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diff --git a/31329-8.txt b/31329-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..261b346 --- /dev/null +++ b/31329-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,20969 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 6, Slice 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 2 + "Chicago, University of" to "Chiton" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 20, 2010 [EBook #31329] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 2 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like a2 or were originally + printed in subscript. + +(2) Side-notes were moved as titles to their respective paragraphs. + +(3) Chinese characters were denoted as [Ch]. + +(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x]. + +(5) Letters topped by Breve are represented as [)x]. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Page 159: "a detailed account of the period (Santiago, 1875); the + same author's," 'Santiago' amended from 'Sanitago'. + + Page 183: "The more important are those that follow:--," amended + from 'folllow'. + + Page 183: "The three provinces adjoining the metropolitan province + of Chih-li--Shan-tung, Shan-si and Ho-nan--have no viceroys over + them," 'Ho-nan' amended from 'Hon-an'. + + Page 242: "The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in + genera (to say nothing of species) that only some of the more + important types can be mentioned).)," superfluous parenthesis + removed. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VI, SLICE II + + Chicago, University of to Chiton + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF CHILPERIC + CHICANE CHILTERN HILLS + CHICHELEY, HENRY CHILTERN HUNDREDS + CHICHEN-ITZA CHILWA + CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER CHIMAERA + CHICHESTER CHIMAY + CHICKAMAUGA CREEK CHIME + CHICKASAWS CHIMERE + CHICKASHA CHIMESYAN + CHICKEN-POX CHIMKENT + CHICLANA CHIMNEY + CHICOPEE CHIMNEYPIECE + CHICORY CHIMPANZEE + CHIDAMBARAM CHINA (country) + CHIEF CHINA (porcelain) + CHIEMSEE CHINANDEGA + CHIENG MAI CHI-NAN FU + CHIERI CHINCHA ISLANDS + CHIETI CHINCHEW + CHI-FU CHINCHILLA + CHIGI-ALBANI CHINDE + CHIGWELL CHINDWIN + CHIH-LI CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER + CHIHUAHUA (state of Mexico) CHINESE PAVILLON + CHIHUAHUA (city of Mexico) CHINGFORD + CHILAS CHINGLEPUT + CHILBLAINS CHIN HILLS + CHILD, SIR FRANCIS CHINKIANG + CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES CHINO-JAPANESE WAR + CHILD, SIR JOHN CHINON + CHILD, SIR JOSIAH CHINOOK + CHILD, LYDIA MARIA CHINSURA + CHILD CHINTZ + CHILDEBERT CHIOGGIA + CHILDERIC CHIOS + CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS + CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR CHIPPENHAM + CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO CHIPPEWA + CHILDRENITE CHIPPING CAMPDEN + CHILDREN'S COURTS CHIPPING NORTON + CHILDREN'S GAMES CHIQUITOS + CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM CHIROMANCY + CHILE CHIRON + CHILEAN CIVIL WAR CHIROPODIST + CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR CHIROPTERA + CHILIASM CHIRU + CHILLÁN CHIRURGEON + CHILLIANWALLA CHISEL + CHILLICOTHE (city in Missouri, U.S.A.) CHISLEHURST + CHILLICOTHE (city in Ohio, U.S.A.) CHISWICK + CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM CHITA + CHILOÉ CHITALDRUG + CHILON CHITON + + + + +CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF, one of the great educational institutions of the +United States, established under Baptist auspices in the city of +Chicago, and opened in 1892.[1] Though the president and two-thirds of +the trustees are always Baptists, the university is non-sectarian except +as regards its divinity school. An immense ambition and the +extraordinary organizing ability shown by its first president, William +R. Harper, determined and characterized the remarkable growth of the +university's first decade of activity. The grounds include about 140 +acres. Of these about 60 acres--given in part by Marshall Field and laid +out by Frederick Law Olmsted--border the Midway Plaisance, connecting +Washington and Jackson parks. On these grounds the main part of the +university stands. The buildings are mostly of grey limestone, in Gothic +style, and grouped in quadrangles. The Mitchell tower is a shortened +reproduction of Magdalen tower, Oxford, and the University Commons, +Hutchinson Hall, is a duplicate of Christ Church hall, Oxford. +Dormitories accommodate about a fifth of the students. The quadrangles +include clubs, dining halls, dormitories, gymnasiums, assembly halls, +recitation halls, laboratories and libraries. In the first college year, +1892-1893, there were 698 students; in that of 1907-1908 there were +5038,[2] of whom 2186 were women. There are faculties of arts, +literature, science, divinity,[3] medicine (organized in 1901), law +(1902), education, and commerce and administration. The astronomical +department, the Yerkes Observatory, is located on William's Bay, Lake +Geneva, Wisconsin, about 65 m. from Chicago. It has the largest +refracting telescope in the world (clear aperture 40 in., focal length +about 61 ft.). The Chicago Institute, founded and endowed by Mrs Anita +McCormick Blaine as an independent normal school, became a part of the +university in 1901. The school of education, as a whole, brings under +university influence hundreds of children from kindergarten age upwards +to young manhood and womanhood, apart from the university classes +proper. Chicago was the second university of the country to give its +pedagogical department such scope in the union of theory and practice. +The nucleus of the library (450,000 volumes in 1908) was purchased in +Berlin soon after the university's organization, in one great collection +of 175,000 volumes. Scholarly research has been fostered in every +possible way, and the university press has been active in the +publication of various departmental series and the following +periodicals:--_Biblical World_, _American Journal of Theology, American +Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, American Journal of +Sociology, Journal of Political Economy, Modern Philology, Classical +Philology, Classical Journal, Journal of Geology, Astrophysical Journal, +Botanical Gazette, Elementary School Teacher and School Review._ The +courses in the College of Commerce and Administration link the +university closely with practical life. In extension work the university +has been active from the