are because we had not yet learned how to prevent it as we do to-day.
+
+=Victory over Disease.=--Cholera, yellow fever, black death, and
+smallpox no longer cause people to flee into the wilderness to escape
+them when they occasionally break out in a town or city. We have
+learned how to prevent these ailments among people who will obey the
+laws of health.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--One of the thousands of sturdy red men which
+smallpox slew before we learned how to prevent the disease.]
+
+Until the year 1900, people fled from a city when yellow fever was
+announced, but now any one can sleep with a fever patient and not
+catch the disease, because we have learned how to prevent it. Nurses
+and doctors no longer hesitate to sit for hours in the rooms of those
+sick with smallpox because they know how to treat the body to keep
+away this disease. By studying this book, boys and girls may learn not
+only how to keep free from these diseases, but how to manage their
+bodies to make them strong enough to escape other diseases.
+
+=As the Twig is bent so the Tree is inclined.=--This old saying means
+that a strong, straight, healthy, full-grown tree cannot come from a
+weak and bent young tree. Health in manhood and womanhood depends on
+how the health is cared for in childhood. The foundation for disease
+is often laid during school years. The making of strong bodies that
+will live joyous lives for long years must begin in boyhood and
+girlhood.
+
+In youth is the time to begin right living. Bad habits formed in early
+life often cause much sorrow in later years. It is said that over one
+half the drunkards began drinking liquor before they were twenty years
+of age and most of the smokers began to use tobacco before they were
+twenty years old.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. What is worth most in this world?
+
+     2. How many people are sick in our country?
+
+     3. How long do most people live?
+
+     4. Why do people not live long in India?
+
+     5. What is hygiene?
+
+     6. How many more deaths are caused by disease than by
+        war?
+
+     7. Give some facts about smallpox.
+
+     8. Why do we have no fear of yellow fever and smallpox
+        now?
+
+     9. Why should you be careful of your health while young?
+
+    10. When do most smokers and drinkers begin their bad
+        habits?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PARTS OF THE BODY
+
+
+=Regions of the Body.=--In order to talk about any part of the body it
+must have a name. The main portion of the body is called the _trunk_.
+At the top of the trunk is the _head_. The arms and legs are known as
+_limbs_ or _extremities_. The part of the arm between the elbow and
+wrist is the _forearm_. The _thigh_ is the part of the leg between the
+knee and hip.
+
+The upper part of the trunk is called the _chest_ and is encircled by
+the ribs. The lower part of the trunk is named the _abdomen_. A large
+cavity within the chest contains the lungs and heart. The cavity of
+the abdomen is filled with the liver, stomach, food tube, and other
+working parts.
+
+=The Plan of the Body.=--All parts of the body are not the same. One
+part has one kind of work to do while another performs quite a
+different duty. The covering of the body is the _skin_. Beneath is the
+red meat called _muscle_. It looks just like the beef bought at the
+butcher shop which is the muscle of a cow or ox. Nearly one half of
+the weight of the body is made of muscle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--General plan of the organs of the body.]
+
+The muscle is fastened to the _bones_ which support the body and give
+it stiffness. The muscle by pulling on the bones helps the body to do
+all kinds of work. The muscles and bones cannot work day after day
+without being fed. For this reason a food tube leads from the mouth
+down into the trunk to prepare milk, meat, bread, or other food, for
+the use of the body.
+
+=Feeding the Body.=--The mouth receives the food and chews it so that it
+may be easily swallowed. It then goes into a sac called the _stomach_.
+Here the hard parts are broken up into tiny bits and float about in a
+watery fluid. This goes out of the stomach into a long crooked tube, the
+_intestine_. Here the particles are made still finer, and the whole mass
+is then ready to be carried to every part of the muscles, bones, and
+brain to build up what is being worn out in work and play.
+
+=Carrying Food through the Body.=--In all parts of the body are little
+branching tubes. These unite into larger tubes leading to the heart.
+Through these tubes flows _blood_. Hundreds of tiny tubes in the walls
+of the intestine drink in the watery food, and it flows with the blood
+to the heart. The heart then pushes this blood with its food out
+through another set of tubes which divide into fine branches as they
+lead to every part of the body (Fig. 5).
+
+=Getting rid of Ashes and Worn-out Parts.=--The body works like a
+machine. Food is used somewhat as a locomotive uses coal to give it
+power to work. Some ashes are left from the used food, and other waste
+matter is formed by the dead and worn-out parts of the body. This
+waste is gathered up by the richly branching blood tubes and carried
+to the lungs. Here some of it passes out at every breath. Part of the
+waste goes out through the skin with the sweat and part passes out
+through the kidneys. In this way the dead matter is kept from
+collecting in the body and clogging its parts.
+
+=How the Parts of the Body are made to work Together.=--The mass of
+red flesh covering the bones is made up of many pieces called muscles.
+Whenever we catch a ball or run or even speak, more than a dozen
+muscles must be made to act together just in the right way. When food
+goes into the stomach, something must tell the juice to flow out of
+the walls to act on the food. The boss or manager of all the work
+carried on by the thousands of parts of the body is known as the
+_brain_ and _spinal cord_ with their tiny threads, the _nerves_,
+spreading everywhere through bones and muscles. The brain and spinal
+cord give the orders and the nerves carry them (Fig. 5).
+
+=The Servants of the Body.=--The parts of the body are much like the
+servants in a large house or the clerks in a store. One servant or
+clerk does one kind of work while another does something entirely
+different. Each portion of the body does a different kind of work.
+Each one of these parts doing a particular work is called an _organ_.
+The stomach is an organ to prepare food and the heart is an organ for
+sending the blood through the body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--On the left are shown the branching tubes
+which carry blood to all parts of the body; on the right are the
+brain, spinal cord, and nerves which direct the work of the organs.]
+
+The entire body is composed of several hundred organs. Each of them is
+formed of several kinds of materials named _tissue_. A skinlike tissue
+makes up the lining of the stomach, while its outside is made of
+muscular tissue. The smallest parts of a tissue are little bodies
+named _cells_, and very fine threads called _fibers_.
+
+=Growth of the Body.=--The body grows rapidly in childhood and more
+slowly after the sixteenth year, but it continues to get larger until
+about the twenty-fifth year of age. Some children always grow slowly,
+have weak bones, and frail bodies. This is generally so because they
+have poor food or do not chew it well, and get too little fresh air,
+sunshine, and sleep.
+
+The use of beer, wine, or tobacco may hinder the body from using food
+for growth, or they may poison the body so that it will never be large
+and strong. The body should grow about a hundred pounds in weight
+during the first thirteen years of life. Whether children grow little
+or much generally depends on the food they give their bodies.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Point out and name four parts of the body.
+
+     2. Name the two parts of the trunk.
+
+     3. What does the chest contain?
+
+     4. What is muscle?
+
+     5. How is the body fed?
+
+     6. Give three parts taking waste out of the body.
+
+     7. Of what use are the brain and nerves?
+
+     8. Name two organs.
+
+     9. How long does the body continue to grow?
+
+    10. Why are some children weak and of slow growth?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FEEDING THE BODY
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Photograph of the outer dead skin pushed off
+from a black snake crawling through the brush.]
+
+=Why the Body needs Food.=--Every living thing, whether a plant or an
+animal, needs food. While the whole body lives, a part of it is
+constantly dying. The entire outer layer of a snake's skin dies three
+or four times during a year and is cast off, sometimes in a single
+piece. We can scrape dead bits of skin from the surface of our body at
+any time. Tiny particles are dying in all regions of the body, and we
+should soon waste away if food were not taken to make up the loss for
+the worn-out parts.
+
+The body also needs food to help it do its work and keep warm. The body
+has the strange power of using food eaten to make the legs and arms move
+and the brain to think. In doing this the body is said to burn the food.
+
+=How the Body burns itself and also Food.=--If a boy is weighed just
+before playing a game of ball and again afterward, he will find that
+part of his body has been used up and given off in the breath and
+sweat. He has burned part of his body, and the breath and sweat are
+like the smoke given off when a match is burned.
+
+One fifth of the air is made of a gas called _oxygen_. When anything
+becomes very hot, this oxygen makes it burst into a flame and burn. We
+breathe in oxygen with the air and the living action of the body
+causes such a slow union of the oxygen and the tissues that there is
+no blaze although there is a little heat.
+
+=Kinds of Food.=--There are four general classes of foods. These are
+the _building foods_, the _sugars_ and _starches_, the _fats_, and the
+_mineral foods_. The building foods are those which help largely in
+forming new muscle and blood or other parts of the body. _Proteids_ is
+another name for building foods.
+
+_Sugars_ and _starches_ are placed in one group because starch changes
+to sugar within the body. If you chew a starchy food like bread for a
+few minutes, it will begin to taste sweet because the starch is
+becoming sugar.
+
+Fats are got not only from fat meat but also from eggs, butter, milk,
+and many other foods. There is some mineral matter, such as potash and
+soda, in many of the vegetables and meats eaten, and we use much table
+salt to season other foods.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Good foods for building muscles, blood, and
+bone.]
+
+=Body-building Foods.=--A person with all the sugar, molasses, starch,
+butter, and lard he could eat would starve to death in a few weeks
+because none of these foods would help to build up the dying parts of
+the body. A large amount of body builder is found in lean meat, eggs,
+milk, peas, beans, corn meal, and bread. Bread and milk is a good food
+to make the body grow. If the body takes in more building food than it
+needs for repairs, it may store it up in the form of fat or burn it to
+help the body do its work.
+
+=The Fuel Foods.=--The fuel foods are the sugars, starches, and fats.
+These are the foods which the body can easily burn to keep it warm and
+give it power to act. Candy, molasses, or sugar in any form, taken in
+small quantities, is a good food. Starch, which the body quickly
+changes to sugar, is a much cheaper food. Meats contain very little
+starch, but nearly all vegetables contain much starch. Three fourths
+of corn meal, rice, wheat flour, and soda crackers consists of starch.
+More than one half of white bread, dried beans, and peas is made of
+pure starch, and there is much starch in potatoes.
+
+_Fat_ is more abundant in animal than in vegetable food. Castor oil
+and cotton-seed oil are fats from vegetables. The fat of the cow is
+called _suet_ or _tallow_, while the fat of the hog is known as
+_lard_. _Butter_ is the fat collected from milk. Cream and eggs
+contain much fat. When persons eat too much of the sugars, starches,
+or fats, the body may store them up as fat. For this reason thin
+persons wishing to gain in flesh eat eggs, nuts, and rich milk.
+
+=The Mineral Foods.=--The body must have not only lime to help form the
+bones, but iron, salt, soda, and potash for other parts of the body. All
+these minerals except salt are found in many of the common foods.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Good foods for giving the body power and heat.]
+
+Water is one of the most important of the mineral foods because it helps
+the body use all the other foods. Most people drink too little water to
+enjoy the best health. The body needs more than two quarts of water
+every day. There is much water in our foods. More than one half of eggs,
+meat, and potatoes is made of water, and more than three fourths of
+tomatoes, green corn, onions, cabbage, and string beans is composed of
+water. We should drink one quart or more of water daily. It should not
+be used ice cold, and very little should be taken at meal time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Diagram showing how the drainage from a house
+with a sick person caused one hundred and twenty cases of typhoid
+fever at Mount Savage, Maryland.]
+
+=Water and Health.=--One of the common causes of sickness is bad
+water. Water from shallow wells within a hundred feet of barnyards,
+pigpens, or other outhouses is usually unsafe to drink. At Newport,
+Rhode Island, more than eighty persons were made sick with the fever
+by drinking the water from a well only ten feet deep. The impure
+water from one spring at Trenton, New Jersey, gave the fever to
+nearly a hundred persons in one season. At Mount Savage, Maryland, a
+hundred and twenty persons were made ill by using the water from a
+spring near a house drain.
+
+Water from rivers and streams running near where many people live is
+likely to be made impure and is sure to bring sickness and death to
+some of those who use it. Water from a small stream at Plymouth,
+Pennsylvania, running past a house occupied by a typhoid patient, gave
+the fever to over a thousand persons in one month. The water from a
+small stream at Ithaca, New York, gave the fever to over thirteen
+hundred people in one season, and an almost equal number caught the
+fever in a few weeks at Butler, Pennsylvania, by drinking water from a
+small creek along which some sick persons lived.
+
+=Preventing Sickness from Bad Water.=--It is better to go thirsty than
+to drink water which is likely to cause sickness. Any water can be
+made safe by boiling it one minute. Boiled water is the most healthful
+kind of water to use. The people of China and Japan seldom use water
+that has not been boiled.
+
+Many cities using water from rivers run it through a layer of sand and
+gravel to remove the tiny things that cause so much sickness and death.
+This makes the water very much purer, but it is not so certain to make
+the water safe as is boiling it. Bad water makes nearly a quarter of a
+million of our people sick every year and kills twenty thousand of them.
+
+=How much Food does the Body Need?=--Most people eat too much.
+Overeating overworks the stomach, poisons the body, makes one feel
+lazy, and causes headache. If you chew your food fine and stop eating
+as soon as hunger is satisfied without tempting the appetite with
+sweets, you are not likely to overeat.
+
+About one seventh of a pound of building food is needed daily to keep
+the body in repair, and a quarter of a pound of fat and a pound of
+starches and sugars are required to help the body do a hard day's
+work. A half pound of bread, beans, and meat each, a pound of
+potatoes, a pint of milk, and a quarter of a pound of butter and sugar
+each, will give a working man all the food he needs for a day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Bird's-eye view of Plymouth, Pennsylvania,
+showing where the waste from one sick room was thrown on the bank of a
+stream which several miles below supplied the town with water and
+caused over one thousand cases of fever and more than a hundred deaths
+within seven weeks.]
+
+=Beer and Wine as Foods.=--It was once thought that beer and wine were
+good foods, but hundreds of late experiments show that these drinks
+are very poor and expensive foods. A half glass of milk is of more use
+to the body as a food than a full quart of beer. The use of much wine
+or beer may seem to satisfy the appetite because they deaden the real
+feeling of hunger. Neither of these drinks can be used by the young
+without danger of doing much harm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The little glass of milk contains nearly twice
+as much food for building flesh and blood as the large glass of beer.]
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Why does the body need food?
+
+     2. Why do you weigh less after working?
+
+     3. What is oxygen?
+
+     4. From what do we get body-building foods?
+
+     5. In what is starch found?
+
+     6. How much water does the body need?
+
+     7. Where have people been made sick by using bad water?
+
+     8. How can we prevent sickness from bad water?
+
+     9. What harm does overeating do?
+
+    10. What can you say of beer as a food?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+FOOD AND HEALTH
+
+
+=Meats.=--Beef is the best of all meat for food. Nearly one fifth of
+it can be used to repair the worn-out parts of the body. Mutton, the
+meat of sheep, is almost as good for food as beef. Veal and pork also
+contain much body-building matter, but the stomach must work hard to
+prepare them for use.
+
+Fish is an excellent food, but it has only little more than one half
+as much flesh-building matter as good beef. Poultry is a healthful
+food, especially for the weak and sick, but it is more expensive than
+the other meats. Oysters are largely made of water and do not contain
+much to strengthen the body.
+
+In all meat there is some waste matter. This may harm the body if we
+eat too much meat. It is no longer thought healthful for most persons
+to eat meat more than once a day. Too much meat used daily for several
+years is likely to cause disease.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Each of these articles costs the same, but
+the bread will furnish four times as much food for the body as the
+cabbage, more than twice as much as the fish, and nearly twice as much
+as the milk.]
+
+=The Cooking of Meat.=--The best meat if poorly cooked is unfit for
+eating. Broiled and roasted meats are more healthful than boiled or
+fried meat. Meat is broiled by holding it in a wire frame over a
+flame or hot coals. It is roasted by placing it in a covered pan in a
+hot oven for two or three hours. It is boiled by keeping it in hot
+water several hours.
+
+Meat is fried by cooking it in lard or other fat in a pan. Only those
+who have strong bodies should eat fried meat.
+
+The cheap cuts of meat from the neck, breast, and legs have about as
+much food matter in them as the more costly parts. Such meat may be
+made more tender by boiling than by roasting.
+
+=Soup.=--Soup, broth, and beef tea furnish but little food for the
+body. They are very useful in giving us a good appetite for the real
+food to be eaten later. They make the stomach go to work more quickly
+than other food. Soup or broth is made from meat by placing it on the
+stove in cold water, gradually heating it, and then keeping it hot
+several hours.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Either group of foods will give the body the
+same strength and nourishment for work and growth.]
+
+=Vegetables.=--Some persons never eat meat of any kind because they
+enjoy better health when using only vegetables, milk, and eggs. Peas and
+beans contain much matter for making new flesh and blood and also much
+starch to give heat and power to the body. Potatoes form a valuable
+food. Roasted potatoes are more healthful than those boiled or fried.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--The amount of real food in these articles.]
+
+Radishes, onions, and cucumbers are made largely of water. Only a
+small amount of these should be eaten at one meal as the stomach must
+work hard to make use of them. Young beets, lettuce, and ripe tomatoes
+may be eaten by young and old. They contain useful minerals and help
+keep the body in a healthful condition.
+
+=The Cereals or Grain Foods.=--These foods are eaten in the form of
+bread, oatmeal, corn meal, rice, and breakfast foods. All of these
+furnish much matter to strengthen the body and make it grow. Bread and
+butter with rice are excellent foods for children.
+
+=Fruits.=--Very few people can remain well long without eating fruit of
+some kind. Ripe apples, pears, plums, peaches, berries, and cherries
+furnish useful salts to the body and also help the stomach and food
+tube do their work in a more healthful way. Fruits also increase the
+appetite. Green fruit and fruit which is overripe should never be eaten.
+
+=Eggs.=--Eggs form a good food for nearly everybody, but they are
+specially needed by the young and other persons with weak bodies. They
+can repair the worn-out parts of the body and also help it do its work.
+
+Eggs are most healthful when eaten raw or soft cooked. The best way to
+cook them through evenly is to put them in a pan off the stove and add
+about a quart of boiling water for every three eggs. Cover and let
+them cook fifteen minutes.
+
+Eggs should be kept in a cold room or cellar until used. They become
+stale in less than a week when left in a warm living room and may get
+a bad taste when only three or four days old.
+
+=Salt, Pepper, and Vinegar.=--Eating much salt is harmful. A small
+quantity of salt and pepper increases the appetite and makes the
+stomach do its work better. Children should use very little pepper and
+almost no vinegar and mustard.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--A bottle of beer. The dotted part at the top
+shows how much body-building food it contains.]
+
+=Tobacco.=--Some people think tobacco is a food because it is made from
+the leaves of a plant. Other people think tobacco is a food because they
+do not feel hungry after smoking or chewing it. The truth is that
+tobacco is of no use to the body as a food and may do it much harm
+because of the poison it contains. Tobacco satisfies hunger somewhat by
+deadening the parts of the body that are calling for food.
+
+=Beer.=--The people who make beer and sell it say that it is a food.
+Men who have no interest in selling beer, and have experimented with
+it to find out whether it strengthens the body, say that beer should
+never be used as a food. It often tends to weaken the body. Children
+should never use beer at any time, and older people can sometimes
+avoid disease by letting it alone.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Which are the best meats for food?
+
+     2. Why should we not eat meat at every meal?
+
+     3. How should meat be cooked to make it most tender?
+
+     4. How is soup or broth made?
+
+     5. Name the best vegetables for food.
+
+     6. Name some good grain foods.
+
+     7. Of what use are fruits?
+
+     8. What can you say of the use of eggs?
+
+     9. How should eggs be cared for?
+
+    10. What can you say of the use of salt and pepper?
+
+    11. Why does tobacco satisfy hunger?
+
+    12. Of what value is beer for food?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HOW PLANTS SOUR OR SPOIL FOOD
+
+
+=Germs, Microbes, or Bacteria.=--The dust and dirt of all sorts
+contain thousands of tiny plants too small to be seen by the eye
+without help. An instrument called a _microscope_ makes them appear so
+large that their form and growth are easily studied. These little
+plants are called _germs_ or _microbes_. They are also named
+_bacteria_. They are so small that a million laid side by side would
+not cover the head of a pin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Bacteria or microbes found in water, dust,
+and waste. They help change straw and other dead matter into food for
+plants. Much enlarged.]
+
+There are hundreds of different kinds of germs. Some are round like
+little balls and others are the shape of tiny rods. Many of them which
+look just alike act very different in growing. There are more than
+twenty different kinds that grow in our bodies and cause diphtheria,
+tuberculosis, and other diseases. We have measles and scarlet fever
+because we have gotten these disease germs from some one else in whom
+they were growing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Mold which grew on moist bread in two days.
+5, seed bodies breaking out of the sack; 1, 2, and 4, one of the seed
+bodies after one, two, and four hours' growth. Much enlarged.]
+
+Most germs feed on dead matter instead of our living bodies and make
+it melt away or change into another form. An apple or a piece of meat
+thrown out on the ground will soon change and become like the earth on
+which it lies. The change, called decay, is caused by millions of
+germs. The farmer's best friends are certain germs which help make the
+ground rich, so that the crops will grow.
+
+=Mold.=--The dust raised in sweeping contains tiny living seedlike
+bodies. If these fall on bread, cheese, or fruit, and this food is
+afterward kept moist in a warm room for a day or two, they will grow
+into grayish fluffy spots. These spots are mold. The greenish white
+growth on the top of some canned fruit and on berries left in the
+warm kitchen over night is also mold.
+
+Mold is a plant which grows from tiny round bodies acting like seeds
+(Fig. 17). These seed bodies of mold are common in all dust and often
+fly through the air. On this account food should be kept covered when
+possible and especially when one is sweeping. Some mold gives bread,
+cheese, and other food a bad taste, but it will not make one sick.
+
+=How Germs Grow.=--Germs will not grow where it is very cold, but
+freezing the germs does not kill them. Boiling one minute kills most
+germs. Drying will stop the germs from growing, but will not kill all
+of them. Sunlight kills many of them.
+
+Moisture and warmth make germs grow rapidly. A germ in growing
+lengthens out a little and then divides in the middle. It does this so
+quickly that one germ may become two in fifteen minutes. Each of these
+will then divide. In this way one germ can make many million germs in
+a single day (Fig. 18).
+
+=The Spoiling of Meat.=--Fresh meat will not remain good even one day
+if left in a warm place. A large greenish blue fly seen buzzing about
+in warm weather will sometimes lay its eggs on meat. These will hatch
+the next day into little worms, called maggots. They grow rapidly and
+a few days later change into flies.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Drawing of the germ at the top every ten
+minutes, showing how it grew into two germs in a half hour. Much
+enlarged.]