beginning, instruction being given not only by +lectures but by correspondence (a novel and unique feature among +American universities); in the decade 1892-1902, 1715 persons were +prepared by the latter method for matriculation in the university (11.6% +of the total number of matriculants in the decade). Extension lectures +were given in twenty-two states. At Chicago the work of the university +is continuous throughout the year: the "summer quarter" is not as in +other American schools a supplement to the teaching year, but an +integral part; and it attracts the teachers of the middle western states +and of the south. In the work of the first two years, known together as +the Junior College, men and women are in the main given separate +instruction; but in the Senior College years unrestricted co-education +prevails. Students are mainly controlled by self-government in small +groups ("the house system"). Relations with "affiliated" (private) +colleges and academies and "co-operating" (public) high-schools also +present interesting features. + +The value of the property of the university in 1908 was about +$25,578,000. Up to the 30th of June 1908 it had received from gifts +actually paid $29,651,849, of which $22,712,631 were given by John D. +Rockefeller.[4] The value of buildings in 1908 was $4,508,202, of +grounds $4,406,191, and of productive funds $14,186,235. Upon the death +of President Harper, Harry Pratt Judson (b. 1849), then head professor +of political science and dean of the faculties of arts, became acting +president, and on the 20th of January 1907 he was elected president. + + See the _Decennial Publications_ of the University (since 1903), + especially vol. i. for details of history and administration. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A small Baptist college of the same name---established in 1855 + on land given by S.A. Douglas--went out of existence in 1886. + + [2] If, however, the total is reckoned on the basis of nine months + of residence the figure for 1907-1908 would be 3202. + + [3] The Divinity School has a graduate department and three + under-graduate departments, doing work in English, in Danish and + Norwegian, and in Swedish. Allied with the Divinity School of the + University is the "Disciples' Divinity House" (1894), a theological + school of the Disciples of Christ. + + [4] The words "founded by John D. Rockefeller" follow the title of + the university on all its letterheads and official documents. Mr + Rockefeller would not allow his name to be a part of the title, nor + has he permitted the designation of any building by his name. + President Harper was selected by him to organize the university, and + it was his will that the president and two-thirds of the trustees + should be "always" Baptists. President Harper more than once stated + most categorically that contrary to prevalent beliefs no donor of + funds to the university "has ever (1902) by a single word or act + indicated his dissatisfaction with the instruction given to students + in the university, or with the public expression of opinion made by + any officer of the university"; and certainly so far as the public + press reveals, no other university of the country has had so many + professors who have in various lines, including economics, expressed + radical views in public. + + + + +CHICANE, the pettifogging subterfuge and delay of sharp +law-practitioners, also any deliberate attempt to gain unfair advantage +by petty tricks. A more common English form of the word is "chicanery." +"Chicane" is technically used also as a term in the game of bridge for +the points a player may score if he holds no trumps. The word is French, +derived either from _chaug[=a]n_, Persian for the stick used in the game +of "polo," still played on foot and called _chicane_ in Languedoc (the +military use of _chicaner_, to take advantage of slight variations in +ground, suits this derivation), or from _chic_, meaning little or petty, +from the Spanish _chico_, small, which appears in the phrase "_chic à +chic_," little by little. + + + + +CHICHELEY, HENRY (1364-1443), English archbishop, founder of All Souls +College, Oxford, was born at Higham Ferrers, Northamptonshire, in 1363 +or 1364. Chicheley told the pope in 1443, in asking leave to retire from +the archbishopric, that he was in his eightieth year. He was the third +and youngest son of Thomas Chicheley, who appears in 1368 in still +extant town records of Higham Ferrers as a suitor in the mayor's court, +and in 1381-1382, and again in 1384-1385, was mayor: in fact, for a +dozen years he and Henry Barton, school master of Higham Ferrers grammar +school, and one Richard Brabazon, filled the mayoralty in turns. His +occupation does not appear; but his eldest son, William, is on the +earliest extant list (1373) of the Grocers' Company, London. On the 9th +of June 1405 Chicheley was admitted, in succession to his father, to a +burgage in Higham Ferrers. His mother, Agnes Pincheon, is said to have +been of gentle birth. There is therefore no foundation in fact for the +silly story (copied into the _Diet. Nat. Biog._ from a local historian, +J. Cole, Wellingborough, 1838) that Henry Chicheley was picked up by +William of Wykeham when he was a poor ploughboy "eating his scanty meal +off his mother's lap," whatever that means. The story was unknown to +Arthur Duck, fellow of All Souls, who wrote Chicheley's life in 1617. It +is only the usual attempt, as in the cases of Whittington, Wolsey and +Gresham, to exaggerate the rise of a successful man. The first recorded +appearance of Henry Chicheley himself is at New College, Oxford, as +Checheley, eighth among the undergraduate fellows, in July 1387, in the +earliest extant hall-book, which contains weekly lists of those dining +in Hall. It is clear from Chicheley's position in the list, with eleven +fellows and eight scholars, or probationer-fellows, below him, that this +entry does not mark his first appearance in the college, which had been +going on since 1375 at least, and was chartered in 1379. He must have +come from Winchester College in one of the earliest batches of scholars +from that college, the sole feeder of New College, not from St John +Baptist College, Winchester, as guessed by Dr William Hunt in the _Dict. +Nat. Biog._ (and repeated in Mr Grant Robertson's _History of All Souls +College_) to cover the mistaken supposition that St Mary's College was +not founded till 1393. St Mary's College was in fact formally founded in +1382, and the school had been going on since 1373 (A.F. Leach, _History +of Winchester College_), while no such college as St John's College at +Winchester ever existed. + +Chicheley appears in the Hall-books of New College up to the year +1392/93, when he was a B.A. and was absent for ten weeks from about the +6th of December to the 6th of March, presumably for the purpose of his +ordination as a sub-deacon, which was performed by the bishop of Derry, +acting as suffragan to the bishop of London. He was then already +beneficed, receiving a royal ratification of his estate as parson of +Llanvarchell in the diocese of St Asaph on the 20th of March 1391/92 +(_Cal. Pat. Rolls_). In the Hall-book, marked 1393/94, but really for +1394/95, Chicheley's name does not appear. He had then left Oxford and +gone up to London to practise as an advocate in the principal +ecclesiastical court, the court of arches. His rise was rapid. Already +on the 8th of February 1395/96 he was on a commission with several +knights and clerks to hear an appeal in a case of _John Molton, Esquire +v. John Shawe, citizen of London_, from Sir John Cheyne, kt., sitting +for the constable of England in a court of chivalry. Like other +ecclesiastical lawyers and civil servants of the day; he was paid with +ecclesiastical preferments. On the 13th of April 1396 he obtained +ratification of the parsonage of St Stephen's, Walbrook, presented on +the 30th of March by the abbot of Colchester, no doubt through his +brother Robert, who restored the church and increased its endowment. In +1397 he was made archdeacon of Dorset by Richard Mitford, bishop of +Salisbury, but litigation was still going on about it in the papal court +till the 27th of June 1399, when the pope extinguished the suit, +imposing perpetual silence on Nicholas Bubwith, master of the rolls, his +opponent. In the first year of Henry IV. Chicheley was parson of +Sherston, Wiltshire, and prebendary of Nantgwyly in the college of +Abergwilly, North Wales; on the 23rd of February 1401/2, now called +doctor of laws, he was pardoned for bringing in, and allowed to use, a +bull of the pope "providing" him to the chancellorship of Salisbury +cathedral, and canonries in the nuns' churches of Shaftesbury and Wilton +in that diocese; and on the 9th of January 1402/3 he was archdeacon of +Salisbury. This year his brother Robert was senior sheriff of London. On +the 7th of May 1404, Pope Boniface IX. provided him to a prebend at +Lincoln, notwithstanding he already held prebends at Salisbury, +Lichfield, St Martin's-le-Grand and Abergwyly, and the living of +Brington. On the 9th of January 1405 he found time to attend a court at +Higham Ferrers and be admitted to a burgage there. In July 1405 +Chicheley began a diplomatic career by a mission to the new Roman pope +Innocent VII., who was professing his desire to end the schism in the +papacy by resignation, if his French rival at Avignon would do likewise. +Next year, on the 5th of October 1406, he was sent with Sir John Cheyne +to Paris to arrange a lasting peace and the marriage of Prince Henry +with the French princess Marie, which was frustrated by her becoming a +nun at Poissy next year. In 1406 renewed efforts were made to stop the +schism, and Chicheley was one of the envoys sent to the new pope Gregory +XII. Here he utilized his opportunities. On the 31st of August 1407 Guy +Mone (he is always so spelt and not Mohun, and was probably from one of +the Hampshire Meons; there was a John Mone of Havant admitted a +Winchester scholar in 1397), bishop of St David's, died, and on the 12th +of October 1407 Chicheley was by the pope provided to the bishopric of +St David's. Another bull the same day gave him the right to hold all his +benefices with the bishopric. + +At Siena in July 1408 he and Sir John Cheyne, as English envoys, were +received by Gregory XII. with special honour, and Bishop Repingdon of +Lincoln, ex-Wycliffite, was one of the new batch of cardinals created on +the 18th of September 1408, most of Gregory's cardinals having deserted +him. These, together with Benedict's revolting cardinals, summoned a +general council at Pisa. In November 1408 Chicheley was back at +Westminster, when Henry IV. received the cardinal archbishop of Bordeaux +and determined to support the cardinals at Pisa against both popes. In +January 1409 Chicheley was named with Bishop Hallum of Salisbury and the +prior of Canterbury to represent the Southern Convocation at the +council, which opened on the 25th of March 1409, arriving on the 24th of +April. Obedience was withdrawn from both the existing popes, and on the +26th of June a new pope elected instead of them. Chicheley and the other +envoys were received on their return as saviours of the world; though +the result was summed up by a contemporary as trischism instead of +schism, and the Church as giving three husbands instead of two. +Chicheley now became the subject of a leading case, the court of king's +bench deciding, after arguments reheard in three successive terms, that +he could not hold his previous benefices with the bishopric, and that, +spite of the maxim _Papa potest omnia_, a papal bull could not supersede +the law of the land (_Year-book_ ii. H. iv. 37, 59, 79). Accordingly he +had to resign livings and canonries wholesale (April 28, 1410). As, +however, he had obtained a bull (August 20, 1409) enabling him to +appoint his successors to the vacated preferments, including his nephew +William, though still an undergraduate and not in orders, to the +chancellorship of Salisbury, and a prebend at Lichfield, he did not go +empty away. In May 1410 he went again on an embassy to France; on the +11th of September 1411 he headed a mission to discuss Henry V.'s +marriage with a daughter of the duke of Burgundy; and he was again there +in November. In the interval Chicheley found time to visit his diocese +for the first time and be enthroned at St David's on the 11th of May +1411. He was with the English force under the earl of Arundel which +accompanied the duke of Burgundy to Paris in October 1411 and there +defeated the Armagnacs, an exploit which revealed to England the +weakness of the French. On the 30th of November 1411 Chicheley, with two +other bishops and three earls and the prince of Wales, knelt to the king +to receive public thanks for their administration. That he was in high +favour with Henry V. is shown by his being sent with the earl of Warwick +to France in July 1413 to conclude peace. Immediately