+
+Germs will also spoil meat not kept cold. They feed on the meat and
+give off a poison, making it unfit to eat. The bad odor tells when the
+germs are at work. Every home should have a cold cellar or an ice box
+to keep food from spoiling.
+
+=Saving Food from Souring.=--The souring of milk and of cooked food of
+any kind is due to the germs always present in the air and clinging by
+the thousands to unwashed dishes and hands. If meat or fruit is cooked
+and kept tightly covered, it will remain good for years. Many persons
+save fruit and vegetables for use in winter by putting them in jars,
+which are heated to kill the germs, and sealed tight to keep out other
+germs.
+
+=Yeast or the Alcohol Plant.=--Sweet cider and other fruit juices are
+sometimes spoiled by a plant named yeast. This plant has the form of a
+football and is so small that a million of its kind together would not
+make a mass as large as the head of a pin. It floats about in the air
+and is present on the skins of fruits.
+
+Yeast is also called the alcohol plant because whenever it grows in a
+sweet substance like fruit juice it changes part of it into a biting
+substance called alcohol. At the same time it gives off a gas. It is
+this gas which forms the bubbling or frothing in beer.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Yeast plants used in making bread and beer.
+Those on the right are growing new plants. Much enlarged.]
+
+The millions of yeast plants in the yeast cake bought at the store,
+when put into the dough for bread, grow and form gas. This pushes the
+bits of dough apart and makes it light. The little alcohol formed is
+all driven off in the baking.
+
+The alcohol which yeast forms by growing in sweet cider is in a few
+weeks changed to vinegar by other germs called the vinegar plants.
+Sour cider may make those who use it sick and drunk because it
+contains alcohol. Yeast makes wine out of grape juice.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Where are germs found?
+
+     2. What is the form of microbes?
+
+     3. Name some diseases caused by germs.
+
+     4. What is mold?
+
+     5. Why should food be kept covered when not in use?
+
+     6. What causes meat to spoil?
+
+     7. How may fruit be kept from spoiling?
+
+     8. Where is yeast found?
+
+     9. What effect has yeast on fruit juice?
+
+    10. Why should you not drink sour cider?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+MILK MAY BE A FOOD OR A POISON
+
+
+=Of what Milk is Made.=--Milk is the most perfect food known. It
+contains everything needed to build and strengthen the body. In one
+gallon of milk there is about one teacupful of pure fat, nearly the
+same amount of sugar, one teacupful of body-building food needed to
+make muscle and blood. There is also some lime and other mineral
+matter to make the bones of the young grow strong. The remaining seven
+pints are water.
+
+=Kinds of Milk.=--When milk is left standing in a jar for several
+hours, much of the fat, which is present in the form of tiny balls,
+rises to the upper part. This upper layer of milk full of fat is
+called _cream_. If this is removed, the rest is called _skim milk_.
+
+Milk after standing in a warm place one or two days becomes sour. It
+is then sometimes put into a tight box or barrel and beat in such a
+way as to break up the little balls of fat. These are then pressed
+together into a mass called _butter_. It requires a whole gallon of
+milk to make one teacupful of butter. The milk remaining after the
+butter is taken out is called _buttermilk_. Cheese is made from milk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Two kinds of milk, showing the amount of fat
+in each.]
+
+=Milk as a Food.=--Milk is a healthful drink for nearly every one and
+especially useful for those with weak bodies. During sickness it is
+sometimes the only food the patient can take. It is well for children
+to use two or three glasses of milk daily with their meals. It should
+be sipped slowly so it will mix with the fluid in the mouth and not
+form lumps called curds in the stomach.
+
+A quart of milk contains more food for the body than a half pound of
+good beefsteak. A pint of milk will supply the body with about as much
+food as a pint of oysters. A bowl of milk and a half loaf of bread is
+a healthful supper for a boy or girl. Skim milk and buttermilk are
+healthful drinks which furnish much food for building bone, blood, and
+muscle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Germs which grow in milk and make it sour.]
+
+=When Milk is a Poison.=--In New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago it has
+been noticed for many years that large numbers of babies become sick
+in warm weather and many of them die. The doctors learned that most of
+the babies taken sick were being fed on cows' milk because their own
+mothers did not have enough for them. It was then found that the sick
+babies had been using milk from dairies where the stables were dirty,
+the cows soiled, and the hands of the milkers unclean. On this account
+much dirt got into the milk.
+
+Babies fed on clean milk from clean cows kept in clean stables
+remained strong and well. By much study the doctors learned that
+_dirty milk is poisonous milk_. The poison is made by the germs or
+bacteria living by the millions in unclean stables and in milk buckets
+not well washed in boiling water. Dirty milk becomes most poisonous in
+hot weather because warmth makes the germs grow very fast and become
+so numerous that millions are present in a teaspoonful of milk.
+
+=Keeping Milk Clean.=--During one week of hot weather in Cincinnati,
+over a hundred babies were poisoned with dirty milk. In the same week
+twice this number were made sick by unclean milk in Philadelphia.
+During the hot part of the year in our country bad milk kills more
+than a half dozen babies every hour of the day and night.
+
+The only way _to have milk clean is to have clean stables with clean
+cows, milked by clean hands, and the milk handled in clean pails, cans,
+and bottles which have been scalded after being washed_. The milk must
+then be kept cold until used, so that the germs will not grow in it.
+
+=Saving the Baby from Bad Milk.=--If possible, milk should be bought
+for the baby in bottles sealed with a pasteboard lid. If milk turns
+sour the same day it is delivered, it is not fit for the baby to take.
+Heating it makes most milk safer for use. The heating of milk to kill
+most of the germs is _pasteurizing_ it. It should be kept very hot for
+about fifteen minutes, but should not be allowed to boil. It should be
+cooled by placing the vessel on ice or in cold water.
+
+The baby's bottle and nipple should be washed in cold water and then
+well scalded immediately after being used. The bottle, the nipple, and
+the milk should be kept away from flies and dust. One fly has been
+known to carry on its body more germs than there are leaves on a large
+tree.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Plan of the prison at Easton, Pa. The crosses
+show into which cells the flies brought typhoid germs from the sewer
+and made the prisoners sick with fever.]
+
+=Flies and Fever in a Prison.=--In August, 1908, thirteen prisoners in
+the jail at Easton, Pennsylvania, were taken ill with typhoid fever.
+They had not been near any sick persons and their food and water were
+found to be pure. All those sick were in cells in one end of the
+prison. About twenty feet from this end a sewer had been uncovered two
+weeks before and left open. This sewer carried the waste from the
+hospital where several patients were sick with the fever. Flies fed on
+the waste in the sewer and then with the germs sticking to their feet
+flew into the cells of the prisoners and walked over their cups,
+spoons, and food. A little girl who played near this open sewer and
+shared her lunch with the flies had a severe attack of fever two weeks
+later because the germs scraped from the flies' feet on her food got
+into her body and grew.
+
+=Milk and Disease.=--We must be very careful to get not only clean
+milk but milk from healthy cows milked by persons who have no typhoid
+fever, scarlet fever, or diphtheria in their homes. If only one or two
+disease germs get into the milk from the hands of those who have
+nursed the sick, these will grow into immense numbers in a single day.
+Many of those who use the milk will then become ill. Hundreds are made
+sick in this way every year.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Why is milk a good food?
+
+     2. What does a gallon of milk contain?
+
+     3. What is cream?
+
+     4. How is butter made?
+
+     5. For whom is milk specially good?
+
+     6. How does milk become poisonous?
+
+     7. Why is dirty milk more poisonous in hot weather?
+
+     8. Tell what harm unclean milk does.
+
+     9. How may milk be kept clean?
+
+    10. Explain how milk is heated to make it safe for use.
+
+    11. Show how flies may cause fever.
+
+    12. Tell how milk may carry diphtheria into our homes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+HOW THE BODY USES FOOD
+
+
+=Organs for making ready the Food.=--Before the food can get into the
+blood and be carried over the body to feed the muscles and the brain,
+it must be made into a fluid. This changing of the solid food into a
+liquid by the stomach and other organs is called _digestion_. The
+organs which do this work are known as _digestive organs_. They
+consist of a _food tube_ and several bodies called _glands_.
+
+=The Food Tube.=--The food canal is about thirty feet long. Its first
+part, the _mouth_, opens back of the tongue into the throat, named the
+_pharynx_. This leads into a tube, the gullet, passing down through
+the back part of the chest into the _stomach_ below the diaphragm. The
+stomach is a bent sac opening into a tube over twenty-five feet long
+called the _bowels_ or _intestines_. This tube is folded into a bunch
+which fills a large part of the cavity of the abdomen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--The plan of a gland. _a_ carries blood to the
+gland and _v_ takes it away after the gland has taken out what it
+needs. On the right side the top of the gland has been cut off.]
+
+=The Glands or Juice Makers.=--A gland is a little tube closed at one
+end, or a bunch of such tubes, which can take something out of the
+blood and make it into a juice. A gland under each ear and four others
+near the tongue make the juice called _saliva_ which flows into the
+mouth through tubes.
+
+A long, flat, pink gland back of the stomach is called the _sweetbread_
+or _pancreas_. This and a large brown gland, the _liver_, empty their
+juices into the intestines. The whole inner surface of the stomach and
+intestines is lined with tiny tubes, the glands. The juice of these with
+that of the other glands softens the food and makes it into a liquid.
+
+=The Work of the Mouth.=--The mouth has three things to do: It should
+break the lumps of food into fine bits so it can be well wet with the
+slippery fluid called _saliva_ and also easily swallowed. It must roll
+the food about so that it gets soaked with saliva. It must hold the
+food long enough to get much taste from it because this starts the
+juices to flowing into the stomach. Food gives out its taste only
+after it is changed to a liquid. It should not be washed down with
+water, as this weakens the juices in the stomach.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--The three glands which make the saliva for
+acting on the food in the mouth.]
+
+No food should be swallowed until it is broken into bits nearly as small
+as the head of a pin. Some foods, such as cheese, bananas, and nuts,
+should be made even finer than this. There is nothing in the stomach to
+crush to pieces large lumps of food. The juices of the stomach can do
+their full work only when the food is well chewed in the mouth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Photograph of a chestnut chewed a half minute
+by a boy who had poor teeth because he had not taken care of them. The
+lumps are so large that the juices of the stomach could not dissolve
+them.]
+
+=The Chewing of Food keeps away Sickness.=--Bread, meat, and potatoes
+should be cut into pieces no larger than half the size of your thumb
+and each piece put separately into your mouth with a fork. It should
+then be chewed from twenty to thirty times before another piece is put
+into the mouth. Food treated in this way will not cause headache or a
+sickness in the stomach called _indigestion_ or _dyspepsia_. It is
+said that there are so many persons with this kind of sickness that
+more than $5,000,000 are spent every year for medicine to help them.
+
+Too little chewing of the food while you are young may not cause many
+aches or pains, but if you form the habit of rapid eating it is hard
+to learn to eat slowly. No one who chews his food poorly can avoid
+sickness long or grow well and strong.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Photograph of a chestnut chewed a half minute
+by a boy with good teeth.]
+
+=The Work of the Stomach.=--When the food is swallowed, it passes
+through the gullet into the stomach. This is a sac holding more than
+a quart (Fig. 27). It is made of an outer wall of muscle and an inner
+skinlike coat full of tiny tubes called _gastric glands_. Millions of
+these give out drop by drop a watery fluid named _gastric juice_. This
+juice begins to flow as soon as we smell or taste food and continues
+to drop out as long as there is any food in the stomach.
+
+The use of the gastric juice is to help change part of the food into a
+more watery fluid. To do this it must be well mixed with the food.
+This mixing is done by the muscles in the outer wall of the stomach
+(Fig. 29). They squeeze together and then loosen up in such a way as
+to move the food about and turn it over until every particle is wet
+again and again with the gastric juice.
+
+=How long Food stays in the Stomach.=--A ring of muscle around the end
+of the stomach keeps the food from escaping until it has become a thin
+grayish liquid. The stomach can finish its work on some kinds of food
+in one or two hours. With other foods it must work four or five hours.
+
+The stomach can finish its work on soft boiled eggs, milk, roasted
+potatoes, and broiled lamb within two hours. With pork, veal, cabbage,
+and fried potatoes it must work four or five hours. When a person is
+sick the stomach is weak, and he should have only the food which
+causes the stomach the least work.
+
+=The Work of the Intestines.=--The last part of the work in getting
+the food ready for the blood is done in the long folded tube known as
+the intestine (Fig. 27). Here juices coming from the pancreas and
+liver mix with the food and change into a liquid those parts not acted
+on in the stomach.
+
+The intestine does quite as much work as the stomach. Sometimes when
+the stomach is sick, too much work is put off on the intestines and
+then they become sick and give much pain.
+
+The pint of watery fluid from the pancreas and the quart of greenish
+yellow fluid called _bile_ given out by the liver are carried through
+two tubes into the intestine (Fig. 27). To mix these juices with the
+food the intestine is being swung gently back and forth and the walls
+squeezed together by muscles forming its outer coat. As soon as the
+intestine has finished its work the food begins to enter the blood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--The organs which get the food ready to enter
+the blood.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Showing how the food in the dog is carried
+from the intestine to the liver and heart. The white tubes carry the
+fats up to the vein in the neck, and the dark tubes which are veins
+carry the other part of the food to the liver.]
+
+=How Food gets into the Blood.=--An hour or two after food has entered
+the intestine it is almost as thin a fluid as milk. Millions of tiny
+fingerlike growths stick out from the inner side of the intestines
+and drink in the watery food. These little fingers for drinking up the
+food are scarcely one fourth as large as the point of a pencil. They
+are called _villi_.
+
+The villi are filled with blood tubes having thin walls. The food passes
+through these walls into the blood stream. Much of it then goes to the
+liver, but the fatty parts flow up a tube along the backbone and empty
+into a blood tube in the neck. From the neck and the liver the food goes
+with the blood to the heart which sends it to all parts of the body.
+
+=What the Liver does.=--The liver is a dark red body nearly as large
+as the upper half of your head. It lies just below the diaphragm. It
+works night and day helping to keep the inner parts of the body clean
+and at the same time deal out food.
+
+The liver takes some waste out of the blood and sends it out into the
+intestine with the bile. When there is no food in the intestine, the
+bile is stored up in the _gall bladder_ under the liver. The liver
+changes certain waste matter in the blood into such form that other
+organs can cast it out of the body. It also stores up certain parts of
+the food coming from the intestines and gives it out to the body
+little by little as it is needed.
+
+=When and How much to Eat.=--When the food organs do not do their work
+rightly, the whole body becomes sick. Eating too much overworks the
+stomach. It becomes so full that the food cannot be moved about and
+well mixed with the juices. Germs then work on the food and make it
+sour. In fact the germs may change part of the food into a poison.
+This poison will cause headache and a bad feeling.
+
+Do not form a habit of taking powders to cure headache. They are likely
+to hurt the heart. Take less food, eat it more slowly, and do not wash
+it down with drink. Stop eating before your stomach feels full.
+
+Each meal gives the stomach about four hours of work to do. It then
+needs one hour of rest. This shows that the time from one meal to the
+next should be about five hours. Very young children and sick persons
+need food oftener. Boys and girls should not eat candies, cake, or
+other food between meals. It spoils the appetite and is likely to get
+the stomach out of working order.
+
+=Danger Signals.=--A white or yellowish coat on the tongue, a bad
+breath, pain in the bowels, or a headache is a danger signal. It tells
+that the food organs are not doing their work as they should and unless
+help is given sickness is likely to occur. Medicine may help, but using
+foods easy to digest, eating less, chewing more, and getting plenty of
+exercise in the fresh air are likely to be the greatest aids to health.
+
+=The Chewing of Tobacco and Digestion.=--Some men chew tobacco as much
+as ten hours every day. The taste of the tobacco makes the saliva flow
+from the glands into the mouth. This dissolves the poison out of the
+tobacco and it is then spit out. If the tobacco-soaked saliva were all
+swallowed, the man would be poisoned.
+
+The chewing of tobacco causes the loss of much saliva which is needed
+to help digest the food. Anyone who tires his jaw by chewing tobacco
+is not likely to chew his food well. Some of the poison in the tobacco
+is taken into the body through the blood vessels in the lining of the
+mouth. This is shown by the fact that a boy not used to tobacco
+becomes very sick after he has chewed a mouthful for only ten minutes.
+
+=Smoking and Digestion.=--Some persons think that the smoking of a
+cigar after a meal helps digestion. It may do so in some cases. If a
+lawyer is much excited about a case he is trying, or a business man is
+in trouble about his losses, the thinking causes the blood to flow to
+the head when it is needed in the stomach to give out digestive juices.
+
+The taste of the tobacco smoke may cause some gastric juice to run out
+into the stomach, but at the same time it is likely to hurt the nerves
+of taste so that food cannot give so much enjoyment as when the nerves
+are unharmed. Although smoking may at the time help digestion a
+little, the poison in the tobacco may afterward injure the body. This
+poison is especially harmful to growing bodies, and boys who are wise
+will refuse to smoke on all occasions.
+
+=Beer and Digestion.=--Some people drink beer with their meals because
+they think it makes the food taste better. It really prevents them
+from getting the full taste of the food because they wash it down
+before it is well soaked with the saliva.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--The stomach, showing the arrangement of the
+muscular fibers which alcohol may hinder from doing good work. At the
+right a piece is cut out of the top layer of muscle.]
+
+The flavor of beer may sometimes cause an extra flow of gastric juice
+into the stomach, but the alcohol in the beer is likely to make the
+movements of the stomach slower. This prevents the food from being
+well and quickly mixed with the juices. Several glasses of beer used
+at one meal will make the stomach do its work very slowly, and it will
+not do it well.
+
+=Wine and Digestion.=--Wine is taken by some people to give more
+appetite for food. It is likely, however, to do more harm than good
+because the alcohol in it makes the muscles which mix the food in the
+stomach act more slowly. Some of the food may sour before it gets wet
+with the juice. Much wine used at a meal is always harmful.
+
+=Natural Appetite.=--If one is in health, he should feel a desire for
+his food at every meal. This desire for a reasonable amount of food is
+a natural appetite. Fresh air and exercise will do much to give one
+the right kind of an appetite. The eating of much sweets and the
+breathing of bad air are likely to spoil the appetite.
+
+The use of some things, such as opium, tobacco, beer, wine, and
+whisky, creates an unnatural appetite. That is, after one has used
+these articles a few months he cannot stop their use without great
+suffering. The younger the person, the sooner the appetite becomes
+fixed. For this reason _young persons should never use tobacco or
+alcoholic drinks of any kind_.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. What is digestion?
+
+     2. Name the parts of the food tube.
+
+     3. Where does saliva come from?
+
+     4. Explain how the food is acted on in the mouth.
+
+     5. Why should food be well chewed?
+
+     6. What forms the gastric juice?
+
+     7. Of what use is the gastric juice?
+
+     8. How long does food stay in the stomach?
+
+     9. Name some foods easily digested.
+
+    10. What does the intestine do?
+
+    11. What are villi?
+
+    12. Tell how the food gets into the blood.
+
+    13. Of what use is the liver?
+
+    14. Why should we not eat too much?
+
+    15. Should we eat between meals?
+
+    16. Give three reasons why you should not use tobacco.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE CARE OF THE MOUTH
+
+
+=Sickness often begins in the Mouth.=--A clean mouth and sound teeth
+have much to do in keeping one well. The germs which cause nearly a
+half million deaths in the United States every year enter the body
+through the mouth. If the mouth is unclean, only one or two disease
+germs entering it may remain there and grow.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--The teeth of the upper jaw at eleven years of
+age.]
+
+It is just as important to wash the mouth two or three times each day
+as it is to wash the hands and face. A few germs of diphtheria, sore
+throat, or tuberculosis are likely to get into the mouth any day, but
+if the mouth and teeth are well washed with a brush morning and night,
+the germs will not have time to grow and cause sickness.
+
+=The Teeth.=--The first twenty teeth that appear are called the _milk
+set_. The eight front teeth grow out during the first year of life and
+back of these twelve others appear during the second year. Between the
+seventh and the tenth year all of the milk teeth are lost because
+others grow beneath them and push them out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--The full set of teeth on the right side at
+twelve years of age. The numbers show at what year of age each one
+grows out of the gum.]
+
+The first four teeth of the second set appear in the sixth year, just
+behind the last milk teeth (Fig. 30). These teeth should be watched
+very closely and at the first sign of decay you should go to the
+dentist. As the milk teeth get loose and come out, the second set of
+teeth take their places.
+
+If you are ten or eleven years old, you should have twelve good teeth
+in the upper jaw and the same number below. The last ones to break
+through the gums are the four wisdom teeth at the back of the mouth.
+They appear after the seventeenth year.
+
+The front teeth are called _incisors_ because they are used to cut the
+food. The back teeth are named _molars_ because they are used in
+grinding the food.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Photograph of teeth not kept clean, showing
+how germs and a sour substance called acid eat holes in them and thus
+cause decay and toothache.]
+
+=Toothache.=--Toothache is a common ailment, and yet it can be
+entirely prevented. A tooth does not ache until it has a hole in it.
+The tender nerve within gives us warning that it is being hurt. The
+dentist can stop the ache and mend the tooth so that it will not ache
+again. Look at your teeth every month and feel about them with a
+wooden tooth-pick to know when the decay begins. If the little holes
+are mended as soon as found, you will never have toothache, and you
+can keep your teeth as long as you live.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Slice down through a tooth showing _f_, the
+enamel, and _d_, the soft pulp with nerves and blood tubes from the
+root at _h_.]
+
+=How to keep the Teeth Sound.=--Every tooth is covered with a layer of
+hard shining substance called _enamel_ (Fig. 33). So long as this is
+unbroken the softer bony part of the tooth cannot decay. At the base
+of the tooth where the gum joins it the enamel is very thin, so that
+the scratch of a pin or other instrument may break it.
+
+Never pick the teeth with a pin or needle. The biting off of thread,
+finger nails, and other hard material may crack the enamel. It may
+also be softened and eaten away by acid formed where food remains
+about a tooth. For this reason a quill or wooden pick or piece of
+tough thread, called _dental floss_, should be used to clear the teeth
+of food after each meal. Slimy matter collects over the whole surface
+of the teeth, and is likely to cause decay in spots unless it is
+cleaned off night and morning with brush and water. The chewing of dry
+crusts of bread or crackers strengthens the teeth and keeps off decay.