after the death of +archbishop Arundel he was nominated by the king to the archbishopric, +elected on the 4th of March, translated by papal bull on the 28th of +April, and received the pall without going to Rome for it on the 24th of +July. + +These dates are important as they help to save Chicheley from the +charge, versified by Shakespeare (_Henry V._ act i. sc. 2) from Hall's +_Chronicle_, of having tempted Henry V. into the conquest of France for +the sake of diverting parliament from the disendowment of the Church. +There is no contemporary authority for the charge, which seems to appear +first in Redman's rhetorical history of Henry V., written in 1540 with +an eye to the political situation at that time. As a matter of fact, the +parliament at Leicester, in which the speeches were supposed to have +been made, began on the 30th of April 1414 before Chicheley was +archbishop. The rolls of parliament show that he was not present in the +parliament at all. Moreover parliament was so far from pressing +disendowment that on the petition of the Commons it passed a savage act +against the heresies "commonly called Lollardry" which "aimed at the +destruction of the king and all temporal estates," making Lollards +felons and ordering every justice of the peace to hunt down their +schools, conventicles, congregations and confederacies. + +In his capacity of archbishop, Chicheley remained what he had always +been chiefly, the lawyer and diplomatist. He was present at the siege of +Rouen, and the king committed to him personally the negotiations for the +surrender of the city in January 1419 and for the marriage of Katherine. +He crowned Katherine at Westminster (20th February 1421), and on the 6th +of December baptized her child Henry VI. He was of course a persecutor +of heretics. No one could have attained or kept the position of +archbishop at the time without being so. So he presided at the trial of +John Claydon, Skinner and citizen of London, who after five years' +imprisonment at various times had made public abjuration before the late +archbishop, Arundel, but now was found in possession of a book in +English called _The Lanterne of Light_, which contained the heinous +heresy that the principal cause of the persecution of Christians was the +illegal retention by priests of the goods of this world, and that +archbishops and bishops were the special seats of antichrist. As a +relapsed heretic, he was "left to the secular arm" by Chicheley. On the +1st of July 1416 Chicheley directed a half-yearly inquisition by +archdeacons to hunt out heretics. On the 12th of February 1420 +proceedings were begun before him against William Taylor, priest, who +had been for fourteen years excommunicated for heresy, and was now +degraded and burnt for saying that prayers ought not to be addressed to +saints, but only to God. A striking contrast was exhibited in October +1424, when a Stamford friar, John Russell, who had preached that any +religious _potest concumbere cum muliere_ and not mortally sin, was +sentenced only to retract his doctrine. Further persecutions of a whole +batch of Lollards took place in 1428. The records of convocation in +Chicheley's time are a curious mixture of persecutions for heresy, which +largely consisted in attacks on clerical endowments, with negotiations +with the ministers of the crown for the object of cutting down to the +lowest level the clerical contributions to the public revenues in +respect of their endowments. Chicheley was tenacious of the privileges +of his see, and this involved him in a constant struggle with Henry +Beaufort, bishop of Winchester. In 1418, while Henry V. was alive, he +successfully protested against Beaufort's being made a cardinal and +legate _a latere_ to supersede the legatine jurisdiction of Canterbury. +But during the regency, after Henry VI.'s accession, Beaufort was +successful, and in 1426 became cardinal and legate. This brought +Chicheley into collision with Martin V. The struggle between them has +been represented as one of a patriotic archbishop resisting the +encroachments of the papacy on the Church of England. In point of fact +it was almost wholly personal, and was rather an incident in the rivalry +between the duke of Gloucester and his half-brother, Cardinal Beaufort, +than one involving any principle. Chicheley, by appointing a jubilee to +be held at Canterbury in 1420, "after the manner of the Jubilee ordained +by the Popes," threatened to divert the profits from pilgrims from Rome +to Canterbury. A ferocious letter from the pope to the papal nuncios, on +the 19th of March 1423, denounced the proceeding as calculated "to +ensnare simple souls and extort from them a profane reward, thereby +setting up themselves against the apostolic see and the Roman pontiff, +to whom alone so great a faculty has been granted by God" (_Cal. Pap. +Reg._ vii. 12). Chicheley also incurred the papal wrath by opposing the +system of papal provision which diverted patronage from English to +Italian hands, but the immediate occasion was to prevent the +introduction of the bulls making Beaufort a cardinal. Chicheley had been +careful enough to obtain "Papal provisions" for himself, his +pluralities, his bishopric and archbishopric. + +But, after all, it is not as archbishop or statesman, persecutor, +papalist or antipapalist that Chicheley is remembered, but for his +educational foundations. He endowed a hutch, i.e. chest or loan-fund for +poor scholars at New College, and another for the university of Oxford +at large. He founded no less than three colleges, two at Oxford, one at +Higham Ferrers, while there is reason to believe that he suggested and +inspired the foundation of Eton and of King's College. His first college +at Oxford, in perishing, gave birth to St John's College, which now +holds its site. This was St Bernard's College, founded by Chicheley +under licence in mortmain in 1437 for Cistercian monks, on the model of +Gloucester Hall and Durham College for the southern and northern +Benedictines. Nothing more than a site and building was required by way +of endowment, as the young monks, who were sent there to study under a +provisor, were supported by the houses of the order to which they +belonged. The site was five acres, and the building is described in the +letters patent "as a fitting and noble college mansion in honour of the +most glorious Virgin Mary and St Bernard in Northgates Street outside +the Northgate of Oxford." It was suppressed with the Cistercian abbeys +in 1539, and granted on the 11th of December 1546 to Christ Church, +Oxford, who sold it to Sir Thomas Pope in 1553 for St John's College. + +The college at Higham Ferrers was a much earlier design. On the 2nd of +May 1422 Henry V., in right of the duchy of Lancaster, "hearing that +Chicheley inflamed by the pious fervour of devotion intended to enlarge +divine service and other works of piety at Higham Ferrers, in +consideration of his fruitful services, often crossing the seas, +yielding to no toils, dangers or expenses ... especially in the +conclusion of the present final peace with our dearest father the king +of France," granted for 300 marks (£200) licence to found, on three +acres at Higham Ferrers, a perpetual college of eight chaplains and four +clerks, of whom one was to teach grammar and the other song ... "and six +choristers to pray for himself and wife and for Henry IV. and his wife +Mary ... and to acquire the alien priory of Merseye in Essex late +belonging to St Ouen's, Rouen," as endowment. A papal bull having also +been obtained, on the 28th of August 1425, the archbishop, in the course +of a visitation of Lincoln diocese, executed his letters patent founding +the college, dedicating it to the Virgin, St Thomas à Becket and St +Edward the Confessor, and handed over the buildings to its members, the +vicar of Higham Ferrers being made the first master or warden. He +further endowed it in 1434 with lands in Bedfordshire and +Huntingdonshire, and his brothers, William and Robert, gave some houses +in London in 1427 and 1438. The foundation was closely modelled on +Winchester College, with its warden and fellows, its grammar and song +schoolmasters, but a step in advance was made by the masters being made +fellows and so members of the governing body. Attached was also a bede +or almshouse for twelve poor men. Both school and almshouse had existed +before, and this was merely an additional endowment. The whole endowment +was in 1535 worth some £200 a year, about a fifth of that of Winchester +College. Unfortunately, All Souls being a later foundation, the college +at Higham Ferrers was not affiliated to it, and so fell with other +colleges not part of the universities. On the 18th of July 1542 it was +surrendered to Henry VIII., and its possessions granted to Robert Dacres +on condition of maintaining the grammar school and paying the master £10 +a year, the same salary as the headmasters of Winchester and Eton, and +maintaining the almshouse. Both still exist, but the school has been +deprived of its house, and the Fitzwilliam family, who now own the +lands, still continue to pay only £10 a year. + +All Souls College was considerably later. The patent for it, dated 20th +of May 1438, is for a warden and 20 scholars, to be called "the Warden +and College of the souls of all the faithful departed," to study and +pray "for the soul of King Henry VI. and the souls of Henry V., Thomas, +duke of Clarence, and all the dukes, earls, barons, knights, squires and +other nobles and subjects of our father who during the time and in the +service of our father and ourselves ended their lives in the wars of the +kingdom of France, and for the souls of all the faithful departed." For +this, the king granted Berford's Hall, formerly Charleston's Inn, which +Chicheley's trustees had granted to him so as to obtain a royal grant +and indefeasible title. Richard Andrews, the king's secretary, like +Chicheley himself a scholar of Winchester and fellow of New College, was +named as first warden. A papal bull for the college was obtained on the +21st of June 1439; and further patents for endowments from the 11th of +May 1441 to the 28th of January 1443, when a general confirmation +charter was obtained, for which £1000 (£30,000 at least of our money) +was paid. It is commonly represented that the endowment was wholly +derived from alien priories bought by Chicheley from the crown. In +truth, not so large a proportion of the endowment of All Souls was +derived from this source as was that of New College. The only alien +priories granted were Abberbury in Oxfordshire, Wedon Pinkney in +Northamptonshire, Romney in Kent, and St Clare and Llangenith in Wales, +all very small affairs, single manors and rectories, and these did not +form a quarter of the whole endowment. The rest, particularly the manor +of Edgware, which made the fortune of the college, was bought from +private owners. Early in 1443 the college was opened by Chicheley with +four bishops in state. The statutes, not drawn up until the end of April +1443, raised the number of the college to forty. Like the college +buildings, they are almost an exact copy of those of New College, +_mutatis mutandis_. The college is sometimes described as being +different from other colleges in being merely a large chantry to pray +for the souls of the dead warriors. But it was no more a chantry than +the other colleges, all of which, like the monasteries and collegiate +churches, were to pray for their founders' and other specified souls. +Indeed, All Souls was more of a lay foundation than its model. For while +at New College only twenty out of seventy fellows were to study law +instead of arts, philosophy and theology, at All Souls College sixteen +were to be "jurists" and only twenty-four "artists"; and while at New +College there were ten chaplains and three clerks necessarily, at All +Souls the number was not defined but left optional; so that there are +now only one chaplain and four bible clerks. + +Ten days after he sealed the statutes, on the 12th of April 1443, +Chicheley died and was buried in Canterbury cathedral on the north side +of the choir, under a fine effigy of himself erected in his lifetime. +There is what looks like an excellent contemporary portrait in one of +the windows of All Souls College, which is figured in the _Victoria +County History_ for Hampshire, ii. 262. (A. F. L.) + + + + +CHICHEN-ITZA, or CHICHEN, an ancient ruined city of Yucatan, Mexico, +situated 22 m. W. of Valladolid. The name is derived from that of the +Itza, a tribe of the great Mayan stock, which formerly inhabited the +city, and _chichen_, having reference probably to two wells or pools +which doubtless originally supplied the inhabitants with water and are +still in existence. The history of the city is unknown, though it is +regarded as probable that it preserved its independence long after the +Spaniards had taken possession of the rest of the district. The area +covered by the ruins is