+
+=Why Candy and other Sweets cause the Teeth to Decay.=--A sour
+substance called acid usually starts the decay of a tooth by eating
+through the enamel. Germs change sugar and other sweets into an acid.
+The acid is not made at once. An hour or more is needed for the germs
+to grow to form the acid. If, after eating sweet foods, the mouth is
+well cleaned, no acid will be formed. Sugar and candy do not,
+therefore, spoil the teeth unless it is left sticking about them.
+
+=How to brush the Teeth.=--Every boy and girl should own a toothbrush.
+_The teeth should be brushed every night and morning and kept white._
+Yellow or gray slimy teeth are very ugly. The teeth should be brushed
+on the inside as well as on the outside. It is best to brush the teeth
+crosswise for two minutes and then spend another two minutes brushing
+the upper teeth downwards and the lower teeth upwards. This prevents
+pushing the gum away from the teeth. Plenty of water should be used
+with the brush, and a little good powder is helpful once a day.
+
+=How the Dentist can Help.=--Sometimes the milk teeth do not get loose
+so that they can be pulled with the fingers at the right time. The
+second teeth then come in at one side and may never get straight in
+place. They then spoil the appearance of the face and do poor work in
+chewing. The dentist should be asked to help straighten the teeth as
+soon as they appear crooked.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Exact drawing of the teeth of two persons.
+Those in the lower picture began to decay over twenty-five years ago and
+they were then filled so as to remain perfect. The teeth in the upper
+picture began to decay less than ten years ago but were not filled.]
+
+It is wise to have the dentist examine the teeth once or twice every
+year and remove a limy substance called tartar collecting at their
+base. The dentist can stop the decay in a tooth by cleaning out the
+little hole and filling it with gold or some other material. It may
+cause a little pain and expense to have the teeth filled, but it will
+save a hundred times as much pain and expense later. The six year
+molars need special care as they are likely to decay early. Even the
+milk teeth often need filling so that they will not be lost too soon.
+
+=Bad Teeth cause Sickness.=--When anything decays, it is full of
+germs, and they are always giving off some poison. The poison may hurt
+the body and is likely to make parts of the mouth sore and tender so
+that other germs of disease can break through into the flesh. Disease
+germs can easily lodge in the holes of decaying teeth, grow in
+numbers, and finally cause diphtheria, sore throat, or other ailments.
+
+Four out of every five children suffering from diphtheria or other
+throat or ear troubles are found to have from one to ten bad teeth.
+You must keep good teeth if you wish to be well and strong.
+
+=The Value of Sound Teeth.=--Sound teeth which will do good work in
+chewing food are worth more than a foot or an arm. If the foot or arm
+is lost, the body is likely to get well and be as healthy as ever.
+_The health of the whole body depends upon the work done by the
+teeth._ Unless they do their part the stomach cannot get the food
+ready for the blood.
+
+A part of badly chewed food is turned into a poison farther down in
+the food canal. This is what makes many people feel so tired and
+miserable much of the time. Hundreds of men have been refused
+admission to our army because they have poor teeth. Soldiers must be
+strong and well to take long marches and fight battles. Sound teeth
+give strength and health.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Why should the mouth be washed out every day?
+
+     2. When do the milk teeth appear?
+
+     3. When are the milk teeth lost?
+
+     4. How many teeth have you?
+
+     5. How many show signs of decay?
+
+     6. How may toothache be prevented?
+
+     7. How may the teeth be kept sound?
+
+     8. Why do sweets cause the teeth to decay?
+
+     9. How should you brush your teeth?
+
+    10. Why should the dentist examine your teeth every year?
+
+    11. Why are sound teeth of great worth?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ALCOHOLIC DRINKS
+
+
+=Drink needed for Health.=--Water in the form of sweat and in other
+ways is constantly passing off from the body. This water carries with
+it the waste matter which, if it remained, would poison the body.
+There is some water in the food we eat, but not enough to supply the
+wants of the body.
+
+Some persons think that the body needs beer or wine to keep it in good
+order. These liquids, as well as whisky, brandy, and rum, are called
+_alcoholic drinks_. The latest experiments and studies show that the
+body never needs alcoholic drinks to keep it in the best of health.
+These drinks sometimes make the body sick, and if much alcohol is
+taken at one time, the person becomes dizzy, staggers, and may fall
+down and go to sleep.
+
+=The Desire for Drink.=--When parts of the body have too little water,
+there is a longing for drink. This is called _thirst_. As soon as a
+cup of water is drunk the desire is satisfied. There is no danger of
+drinking too much pure water.
+
+Persons who have been accustomed to use alcoholic drink have a thirst
+which water does not satisfy. It is an _unnatural thirst_. Even beer
+or wine will not satisfy such a thirst except for a few minutes. Very
+often a person's thirst is not satisfied until he has used so much
+wine or whisky that he becomes dull and unsteady in his walk. He is
+then said to be drunk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Yeast plants growing as in the making of beer
+and wine. Much enlarged.]
+
+=How the Yeast Plant makes Alcohol.=--In the cake of yeast bought at
+the grocery there are millions of tiny plants, each shaped somewhat
+like a potato. This strange little plant will grow very rapidly when
+put into any sweet watery substance. It sends out a bud which grows
+larger and larger until in a half hour the bud is as large as the old
+plant. It may then break loose and grow other buds, just like the
+mother plant.
+
+When yeast grows, it changes the sugar or sweet part of the water into
+alcohol and a gas called carbon dioxide. It is this gas which makes
+beer foam and bubble when opened. All alcohol used in beer, porter,
+ale, wine, brandy, rum, gin, and whisky is made by yeast plants.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Photograph of sprouted barley grains called
+malt.]
+
+=How Beer is Made.=--There is more beer used than any other alcoholic
+drink. It is cheap and is much weaker in alcohol than wine or whisky.
+Only about one twentieth part of beer is alcohol.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Photograph of a spray of hops, which are used
+to flavor beer.]
+
+In making beer, a sweet watery mixture is first prepared by mashing
+sprouted barley grains in water. Barley or any other grain forms sugar
+as soon as it begins to grow. Yeast plants are added to the sweet
+mixture. By growing they change some of the sugar into alcohol. Hops
+are also put in to give the beer a fine flavor. After a time the clear
+liquid is separated from the barley grains and hops and put into tight
+casks and bottles.
+
+=The Making of Wine.=--Wine contains from two to four times as much
+alcohol as beer. Most of the wine is made in California, France, and
+Germany because grapes grow better in these countries than elsewhere.
+Wine may be made from the juice of any fruit, but the grape is
+generally used.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--The quantity of grapes required to make this
+glass full of wine.]
+
+The grapes after being picked are thrown into large tubs and crushed
+so that the juice runs out. The wild yeast always present on the grape
+skins begins to grow in the juice and change some of the sugar into
+alcohol. This work of the yeast lasts from one to eight weeks. At the
+end of that time, the grape juice has become a kind of poor wine,
+consisting of alcohol, water, grape flavor, and some acid. To make the
+wine good it must be drawn off into casks, where the yeast causes
+further changes during several weeks. It is then put into bottles,
+where it should remain about five years to get the right flavor.
+
+=Sherry= is a strong wine used in flavoring food, such as puddings and
+sauces. A few teaspoonfuls of this wine will make a child drunk. The
+wines made at home from elderberries, blackberries, and cherries
+contain alcohol which will do just as much harm as that in the
+purchased wines.
+
+=How Brandy is Made.=--Brandy contains more alcohol than wine and
+almost as much as whisky. In fact brandy is only very strong wine.
+After the yeast plants have formed as much alcohol as they can in
+grape juice it becomes so strong that it kills them. This wine is then
+heated in such a way as to separate some of the water from it. The
+taking away of the water leaves the wine stronger in alcohol and it
+then forms brandy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--The shaded part at the bottom of each bottle
+shows the amount of alcohol in the drink.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--A still used in making whisky or brandy. The
+heat makes the alcohol fumes or vapor rise and pass over through the
+pipe coiled in a vessel of cold water. The cold changes the vapor to a
+liquid which is whisky.]
+
+=Whisky and Rum.=--These two drinks are strong in alcohol. Nearly one
+half of each is pure alcohol. Whisky is usually made from rye, corn,
+or wheat, or all three together. They furnish the food in which the
+yeast grows and makes alcohol. This watery mixture of grain and
+alcohol is then heated and the vapor or steam forms whisky after it
+goes off through a pipe into another vessel. This kind of heating is
+_distillation_. Rum is formed in somewhat the same way from molasses
+or cane juice.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Name some alcoholic drinks.
+
+     2. What is an unnatural thirst?
+
+     3. Explain how the yeast plant forms alcohol.
+
+     4. Tell how beer is made.
+
+     5. Tell how wine is made.
+
+     6. What is brandy?
+
+     7. Which drinks contain most alcohol?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ALCOHOL AND HEALTH
+
+
+=The Money spent for Alcoholic Drinks.=--If the money spent for
+alcoholic drinks were all collected together in silver dollars, it would
+more than fill ten schoolrooms of average size. Not only rich men spend
+large sums yearly for fine wines and brandies, but also the poor give
+their money for beer and other drinks which the body does not need.
+
+When parents waste their money on drink, they cannot buy the food and
+clothes needed to keep their families strong and well. In this way
+strong drink causes much sickness and suffering and sometimes even death.
+
+=Alcohol injures the Body.=--Some persons drink very little beer or
+wine, so they seem to have but little effect on the health. Others use
+strong drink every day and for a few years they may remain quite well.
+Later ill health often comes on, and they then find that some of the
+organs have been so much hurt that they will never be quite well again.
+
+A few years ago a group of fifty well-known men in the United States
+spent much time and thousands of dollars to learn how much alcohol was
+harming our country. After much study among many people they announced
+that there were about one million men and boys whose health had been
+injured by strong drink, such as beer, wine, and whisky. Because
+strong drink causes so much sorrow and sickness several states have
+passed laws forbidding its sale, and saloons have been closed by laws
+in parts of many other states.
+
+=How Alcohol affects Kittens.=--The body of a kitten is made very much
+like the body of a child. It has just the same organs that a child
+has, and they do the same kind of work. Doctor Hodge, a well-known
+scientist of Massachusetts, therefore concluded that alcohol would act
+on kittens in the same way as it would on a man or boy.
+
+The doctor got two healthy kittens and fed them a little alcohol every
+day for nearly two weeks. In a few days they stopped being playful,
+did not grow, and did not keep their fur clean and smooth as healthy
+kittens do. After using alcohol several days they became very ill.
+This experiment showed that alcohol stops kittens from growing and
+robs them of good health.
+
+=How Alcohol hurts Dogs.=--Doctor Hodge fed a little alcohol to two
+dogs nearly every day for three years. He also kept the brother and
+sister of these dogs, but gave them no alcohol. All the dogs had the
+same kind of food and were treated alike except that one pair got
+alcohol and the other pair did not.
+
+The two drinking dogs got sick more easily and staid sick much longer
+than the temperance dogs. The drinking dogs became lazy, and timid,
+while the others were strong, full of fun, and brave.
+
+Within four years the drinking dogs had born to them twenty-seven
+puppies, but only four of them lived to grow up. The others were too
+weak or sickly to live. During the same time the temperance dogs had
+forty-five puppies and forty-one of these lived. This shows that
+strong drink will not only injure the bodies of those who take it, but
+will make their children weak and sickly.
+
+=The Use of Strong Drink causes Disease.=--Many persons who take beer
+or wine every day become fat. They think this is a sign of health. It
+is really a sign of disease. They become short of breath. They can no
+longer run so fast or do so much work because the heart is covered
+with fat and even some of its wall is changed to fat. For this reason
+the heart cannot do its work easily or well.
+
+The kidneys which take the waste out of the blood often become injured
+by alcohol and a disease causing death follows. Sometimes the stomach
+becomes diseased so that it cannot do its work. This makes the whole
+body sick.
+
+The hardening of parts of the liver is nearly always caused by the use
+of beer. The liver is sure to suffer if one uses much alcoholic drink
+because the alcohol goes direct from the food tube to the liver. Long
+use of strong drink may bring on disease in the brain and nerves.
+
+=Alcoholic Drinks may cause Death.=--Every ten years the government
+appoints persons to visit each home in our land to take the census. A
+part of this census report consists of a table showing the disease of
+which people died. It is from the census report that we know that
+hundreds of people die every year from the use of alcohol.
+
+=Danger to Health in beginning the Use of Strong Drink.=--A large
+number of people take a drink of beer or wine occasionally because
+they do not see that it hurts the body. No one expects to become a
+steady drinker or a drunkard when he begins to drink. Reports show
+that every drunkard begins his downward course by taking a few drinks
+occasionally. Thousands of persons begin a drunkard's life every year
+because the appetite leads them on gently until they become slaves and
+cannot let drink alone.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+TOBACCO AND OTHER DRUGS WHICH INJURE THE HEALTH
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--The tobacco plant.]
+
+=How Tobacco is Made.=--Tobacco is made from the leaves of the tobacco
+plant. The plant may grow as tall as a man and bear more than a dozen
+leaves. Each leaf is two or three times as large as your hand. The
+seeds are planted in the springtime, and the plants are ready to be
+cut in the autumn. Most of our tobacco is raised in the Southern
+states and Cuba.
+
+After cutting, the tobacco must be dried and cared for in a special
+way to give it the right flavor. It is then sent to factories and made
+into cigars, smoking tobacco, or chewing tobacco.
+
+=How Tobacco is Used.=--Many million dollars are spent every year by
+the people of our country for tobacco. Most of the tobacco is used in
+smoking. Some men smoke it in pipes, while others smoke it in the form
+of cigars or cigarettes.
+
+Many men chew tobacco. When used in this way, something like licorice
+is generally mixed with the tobacco to give it a more pleasant taste.
+Sometimes the dry tobacco is ground into a fine powder called snuff.
+This is used by both men and women.
+
+=Tobacco contains a Poison.=--When boys chew or smoke tobacco for the
+first time, it always makes them sick. Chewing or smoking for fifteen
+minutes will make them grow dizzy and weak and feel so sick that they
+must lie down for a long time.
+
+The sickness is caused by a poison called _nicotine_ which is present
+in all tobacco. Much of this poison may be soaked out by boiling the
+tobacco in water. A cup of water in which a pipeful of tobacco has
+been boiled will kill goldfish in an hour when poured into a gallon
+jar of water with the fish. There is enough poison in a handful of
+tobacco to kill a boy who is not in the habit of using it.
+
+=Why Men can use Tobacco without becoming Sick.=--Experiments upon
+animals have shown that the body can learn to use a poison and not
+become sick from it. The poison of a rattlesnake is deadly to most
+animals; but if a tiny bit of the poison is put under the skin of the
+rabbit one day and then on each succeeding day a little larger dose of
+the poison is given the rabbit for a long time, the animal will become
+so accustomed to the poison that the bite of a rattlesnake will not
+harm it. It is the same way with tobacco. Little by little the body
+learns to overcome the effects of the poison, but much use of tobacco
+is likely to hurt certain parts of the body.
+
+=Tobacco is Harmful to the Young.=--A dose of poison which will kill a
+child may do but little harm to a man. Tobacco is certain to hurt boys
+more than it does men. The poison makes the body grow slower.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--There is more poison in the one on the right
+than in the one on the left.]
+
+A large number of measurements made by Doctor Seaver showed that the
+boys who did not use tobacco gained in four years one twentieth more
+in weight and one fourth more in girth and height than the users of
+tobacco. These boys were between sixteen and twenty-two years of age.
+It is likely that tobacco will have a more harmful effect on younger
+boys.
+
+=Laws to keep the Young Healthy.=--Boys ought to be wise and brave
+enough to let alone what keeps their bodies from growing and hurts
+their health, but some will not do it. For this reason some countries
+are trying to save the health of their boys by making laws against the
+use of tobacco.
+
+The Germans a few years ago passed a law in their land forbidding all
+boys and girls under sixteen years of age to use tobacco in any form.
+Seeing the good results of this law in Germany and the harm that
+tobacco was doing the boys in the United States, the Emperor of Japan
+on the 6th of March, 1900, proclaimed this law: "The smoking of
+tobacco by minors under the age of twenty is prohibited."
+
+In our own country several states have passed laws against the use of
+cigarettes by boys. One country after another is learning that if they
+want strong men, to fight, to work, and to win, tobacco must not be
+allowed to weaken the bodies of the young.
+
+=How the White Man becomes a Slave.=--Before the Civil War the black
+men of the South were slaves. They could not do as they pleased
+because they belonged to their masters whom they must obey or else
+they would suffer punishment. No boy can begin the use of tobacco
+without the danger of becoming a slave to it.
+
+The use of tobacco either by chewing or smoking gradually causes in
+any one the growth of an appetite which makes him feel miserable and
+unhappy unless it is kept satisfied. It can be satisfied only by the
+use of more and more tobacco.
+
+Many men would like to quit the use of tobacco if they could do so
+without suffering. They are slaves, and tobacco is their master.
+
+=Cigarettes and Health.=--A cigarette is a tube of paper filled with
+tobacco. The tobacco is usually not so strong as that used in cigars
+and pipes. For this reason, boys like it better, and because it is so
+mild they draw the smoke down into the lungs. This gives the poison a
+better chance to be taken up by the blood. On this account, and
+because one is likely to smoke oftener when he smokes a small piece of
+tobacco, cigarettes are thought by some to be more harmful than the
+use of tobacco in pipes and cigars.
+
+=Tea and Coffee.=--Tea is made from the dried leaves of the tea plant.
+Tea plants are raised in North Carolina, China, and Japan. The drink
+called tea used at the table is made by pouring boiling water on the
+tea leaves. The leaves should not be boiled as this draws out a
+substance which keeps the stomach from doing its work in the right way.
+
+Coffee is the seed of a plant growing in South America and Asia. It is
+roasted, then ground, and boiled in water to make the drink called
+coffee.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Branch of a tea plant.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Branch of a coffee plant with bunches of
+coffee berries near the bottom.]
+
+Children should not use either tea or coffee as they are likely to
+hurt the stomach and may injure the heart. One or two cups of tea or
+coffee daily seem to have little or no bad effect on the health of
+most grown persons. Coffee taken at supper may keep one awake by
+sending too much blood to the brain.
+
+=Opium and Morphine.=--Opium is a dangerous drug which is got from the
+heads of the white poppy plant grown mostly in the far East. From
+gashes cut in the poppy heads a juice runs out and hardens into a gum
+from which the pure drug is made.
+
+Some persons smoke opium for the drowsy and pleasant feeling it gives.
+Its use is very hurtful and ruins both body and mind. _Morphine_ is a
+pure form of opium. Persons take it to kill pain and make them sleep.
+You should never take it except when given by the doctor, as a habit
+is quickly formed which will make you miserable through life.
+
+=Patent Medicines.=--These are medicines advertised to cure ailments
+which generally cannot be cured by drugs. They are the medicines much
+advertised in the newspapers and magazines. Never use them unless your
+doctor tells you to do so. Many of them contain harmful drugs, such as
+morphine and alcohol. When you are sick, go to your doctor for advice.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Explain how tobacco is raised.
+
+     2. How is tobacco used?
+
+     3. How does tobacco affect a boy using it for the first time?
+
+     4. What is the name of the poison in tobacco?
+
+     5. Tell how tobacco keeps boys from growing.
+
+     6. What countries do not allow boys to use tobacco?
+
+     7. What is meant by being a slave to tobacco?
+
+     8. What is tea?
+
+     9. What is coffee?
+
+    10. Why should you not use opium or morphine?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE SKIN AND BATHING
+
+
+=Parts of the Skin.=--The skin is about as thick as the leather of
+your shoe. It is fastened to the muscles beneath with fine white
+threads like spider webs. This is called _connective tissue_ because
+it connects the skin to the lean meat.
+
+The skin is made of two layers (Fig. 45). The upper layer is formed of
+cells. This is named _epidermis_ or _scarfskin_. The deeper layer is
+made largely of fine threads woven together. It is the _true skin_ or
+_derma_. There is no blood in the scarfskin, but there is a network of
+blood tubes in the true skin. It is the crowding of these with blood
+that makes the skin look so red when we get hot or excited.
+
+=The Use of the Skin.=--The skin has three chief uses. It protects the
+softer parts of the body from being hurt by rough or hard things which
+might touch it. It contains the organs of feeling. It helps keep the
+right amount of heat in the body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--A thin slice through the skin, showing sweat
+glands, a nerve, and blood-tubes. Much enlarged.]
+
+The top part of the skin is dry and dead. This gives better protection
+than if it were moist and tender. Particles of it are wearing out and
+dropping off while other bits are growing beneath to take the place of
+the worn-out parts. The more this top skin is pressed on and rubbed,
+the thicker it becomes. For this reason it is twice as thick in the
+palms of the hand and on the soles of the feet.
+
+Scattered through the true skin are millions of tiny organs fastened
+to the ends of the nerve threads leading to the spinal cord and brain.
+These organs tell us when the skin is touched or when it is hot or
+cold or is being hurt.
+
+=The Pores and the Sweat Glands.=--On a warm day the skin becomes wet
+with a salty fluid called _sweat_ or _perspiration_. This flows from
+the tiny holes or pores in the skin. A good magnifying glass will show
+these pores arranged in rows on the ridges in the palm of the hand.
+
+From each pore a tube leads down into the true skin to a coiled tube
+forming the _sweat gland_ (Fig. 45). Sweat glands are present by the
+thousands in the skin of all parts of the body. They give out from
+one pint to a gallon of sweat daily. The more we work and the warmer
+the weather, the more the sweat flows.
+
+There is a little waste matter carried out of the body by the sweat,
+but its chief use is to cool the body. It does this by passing off in
+the air and carrying the heat with it. In this way the body is kept
+from getting too hot in summer.
+
+=The Color of the Skin.=--In the African race the color of the skin is
+black, in the Chinese it is yellowish, while in our race it is nearly
+white. The different hues are due to a coloring matter called
+_pigment_. This lies in the deep part of the scarfskin. Going out in
+the wind and sun causes more pigment to collect, and we say we are
+tanned. If the pigment collects in spots, it makes freckles.
+
+There is no way of removing at once freckles or tan. They usually
+disappear in the winter. No powders nor any other kind of medicine
+should be taken to make the skin white and smooth. Such medicines may
+contain poison and are likely in time to hurt the body. The skin may
+usually be kept soft and smooth by washing well with soft water and
+good soap. If it becomes harsh or cracked, a little glycerine rubbed
+on after each washing may help it.
+
+=The Nails and their Care.=--The nails are hardened parts of the
+epidermis. They are intended to prevent the ends of the fingers from
+being hurt and to give a neat appearance to the hand.
+
+The ends of the nails should never be chewed or torn off, as this
+makes the fingers blunt and the flesh sore. They should be filed or
+cut neatly with the scissors so that they do not stick out beyond the
+ends of the fingers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Photograph of hands showing at the right how
+the nails should appear, and at the left how biting off the nails
+makes the fingers blunt and sore.]
+
+Many boys and some girls spoil the appearance of their nails by
+letting a line of black dirt remain beneath them. A piece of a stick
+or a nail cleaner should be passed beneath the nails every time the
+hands are washed. If the fingers are much soiled, a stiff brush is
+useful in removing the dirt under the nails.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--A slice through a hair in its sac. Much
+enlarged.]
+
+=The Hair.=--Some hair grows on nearly all parts of the body. It is
+much thicker on the head than elsewhere. Each hair grows from a
+little knob at the bottom of a tiny tube in the skin called the _hair
+sac_ (Fig. 47). If hair is pulled out, another one will grow in its
+place if the knob at the bottom of the sac is not hurt.
+
+One or two _oil glands_ open into each hair sac and give out an oil to
+keep the scalp and hair soft. No other hair dressing is needed.
+
+After thirty or forty years of age the hair begins to turn gray. No
+medicine will prevent the hair from turning gray, and it is generally
+unwise to color the hair with a dye. There is poison in some of the
+mixtures sold to color the hair.
+
+=The Care of the Hair.=--When the hair is uncombed, the whole person
+looks untidy. The hair should be combed carefully every morning and
+again made tidy before each meal. You should use as little water as
+possible to moisten the hair. The glands can be made to give out their
+hair oil by squeezing parts of the scalp between the fingers.
+
+The scalp should be well cleansed with soap and warm water every three
+or four weeks. The hair should be dried quickly with a soft towel and
+by sitting in the sun or near a stove. One is likely to catch cold by
+going out of doors when the hair is wet. Hair oils and dandruff cures
+should not be used unless advised by a physician. Pinching and wrinkling
+the scalp twice weekly with the fingers makes the blood tubes grow
+larger and bring more food to the hair. It will also in many persons
+stop the hair from falling out and prevent dandruff and itching.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Photographs showing how keeping the hair tidy
+improves the appearance.]
+
+Do not use the hair brush of another person or exchange hats with your
+companions. Unclean persons and those living or playing much with them
+often have among their hairs little creatures called _head lice_. They
+suck blood and cause constant itching. The doctor will tell any one
+how to get rid of them easily.
+
+=Keeping the Skin Clean.=--The amount of dead matter carried out by the
+sweat on to the skin every day is equal to a mass as large as your
+thumb. Dust also works through the clothing and sticks fast to the moist
+skin. For this reason every one should wash the whole body once or twice
+each week. The feet should be washed oftener as they become more soiled.
+
+Many persons take a bath every day. A cold bath taken just after
+rising in the morning wakes up the nerves, makes the heart work
+better, and gives health and strength to the whole body. Afterward,
+the body should be well rubbed with a coarse towel. The bath may be
+taken by lying in a tub of water or by rubbing the body over quickly
+with a wet sponge. A hot bath is best for cleansing the skin. A warm
+bath makes one sleepy and should, therefore, be taken only at bedtime.
+
+_The hands should always be well washed before handling food._ Persons
+neglecting to do this have caused much sickness because of the disease
+germs on their hands. One hundred and fifty persons were given typhoid
+fever in one city in Massachusetts by a man who handled milk without
+washing his hands. Dirt and disease are companions. You must be clean
+if you would be healthy.
+
+=The Kidneys.=--The sweat glands do not take out of the blood one
+quarter as much waste matter as the kidneys. These are two bodies longer
+than the finger and more than twice as wide, and having the shape of a
+bean. One lies on either side of the backbone below the liver.
+
+The blood coming to the kidneys is full of waste and dead matter
+picked up from all parts of the body. This is passed out through the
+thin walls of the thousands of little blood tubes into the many tiny
+tubes of the kidneys.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--The blood tubes in a piece of skin as large
+as the head of a pin.]
+
+Water is required to keep the body clean within as well as without.
+For this reason you should drink more than a quart of water daily. A
+glass or two of water drunk a half hour before meals cleanses and
+rouses to action the digestive organs.
+
+=Alcohol and the Skin.=--The skin of those who use much beer or whisky
+often becomes rough, red, and pimply. Any alcoholic drink is likely to
+injure the skin because it may hinder good digestion. The drunkard has
+a red nose and a dark-colored skin. This is because alcohol weakens
+the walls of the blood tubes and lets them become gorged with blood.
+
+If a person takes a drink only once in a while, his face becomes red
+after each drink, and an hour or two later the effect of the alcohol
+passes off. The blood tubes have squeezed up to their natural size.
+
+=Alcohol and the Kidneys.=--Taking several glasses daily of even such
+weak alcoholic drink as beer often causes the kidneys to become sick.
+Some of their working parts become changed to fat and some parts
+become hard. The cells which let the waste matter pass out of the
+blood get hurt by the poison of the alcohol so that they let some of
+the food also pass out of the blood.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Name the two parts of the skin.
+
+     2. Give the three uses of the skin.
+
+     3. What is a sweat gland?
+
+     4. How much sweat is formed daily?
+
+     5. Of what use is the sweat?
+
+     6. How should the nails be cared for?
+
+     7. Tell what care should be given the hair.
+
+     8. Why should you not use another person's hair brush?
+
+     9. Why should the skin be washed often?
+
+    10. Of what use is a cold bath?
+
+    11. Why should the hands be well washed before handling
+        food?
+
+    12. Why does the drunkard have a red nose?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+CLOTHING AND HOW TO USE IT
+
+
+=Kinds of Clothing.=--People are beginning to learn that the wearing
+of the right kind of clothing has much to do with keeping them well.
+Many persons wear too heavy clothing in winter. Keeping the body too
+hot makes it weak.
+
+Some kinds of clothing are much warmer than others. Some are expensive
+and others are cheap. Cheap clothes will often serve the same purpose
+as the more costly ones. If you look at your handkerchief or
+stockings, you will see that they are made of threads running
+crosswise to each other. All clothing is made from threads. Some of
+these are wool, some are linen, a few are silk, and many are cotton.
+
+=Woolen Clothing.=--Woolen clothing, such as overcoats and fine cloth
+dresses and suits, is made from the wool cut from sheep. Enough wool
+can be sheared from two sheep in one year to make an entire suit of
+clothes. The raw wool is first twisted into threads and then woven by
+machines into cloth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--At the left is a bunch of flax gathered from
+the field, and on the right is a spool of thread made from the flax
+and ready to be woven into linen.]
+
+=Linen.=--Linen is used in making collars, cuffs, and handkerchiefs.
+It is made from fine threads taken from the flax plant. On a piece of
+ground as large as a schoolroom enough flax can be raised to make a
+half dozen collars. Garments to be worn in warm weather are sometimes
+made of linen.
+
+=Silk.=--Silk is used in making neckties, gloves, ribbons, and
+dresses. Silk cloth is woven from the cocoons made by silkworms. A
+silkworm is about as big as your largest finger. It grows to this
+size from the egg in one month. In three or four days it spins a shell
+of silk thread completely surrounding itself. This shell is called a
+_cocoon_. Within this it changes to a moth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Photograph of silkworms changing mulberry
+leaves into silk.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--These fibers from the lint about the seed of
+cotton are woven into cotton cloth.]
+
+When the cocoons are to be used for silk, the worm is killed by heat
+as soon as it has woven its home so that it may not change to a moth
+and eat off some of the silk in getting out. Many thousand worms are
+needed to get enough silk for a dress. The worms are raised largely in
+China, Japan, Italy, and France.
+
+=Cotton.=--All calico, muslin, and most cheap clothing are made from
+cotton thread. This is made from the cotton fibers surrounding the
+seeds of the cotton plant (Fig. 52). The cotton used in this country
+is raised in the Southern states.
+
+Cotton clothing is stronger and wears much longer than silk or wool,
+but it does not look so well and is not nearly so warm.
+
+=The Use of Wraps and Overcoats.=--_Outer wraps and overcoats should
+never be worn in a warm room or while working hard._ They cause much
+sweat to form on the body, and as soon as one goes out of doors the
+sweat begins to pass off. This makes the body feel cold and in some
+cases leads to a long sickness.
+
+When riding in cold weather, extra wraps should be worn. Scarfs and
+furs should not be worn about the throat except in extreme cold
+weather. Bundling up the neck and chin is likely to cause sore throat.
+
+=Danger from Wet Clothing.=--Many children have caught severe colds
+leading to serious sickness by wearing wet or damp clothing. Wet
+clothing causes the heat to pass off from the body quickly, so that it
+is chilled before we know it. This may be shown by wrapping two bottles
+of warm water in cloths. Wet one cloth and let the other remain dry. In
+twenty minutes the bottle with the wet cloth will be cool, but the other
+one will still be warm. _If your wet clothing cannot be changed at once,
+keep exercising or throw a heavy coat about you._
+
+=Untidy and Soiled Clothing.=--All boys and girls should learn to keep
+their clothing as clean as possible. Do not wipe the hands on the
+clothing, or sit down in the dirt, or let food smear the front of the
+coat or dress.
+
+The sweat is constantly bringing waste matter out of the body. This
+soils the clothing next to it. On this account clothing to be washed
+every week or oftener should be worn next to the skin. Very thin
+cotton underclothing should be worn in summer. Woolen clothes give
+more warmth for winter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Showing how to prevent the shoe from pressing
+on corns caused by wearing tight shoes or socks roughly darned.]
+
+=Shoes.=--Badly fitting shoes cause sore feet and much pain. A shoe
+that is tight across the toes is sure to cause corns. A _corn_ is a
+thickened part of the top skin which presses on the more tender part
+beneath. Soaking the feet in hot water and filing off the top of the
+corn or using a corn plaster will help it. Shoes should always be a
+half inch longer than the foot. Waterproof shoes or rubbers should be
+worn in wet weather. Rubbers should not be worn in the house.
+
+=Alcohol and Clothing.=--Many persons think that a drink of whisky will
+make them warm when taken on a cold day. For this reason whisky is
+sometimes used when clothing is really needed. The use of whisky or any
+other alcoholic drink will not make the body warm. It may make one feel
+warm because it loosens the muscles in the blood tubes of the skin and
+so lets more blood come to the surface. In this way the body becomes
+colder because too much blood gets into the skin and is then chilled by
+the cold air. As alcohol deadens the feeling it may prevent one from
+feeling cold when the body is really very cold. Too little clothing and
+too much alcohol have been known to cause men to freeze to death.
+
+=Experience in using Alcohol to keep the Body Warm.=--Doctor Hayes,
+who went as physician with Doctor Kane to explore in the Arctic
+regions, said that he would never again take alcoholic drink with him
+on such a trip. He declared alcohol was of no use in helping men to
+keep warm. He found from actual experience that those who use alcohol
+cannot endure cold so well as other people.
+
+Doctor Carpenter, a well-known physician, tells of a crew of sixty-six
+men who tried to stay in Hudson Bay all winter. They used some
+alcoholic drink. Only two of the party lived through the winter. Later
+another party of twenty-two men passed the winter in the same place.
+They used no strong drink at any time and as a consequence all but two
+of them were reported well and strong in the following spring.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+BREATHING
+
+
+=The Lungs.=--The lungs are two light spongy bodies filling up the
+greater part of the chest. The heart lies between the lungs. The
+lungs are formed largely of thousands of thin-walled sacs and two sets
+of tubes. One set of tubes carries air into and out of the lungs, and
+the other set is filled with blood. These sacs and tubes are held in
+place by a loose meshwork of tissue.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--The ribs and front wall of the chest cut away
+to show the lungs. A piece of one lung is cut off to show the heart.
+_A_ and _E_, parts of the breastbone; _F_, diaphragm.]
+
+=Why we Breathe.=--Breathing means taking air into the lungs and
+forcing it out. The air is made to go into the lungs in order that a
+part of it called oxygen may get into the blood. The blood then
+carries the oxygen to all parts of the body where it can help the
+organs do their work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Photograph of a salamander, showing the gills
+on either side of the head, which are used in breathing.]
+
+The air which comes out of the lungs is not the same as that which
+goes in. Some of the oxygen has been used up and in its place is a
+heavier gas named _carbon dioxide_, which has been given out by the
+body. This carbon dioxide is part of the waste formed in every part of
+the body from the used-up food and dying parts of the body. We breathe
+therefore to get oxygen into the body and to take out some of the
+waste matter.
+
+All animals must breathe. If our breath is shut off only four or five
+minutes, death results. In the earthworm the oxygen goes right through
+the skin into the blood. Bugs and flies have several little openings
+along the sides of the body which lead into tubes branching throughout
+the body to carry air. A fish gets air through its gills lying under a
+bony flap on each side of the head.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--The windpipe and lungs viewed from in front.
+On the right, the tissue is removed to show the air tubes.]
+
+=How the Air passes into the Lungs.=--The outer openings of the nose
+are called nostrils. From here two channels lead back through the nose
+to the throat. The cavity of the throat behind the nose and tongue is
+the _pharynx_. At the bottom of the pharynx is a tube made mostly of
+gristle. This tube is larger than your thumb and is named the
+_larynx_, or _voice box_. The bump on its front part forms the lump in
+the throat called the _Adam's Apple_.
+
+From the voice box extends the _windpipe_ called _trachea_, down to
+the lungs. The windpipe divides at its lower end between the lungs
+into two branches. One of these enters each lung.
+
+=The Air Tubes in the Lungs.=--As the branch of the windpipe enters
+each lung it divides into smaller branches just like the limbs of a
+tree. These divide into still smaller tubes, which branch again and
+again until they are as small as a hair. These hairlike tubes have
+swollen ends called _air sacs_. The walls of the air sacs are much
+thinner than tissue paper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--A bunch of air cells at the end of an air
+tube in the lungs, showing the blood vessels which receive the oxygen
+and give out the carbon dioxide.]
+
+=How the Blood trades Waste for Oxygen in the Lungs.=--The blood,
+which is constantly running from all parts of the body to the lungs,
+collects waste formed from the burnt food and dying parts of the
+organs. When the blood comes to the lungs, it is full of this waste,
+called carbon dioxide. The blood tubes divide into fine branches with
+very thin walls and form a rich network over the air sacs. This allows
+the carbon dioxide and water to pass out of the blood tubes into the
+air sacs, while the oxygen at the same time goes through into the
+blood. More than a pint of water is given off in the breath daily.
+
+=How we Breathe.=--The bottom of the chest cavity is formed by an
+upward arching sheet of muscle called the _diaphragm_. This is
+fastened to the lower ribs. The ribs at rest slant downward and
+inward. When the ribs are pulled up or the arch of the diaphragm down,
+the cavity of the chest becomes larger. The air then runs into the
+lungs and swells them out. When the ribs are let drop or the arch of
+the diaphragm goes up, the air is pushed out of the lungs.
+
+Without thinking, we work the muscles to draw up the ribs about
+eighteen times every minute, because all parts of the body are calling
+for oxygen. The harder we work the oftener we breathe because the
+muscles need more oxygen to make them go.
+
+=Why we should breathe through the Nose.=--Most persons find it easy
+to breathe through the nose. In some, however, the passages in the
+nose are too small to carry the air without effort. On this account
+they let the mouth hang open and breathe through it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Face cut through the middle to show how the
+adenoids stop the air from passing through the nose. Arrows show the
+course which the air should take.]
+
+The air should pass only through the nose because it is lined with
+hairs and tiny waving threads which catch the dust. In this way germs
+and dirt are prevented from getting into the throat and lungs, and in
+winter the cold air is warmed.
+
+=Why Some Children cannot breathe through the Nose.=--When one has a
+cold, the lining of the nose becomes swollen and gives out a white
+substance called _mucus_. The swelling of the lining and the mucus fill
+up the passages. The nose should be kept clean by using a handkerchief
+and blowing out the mucus into it. _Never put the finger into the nose._
+Disease germs often get on the fingers from things touched.
+
+Children who have the habit of breathing through the mouth should be
+examined by a physician. He will, in most cases, find soft spongy
+growths called _adenoids_ in the back part of the nose. They should
+always be removed as soon as possible. They may cause disease or
+deafness and may even injure the mind.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--A view of the voice box from the top.]
+
+=The Voice.=--In the upper part of the voice box at the top of the
+windpipe is a fold of tissue stretched on either side. These two folds
+of tissue form the _vocal cords_. The air rushing past them causes
+sound. The different sounds are made by stretching the cords tight or
+loosely. By means of the tongue, teeth, and lips the sound is formed
+into words.
+
+=How to use the Voice.=--A cold or much shouting makes the vocal cords
+swell and we become hoarse. Rest is the best cure. It is not polite to
+shout or whistle in the house and you should never use an angry tone
+of voice. When talking to a person, always speak distinctly but
+pleasantly and turn your face toward his and look directly into his
+eyes. Never use a harsh, loud tone of voice.
+
+=Why you should not spit on Floors or Sidewalks.=--We used to think
+that any one well had no germs of sickness in his mouth, but we now
+know that many well persons have germs in their mouths which can cause
+long sickness when they get into other persons. If you are sick with
+diphtheria, scarlet fever, or sore throat, the germs of the disease
+are likely to remain in your mouth two or three months. Persons with
+tuberculosis throw out millions of these germs in their spit every day.
+
+Spitting is not only an unclean habit but a deadly curse. Spit often
+contains the seeds of death. Women's skirts and the soles of our shoes
+carry it into the houses. It becomes dry, but the germs live and float
+about in the dust, then enter the mouth to make us sick. Carelessness
+with spit is said to cause more than a hundred deaths every day in our
+land.
+
+=Do not use an Open Spittoon.=--It is much safer to have a smallpox
+patient in the house than an open spittoon in the summer. You can
+prevent the smallpox by vaccination, but you cannot keep the flies
+from carrying ten thousand germs of death from the spittoon to the
+food on the table. A million germs have been found on a single fly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Photograph of a house fly on a piece of bread.
+This fly had been feeding on spit and a study of its legs and body
+showed more germs present than there are hairs on a person's head.]
+
+Spit should be dropped into a cup which should be kept covered when
+not being used. The spit should be destroyed by fire or some
+germ-killing fluid, such as lye or formalin.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--An exact drawing of the germs in a spot as
+large as a period, on the edge of a drinking cup.]
+
+=Keeping Sickness away from the Throat and Lungs.=--All sickness of
+the throat and lungs is caught from some one else. The germs are
+passed from one to another on the drinking cup, by sucking pencils,
+wetting the finger to turn the pages of a book, or putting the fingers
+in the nose or mouth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62.--A dish of beef broth jelly left open two
+minutes in a room being swept. Each spot is a city of thousands of
+germs which grew from one germ dropping on the jelly. By counting the
+spots you can tell how many germs fell from the dust on this dish
+three inches in diameter.]
+
+_Dust is the partner of disease._ It contains germs. Avoid dust. Wipe
+up the rooms with a damp cloth; never use a feather duster. Avoid dry
+sweeping. Use a suction cleaner or have rugs which can be cleaned out
+of doors.
+
+Give the lungs fresh air and deep breathing and the body good food and
+plenty of sleep to make it so strong that germs cannot overcome it
+when they enter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Photograph of consumption germs, the tiny
+rods which often grow and cause tuberculosis in bodies weakened by
+beer or whisky. Much enlarged.]
+
+=Alcoholic Drink and the Lungs.=--The most common disease of the lungs
+is _tuberculosis_. Nearly all bartenders who sell strong drink take
+some themselves. Lately it has been learned in Germany that
+tuberculosis causes one half of all the deaths among bartenders.
+Alcohol was once thought to be a good medicine for lung troubles, but
+it has been clearly proven that beer and whisky weaken the lungs and
+make them ready for the germs of disease. The body already weakened by
+the poison of the alcohol is then easily overcome by the disease.
+
+=Tobacco and the Lungs.=--The occasional use of tobacco does not seem
+to hurt the lungs when fully grown. A study of many young persons has
+shown that the chest of smokers grows much more slowly than in those
+who do not use tobacco. As the lungs cannot grow any faster than the
+chest, they must grow slowly in boys using much tobacco.
+
+Tobacco is a common cause of sore throat. Many smokers have been
+compelled to quit the habit because of throat troubles.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Where are the lungs located?
+
+     2. What do the tubes in the lungs carry?
+
+     3. What part of the air do we use in the body?
+
+     4. Tell how the air gets into the lungs.
+
+     5. What passes from the blood into the air sacs?
+
+     6. Why should we breathe through the nose?
+
+     7. Why should you keep the fingers away from the nose?
+
+     8. What are the vocal cords?
+
+     9. Give two reasons why no one should spit on the floor.
+
+    10. Tell how alcohol harms the lungs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+FRESH AIR AND HEALTH
+
+
+=How much Air we Breathe.=--At every breath we take in about one pint
+of air. We breathe eighteen times each minute. Nine quarts of air
+therefore pass in and out of the lungs every minute. Air once breathed
+is not fit to breathe again. It contains waste and carbon dioxide
+which weaken the body.
+
+If you breathe three full breaths into a wide-mouthed jar or bottle,
+it will contain so much of the carbon dioxide that a lighted candle or
+splinter will at once go out when thrust into the jar. A cat shut in a
+tight box two feet square and one foot high will die in less than a
+half hour.
+
+Many years ago when the British and Hindoo soldiers were fighting each
+other, the Hindoos made prisoners of 146 of the British and locked
+them in a room about one half as large as a common schoolroom. There
+were only two small windows. During the night 123 of these men died
+because of the bad air.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64.--The direction of the flame of the candle
+shows how the fresh air enters and the bad air leaves a room.]
+
+=How much Air should enter a Room.=--The air laden with waste coming
+out of the lungs quickly mixes with the other air of the room. In this
+way all of the air in the room soon becomes impure. Forty children
+will give out nearly two barrels of air in one minute. In another
+minute this air has made all of the other air in the room unclean. It
+can still be breathed, but it makes children feel drowsy and lazy and
+may cause headache. They then do poor work.
+
+To keep the air pure in a room, fresh air must be let in from the
+outside. If there are many in the room, the openings must be large or
+fans on a wheel must be used to force the air in. In the New York
+schools a little over a cubic yard of fresh air is forced into the
+room for each child every minute.