approximately 1 sq. m., and other remains are +found in the neighbouring forest. (See CENTRAL AMERICA: _Archaeology_.) + + + + +CHICHESTER OF BELFAST, ARTHUR CHICHESTER, BARON (1563-1625), lord-deputy +of Ireland, second son of Sir John Chichester of Raleigh, Devonshire, by +Gertrude, daughter of Sir William Courtenay of Powderham, was born at +Raleigh in May 1563, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford. He +commanded a ship against the Spanish Armada in 1588, and is said to have +served under Drake in his expedition of 1595. Having seen further +service abroad, he was sent to Ireland at the end of 1598, and was +appointed by the earl of Essex to the governorship of Carrickfergus. +When Essex returned to England, Chichester rendered valuable service +under Mountjoy in the war against the rebellious earl of Tyrone, and in +1601 Mountjoy recommended him to Cecil in terms of the highest praise as +the fittest person to be entrusted with the government of Ulster. On the +15th of October 1604 Chichester was appointed lord-deputy of Ireland. He +announced his policy in a proclamation wherein he abolished the +semi-feudal rights of the native Irish chieftains, substituting for them +fixed dues, while their tenants were to become dependent "wholly and +immediately upon his majesty." Tyrone and other Irish clan chieftains +resented this summary interference with their ancient social +organization, and their resistance was strengthened by the ill-advised +measures against the Roman Catholics which Chichester was compelled to +take by the orders of the English ministers. He himself was moderate and +enlightened in his views on this matter, and it was through his +influence that the harshness of the anti-Catholic policy was relaxed in +1607. Meantime his difficulties with the Irish tribal leaders remained +unsolved. But in 1607, by "the flight of the Earls" (see O'NEILL), he +was relieved of the presence of the two formidable Ulster chieftains, +the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnell. Chichester's policy for dealing with +the situation thus created was to divide the lands of the fugitive earls +among Irishmen of standing and character; but the plantation of Ulster +as actually carried out was much less favourable and just to the native +population than the lord-deputy desired. In 1613 Chichester was raised +to the peerage as Baron Chichester of Belfast, and in the following year +he went to England to give an account of the state of Ireland. On his +return to Ireland he again attempted to moderate the persecuting policy +against the Irish Catholics which he was instructed to enforce; and +although he was to some extent successful, it was probably owing to his +opposition to this policy that he was recalled in November 1614. The +king, however, told him "You may rest assured that you do leave that +place with our very good grace and acceptation of your services"; and he +was given the post of lord-treasurer of Ireland. After living in +retirement for some years, Chichester was employed abroad in 1622; in +the following year he became a member of the privy council. He died on +the 19th of February 1625 and was buried at Carrickfergus. + +Lord Chichester married Lettice, daughter of Sir John Perrot and widow +of Walter Vaughan of Golden Grove. He had no children, and his title +became extinct at his death. The heir to his estates was his brother Sir +Edward Chichester (d. 1648), governor of Carrickfergus, who in 1625 was +created Baron Chichester of Belfast and Viscount Chichester of +Carrickfergus. This nobleman's eldest son Arthur (1606-1675), who +distinguished himself as Colonel Chichester in the suppression of the +rebellion of 1641, was created earl of Donegall in 1647, and was +succeeded in his titles by his nephew, whose great-grandson, Arthur, 5th +earl of Donegall, was created Baron Fisherwick in the peerage of Great +Britain (the other family titles being in the peerage of Ireland) in +1790, and earl of Belfast and marquess of Donegall in the peerage of +Ireland in 1791. The present marquess of Donegall is his descendant. + + See S.R. Gardiner in _Dict. Nat. Biog_. and _History of England, + 1603-1642_ (London, 1883); Fynes Moryson, _History of Ireland, + 1599-1603_ (Dublin, 1735). (R. J. M.) + + + + +CHICHESTER, a city and municipal borough in the Chichester parliamentary +division of Sussex, England, 69 m. S.S.W. from London by the London, +Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901) 12,224. It lies in a plain +at the foot of a spur of the South Downs, a mile from the head of +Chichester Harbour, an inlet of the English Channel. The cathedral +church of the Holy Trinity was founded towards the close of the 11th +century, after the see had been removed to Chichester from Selsey in +1075. The first church was consecrated in 1108, but fires in 1114 and +1187 caused building to continue steadily until the close of the 13th +century. Bishop Ralph Luffa (1091-1123) was the first great builder, and +was followed by Seffrid II. (1180-1204). Norman work appears in the nave +(arcade and triforium), choir (arcade) and elsewhere; but there is much +very beautiful Early English work, the choir above the arcade and the +eastern part being especially fine. The nave is remarkable in having +double aisles on each side, the outer pair being of the 13th century. +The church is also unique among English cathedrals in the possession of +a detached campanile, a massive and beautiful Perpendicular structure +with the top storey octagonal. The principal modern restorations are the +upper part of the north-west tower, which copies the Early English work +of that on the south-west; and the fine central tower and spire, which +had been erected at different periods in the 14th century, but +collapsed, doing little damage to the fabric, in 1861. Under the +direction of Sir Gilbert Scott and others they were reconstructed with +scrupulous care in preserving the original plan. The Lady chapel at the +east end is in the main early Decorated, but greatly restored; the +library is a fine late Norman vaulted room; the cloisters are +Perpendicular and well restored; and the bishop's palace retains an +Early English chapel. The cathedral is 393 ft. long within, 131 ft. +across the transepts, and 90 ft. across the nave with its double aisles. +The height of the spire is 277 ft. + +At the junction of the four main streets of the town stands the market +cross, an exquisite octagonal structure in ornate Perpendicular