+
+=How to get Fresh Air into a Room.=--When air is warmed it becomes
+lighter and rises. In many public buildings, fresh air heated by a
+furnace is forced into the rooms through pipes entering several feet
+above the floor. By a fan or heated flue the impure air is sucked out
+of the room through openings near the floor.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65.--How the windows of your bedroom should be
+open to get the most fresh air.]
+
+Changing the air in a room is called _ventilation_. To get plenty of
+fresh air in a room there must be one or more places for it to enter
+and one or more places for it to pass out. Where there is no furnace
+or fan, windows on one side of the room may be opened at the bottom to
+let in the air and the same windows opened at the top to let the
+impure air escape. _Do not sit in a draft_, but use a board or curtain
+to throw the air upward as it enters the window. _A room should not be
+kept too warm._ Sitting in a very warm room weakens the body and
+prepares it to take cold. The temperature of a living room should be
+between 65 and 70 degrees.
+
+=Fresh Air while you Sleep.=--Thousands of people have weakened their
+bodies and brought on disease by sleeping in bad air. Many persons
+keep their windows so tightly closed during the night that the air
+smells bad in the morning. I knew a family who always slept with
+windows closed except in the very warmest weather. Three of the
+children died of tuberculosis, and a fourth one took the disease but
+was saved by keeping his windows wide open.
+
+Bad air in the sleeping room makes one feel drowsy in the morning
+instead of refreshed by sleep. _Your windows should always be open
+while you sleep._ In cold weather a window should be open a foot at
+both the bottom and the top, or if there are two windows in the room,
+both may be opened at the bottom. In moderate weather the openings
+should be twice as large. A cap may be worn to keep the head warm, and
+the bed should be out of the draft.
+
+=Fresh Air gives Health.=--Four hundred people die of tuberculosis in
+our country every day. A few years ago it was thought that no one
+could get well of this disease. Now three fourths of those in the
+first stages of the disease get well. The chief part of the cure is
+fresh air. Medicine is seldom used because no medicine will cure
+tuberculosis. Good food and rest are great helps.
+
+Many of those with tuberculosis stay out of doors all day and at night
+sleep in tents or with all of the windows wide open, even in the
+coldest weather. Snow may blow in and the water in the room may turn
+to solid ice, but fresh air, the good angel of health, will give the
+body new strength and make it well and strong again.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66.--This man is curing himself of tuberculosis by
+sleeping at night, and sitting by day, on this porch.]
+
+Many years ago when the Indians lived in tents and often slept
+outdoors none of them had this dirty air disease of tuberculosis.
+Since they have formed the habit of living in houses nearly one half
+of some tribes have become sick with this catching disease.
+
+=Making the Lungs Strong.=--It requires over three quarts of air to
+fill your lungs. When you breathe quietly, less than one pint of air
+passes in and out of your lungs. This shows that a large part of the
+lungs is not used. The air sacs at the top and in the bottom part of
+the lungs are seldom filled completely. It is in these places that
+disease begins.
+
+Several minutes should be spent two or three times each day in
+exercising the lungs. Fill them completely with air many times. _Learn
+to breathe deeply while you are walking in the fresh air._ Hold the
+head up and the shoulders back so that every part of the lungs can be
+filled. _Sit straight. Your life depends upon your lungs._ Give them a
+chance to do their work and teach them to do it well.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Unhealthful position which squeezes the lungs
+so that they cannot work freely.]
+
+=Tobacco and Pure Air.=--There is poison in the smoke of tobacco. This
+is shown by its effect on insects. Owners of greenhouses often buy the
+stems and other waste parts of tobacco. They pile it in a pan and after
+closing the doors and windows of the greenhouse tightly, set fire to it.
+The smoke rises and fills the whole house. In less than an hour it has
+killed many of the bugs and beetles which were destroying the plants.
+
+A person not used to tobacco will sometimes be made sick by sitting
+only an hour in a room where persons are smoking. It is wrong for
+smokers to poison the air which others must breathe. For this reason a
+smoking room should be well ventilated.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE BLOOD AND HOW IT FLOWS THROUGH THE BODY
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68.--The cells in the blood. The two white ones
+were drawn while crawling. Much enlarged.]
+
+=The Blood keeps the Body Clean within and gives it Food.=--Every tiny
+particle of the body, whether in the legs, arms, or head, must have
+food to keep it alive and help it do its work. It must also have
+oxygen, and it must be washed clean of its waste matter. All this is
+done by the streams of blood, which bathe every cell to bring it food
+and oxygen and to wash away its waste.
+
+=Parts of the Blood.=--Blood consists of a clear, watery part called
+_plasma_ and many little bodies named _cells_. The liquid found in a
+blister is the clear part of the blood. The cells which float in the
+watery part are so little and so close together that more than a
+million are in each drop of blood.
+
+A few of the cells are white, but most of them are red, and it is
+their color that makes the blood look red. Your body contains about
+one gallon of blood. It is carried through the body in branching tubes
+called _blood vessels_ (Fig. 70).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Photograph of the heart from in front with
+the lungs pinned aside. One fourth natural size.]
+
+=The Blood Vessels.=--There are four kinds of blood vessels. They are
+the _heart_, the _arteries_, the _capillaries_, and the _veins_. The
+heart lies in the chest between the lungs. It squeezes the blood into
+the arteries. These carry the blood to all parts of the body. It then
+runs into the capillaries, which are tiny tubes connecting the
+arteries with the veins. The veins return the blood to the heart.
+
+The blood flows so fast that it goes from the heart down to the toes
+and back again in a half minute.
+
+=The Heart or Pump of Life.=--When the heart stops we die, because the
+blood can no longer flow to carry food and oxygen to the hungry
+tissues. The heart is a sac with thick walls of muscle. It is shaped
+like a strawberry and is about as large as your fist. Its cavity is
+divided into four parts. The two upper ones are called _auricles_ and
+the lower ones are named _ventricles_. The blood enters the auricles
+and then pours through an opening into each ventricle, from which it
+passes out into the arteries.
+
+=The Arteries or Sending Tubes.=--The blood is sent out from the heart
+through the arteries leading to all parts of the body. The chief
+artery is the _aorta_. It is larger than your thumb and extends from
+the heart down through the body in front of the backbone. It has more
+than twenty branches. All of these branch again and again like the
+limbs of a tree until they are finer than hairs.
+
+A large tube, the _lung artery_, takes blood directly from the heart
+to the lungs. Here it branches into more than a thousand divisions, so
+that the blood can take in oxygen and give off to the lungs its waste.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Arteries, the tubes carrying the blood from
+the heart through the body. Only the chief vessels are shown on one
+side.]
+
+=The Capillaries or Feeding Tubes.=--These are the tiny tubes, finer
+than hairs, which join the smallest end branches of the arteries with
+the beginnings of the little veins. They are so thickly scattered in
+the flesh that you cannot stick it with a pin without piercing one.
+
+They are called feeding tubes because they have such very thin walls
+that the food in the blood and the oxygen brought from the lungs can
+pass through to feed the muscles and other organs. The dead parts of
+the body and also the ashes of the food used up, pass from the organs
+into the capillaries.
+
+=The Veins or Returning Tubes.=--The veins, beginning in fine branches
+formed by the capillaries, return the blood to the heart. The branches
+unite into larger and larger vessels and finally flow into one main
+vein, the _vena cava_. This extends along in front of the backbone and
+opens into the heart.
+
+=Why the Blood flows in only one Direction.=--The heart causes the
+flow of the blood. It does this by squeezing together its walls so as
+to make the blood go out into the arteries. When once in the arteries,
+the blood must go forward because there are little doors at the mouths
+of the arteries in the heart. These doors, called _valves_, open in
+only one direction, so that the blood cannot flow backward (Fig. 71).
+There are other valves between the upper and lower cavities of the
+heart, preventing the blood from being pushed back into the veins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71.--The heart with the front part cut away to
+show the four chambers and valves. The arrows show the direction in
+which the blood flows.]
+
+The movement of the walls of the heart in and out is called the _heart
+beat_. This can be plainly felt by placing the hand on the left side
+of the chest. The heart beats about seventy times each minute in grown
+persons, but much oftener in children. At each beat a wave of blood
+flows along the arteries. This is known as the _pulse_. It may be felt
+at the base of the thumb, where an artery runs just under the skin.
+
+=Why the Heart sometimes beats Faster.=--When we run or do hard work,
+the heart may beat twice as fast as when we are lying down. This is
+because the muscles need more oxygen to help them act. Work makes them
+get hungry, and they send word by the nerves to the heart to hurry
+along the blood to bring more oxygen from the lungs.
+
+When germs make the body sick, the heart often beats faster because it
+is affected by the poison made by the germs. The doctor then feels the
+pulse to tell how much the body is poisoned.
+
+=Use of Blood Cells.=--The red cells act like boats. They load up with
+oxygen in the lungs and carry it to all parts of the body. Here they
+trade it off for carbon dioxide, a waste substance. This they carry
+back to the lungs to be cast out of the body.
+
+There is one white blood cell to every four hundred red ones. The
+white cells are the body-guards. They change their shape and are able
+to crawl through the walls of the capillaries. Wherever the body is
+hurt, they collect in large numbers and eat the germs which are always
+trying to get into the body through sores. The white matter called
+_pus_ in a sore is largely made of white blood cells which came there
+to fight the germs and were killed in the battle.
+
+The germs of boils and fevers often get into the blood, but the white
+cells usually kill them before they have a chance to grow into large
+numbers and make the body sick.
+
+=How to stop Bleeding.=--Most of the larger arteries are deep in the
+flesh and seldom get cut. There are many veins just under the skin. If
+the blood comes out in spurts, it is from an artery; but if it flows
+steadily, it is from a vein. If the blood does not run out in a
+stream, it will stop without any special care. As soon as the blood
+gets to the air it forms a jellylike mass called a _clot_. This helps
+stop the flow. All hurt places in the skin should be tied up in a
+clean cloth.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Stopping the flow of blood from an artery.]
+
+If a large artery is cut, a bandage twisted tight with a stick around
+the limb on the side of the wound next to the heart will stop the
+bleeding. If a vein is cut, the bandage should be placed on the side
+of the cut away from the heart.
+
+=Alcoholic Drinks weaken the Blood.=--It has been noticed for some
+years that when a user of beer or whisky is attacked with fever, the
+disease is more severe than in one not using alcohol. The reason for
+this has lately been explained by a well-known scientist working in
+Paris. He put certain disease germs in rabbits, but they did not
+become sick. When he gave them a little alcohol and put the same
+amount of disease germs in them as before, they became sick and died.
+By careful study he learned that the white blood cells had in the
+first case killed the germs. In the second experiment the blood cells
+were made so weak and lazy by the alcohol that they did not put up
+such a strong fight against the germs.
+
+=Tobacco and the Blood.=--Any one who chews or smokes tobacco
+regularly gets much of the poison into the blood. The vessels in the
+mouth and throat drink in some of the juice and also the poison from
+the smoke. How much this poison affects the blood cells is not known,
+but it is likely to do them some harm because it makes the growing
+cells of the body less active.
+
+=How Beer weakens the Heart.=--Whisky was at one time thought to
+strengthen the heart, but doctors generally agree now that it weakens
+the heart. It may make the heart beat a little stronger for a few
+minutes, but after that the beating is weaker than usual.
+
+Much use of beer is known to make fat collect around the heart and
+also cause some of the heart muscle itself to change into fat. In this
+way the heart becomes so weak that it can no longer do its work, and
+death results. The reports from Germany show that hundreds of persons
+die every year from weakened hearts made so by the use of much beer.
+
+=Alcohol hurts the Blood Vessels.=--Careful examination of the blood
+vessels of drunkards after death shows that in many cases the alcohol
+has caused the walls of the vessels to become thick and sometimes
+hard. The thickening of the wall makes the channel of the tube
+smaller. The heart must then work much harder to get the blood through
+to feed the tissues.
+
+=Tobacco and the Heart.=--Many boys who use tobacco regularly do not
+have a steady heart beat. This is specially true of those who smoke
+several cigarettes daily. A few years ago, when our country was at war
+with Spain, thousands of young men, wanted for soldiers, were examined
+to find out whether their bodies were strong enough to endure the
+hardships of war. Hundreds were refused admittance to the army because
+of weak bodies, and many of them were reported by the physicians as
+having hearts weakened by the use of tobacco.
+
+The boys preparing for the army at the Military Academy at West Point
+and for sea fighting at the Naval Academy at Annapolis are not allowed
+to smoke cigarettes. Our country must have strong men for hard work.
+Tobacco never gives strength, but often causes weakness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+INSECTS AND HEALTH
+
+
+=Malaria or Chills and Fever.=--Malaria is a disease in which the
+patient usually has a chill followed by a fever at the same time each
+day or every other day. Thousands of people suffer from this sickness
+in the warm parts of our country and hundreds of them die every year.
+In some regions people cannot live because this sickness attacks every
+one who comes there.
+
+Many years ago a doctor found in the blood of malaria patients tiny
+animals. He thought that they might be the cause of the illness, but
+he could not find out how they got into the blood.
+
+=Finding out how Malaria Germs get into the Blood.=--It had been
+noticed for many years that mosquitoes were always found wherever
+there was malaria. In the year 1900 two men decided to find out if
+they could live in a malaria region and not have the disease when the
+mosquitoes were kept from biting them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Position of the common humpback mosquito at
+rest with body full of blood sucked by thrusting the bill into the
+flesh.]
+
+They made their home a whole season in a cottage in the midst of many
+persons who were sick with malaria. They breathed the same air, ate
+the same kind of food, and drank the same kind of water as those who
+suffered from the disease, but they remained well. The only thing that
+they did different from those who got sick was to keep the mosquitoes
+out of their rooms at night by means of screens. This experiment and
+many other studies have shown that we catch malaria only by the bites
+of mosquitoes.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Position of the malaria mosquito at rest.]
+
+=Only a Few Mosquitoes carry Malaria.=--Malaria is not common in all
+regions where mosquitoes live, and it has been found that only one
+group of mosquitoes carries the germs. The two common groups are the
+straight-backed and the humped. To prove that the straight-backed ones
+did the harm several of them were allowed to suck blood from a man
+sick with malaria in Italy. They were then sent to London and let
+bite a healthy man. In a few days he became sick with malaria. Many
+experiments with the humped-back mosquitoes, found nearly everywhere
+in our country, show that they do not carry malaria germs.
+
+=Yellow Fever.=--Until 1901 yellow fever was the scourge of many
+cities in the South. Thousands of persons lost their lives from it.
+Wherever the dread disease broke out in a city many persons would flee
+to the country because they thought that they could not breathe the
+air without getting the germs.
+
+Some persons thought that mosquitoes might cause the disease, and in
+1900 experiments were carried out in Cuba to learn whether mosquitoes
+really did carry yellow fever germs. Seven men made their home in a
+room well screened to keep out the mosquitoes. They used clothing
+which had been worn by others sick with the fever and even slept on
+pillows and blankets on which yellow fever victims had died. Many
+persons thought that these bedclothes were full of fever germs and
+that all the men would surely get the disease. Not one of them,
+however, got sick although they lived in the midst of these soiled
+materials for three weeks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.--The yellow fever mosquito biting the finger.
+Note how the lower lip is bent.]
+
+Seven other men were chosen for another experiment. A large room was
+prepared and made thoroughly clean. Only clean bedding and clean
+clothes were used. The men were given pure food and pure water, but
+into the room were let loose mosquitoes which had been sucking blood
+from a person sick with the fever. In a few days six of the seven men
+became sick with the fever and one of them died. From these
+experiments and other studies we now know that _this dreadful fever is
+carried from the sick to the well only by the bites of mosquitoes_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76.--A bunch of mosquito eggs floating on the
+surface of the water. Enlarged about fifteen times.]
+
+=How Mosquitoes Live.=--Before we can get rid of any pests we must
+know where the eggs are hatched and the young pass their early life.
+The eggs of mosquitoes are laid on standing water. The water may be in
+an old tomato can, a rain barrel, a cistern, or a large pond. A day or
+two after the mother lays one or two hundred eggs, they hatch into
+dark, wriggling objects called _wigglers_. In from ten to twenty days
+later they change into flying mosquitoes. These habits of life show
+that the easiest time to kill them is when they are young.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Photograph of wigglers, the stage in which
+the mosquito lives a week or two in water.]
+
+=Getting rid of Mosquitoes.=--During warm weather mosquitoes cause the
+death of more than a thousand persons in the world every day besides
+making many others very sick. To get rid of mosquitoes is to prevent
+sickness and death. In one year yellow fever killed over five thousand
+people in New York and Philadelphia because the doctors did not know
+how to stop the disease from spreading.
+
+When this fever broke out in New Orleans in 1905, less than five
+hundred persons died of it because the doctors had then learned that
+the disease is spread only by the yellow fever mosquito. They
+therefore began killing the mosquitoes. Kerosene was poured over all
+the ponds and stagnant pools of water which could not be drained. This
+kills the young mosquitoes because the oil gets into their breathing
+tube which they stick up to the surface of the water to get air. All
+rain barrels and tin cans were emptied and cisterns were tightly
+covered. Men, women, and children worked week days and Sundays killing
+mosquitoes because they knew that they were saving human life. The
+destroying fever was stopped.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Photograph of eggs laid on waste matter by
+two flies in one hour.]
+
+=Flies cause much Sickness.=--Very few people are afraid of house
+flies because they do not bite. Although they are so small and
+seemingly harmless yet we know that they cause many more deaths every
+year than mad dogs, poisonous snakes, and all wild beasts.
+
+Flies crawl around among slops, in spittoons, and in other unclean
+places. In this way they get thousands of germs of tuberculosis,
+typhoid fever, and cholera on their feet and then scatter them over
+our food as they crawl about on the table, in the grocery store, or
+among the milk cans. In our last war with Spain more than a thousand
+of our soldiers were made sick with fever carried to them by flies.
+
+In Denver, Colorado, in 1908 fifty persons were made sick with the fever
+by flies which fed on the slops from a sick room and then crawled
+around in the milk cans from which those who became sick used milk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Photograph of the worm stage or larva of the
+fly at the left and three of the sleeping stage or pupae at the right.
+Twice the natural size.]
+
+=How to fight the Flies.=--House flies lay at one time about one
+hundred eggs in the dirt thrown out of horse stables, in garbage cans,
+or in any other unclean place. In a day or two the eggs hatch into
+little white worms which feed on the dirt. One or two weeks later the
+worms change to flies.
+
+Flies may be kept out of houses by putting screens in the windows and
+doors or by darkening the rooms when they are not in use. The few
+which gain entrance may be caught in fly traps. All food in the store
+or the home should be kept covered. It is not safe to eat candy on
+which flies have wiped their feet or to drink the milk in which they
+have washed them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Photograph of a half handful of manure which
+had been thrown out of a horse stable. Note more than one hundred
+houseflies in the sleeping stage.]
+
+The surest way to get rid of flies in any community is for all the
+people to work together and keep the entire neighborhood clean. No
+dead grass, weeds, or rags should be allowed to lie in the backyards
+or alleys. The cleanings from stables should be hauled away every
+week or stored in tightly covered boxes. Garbage cans must have
+close-fitting lids, so that there will be no place in which the young
+may hatch and grow.
+
+=Other Insects which carry Disease.=--In certain parts of Africa, the
+_sleeping sickness_ has made ruins of prosperous villages. Thousands
+of the natives are dying yearly from this disease. The germs are
+carried from one person to another by the bite of a fly.
+
+Some fleas carry the germs of _plague_, which a few centuries ago
+swept across Asia and Europe destroying hundreds of lives daily. The
+plague is now common in India and was present in California in 1908
+and 1910. The bedbug spreads several kinds of fevers in warm countries
+and may also be a carrier of leprosy and typhoid fever. These facts
+show that insects are dangerous and should be kept out of the home.
+
+Any one troubled with these little pests in the house may learn how to
+get rid of them by writing to the Department of Agriculture,
+Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+HOW THE BODY MOVES
+
+
+=The Need of a Framework.=--The body needs a stiff framework made of
+bones for three purposes. One purpose is to give it shape, a second
+purpose is to help the body move, and a third one is to protect from
+injury some of the delicate organs, such as the heart and brain.
+
+The bones are nowhere separate but are joined together with tough
+bands named _ligaments_. All the bones together form the _skeleton_.
+
+All animals from fish to man have a skeleton. Many of the lower
+creatures, such as worms and flies, have no bony skeleton. Most of
+these move sluggishly or have a hardened outer covering, like beetles
+and wasps. The skeleton of animals such as the cat, rabbit, or cow,
+has about the same number of bones as man, and they are arranged in
+the same way.
+
+=Of what a Bone is Made.=--Although the bones are so hard, they are
+not dead. They contain blood, have feeling, and are just as much
+alive as the softer parts of the body. It is the lime that makes them
+stiff. This can be eaten out by putting the bone in strong vinegar or
+other acid for a few days. A long bone will then become so limber that
+it can be tied into a knot.
+
+The living part of a bone can be burned out by placing it on hot coals
+for a half hour. At the end of this time the bone will look just as
+before, but when it is touched, will crumble to pieces.
+
+=Forms of Bones.=--The bones of the legs and arms are hollow. This
+form gives the greatest strength with the least weight. You can prove
+this by using two sheets of paper. Roll one sheet and fold the other
+one. Hang weights on both ends of each and use the finger for a
+support in the middle.
+
+The cavity of these bones is filled with a soft white substance called
+_marrow_. This is largely fat. Each bone is surrounded by a tough
+membrane to which the muscles are attached.
+
+=Arrangement of the Bones.=--The bones of the head form the _skull_.
+The other bones of the body not belonging to the _limbs_ make up the
+_trunk_. There are over two hundred bones in the entire body. Eight of
+these form a case for the brain. Fourteen give shape to the face. A
+chain of twenty-six bones named _vertebrae_ forms the backbone.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Photograph of the bones of the skeleton.]
+
+Twelve pairs of _ribs_ encircle the chest. They are fastened behind to
+the backbone. The front parts of the ribs are made of pieces of
+gristle. The seven upper pairs are joined to the breastbone. The five
+lower pairs are named _false ribs_.
+
+The _collar bone_ is in front of the shoulder and behind it is the flat
+_shoulder blade_. There is one bone in the upper part of each arm and
+leg and two bones in the lower part of each limb. Twenty-eight small
+bones are found in the hand, while twenty-seven are present in the foot.
+
+=How the Bones may be Injured.=--In the young some of the entire bones
+and parts of many others are soft like gristle. For this reason, the
+bones of the young seldom get broken, but they are easily bent and
+pressed out of their natural shape. On this account you should hold the
+body erect in sitting and walking. Bending over the table or desk day
+after day is not only likely to cause round shoulders, but is sure to
+squeeze up the lungs and other organs so they cannot do their best work.
+
+Sitting at a table or desk, so that one shoulder is higher than the
+other or carrying books at the side, so that they rest on the hip may
+cause a curve sidewise in the backbone. Tight clothing about the waist
+presses the ribs out of shape and hurts the other organs within the
+body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82.--How the bones are held together. A piece has
+been cut out of the tough ligament to show the cup of the hip bone
+into which the head of the thigh bone fits.]
+
+=Caring for Broken Bones.=--When a bone of the arm or leg is broken, the
+muscles tend to make the ends shove over each other. The broken ends are
+sometimes sharp, and if the limb is bent, these may tear through the
+flesh. This may be prevented by binding a board firmly on opposite sides
+of the limb across the broken part. This will hold the bones in place
+until the surgeon comes and will also allow the patient to be moved.
+
+The surgeon will set the broken bones by bringing the ends together
+and holding them in place by sheets of wood or metal firmly held by a
+bandage. In a few days the membrane around the bone begins to grow new
+bone to join the broken parts.
+
+=How the Bones are joined together.=--The two general classes of
+joints are the _movable_ and _immovable_. Except the lower jaw, the
+bones of the skull are so tightly joined together that there is no
+motion between them. The bones of the wrist and back have but little
+movement. The freest motion is at the shoulder joint, where the round
+head of one bone fits into the shallow cup of another. This is called
+a _ball and socket joint_. Such a joint is found also at the hip. At
+the elbow and knee the bones move back and forth like a hinge and
+these are named _hinge joints_.
+
+=Working Parts of a Joint.=--The ends of the bones are covered with a
+thin layer of gristle. The bones are held in place by several strong
+bands called _ligaments_ (Fig. 82). These entirely surround the joint.
+On their inner sides is a delicate membrane which gives out a slippery
+fluid to make the joint work easily.
+
+The ligaments are sometimes strained, stretched, or torn by a fall.
+The joint then swells because the watery part of the blood collects
+there. A sprained limb should be elevated to prevent swelling. Bathing
+it in very hot water is helpful.
+
+=The Muscles.=--The muscles form the lean meat in any animal. They make
+up about one half the weight of the body. Each muscle is a bundle of
+thousands of little threads held together by other finer threads, while
+the whole is surrounded by a thin sheet. Little bundles formed of
+several of these threads called fibers may be seen in a piece of cooked
+beef picked to pieces. There are over five hundred muscles in the body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Fifty of the muscles just under the skin.
+Note the white cords, the tendons in the regions of the hands and feet.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84.--The biceps muscle contracted above and
+relaxed or loosened below.]
+
+Some of the muscles are more than a foot long and have the shape of a
+ribbon. Some are circular like those around the mouth, eyes, and
+stomach, while others are large in the middle and taper toward the ends.
+
+=How the Muscles are fastened to the Bones.=--The two ends of a muscle
+are attached to different bones. In many cases the muscle is not
+joined directly to the bone, but is connected to a tough white cord
+called a _tendon_. The tendon is then fixed to the bone.
+
+Several of the muscles in the forearm run into tendons in the wrist
+because if the muscle part were to extend along the wrist, this part
+of the arm would be large and clumsy instead of graceful and slender.
+Some of these tendons may be seen to move by bending the wrist and
+then working the fingers.
+
+=How the Muscles do their Work.=--A tiny nerve thread runs from the
+spinal cord or brain to every muscle thread. Messages sent through the
+nerve threads to the muscles make them act. A muscle can act in only
+two ways (Fig. 84). It can become shorter or longer. When it gets
+shorter, we say it _contracts_. When it stretches out, it is said to
+_relax_.
+
+A muscle cannot contract more than one fourth of its length. To pull
+the forearm up, the brain sends a message to the muscle fixed by one
+end at the shoulder and by the other end to a bone at the elbow. The
+muscle at once becomes shorter and thicker, as may be felt by placing
+the fingers on it. Although it shortens only two inches it is fastened
+to the bone so near the elbow that it draws the hand up two feet.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Of what use are the bones?
+
+     2. What animals have bony skeletons?
+
+     3. What can you say of the form of bones?
+
+     4. How many bones in the body?
+
+     5. Name six bones.
+
+     6. What part of the arm has two bones side by side?
+
+     7. How many ribs have you?
+
+     8. Explain how a broken bone should be cared for.
+
+     9. Point out and name two kinds of joints.
+
+    10. What are ligaments?
+
+    11. Of what is a muscle made?
+
+    12. How many muscles in the body?
+
+    13. How many tendons can you feel in your wrist?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+THE MUSCLES AND HEALTH
+
+
+=Making the Muscles Strong.=--No persons use all of the five hundred
+muscles in the body every day. In slow walking only about twenty
+muscles are used, while in running more than four times that number
+are called into action. Muscles which are not used get lazy and weak.
+
+Every time a muscle is made to act the blood vessels enlarge and bring
+to it more blood to supply food. The more food the muscle has the
+stronger it grows. The right arm is used more than the left in most
+persons. This makes it so much stronger that some boys can lift
+twenty-five pounds more with the right arm than they can with the left.
+
+=Using the Muscles keeps the Body Well.=--All muscles must have more
+blood when they are used so that the heart is made to beat faster and
+stronger by exercise. In this way its valves and walls become able to
+do more work. Such a heart not only does its work better in a well
+person, but is able to keep pumping when the body is weakened by
+disease. Many persons die because the heart gets too weak to push the
+blood through the body.
+
+In all the little spaces between the muscles and parts of other organs
+is some watery part of the blood containing much waste given off from
+the tissues. Moving the muscles presses on this watery waste in such a
+way as to move it along into the blood channels. It then can be cast out
+of the body by the lungs and other organs. One reason why we feel so
+good after exercise is because the poisonous waste has been taken away.
+
+No one can remain well very long without taking exercise. Children as
+well as older persons should enjoy one or two hours of outdoor play
+every day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85.--Various ways of exercising the muscles to
+keep the body well.]
+
+=How to exercise the Muscles.=--Outdoor games give the best form of
+exercise. Tennis, baseball, cricket, rowing, and swimming are sports
+which bring nearly all the muscles into use. Every boy and girl should
+learn to swim. It is dangerous to go swimming alone or to swim in
+deep water. Cramp may seize the muscles at any time, so that the limbs
+cannot be moved. Hundreds of persons are drowned every year by
+venturing in deep water.
+
+Taking care of the yard and garden and helping with other work about
+the home is one of the best ways of getting exercise and at the same
+time doing some good.
+
+=Special Kinds of Exercise.=--A room with ropes, swings, and machines
+in it for exercise is called a _gymnasium_. Under the direction of a
+teacher the pupils can get quickly just the right kind of exercise to
+strengthen the weak parts of the body and keep every organ in health.
+The muscles oftenest neglected are those of the chest. Every one
+should keep his chest full and round by swinging the arms and
+_practicing deep breathing every day_.
+
+=Danger from too much Exercise.=--Lately it has been learned that very
+violent exercise for more than a few minutes often injures the heart.
+The running of many races until you are all out of breath or much
+jumping of the rope is likely to strain the heart. It is always
+harmful to urge the body on until it is completely tired out.
+
+=Alcohol makes the Muscles Weak.=--In the year 1903 two learned men in
+Switzerland spent much time to determine whether alcohol helped
+persons do more work. They tried more than two hundred experiments
+with men to whom they sometimes gave wine and sometimes food, and
+sometimes both were given together.
+
+The results of these tests showed that when wine was given alone, the
+man's ability to do work was increased for a short time, but later he
+could not do so much work as when he had taken no wine. When the man
+took both food and wine, he could do only about nine tenths as much
+work as when he took food alone.
+
+The most careful tests by other persons show that whisky will not help a
+man do more work, lift a heavier weight, or shoot straighter. In fact
+little or much whisky makes him less able to do any of these things.
+
+=Beer makes the Muscles Lazy.=--Doctor Parkes of Netley secured two
+gangs of soldiers to do the same kind of work. He allowed the first
+gang to drink some beer, but the second gang were not allowed to have
+any. During the first hour the beer gang did the most work, but after
+that the temperance gang did far more work during the entire day. The
+next week beer was refused the first gang and given to the second. The
+beer helped the second gang do more work than the first one for nearly
+two hours, but after that they did much less than the first gang.
+This shows that men who wish to do their best work during the entire
+day should not use beer.
+
+=Tobacco and the Muscles.=--Many experiments and studies have shown
+that the body cannot do its best work when even very small amounts of
+poison are taken day after day. The poison in tobacco is believed to
+weaken the muscles so much that no man on a football team in any of
+our large colleges or universities is allowed to smoke or chew during
+the season. Persons training for any contest where much strength is
+required do not use tobacco in any form.
+
+=Tobacco prevents Growth of the Muscles.=--The moderate use of tobacco
+by men has but little effect on the muscles. It may cause them to tire
+a little more easily when doing very hard work. Tobacco poison does,
+however, show a marked effect on the muscles of the young.
+
+Very careful measurements made at one of the large universities showed
+that the boys who did not smoke grew one tenth more in weight and one
+fourth more in height than those using tobacco regularly. This slow
+growth in tobacco users is partly due to the fact that tobacco makes
+the muscles in the walls of the blood vessels squeeze together so as
+to shut off some of the blood from the legs, arms, and other parts, so
+that they get too little food. Tobacco may also cause less food to be
+digested for the use of the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+HOW THE BODY IS GOVERNED
+
+
+=Making the Parts of the Body Work.=--Each of the hundreds of organs
+in the body has a certain work to do and this must be done at the
+right time. In order that all may work together and each one do its
+part when needed, there is a chief manager called the _brain_ and a
+helping manager named the _spinal cord_. Millions of tiny threads for
+sending messages connect the two managers with every part of the body.
+These threads form the _nerves_.
+
+=The Brain.=--The brain is a soft bunch of matter filling the inside
+of the skull. The bones of the skull are a quarter of an inch thick
+and prevent any common knocks from hurting the brain. It is surrounded
+by three coverings which also help shield it from injury.
+
+The surface of the brain is very uneven. There are a great many folds
+separated by grooves. Some of these are more than an inch deep.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86.--The under side of the brain and the spinal cord
+with the chief nerves of one side of the body viewed from in front.]
+
+=Parts of the Brain.=--The brain is divided into three chief parts.
+The upper and larger part is called the _big brain_ or _cerebrum_.
+The lower part behind is the _little brain_ or _cerebellum_. The part
+under the little brain and round like the thumb is the _stem_ of the
+brain. It connects the larger parts of the brain with the spinal cord.
+
+The big brain is partly separated into halves by a deep cut called a
+_fissure_. Each half is a _hemisphere_.
+
+The outer layer of the brain is gray. It is made of millions of tiny
+lumps of matter which are the bodies of nerve cells. These are
+connected by threads much finer than hairs with other parts of the
+brain and spinal cord. Over these threads called _nerve fibers_ one
+cell can talk to another somewhat as we talk over a telephone wire.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Side of the skull cut away to show the brain.
+_B_, backbone.]
+
+=The Spinal Cord.=--This is a bundle of nerve matter about as thick as
+your finger. It extends from the stem of the brain down the canal in
+the backbone. The outer layer of the spinal cord is white because it
+is made of the tiny threads, _nerve fibers_. The inner part is made of
+the bodies of nerve cells and therefore looks gray. The fibers are
+branching threads from the cells in the cord and brain.
+
+=The Message Carriers or Nerve Fibers.=--In order that the managers may
+send messages, these fine threads, the nerve fibers, extend from them to
+all parts of the body. In many places from five to five hundred or more
+of these fibers are united in one white cord called a _nerve_.
+
+Twelve pairs of nerves are joined to the under side of the brain and
+thirty-one pairs are connected with the spinal cord (Fig. 86). The
+nerves of the brain branch to all parts of the head and neck, and one
+pair goes down to the lungs, heart, and stomach. The nerves connected
+with the spinal cord branch to every part of the muscles, bones, and
+skin of the arms, trunk, and legs.
+
+=How the Nerves do their Work.=--On a telephone wire we can send a
+message in either direction. A message can travel on a nerve in only
+one direction. For this reason there must be two kinds of nerves. One
+kind is called _sending nerves_ because the brain and cord send orders
+over them to make the organs act. The other kind carries messages to
+the brain from the eyes, ears, skin, or other organs of sense, telling
+it how they feel. On this account these are named _receiving nerves_.
+
+When we wish to catch a ball, the brain sends an order along the nerve
+threads down the spinal cord and out through the nerves of the arm to
+the fingers to get ready to seize a ball. The fingers are spread to
+grasp the ball, but they do not close until a message goes from the
+skin of the finger tips to the spinal cord, telling it that the ball
+is in the hand.
+
+=The Work of the Brain.=--The brain is not only the chief manager of
+the body, but the home of the mind. The mind acts through the brain.
+The mind receives through the brain what the eye sees, the ear hears,
+the nose smells, and the fingers feel. All this knowledge is stored up
+in the mind and called _memory_. These facts and others learned later
+are worked over by the mind. This is called _thought_.
+
+The mind rules and becomes good or bad according to whether it
+contains good thoughts or bad thoughts. _It is wrong to read books and
+papers about robberies and murders or to tell or to listen to bad
+stories_, because in this way evil thoughts get into the mind. The
+best way of keeping badness out of the mind is to fill it with
+goodness. It is said that Lincoln was so busy thinking how he could
+help others that there was no room in his mind for a bad thought.
+Doing some kindness every day helps much in the making of a good mind.
+
+=Habit.=--The doing of anything over and over again until the body
+goes through the same motions without any or very little thought is
+called _habit_. The brain and nerves are so formed that when they get
+used to obeying the same order of the mind again and again, they will
+carry out these orders when the mind no longer gives them. Sometimes
+they will continue to obey the old orders even when new ones are given.
+
+Many persons would like to break off the habit of drinking beer or
+whisky, of chewing tobacco, and using bad language, but they find it
+very hard to make the mind rule the body because they have let the
+nerves have their own way so long.
+
+Speaking cheerfully to those we meet, giving a kind word to our
+friends, and looking pleasant are good habits which every one ought to
+form in youth. They not only make the mind better, but they help the
+body to keep well and will prepare the way for success in life later.
+Nobody wants a grumbling clerk or a sour-faced housekeeper.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.--The difference in appearance between a
+pouting and a pleasant expression.]
+
+=Parts of the Body work without Orders from the Brain.=--A snake with
+its brain crushed will still squirm and a chicken with its head cut
+off jumps about. These movements are caused by orders sent from the
+spinal cord. When the hand or foot is being hurt, the spinal cord
+orders the muscles to draw the limb away even before we feel the pain
+in the brain. Many of the movements of the body which are often
+repeated may be directed by the spinal cord, while the brain is left
+free to do other work. This is why the spinal cord is called the
+helping manager.
+
+The action of the muscles in the walls of the blood vessels, the
+working of the stomach, the liver, pancreas, and other glands are not
+directed by the brain, but by the _sympathetic nerves_. These extend
+from a little cord on either side of the backbone to all parts of the
+body and make the organs, such as the heart and sweat glands, which we
+cannot make obey our will, do their work.
+
+=Injury to the Nerves.=--The nerves are so important for the welfare
+of the body that all the chief ones are placed deep in the flesh,
+where they are not likely to be hurt. If the nerves leading to the arm
+were cut, it could not be moved, and we should have no feeling in it.
+The hurting of a part of the brain, the spinal cord, or the nerves may
+cause loss of feeling or motion in the leg, arm, or other part of the
+body. Such a part then seems asleep or dead and is said to have
+_paralysis_.
+
+Pressing on a nerve prevents it from acting. Sitting so as to press on
+the nerve of the leg often makes the foot go to sleep. The bursting of
+a blood vessel in the brain may let a blood clot form and press on the
+nerves which govern the arm or the leg. This pressure may cause
+paralysis.
+
+=Resting the Brain.=--When there is no food in the stomach, it has
+time to rest. When we sit down or lie down, the muscles get rest. The
+brain is always busy except when we are asleep. No one can live even a
+week without sleep. If a dog is kept awake five days, it will die.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Sleeping in the position shown in the lower
+figure prevents free breathing and tends to cause round shoulders. The
+upper figure shows correct position.]
+
+Children need much more sleep than older persons. Men and women who
+work should have about eight hours of sleep daily to remain in good
+health. Children of twelve years should sleep nine hours each day;
+those of ten years, ten hours; those of seven years, eleven hours; and
+those of four years, twelve hours.
+
+=Getting the most out of Sleep.=--You should go to bed every night at
+about the same hour. This will help you to fall asleep as soon as you
+are in bed. Do not sleep in the clothes which you have worn during the
+day, but hang them up to air, and put on a night robe.
+
+Children should use a very low pillow, so that the body can lie
+straight in the bed. This gives the lungs and heart freedom to act. Do
+not lie on the back as this causes some of the organs to press on
+certain nerves and makes you dream. The windows should be opened wide
+because fresh air is the best aid to rest and health and keeps away
+tuberculosis.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. What makes the parts of the body work together?
+
+     2. Describe the surface of the brain.
+
+     3. Name the three parts of the brain.
+
+     4. Of what is the outer layer of the brain made?
+
+     5. Where is the spinal cord?
+
+     6. What are nerve fibers?
+
+     7. What work does the brain do?
+
+     8. What makes the mind good or bad?
+
+     9. What is habit?
+
+    10. How long should children sleep?
+
+    11. How can you get the most good out of sleep?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+HOW NARCOTICS AND STIMULANTS AFFECT THE BRAIN AND NERVES
+
+
+=What Narcotics and Stimulants Are.=--A _narcotic_ is something which
+when taken into the body makes the organs do their work more slowly
+and tends to cause sleepiness. Alcoholic drinks, tobacco, opium,
+soothing sirups, and pain killers are narcotics.
+
+A _stimulant_ is a substance which makes the organs of the body do
+more and quicker work and does not later make the organs work more
+slowly. Coffee and tea are stimulants. Beer, wine, and whisky were
+once thought to be stimulants, but experiments have shown them to be
+narcotics. They urge the brain to faster work for a few minutes, but a
+half hour later they make it act slower than usual.
+
+=Alcohol hurts the Brain.=--Within five minutes after a drink of beer
+or whisky has been swallowed, part of the alcohol has reached the
+blood. Within fifteen minutes much of the alcohol has gone from the
+stomach directly into the blood. In a minute after entering the blood
+vessels it reaches the brain.
+
+If much strong drink is taken, the cells of the brain become so numbed
+that they cannot give the right orders to the muscles to move the
+limbs. The person then staggers about and is said to be drunk. Much
+whisky taken will make the nerve cells so numb that a man cannot move,
+and he will then lie down as if in a deep sleep.
+
+A tablespoonful of whisky will make a child drunk and twice that
+amount may make him very sick. Much use of strong drink sometimes
+gives to the brain a terrible disease called _delirium tremens_. In
+this sickness the man thinks he sees horned animals, hissing snakes,
+and other creatures which annoy him.
+
+=Alcohol injures the Thinking Part of the Brain.=--It was once thought
+that wine or whisky would make a man think better. Now we know that
+either of these drinks makes his thoughts slower and also causes him
+to make mistakes.
+
+Two doctors in Europe made many tests with men to learn how alcohol
+affected their thinking. They found that when using wine the men could
+do about one tenth less work in adding numbers than when they took no
+strong drink. These doctors also tested the effect of alcohol on
+memory and discovered that the use of even small quantities of liquor
+caused their pupils to learn their lessons more slowly.
+
+When persons have taken only a very little drink, they often say and
+do very foolish things. They sometimes tell secrets, for which they
+are very sorry when they get sober. Often they become angry at the
+least cause and strike or even shoot any person who seems to speak or
+work against them in any way.
+
+=Alcohol makes People Steal and Kill.=--The alcohol in strong drink,
+when often used, appears to deaden that part of the brain which helps
+the mind know right from wrong. In one year the courts of Suffolk
+County in Massachusetts found 17,000 persons guilty of doing some
+wickedness and in over 12,000 of these cases alcohol was found to be
+the cause of doing the wrong for which they were arrested.
+
+Some time ago there were collected the records of 30,000 prisoners,
+and among these over 12,000 had done their wicked acts while alcohol
+was numbing the brain. Lately another careful record of over 13,000
+prisoners in twelve different states has been studied. In over 4000 of
+these men the use of strong drink was the first cause of their crimes.
+
+=Alcohol makes the Mind Sick.=--Since the mind depends upon certain
+parts of the brain, whatever hurts the brain is quite sure to hurt the
+mind. When the mind cannot reason rightly, the person is said to be
+_insane_. A study of 2000 insane men in New York State showed that the
+use of alcoholic drink was the cause of the mind sickness in over 500
+of them. Of 687 persons in Massachusetts who were so insane that they
+had to be cared for daily by others, more than 200 of them were
+brought to this sad condition by alcohol.
+
+=Brain of the Young easily overcome by Alcohol.=--No one expects to
+become a drunkard or a criminal when he first begins to drink. The
+continued use of alcohol, however, soon numbs the brain and weakens
+the mind, so that the person's will power is lost. He is then not able
+to quit drinking even though he wants to stop. He has become a slave
+to alcohol.
+
+_The brain of a young person is injured much more quickly by alcohol
+than that of an older person and he_ is much more likely to become a
+slave than one who begins the use of drink late in life. Doctor
+Lambert, of New York, studied the cases of 259 slaves to alcohol. He
+learned that four began to drink before six years of age; thirteen
+between six and twelve years of age; sixty, between twelve and sixteen
+years; 102 between sixteen and twenty-one years; seventy-one, between
+twenty-one and thirty years; and only eight after thirty years of age.
+These facts teach that it is dangerous for the young to take strong
+drink at any time.
+
+=Laws against Alcohol.=--The men who make laws for the good of the
+people are learning that alcohol is injuring the mind and body of many
+persons every year. For this reason laws have lately been passed
+forbidding the sale of strong drink in several entire states and in
+large parts of many other states.
+
+=Tobacco makes the Brain work Slower.=--An examination of the age and
+habits of hundreds of the students entering a large university in New
+England showed that those who smoked required more than a year longer
+than those who did not use tobacco, to learn enough to enter the first
+classes in this school. Moreover, out of every hundred of those who
+took the highest rank in their work in the university, ninety-five did
+not use tobacco. It is likely that tobacco makes the mind work slower
+by preventing the full amount of blood from going to the brain. It
+does this by making the blood vessels smaller.