style, +built by Bishop Story, c. 1500, perhaps the finest of its kind in the +United Kingdom. The hospital of St Mary was founded in the 12th century, +but the existing buildings are in a style transitional from Early +English to Decorated. Its use as an almshouse is maintained. Other +ancient buildings are the churches of St Olave, in the construction of +which Roman materials were used; and of St Andrew, where is the tomb of +the poet William Collins, whose memorial with others by the sculptor +Flaxman is in the cathedral; the Guildhall, formerly a Grey Friars' +chapel, of the 13th century; the Canon Gate leading into the cathedral +close; and the Vicars College. The city retains a great part of its +ancient walls, which have a circuit of about a mile and a half, and, at +least in part, follow the line of Roman fortifications. The principal +modern buildings, besides churches and chapels, are the council house, +corn exchange, market house, and museum of the Chichester Literary +Society. The grammar school was founded in 1497 by Bishop Story. There +is a large cattle market, and the town has a considerable agricultural +trade, with breweries and tanneries. A canal connects with Chichester +Harbour. The diocese includes the whole county of Sussex except a few +parishes, with very small portions of Kent and Surrey. The municipal +borough is under a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, +1538 acres. + +The Romano-British town on this site was perhaps Regnum or Regni. Many +inscriptions, pottery, coins, &c., have been found, and part of the +medieval walls contain a Roman cave. An interesting inscription from +this site is preserved at Goodwood. Situated on one Roman road in direct +connexion with London and another leading from east to west, Chichester +(_Cissaceaster_, _Cicestre_) remained of considerable importance under +the South Saxon kings. In 967 King Edgar established a mint here. Though +Domesday Book speaks of one hundred and forty-two burgages in Chichester +and a charter of Henry I. mentions the borough, the earliest extant +charter is that granted by Stephen, confirming to the burgesses their +customs and rights of the borough and gild merchant as they had them in +the time of his grandfather. This was confirmed by Henry II. Under Henry +III. the fee farm rent was £38: 10s., but this was reduced by a charter +of 10 Edward II. to £36, the customs of wool, hides and skins being +reserved to the king. Edward III. directed that the Sussex county court +should be held at Chichester, and this was confirmed in the following +year. Confirmations of the previous charters were also granted by Edward +III., Richard II., Henry VI., Edward IV., and Henry VII, who gave the +mayor and citizens cognizance of all kinds of pleas of assize touching +lands and hereditaments of freehold tenure. A court leet, court of +record and bailiffs' court of liberties still exist. The charters were +also confirmed by Henry VIII., Edward VI., Philip and Mary, and +Elizabeth. In 1604 the city was incorporated under a mayor and aldermen. +Since 1295, when it first returned a member, Chichester has been +regularly represented in parliament. Throughout the middle ages +Chichester was a place of great commercial importance, Edward III. +establishing a wool staple here in 1348. Fairs were granted by Henry I. +and Henry VII, Fuller mentions the Wednesday market as being famous for +corn, while Camden speaks of that on Saturday as the greatest for fish +in the county. The markets and a fair on the 20th of October are still +held. + + See _Victoria County History, Sussex_; Alexander Hay, _History of + Chichester_ (Chichester, 1804). + + + + +CHICKAMAUGA CREEK, a small tributary of the Tennessee river, which it +joins near Chattanooga, Tennessee, U.S.A. It gives its name to the great +battle of Chickamauga in the American Civil War, fought on the 19-20th +of September 1863, between the Federal army of the Cumberland under +Major-General W.S. Rosecrans and the Confederate army under General +Braxton Bragg. For the general operations of Rosecrans' army in 1863 see +AMERICAN CIVIL WAR. A successful war of manoeuvre had brought the army +of the Cumberland from Murfreesboro to Decherd, Tenn., and Bragg's army +lay on the Tennessee at and above Chattanooga. Rosecrans was expected by +the enemy to manoeuvre so as to gain touch with the Union forces in +the upper Tennessee valley, but he formed an entirely different plan of +operations. One part of the army demonstrated in front of Chattanooga, +and the main body secretly crossed the river about Stevenson and +Bridgeport (September 4th). The country was mountainous, the roads few +and poor, and the Federals had to take full supplies of food, forage and +ammunition with them, but Rosecrans was an able commander, his troops +were in good hands, and he accepted the risks involved. These were +intensified by the want of good maps, and, in the event, at one moment +the army was placed in a position of great danger. A corps under A. McD. +McCook moved south-eastward across the ridges to Alpine, another under +Thomas marched via Trenton on McLemore's Cove. The presence of Federal +masses in Lookout Valley caused Bragg to abandon Chattanooga at once, +and the object of the manoeuvre was thus accomplished; but owing to +the want of good maps the Union army was at the same time exposed to +great danger. The head of Thomas's column was engaged at Dug Gap, on the +11th, against the flank guard of Bragg's army, and at the time McCook +was far away to the south, and Crittenden's corps, which had occupied +Chattanooga on the 9th, was also at a distance. Thomas was isolated, but +Rosecrans, like every other commander under whom he served, placed +unbounded confidence in his tenacity, and if Bragg was wrong in +neglecting to attack him on the 14th, subsequent events went far to +disarm criticism. By the 18th of September Rosecrans had at last +collected his army on Chickamauga Creek covering Chattanooga. But Bragg +had now received heavy reinforcements, and lay, concentrated for battle, +on the other side of the Creek. + +[Illustration: CHICKAMAUGA] + +The terrain of the battle of Chickamauga (19th-20th of September) had +little influence on its course. Both armies lay in the plain, the two +lines roughly parallel. Bragg's intention was to force his attack home +on Rosecrans' left wing, thus cutting him off from Chattanooga and +throwing him back into the mountain country whence he had come. On the +19th a serious action