+
+So far as known tobacco has but little effect upon the brains of older
+persons.
+
+Superintendent Ogg of Indiana reports that the occasional users of
+cigarettes are a year, and the regular users two years, behind those
+who do not smoke. The conduct and honesty of the smokers were also
+found to be lower than among those who did not smoke.
+
+=Opium, Morphine, and Cocaine.=--All of these harmful drugs are widely
+used in our country. They act on the brain in a strange way. All of
+them deaden pain. When a person first begins their use, only a small
+amount is required to produce the effect wanted on the body. Later
+the doses must be increased. After a few months' use the person
+becomes a slave to the habit of using them, and he cannot stop their
+use without the help of a doctor. It is therefore dangerous to use
+these drugs at any time.
+
+Powders used for colds in the nose, also paregoric and laudanum,
+contain these harmful drugs.
+
+=Pain Killers and Soothing Sirups.=--All pain killers contain opium or
+morphine or other harmful drugs. They are therefore dangerous to use.
+Pain is useful in telling us that some organ is out of order and needs
+care. Killing the pain does not help the sick organ, and it may let
+the organ get so sick as to cause death.
+
+One use of the nerves is to tell us when any part of the body is hurt
+or sick. Pain is nature's warning, and to numb the nerves which tell
+us about it is as foolish as to kill a person because he brings us bad
+news. _No medicine should ever be given children to make them sleep or
+stop their crying except by the advice of the physician._
+
+=Powders and Pills.=--If you get sick, do not try to cure yourself
+with pills or powders bought at the store. Some of these medicines
+contain poisons which hurt the heart or other organs. A number of
+persons have been killed by taking such medicines. When you are sick,
+go to a good doctor who understands how the organs should work, and he
+will find which one is out of order and tell you exactly what
+medicine you need and what to eat in order to get well quickly.
+
+=Tea and Coffee.=--These drinks usually wake up the brain and make it
+work better for a time. If too much of them is used, they may excite
+the brain in such a way as to make persons nervous. If taken for
+supper, they may prevent sleep. Children should not use either tea or
+coffee. Tea sometimes disturbs digestion, and coffee may injure both
+the stomach and the heart.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. What is a narcotic?
+
+     2. Name some narcotics.
+
+     3. What is a stimulant?
+
+     4. Name some stimulants.
+
+     5. How long before alcohol taken reaches the brain?
+
+     6. What effect does strong drink have on the brain?
+
+     7. Does alcohol help us think better?
+
+     8. What facts show that alcohol sends men to prison?
+
+     9. What shows that alcohol makes the mind sick?
+
+    10. Why is it dangerous for the young to take strong drink?
+
+    11. What shows that tobacco makes the brain work slower?
+
+    12. Why should you not use opium or morphine?
+
+    13. What do pain killers contain?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE SENSES, OR DOORS OF KNOWLEDGE
+
+
+=The Organs of Sense.=--In order that our body may keep out of the way
+of other persons and find food and drink and do its work, the brain
+must have some way of receiving news about what is near us, how it
+looks, and of what it is made. Special organs for receiving knowledge
+of people and things about us are scattered over the surface of the
+body. They are called _sense organs_. The chief ones are the two eyes,
+the two ears, the nose, and many organs of taste in the mouth, and the
+thousands of tiny organs of feeling in the skin.
+
+=The Eye.=--The eye consists of a globe called the _eyeball_ and parts
+which move this and protect it from injury. Each eyeball is attached
+at its back part to the large nerve of sight (Fig. 90). This carries
+messages to the brain, telling it what the eye sees.
+
+The eyeball is held in a socket in the front of the skull. A layer of
+fat lines the socket and keeps the eye from being injured by jars. The
+_eyebrows_ at the lower edge of the forehead prevent the sweat from
+running into the eyeball.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Side of the face cut away to show the eyeball
+in its socket. _n_ is the nerve of sight; the other letters show the
+muscles which move the eyeball.]
+
+The _eyelids_ can close over the front of the eyeball to shut out dirt
+or anything else likely to hurt it. The lids have learned to do their
+work so well that we do not need to think to close them when anything
+flies toward the eye, for they are shut before we can think.
+
+A salty fluid called _tears_ flows from the tear gland at the upper
+and outer side of the eyeball. The tears keep the front of the eyeball
+clean.
+
+=Parts of the Eyeball.=--The outside of the eyeball is a tough white
+coat except in front, where it is as clear as glass. Within the outer
+coat is a very thin black lining to keep the light from scattering. In
+front the lining is not against the outer coat, but hangs loose and
+has in it a round hole called the _pupil_ to let the light pass
+through. The part around the hole is the _iris_. It may be blue,
+black, or brown, and can squeeze up so as to make the pupil very small
+when the light is strong.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.--A slice from before backward through the eye.]
+
+The end of the nerve of sight forms a tender pink covering over most
+of the inner surface of the eyeball. The cavity within the eyeball is
+filled with three clear substances. The _lens_, shaped like a flat
+door knob, is fixed just behind the pupil. In front of the lens is a
+_watery fluid_ and behind it is a clear _jellylike mass_. The use of
+the lens and also the other substances is to bend the rays of light
+together so that they will meet at one place.
+
+=How the Eyeball is Moved.=--Six muscles fixed to the bones of the
+socket holding the eye have their other ends fastened to the tough
+coat of the eyeball. One muscle turns the ball upward, another turns
+it downward, one turns it inward and another turns it outward. If an
+inner or an outer muscle is too strong, a person may have cross eyes.
+
+=Keeping the Eye Strong.=--Nearly all young children have perfect
+eyes. After a year or two in school the eyes of some children become
+weak. Many children get weak eyes after they are ten or twelve years
+old. This is because they have not taken care of the eyes.
+
+The eyes are often hurt by reading a book with fine print, reading in
+a dim light, or by leaning over the book so that the eyes look
+downward instead of straight forward. As the eyes are very weak after
+measles and most other diseases, they should not be used much until a
+week or more after recovery.
+
+In reading the book should be held a little over a foot in front of
+the chest and you should sit nearly straight and let the light fall on
+the page from one side. Never read while lying down because it strains
+the eyes. Stop reading as soon as the eyes smart.
+
+=Helping the Eyes to See.=--Very few old people can see to read
+without the help of glasses, because the lens of the eye hardens in
+old age. To see things near by, the shape of the lens must be changed.
+In some children, the shape of the eyes has become so changed by
+straining them to read fine print or see things in a dim light that
+the eyes hurt after being used for any kind of work, and the head may
+often ache and make the whole body feel bad. Such eyes need help. You
+should have them examined by an eye doctor who can fit you with
+glasses which will help you see clearly without headache.
+
+=Keeping the Eyes Well.=--Bits of dirt often get beneath the eyelids
+and cause much pain. By taking hold of the eyelashes the lid may be
+pulled out from the eye and any dirt removed with the corner of a
+clean handkerchief passed gently along the lid.
+
+The eyes sometimes become sore because they are rubbed with soiled
+fingers on which are germs. These germs get inside the lids and grow,
+and in this way poison the eyes. Unless care is used sore eyes are
+likely to spread from one child to another in the school. The sick child
+rubs its eyes and then handles a book or pencil on which the germs are
+smeared by the fingers which touched the eyes. The next child picks up
+the same book later, gets the germs on the fingers, and then rubs the
+eyes. For this reason you should never rub the eyes. If you have sore
+eyes, _be careful that no one else catches the sickness from you_.
+
+=The Ear.=--The ear is made of three parts called the _outer ear_, the
+_middle ear_ or _eardrum_, and the _inner ear_. The outer ear is made
+of a plate of skin and gristle and a slightly bent tube about one inch
+long. At the inner end of this tube is a thin membrane or _drumhead_.
+Beyond the drumhead is the cavity of the middle ear about as large as
+a pea. A chain of three tiny bones stretches from the outer drumhead
+across this cavity to a tiny _inner drumhead_. Beyond the inner
+drumhead is the inner ear.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92.--View of the ear from in front. Three little
+bones stretch across the middle ear.]
+
+The middle ear is kept full of air by means of a tube leading from it
+to the throat. A cold or other sickness may cause this tube to fill up
+and make you deaf. The inner ear consists of a sac and four bent tubes
+filled with a watery fluid. They are also surrounded by watery fluid
+contained in channels in a bone of the skull. The end of the nerve of
+hearing is on one of the tubes.
+
+=How we Hear.=--Throwing a stone in the water makes waves which move
+farther and farther outward. In the same way a noise causes waves in
+the air. These waves pass into the ear tube, strike the outer
+drumhead, and make it move. This moves the chain of bones in the
+middle ear so that they cause motion in the inner drumhead. This in
+moving back and forth makes waves in the fluid of the inner ear which
+strike on the ends of the nerve of hearing and cause messages to be
+carried to the brain.
+
+=Care of the Ears.=--The ears should not be struck or pulled, as the
+eardrum is easily broken. Do not put pencils, pins, or anything else
+in your ears. Wax naturally forms in the ear tube to keep out bugs and
+flies. The outer part of the tube may be kept clean by wiping it with
+a moist cloth over the little finger. If you often have earache or a
+running ear, you should have it examined by a physician. _Neglecting a
+sick ear may cause deafness._
+
+Some persons are deaf in one ear and do not know it. Test each ear by
+covering the other one with a heavy cloth and note how far off you can
+hear the ticks of a watch.
+
+=The Nose.=--The nose has a skin-like lining, but it is always kept
+moist by little glands which give out a watery fluid. The endings of
+the nerve of smell are in the lining in the upper part of the nose.
+Two nerves lead from the nose to the brain.
+
+When we catch cold, much blood rushes to the lining of the nose and it
+becomes swollen. It then gives out a thick white mucus. This covers
+the nerve endings, so that we cannot smell.
+
+Smell is of great use in telling us whether our food is good, by
+helping us to enjoy food with a pleasant odor, and by warning us
+against bad air.
+
+=The Sense of Taste.=--The nerves by which we taste end in the soft
+covering of the tongue and some other parts of the mouth. A food
+cannot be tasted while it is dry. For this reason much slippery fluid
+flows into the mouth from glands under the ears and tongue. This
+fluid, called _saliva_, softens the solid food when it is well chewed,
+so we can taste it.
+
+=The Senses of the Skin.=--There are endings of nerves in the skin all
+over the body. They are of three or four different kinds. Some of them
+tell us about heat, others tell us about cold. Some tell us about the
+shape, the smoothness, or hardness of objects, while others tell us
+when the skin gets hurt.
+
+Most of the nerve endings are in the deeper part of the skin, so that
+they are covered by the epidermis and cannot be hurt by the rough
+things handled.
+
+=Alcohol and the Senses.=--The senses are but little affected by a
+small amount of alcoholic drink. The sense of taste, after being
+accustomed to the sharpness of strong drink, may be less easily
+pleased with the taste of common food and drink.
+
+The use of large amounts of alcohol blunts all the senses. In a
+drunken man the senses of the skin are so numbed that he does not know
+when anything touches him, and he may be badly burned before he feels
+the pain.
+
+Heavy drinking makes the hearing less keen, enlarges the blood vessels
+of the eyes, and makes them appear red and bloodshot.
+
+=Tobacco and the Senses.=--The use of tobacco does not injure the
+senses of the skin and usually has no effect on hearing. Both chewing
+and smoking, if much practiced, make the sense of taste less delicate,
+so that one cannot enjoy his food to the fullest extent.
+
+Much smoking of tobacco may hurt the nerve of sight and in a few cases
+it has made men blind. Many boys have weakened their eyes by the use
+of cigarettes.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. Name the chief sense organs.
+
+     2. Of what use are the eyelids and tears?
+
+     3. Name four parts of the eyeball.
+
+     4. What is the iris?
+
+     5. Of what use is the lens?
+
+     6. What moves the eyeball?
+
+     7. When do children get weak eyes?
+
+     8. How are the eyes often hurt?
+
+     9. How may poor eyes be helped?
+
+    10. What makes the eyes sore?
+
+    11. How do germs get into the eyes?
+
+    12. Name the three parts of the ear.
+
+    13. What does the inner ear contain?
+
+    14. What may result from neglecting a sick ear?
+
+    15. Of what use is smell?
+
+    16. Why should food be well chewed?
+
+    17. In what part of the skin are most of the nerve endings?
+
+    18. What effect does tobacco have on the sense of taste?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+KEEPING AWAY SICKNESS
+
+
+=Too Much Sickness.=--Many diseases are caused by our own carelessness
+and our bad habits of living. We have about one doctor for every one
+hundred families. There are enough people sick every day to make a
+city as large as New York or to equal the number of people living in
+the thirteen states of Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Arizona, New Mexico,
+Utah, Delaware, Montana, Vermont, New Hampshire, North Dakota and
+South Dakota, and Oklahoma.
+
+A careful study of disease and its cause shows that at least one half
+of all the sickness in our land can be avoided by right living.
+
+=The Cause of Sickness.=--Some people are so foolish as to make
+themselves sick. They weaken the body by using much beer or wine, by
+breathing bad air, by lack of exercise, or by fast eating. When the
+body becomes weak, it is likely to get sick at any time.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93.--The germs of diseases. Much enlarged.]
+
+It is not always our own fault when we are sick. It may be caused by
+the carelessness of others who have let germs escape from their bodies
+so that they are able to reach us. One half of the sickness in our
+land is catching sickness. That is, it is sickness which passes from
+one person to another and is caused by tiny germs or microbes. A
+catching sickness is called a _contagious disease_. Some of the common
+catching diseases are sore throat, colds, diphtheria, pneumonia,
+typhoid fever, measles, grippe, and whooping cough.
+
+=How we get a Catching Sickness.=--We get a catching sickness by
+taking into our bodies the germs from some other person. The germs of
+the sick do not pass off in the breath, but in the spit or anything
+else which comes from their bodies. This is why the spit and all slops
+from the sick room should be burned, buried, or destroyed in some way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94.--How the germs of disease start on their
+mission of death. This sewer carries slops from the houses of the sick
+and well and empties into a stream used below for drinking water.]
+
+We should think it very wicked if a showman should turn his lions and
+tigers loose in a crowd of women and children. Somebody would surely
+be killed and others hurt. It is just as wrong to turn loose the
+germs of the sick by throwing the spit and the slops where they will
+get into a stream or where the flies may find them and by soiling
+their feet leave death in their trail wherever they crawl.
+
+=How the Germs of Sickness catch Us.=--The germs of sickness have no
+feet to walk and no wings to fly, yet they easily travel from the sick
+to the well. They are not killed by being frozen, or drowned by
+floating in water, or destroyed by drying. For this reason they can
+travel with the ice, water, milk, and dust.
+
+In Buffalo, New York, fifty-seven children caught the scarlet fever in
+one week by using milk cared for by a boy who was getting well from
+the scarlet fever.
+
+The germs of sickness are so small that a million can hang to the
+hands or clothing and not be seen. For this reason they are often left
+clinging to the fingers, desks, books, and pencils, and travel in
+large numbers on the feet of flies. The surest way the germs have of
+getting from one person to another is by the common drinking cup.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Photograph of clear beef broth jelly in which
+a fly walked five minutes scattering germs. Two days later each germ
+brushed off the fly's feet grew into a city of germs appearing as a
+white spot.]
+
+=The Common Drinking Cup is an Exchange Station for Germs.=--The most
+careful examinations have shown that there are thousands of children
+as well as grown persons who have very light attacks of scarlet fever,
+tuberculosis, or other diseases and go to school or about their work
+scattering the germs of sickness in their spit. A child seldom drinks
+from a cup without leaving on it thousands of germs. Some of these may
+be germs which will cause sickness. On one drinking cup used in a
+school, the germs were found to be as thick as the leaves on a maple
+tree in June.
+
+In an Ohio school one warm day, a boy with beginning measles drank
+from the cup which was afterward used on the same day by the teacher
+and all the other pupils. In less than two weeks every pupil and the
+teacher were suffering from measles. _Put nothing into your mouth
+which has been in another's mouth._
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96.--A schoolhouse in Morgan county, Ohio, where
+sixteen pupils and the teacher caught the measles in one day by drinking
+from a cup which had been used by a boy sick with the measles.]
+
+=The Golden Rule.=--If you have a catching sickness, such as measles,
+chicken pox, or whooping cough, stay away from others. Since the germs
+of some diseases, like scarlet fever and diphtheria, remain in the
+spit sometimes several months after you feel well, don't scatter your
+spit. Hold a handkerchief before your face when you sneeze or cough.
+_Wash your hands before handling food._
+
+=Some Animals carry Sickness.=--Mosquitoes carry malaria and yellow
+fever and some other diseases. Flies carry typhoid fever, grippe,
+diphtheria, and tuberculosis. Bedbugs and fleas carry the plague and
+leprosy. Rats carry the plague. Cats sometimes carry diphtheria. Many
+cows have tuberculosis and the germs of this disease are then
+sometimes found in their milk. Some children have caught tuberculosis
+from drinking such milk.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97.--A pane of glass held about two feet before the
+face of a boy who sneezed. The spots are the droplets of spit thrown
+out. Each spot showed under the microscope from 50 to 1000 germs.]
+
+=Keeping away Smallpox.=--Smallpox was once the most terrible of all
+diseases. It is so catching that two or three were often sick with it
+at one time in the same family. Sometimes nearly one half the people
+of a whole town would have the disease in one year. Over a hundred
+years ago nearly every grown up person had little pits scattered over
+his face as a result of having had smallpox.
+
+You can always keep away smallpox by being vaccinated. The doctor can
+vaccinate you by putting on the freshly scraped skin of your arm some
+weak smallpox germs from a clean healthy calf which has been
+vaccinated. Your arm will in a few days get sore and you will not feel
+well for about one week, but you will be made safe from smallpox for
+several years.
+
+Fifty nurses were vaccinated in Philadelphia and cared for many sick
+with the smallpox, staying with them day after day, but not one of the
+nurses took the disease. _Every one should be vaccinated when a year
+old and again at the age of ten or twelve years._
+
+=Colds.=--Some colds are catching, but we generally take cold because
+we have weak bodies or have been careless. If you want to be free from
+colds, remember these six rules:--
+
+Don't sit still in wet clothes or with wet feet.
+
+Don't sit in a cold draft or in a cold room.
+
+Don't sit on the damp ground or on the ice when you are resting from
+skating.
+
+Don't cool off quickly after exercising.
+
+Sleep in a room with the windows _wide_ open.
+
+Take a cold bath every morning and draw fresh air to the bottom of the
+lungs many times every day.
+
+=Tuberculosis or Consumption.=--This disease is so common and deadly
+that twenty persons die from it in our country every hour. It is
+caused by tiny germs (Fig. 63) which lodge in the lungs, glands,
+bones, or other parts of the body, where they give off poison and hurt
+the tissues. We take these germs into the body with dust or food, and
+also by putting to the lips a drinking cup or other things used by a
+consumptive. Generally the germs will not grow in a strong body, even
+when they have lodged there.
+
+=Preventing Consumption.=--Living in poorly lighted houses without
+much fresh air, working in dusty rooms, using much strong drink and
+tobacco, eating poor food, losing sleep, neglecting a cough, and
+taking little or no outdoor exercise weaken the body so that the
+consumption germs can grow in it. Deep breathing, sitting and walking
+erect, living in rooms with sunshine, sleeping with the windows open
+eight or nine hours every night, and eating good food will prevent one
+from taking consumption and will often cure the disease. Persons with
+this sickness give out the germs in their spit, which should be caught
+in a cup and burned.
+
+=The Hookworm Disease.=--This is a sickness affecting thousands of
+persons in the South. It is caused by tiny worms half as large as a pin
+hanging fast to the lining of the bowels. The worm is sometimes called
+the lazy germ because it destroys the red blood cells and makes the body
+feel weak and lazy. Children with these worms grow slowly, have a dry
+skin, and a swollen abdomen with a tender spot below the stomach.
+
+The disease is easily cured by a physician, but it is better to
+prevent it by killing the germs in the waste from the bowels. For
+directions, address the Department of Health at the capital of your
+state. If the germs reach the ground they crawl around and may get
+into the well, and enter the body again with the drinking water.
+Generally, however, the worms enter through the skin of those going
+barefooted, and are carried by the blood to the lungs. From here they
+go up the windpipe to the throat, and then down the gullet to the
+bowels. It is their entrance through the skin that causes ground itch
+or dew itch. Wearing shoes will help prevent the disease.
+
+=A Strong Body Wins.=--Nobody wants to be weak and sickly. Most all of
+us could keep well if we would try in the right way to keep the body
+strong.
+
+To keep the body in health it must have plenty of sleep, enough good
+food well chewed, plenty of clean water, exercise every day, and an
+abundance of fresh air. The body is the temple of the soul. Don't hurt
+it with bad habits.
+
+
+PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
+
+     1. How many people are sick to-day in our country?
+
+     2. How can much sickness be avoided?
+
+     3. What causes sickness?
+
+     4. What is a contagious disease?
+
+     5. Name some contagious diseases.
+
+     6. How do we get a catching sickness?
+
+     7. Why should we be careful with the slops from the sick
+        room?
+
+     8. Tell how children in Buffalo caught scarlet fever.
+
+     9. What is the danger in using a cup from which others
+        have drunk?
+
+    10. How can you prevent others from getting your sickness?
+
+    11. Name some animals which carry sickness.
+
+    12. How can we keep away smallpox?
+
+    13. Give six rules to keep away colds.
+
+    14. How may the body be kept strong?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+HELPING BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES
+
+
+=The Need of Quick Help.=--In many places in the country, or when out
+camping, it is impossible to get a doctor in less than two or three
+hours. Unless some one at hand can give aid before the doctor comes,
+much suffering and even death may result when a simple accident
+occurs. For this reason every one should know how to help in case of
+such accidents as burns, bleeding, choking, and sunstroke.
+
+=Clothing on Fire.=--Children should never play about an open fire. A
+single spark lighting on a cotton dress may cause it to burst into a
+blaze so that within a few minutes the child is enveloped in flames.
+
+The quickest way to put out such a fire is to wrap the child in a
+blanket, a piece of carpet, a coat, or any part of your clothing
+quickly removed. If nothing is at hand to wrap the sufferer in, roll
+him over and over in the dirt or weeds until the flames are smothered.
+When your clothing is on fire, you must not run, because this fans the
+fire and makes it burn.
+
+=Burns and Scalds.=--If there is clothing on the part burned, it
+should be taken off slowly so as not to tear the skin. If the clothing
+sticks, soak it in oil a few minutes until it gets loose. Cover the
+burned part as quickly as possible with vaseline or a clean cloth
+soaked in a quart of boiled water containing a cup of washing soda.
+Let nothing dirty touch the burned surface and keep it well wrapped.
+
+=Bleeding.=--A person can lose a quart of blood without danger of
+death and may live after more than two quarts have been lost, but it
+is wise to try to stop any flow of blood as quickly as possible. Tying
+a clean cloth folded several times over the cut will in most cases
+stop the flow. This will help a clot to form and will also close the
+ends of the cut vessels if the bandage is twisted tight with a stick.
+
+If the cut is on a limb and the blood comes out in spurts, a bandage
+tied about the limb between the cut and the body may be twisted tight
+with a stick so as to press upon the artery and close it. A piece of
+wood or folded cloth placed over the artery under the bandage before
+it is tightened is helpful.
+
+=Nosebleed.=--Some persons are troubled frequently with bleeding from
+the nose. The least knock may cause it to bleed for more than an hour.
+It may generally be stopped without sending for a doctor.
+
+Sit up straight to keep the blood out of the head and press the
+middle part of the nose firmly between the fingers. Apply a cold wet
+cloth or a lump of ice wrapped in a cloth to the back of the neck. Put
+a bag of pounded ice on the root of the nose. If it does not stop in a
+half hour, wet a soft rag or a piece of cotton with cold tea or alum
+water and put it gently into the bleeding nostril so as to entirely
+close it. Do not blow the nose for several hours after the bleeding
+has stopped as this may start it again.
+
+=Fainting.=--Fainting may be caused by bad air, an overheated room, by
+fear, or by some other excitement. A fainting person falls down and
+appears to be asleep. The lips are pale and there may be cold sweat on
+the forehead. There is too little blood in the brain, and the heart is
+weak.
+
+A fainting person should be laid flat on the floor or on a couch, and
+all doors and windows opened wide. Loosen all tight clothing and apply
+to the forehead a cloth wet with cold water. A faint usually lasts
+only a few minutes.
+
+=Sunstroke.=--A person with sunstroke becomes giddy, sick at the
+stomach, and weak. He then gets drowsy and may seem as if asleep, but
+he cannot be aroused. The skin is hot and dry instead of being cold
+and pale, as in fainting. The doctor should be sent for at once.
+
+The first aid for sunstroke is to put the patient in a cool cellar or
+an icehouse, raise the head, and wet the head, neck, and back of the
+chest with cold water. As soon as he wakens put him in a cool room.
+
+=Frostbite.=--When out in very cold weather, the end of the nose, the
+tips of the ears, and the toes and fingers are sometimes frozen. If a
+person comes into a warm room, these frozen parts will give much pain.
+The parts should be rubbed with snow or ice water until a tingling
+sensation is felt.
+
+=Breaks in the Skin.=--A small cut or tear in the skin may become very
+sore and cause much trouble if not cared for so as to keep the germs
+out. If there is dirt in the wound, as when made with a rusty nail or
+by the bite of a dog, it should be squeezed and washed with boiled
+water to make it perfectly clean. It may then be bound up in a clean
+cloth. A little turpentine poured on the wound will help kill the
+germs which may make it sore. If the dog is thought to be mad or the
+wound is too deep to be easily washed out to the bottom, a doctor
+should be called.
+
+=Snakebite.=--The scratches made by the little teeth of most snakes,
+such as the milk snake, garter snake, and black snake, do no more harm
+than the scratch of a pin. The _copperhead_, the _southern moccasin_,
+and the _rattlesnake_ have a pair of long teeth called _fangs_ in the
+upper jaw. These teeth have little canals in them through which the
+snake presses poison into the bite.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Photograph of a copperhead snake whose bite
+may cause death.]
+
+If a person is bitten by one of these snakes, the doctor must be sent
+for and help given at once. Put a bandage above the bite and twist it
+tight with a stick. Make two or three deep cuts into the bitten place
+to let out the poisoned blood. Suck the wound to draw out the poison
+and apply ammonia.
+
+=Choking.=--A hard piece of meat, a bone, or a peach seed may slip
+back into the throat and press so hard on the windpipe as to cut off
+the air from the lungs. If the object is not far back in the throat,
+it may be seized with the first finger. A few smart slaps on the upper
+part of the back while the body is bent forward may drive enough air
+out of the lungs to push the object outward.
+
+=Drowning.=--Every one should learn to swim while young, but no one
+should venture in deep water. Stiffening of the muscles called cramps
+often causes the best swimmer to drown.
+
+After a person has been under the water two or three minutes he
+appears lifeless. He may, however, be brought to life if laid face
+downward, his clothes loosened, and the lungs made to breathe. A heavy
+folded coat, a piece of sod, or a bunch of weeds should be put under
+the chest. Then standing astride of him place the hands on the lower
+ribs and bend forward gradually so as to press on the ribs and push
+the air out of the lungs. Then straighten your body and slowly lessen
+pressure on the patient's ribs so that the air will run into the
+lungs. In this way make the air go in and out of the lungs about
+fifteen times each minute.
+
+=Poisoning.=--Whenever a person has taken poison, a physician should
+be sent for at once. In most cases an effort should be made to get the
+poison out of the stomach by causing vomiting. A glass or two of weak,
+warm soapsuds, a pint of water with a tablespoonful of mustard, or a
+glass of water with two tablespoonfuls of salt may be taken to make
+the stomach throw out the poison. Tickling the throat back of the
+tongue will help cause vomiting.
+
+If a strong acid such as carbolic acid or a strong alkali such as
+ammonia has been taken, do not cause vomiting. For acids give chalk in
+warm water and a pint of milk. For an alkali give vinegar in water.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Ab do'men, 15.
+
+  Ad'e noids, 105, 106.
+
+  Air and health, 111-116.
+
+  Air sacs, 102, 103.
+
+  Air tubes, 103.
+
+  Alcohol, 20, 35.
+    and blood, 124, 125.
+    and blood vessels, 126.
+    and brain, 158-162.
+    and clothing, 98, 99.
+    and crime, 160, 161.
+    and digestion, 57, 58.
+    and health, 74, 75.
+    and kidneys, 93.
+    and lungs, 109, 110.
+    and muscles, 146-148.
+    and senses, 172.
+    and skin, 92, 93.
+
+  Alcoholic drinks, 68-73.
+    as food, 27, 29.
+
+  A or'ta, 16.
+
+  Appetite, 58, 59.
+
+  Arteries, 19, 119.
+
+
+  Backbone, 16.
+
+  Bac te'ria, 36, 39.
+    of disease, 175-177.
+    of milk, 43.
+
+  Bathing, 91.
+
+  Beans, 24.
+
+  Bedbugs and disease, 134, 178.
+
+  Beef tea, 31.
+
+  Beer and digestion, 57, 58.
+    as a food, 27, 35.
+    and heart, 125.
+    making of, 70.
+
+  Bile, 52, 55.
+
+  Blackdeath, 11.
+
+  Bleeding, to stop, 123, 124, 184, 185.
+
+  Blood, 17, 117, 118.
+
+  Blood vessels, 19, 118-122.
+
+  Body, parts of, 15-19.
+
+  Bones, 135-139.
+
+  Bowels, 47, 52, 53.
+
+  Brain, 149-153.
+
+  Brain, use of, 18.
+
+  Brandy, 72.
+
+  Bread, 23.
+
+  Breathing, 100-107.
+
+  Building foods, 22, 23.
+
+  Burns and scalds, 184.
+
+  Butter, 41.
+
+
+  Capillaries, 119, 120.
+
+  Carbon dioxide, 102, 111.
+
+  Cells, 20.
+
+  Cereals, 33.
+
+  Cer'e brum, 150, 151.
+
+  Chest, 15.
+
+  Chewing and health, 49-50.
+
+  Choking, 187.
+
+  Cholera, 175.
+
+  Cider, 40.
+
+  Cigarettes, 82, 162.
+
+  Cleanliness, 44, 91.
+
+  Clothing, 94-99.
+
+  Co'ca ine, 162.
+
+  Coffee, 82, 83, 164.
+
+  Colds, 180.
+
+  Consumption, 109, 180-181.
+
+  Cooking of eggs, 34.
+    of meat, 30, 31.
+
+  Corns, 98.
+
+  Cotton, 96.
+
+  Cream, 41.
+
+
+  Deafness, 171.
+
+  Diaphragm (_di'a fram_), 16, 104
+
+  Digestion, organs of, 47-52.
+
+  Diphtheria, 175, 178.
+
+  Disease, cause of, 25-27.
+    from alcohol, 76, 77.
+    from bad air, 114.
+    from drinking cup, 108, 177.
+    from dust, 108, 109.
+    of eyes, 169.
+    from flies, 108.
+    from insects, 127-134.
+    from milk, 43-46, 178.
+    prevention of, 174-182.
+
+  Disease, from spit, 107, 108, 178, 179.
+    victory over, 12.
+
+  Dis til la'tion, 73.
+
+  Drinking cup and disease, 108, 177.
+
+  Drowning, 187.
+
+  Drunkards, cause of, 14.
+
+  Dust and disease, 37, 108, 109.
+
+  Dys pep'si a, 50.
+
+
+  Ear, 169-171.
+
+  Eggs, 23, 33, 34.
+
+  Epidermis, 85, 86.
+
+  Exercise, 144-146.
+
+  Eye, 165-168.
+
+
+  Fainting, 185.
+
+  Fat, 24.
+
+  Fats, 22, 23.
+
+  Feeding of body, 21.
+
+  Feeling, 172.
+
+  Feet, care of, 98.
+
+  Fish as food, 30.
+
+  Fleas and disease, 134.
+
+  Flies and disease, 45-46, 108, 132-134, 176, 178.
+
+  Food, amount needed, 27.
+    and health, 30-35.
+    digestion of, 47-55.
+    entrance to blood, 52, 54.
+
+  Foods, 22.
+
+  Freckles, 87.
+
+  Frostbite, 186.
+
+  Fruits, 33, 34.
+
+  Fuel foods, 23, 24.
+
+
+  Gastric juice, 51.
+
+  Germs, 36-40.
+    of disease, 175, 176.
+    of milk, 43.
+    of spit, 107.
+
+  Glands, 47-49.
+
+  Growth of body, 20.
+
+  Gullet, 16, 53.
+
+
+  Habit, 133, 154.
+
+  Habits, 14.
+
+  Hair, 88-90.
+
+  Headache, 55.
+
+  Hearing, 170.
+
+  Heart, 16, 100, 118, 122.
+
+  Hookworm disease, 181, 182.
+
+  Hookworms, 175.
+
+  Hy'gi ene, 10.
+
+
+  Insects and health, 129-134.
+
+  Intestine, 16.
+
+  Intestines, 47, 52, 53.
+
+
+  Joints, 139, 140.
+
+
+  Kidney, 16.
+
+  Kidneys, 17, 92.
+
+
+  Larynx (_lar'inks_), 102.
+
+  Leprosy, 134.
+
+  Life, length of, 9.
+
+  Ligaments, 135, 139, 140.
+
+  Linen, 95.
+
+  Liver, 16, 53, 54, 55, 100.
+
+  Lung, 16.
+
+  Lungs, 100-101.
+
+
+  Malaria, 175.
+
+  Measles, 175.
+
+  Meat, 23.
+    cooking of, 30.
+    spoiling of, 38, 39.
+
+  Meats, 30.
+
+  Mi'crobes, 36, 37.
+
+  Milk, 23, 29, 41-46.
+    and scarlet fever, 176.
+    as a food, 31.
+    souring of, 39.
+
+  Mineral foods, 24.
+
+  Mold, 37, 38.
+
+  Morphine, 83, 84, 162, 163.
+
+  Mosquitoes and disease, 127-132.
+
+  Mouth, 60-67.
+
+  Muscles, 140-143.
+
+  Muscles and health, 144-148.
+
+
+  Nails, 87, 88.
+
+  Nar cot'ics, 158-164.
+
+  Nerves, 19, 149, 151, 152.
+
+  Nose, 104-106, 171.
+
+  Nose bleed, 181.
+
+
+  Opium, 83, 84, 162, 163.
+
+  Organ, 18.
+
+  Organs of body, 16.
+
+  Oxygen, 22.
+
+  Oysters as a food, 30.
+
+
+  Painkillers, 163.
+
+  Pan'cre as, 16, 48, 52, 53.
+
+  Pa ral'y sis, 155.
+
+  Patent medicines, 84.
+
+  Pharynx (_far'inks_), 47.
+
+  Plague, 134, 175.
+
+  Poisoning, 188.
+
+  Pro'te ids, 22.
+
+  Pus, 123.
+
+
+  Radius, 137.
+
+  Ribs, 137.
+
+  Rum, 73.
+
+
+  Sa li'va, 48, 49.
+
+  Salt, 34.
+
+  Scarlet fever, 175, 176, 178.
+
+  Sense organs, 165-173.
+
+  Shoes, 98.
+
+  Sick, number of, 9.
+
+  Sickness, how caused, 11.
+    prevention of, 174-182.
+
+  Silk, 95.
+
+  Skin, 85-93.
+    senses of, 172.
+
+  Skull, 136.
+
+  Sleep, 156, 157.
+    and disease, 113, 114.
+
+  Sleeping sickness, 134.
+
+  Slops, care of, 175.
+
+  Smallpox, 12, 178-180.
+
+  Smell, 171.
+
+  Smoking, 57.
+
+  Snakebites, 186, 187.
+
+  Sore throat, 175.
+
+  Soups, 31.
+
+  Spinal cord, 16, 19, 151, 154, 155.
+
+  Spit, care of, 175, 178.
+
+  Spitting and health, 107, 108.
+
+  Spleen, 54.
+
+  Starch, 23, 24.
+
+  Stimulants, 158, 164.
+
+  Stomach, 16, 47, 50-53, 100.
+
+  Sugars, 22, 23.
+
+  Sunstroke, 185.
+
+  Sweeping and health, 37.
+
+  Sweetbread, 48.
+
+  Swimming, 145, 146, 187.
+
+  Sym pa thet'ic nerves, 155.
+
+
+  Taste, 171, 172.
+
+  Tea, 82, 83, 164.
+
+  Teeth, 60-67.
+
+  Thigh, 15.
+
+  Tissue, 18.
+
+  Tobacco, 20.
+    and air, 116.
+    and blood, 125.
+    and brain, 162.
+    and digestion, 56, 57.
+    as food, 34, 35.
+    and health, 78-82.
+    and heart, 126.
+    and lungs, 110.
+    and muscles, 148.
+    and senses, 172, 173.
+
+  Tonsil, 105, 106.
+
+  Toothache, 62, 63.
+
+  Tuberculosis, 107, 108, 175.
+    and bad air, 114, 115.
+    cause of, 178, 180.
+    prevention of, 107-109, 111-116, 180-181.
+
+  Trunk, 15.
+
+  Typhoid fever, 175.
+    how caused, 25-27, 28, 134.
+
+
+  Vaccination, 179, 180.
+
+  Vegetables as food, 32, 33.
+
+  Veins, 28, 121.
+
+  Ventilation, 111-115.
+
+  Villi, 54.
+
+  Vocal cords, 105, 106.
+
+  Voice, 106, 107.
+
+  Voice box, 102.
+
+
+  War, deaths from, 11.
+
+  Waste, giving out of, 17.
+
+  Water, use of, 24, 92.
+
+  Water and health, 25-27, 28.
+
+  Water in food, 25.
+
+  Whisky, 72, 73.
+
+  Whooping cough, 175.
+
+  Wigglers, 130-131.
+
+  Windpipe, 16, 102, 103.
+
+  Wine, 27, 28.
+    and digestion, 58.
+    making of, 70-71.
+
+  Wounds, 186.
+
+
+  Yeast, 39, 40, 69.
+
+  Yellow fever, 12, 13, 129, 130.
+
+
+
+
+BALDWIN AND BENDER'S READERS
+
+Reading with Expression
+
+     By JAMES BALDWIN, Author of Baldwin's School Readers, Harper's
+     Readers, etc. and IDA C. BENDER, Supervisor of Primary Grades,
+     Buffalo, New York.
+
+     AN EIGHT BOOK SERIES or A FIVE BOOK SERIES
+
+
+The authorship of this series is conclusive evidence of its rare
+worth, of its happy union of the ideal and the practical. The chief
+design of the books is to help pupils to acquire the art and habit of
+reading so well as to give pleasure both to themselves and to those
+who listen to them. They teach reading with expression, and the
+selections have, to a large extent, been chosen for this purpose.
+
+** These readers are very teachable and readable, and are unusually
+interesting both in selections and in illustrations. The selections
+are of a very high literary quality. Besides the choicest schoolbook
+classics, there are a large number which have never before appeared in
+school readers. The contents are well balanced between prose and
+poetry, and the subject matter is unusually varied. Beginning with the
+Third Reader, selections relating to similar subjects or requiring
+similar methods of study or recitation, are grouped together. Many
+selections are in dialogue form and suitable for dramatization.
+
+** The First Reader may be used with any method of teaching reading,
+for it combines the best ideas of each. A number of helpful new
+features are also included. Each reading lesson is on a right-hand
+page, and is approached by a series of preparatory exercises on the
+preceding left-hand page.
+
+** The illustrations constitute the finest and most attractive
+collection ever brought together in a series of readers. There are
+over 600 in all, every one made especially for these books by an
+artist of national reputation.
+
+AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+HICKS'S CHAMPION SPELLING BOOK
+
+By WARREN E. HICKS, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Cleveland, Ohio
+
+Complete, $0.25--Part One, $0.18--Part Two, $0.18
+
+
+This book embodies the method that enabled the pupils in the Cleveland
+schools after two years to win the National Education Association
+Spelling Contest of 1908.
+
+** By this method a spelling lesson of ten words is given each day from
+the spoken vocabulary of the pupil. Of these ten words two are
+selected for intensive study, and in the spelling book are made
+prominent in both position and type at the head of each day's lessons,
+these two words being followed by the remaining eight words in smaller
+type. Systematic review is provided throughout the book. Each of the
+ten prominent words taught intensively in a week is listed as a
+subordinate word in the next two weeks; included in a written spelling
+contest at the end of eight weeks; again in the annual contest at the
+end of the year; and again as a subordinate word in the following
+year's work;--used five times in all within two years.
+
+** The Champion Spelling Book consists of a series of lessons arranged
+as above for six school years, from the third to the eighth,
+inclusive. It presents about 1,200 words each year, and teaches 312 of
+them with especial clearness and intensity. It also includes
+occasional supplementary exercises which serve as aids in teaching
+sounds, vowels, homonyms, rules of spelling, abbreviated forms,
+suffixes, prefixes, the use of hyphens, plurals, dictation work, and
+word building. The words have been selected from lists, supplied by
+grade teachers of Cleveland schools, of words ordinarily misspelled by
+the pupils of their respective grades.
+
+AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+SPENCERS' PRACTICAL WRITING
+
+By PLATT R. SPENCER'S SONS
+
+  Books 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8       Per dozen, $0.60
+
+
+SPENCERS' PRACTICAL WRITING has been devised because of the distinct and
+wide-spread reaction from the use of vertical writing in schools. It is
+thoroughly up-to-date, embodying all the advantages of the old and of
+the new. Each word can be written by one continuous movement of the pen.
+
+** The books teach a plain, practical hand, moderate in slant, and free
+from ornamental curves, shades, and meaningless lines. The stem
+letters are long enough to be clear and unmistakable. The capitals are
+about two spaces in height.
+
+** The copies begin with words and gradually develop into sentences.
+The letters, both large and small, are taught systematically. In the
+first two books the writing is somewhat larger than is customary
+because it is more easily learned by young children. These books also
+contain many illustrations in outline. The ruling is very simple.
+
+** Instruction is afforded showing how the pupil should sit at the
+desk, and hold the pen and paper. A series of drill movement
+exercises, thirty-three in number, with directions for their use,
+accompanies each book.
+
+
+SPENCERIAN PRACTICAL WRITING SPELLER
+
+Per dozen, $0.48
+
+This simple, inexpensive device provides abundant drill in writing
+words. At the same time it trains pupils to form their copies in
+accordance with the most modern and popular system of penmanship, and
+saves much valuable time for both teacher and pupil.
+
+AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+MAXWELL'S NEW GRAMMARS
+
+By WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, Ph.D., LL.D. Superintendent of Schools, City of
+New York
+
+  Elementary Grammar       $0.40
+
+  School Grammar           $0.60
+
+
+The ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR presents in very small space all the grammar
+usually taught in elementary schools.
+
+** It gives the pupil an insight into the general forms in which
+thought is expressed, and enables him to see the meaning of
+complicated sentences. The explanatory matter is made clear by the use
+of simple language, by the elimination of unnecessary technical terms,
+and by the frequent introduction of illustrative sentences. The
+definitions are simple and precise. The exercises are abundant and
+peculiarly ingenious. A novel device for parsing and analysis permits
+these two subjects to be combined in one exercise for purposes of drill.
+
+** The SCHOOL GRAMMAR contains everything needed by students in upper
+grammar grades and secondary schools. It covers fully the requirements
+of the Syllabus in English issued by the New York State Education
+Department.
+
+** The book treats of grammar only, and presents many exercises which
+call for considerable reflection on the meaning of the expressions to
+be analyzed. Throughout, stress is laid on the broader distinctions of
+thought and expression. The common errors of written and spoken
+language are so classified as to make it comparatively easy for pupils
+to detect and correct them through the application of the rules of
+grammar. The book ends with an historical sketch of the English
+language, an article on the formation of words, and a list of
+equivalent terms employed by other grammarians. The full index makes
+the volume useful for reference.
+
+AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+
+  * Inconsistent hyphenation in the word "skinlike" retained.
+
+  * Pg 91 Added period after "Clean" located in "Keeping the Skin
+    Clean".
+
+  * Pg 182 Added period after "sickness" located in "animals which
+    carry sickness".
+
+  * Pg 188 Removed extraneous comma after "back" located in "throat
+    back, of the tongue".
+
+  * Pg 190 Index page reference "47" amended to "67" located in "Mouth,
+    60-47".
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Health Lessons, by Alvin Davison
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
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+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #31616 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/31616)
author	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 19:56:06 -0700
committer	Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org>	2025-10-14 19:56:06 -0700
commit	969f5fdad2d99e034f52705813a02af808a1c9c7 (patch)
tree	220b221e445fdd42e1d5d2ae387106cc6089aead