took place between the Confederate right and +Rosecrans' left under Thomas. On the 20th the real battle began. The +Confederates, in accordance with Bragg's plans, pressed hard upon +Thomas, to whom Rosecrans sent reinforcements. One of the divisions +detached from the centre for this purpose was by inadvertence taken out +of the first line, and before the gap could be filled the Confederate +central attack, led by Longstreet and Hood, the fighting generals of +Lee's army, and carried out by veteran troops from the Virginian +battlefields, cut the Federal army in two. McCook's army corps, isolated +on the Federal right, was speedily routed, and the centre shared its +fate. Rosecrans himself was swept off the field in the rout of half of +his army. But Thomas was unshaken. He re-formed the left wing in a +semicircle, and aided by a few fresh brigades from Rossville, resisted +for six hours the efforts of the whole Confederate army. Rosecrans in +the meantime was rallying the fugitives far to the rear near Chattanooga +itself. The fury of Bragg's assault spent itself uselessly on the heroic +divisions under Thomas, who remained on the field till night and then +withdrew in good order to Rossville. Here he remained on the 21st, +imposing respect upon the victors. On the 22nd Rosecrans had +re-established order, and Thomas fell back quietly to Chattanooga, +whither Bragg slowly pursued. For the subsequent events of the campaign +see CHATTANOOGA. The losses in the battle bear witness to a severity in +the fighting unusual even in the American Civil War. Of 70,000 +Confederates engaged at least 18,000 were killed and wounded, and the +Federals lost 16,000 out of about 57,000. The battlefield has been +converted into a national park, and was used during the Spanish American +War (1898) as a place of mobilization for the U.S. volunteers. + + + + +CHICKASAWS, a tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean stock, now +settled in the western part of Oklahoma. Their former range was northern +Mississippi and portions of Tennessee. According to their own tradition +and the evidence of philology, they are closely connected with the +Creeks and Choctaws; and they believe that they emigrated with these +tribes from the west, crossed the Mississippi, and settled in the +district that now forms the north-east part of the state of that name. +Here they were visited by De Soto in 1540. From the first they were +hostile to the French colonists. With the English, on the other hand, +their relations were more satisfactory. In 1786 they made a treaty with +the United States; and in 1793 they assisted the whites in their +operations against the Creeks. In the early years of the 19th century +part of their territory was ceded for certain annuities, and a portion +of the tribe migrated to Arkansas; and in 1832-1834, the remainder, +amounting to about 3600, surrendered to the United States the 6,442,400 +acres of which they were still possessed, and entered into a treaty with +the Choctaws for incorporation with that tribe. In 1855, however, they +effected a separation of this union, with which they had soon grown +dissatisfied, and by payment to the Choctaws of $150,000 obtained a +complete right to their present territory. In the Civil War they joined +the Confederates and suffered in consequence; but their rights were +restored by the treaty of 1865. In 1866 they surrendered 7,000,000 +acres; and in 1873 they adopted their former slaves. They had an +independent government consisting of a governor, a senate, and a house +of representatives; but tribal government virtually ceased in 1906. The +Chickasaws of pure or mixed blood numbered 4826 in 1900, and with the +fully admitted "citizens," i.e. the freed slaves and adopted whites, the +whole nation amounted to some 10,000. + + See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907). + + + + +CHICKASHA, a city and the county-seat of Grady county, Oklahoma, U.S.A., +near the Washita river, about 45 m. S.S.W. of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1900) +3209; (1907) 7862, including 1643 negroes; (1910) 10,320. Chickasha is +served by the St Louis & San Francisco, the Chicago, Rock Island & +Pacific and the Oklahoma Central railways. It is the trade centre of a +very fertile section of the Washita Valley, whose principal products are +Indian corn, cotton, fruits and vegetables and live-stock. The city has +various manufactures, including flour, cotton-seed oil, lumber, +furniture and farm implements. Chickasha was founded in 1892 and was +chartered as a city in 1899. + + + + +CHICKEN-POX (Syn. _varicella_, a Low Latin diminutive of _variola_), a +specific contagious disease characterized by an eruption of vesicles in +the skin. The disease usually occurs in epidemics, and is one of +childhood, the patients being generally between two and six years old. +The incubation period is from ten to fifteen days; there are practically +no prodromal symptoms, the only indication being a slight amount of +fever for some twenty-four hours, after which the eruption makes its +appearance. A number of raised red papules appear on the trunk, either +on the back or chest; in from twelve to twenty-four hours these develop +into tense vesicles filled with a clear fluid, which in another +thirty-six hours or so becomes opalescent. During the fourth day these +vesicles dry and shrivel up, and the scabs fall off, leaving as a rule +no scar. Fresh spots appear during the first three days, so that at the +end of that time they can be seen in all stages of growth and decay. The +eruption is most marked on the chest, but it also occurs on the face and +limbs, and on the mucous membrane of the mouth and palate. The +temperature begins to fall after the appearance of the rash, but a +certain slight amount may persist after the disappearance of all +symptoms. It rarely rises above 102 F. The disease runs a very +favourable course in the majority of cases, and after effects are rare. +One attack does not confer immunity, and in numerous cases one +individual has had three attacks. The diet should be light, and the +patient should be prevented from scratching the spots, which would lead +to ulceration and scarring. After the first few days there is no +necessity to confine the patient to bed. In the large majority of cases, +it is easy to distinguish the disease from smallpox, but in certain +patients it is very difficult. The chief points in the differential +diagnosis are as follows. (1) In chicken-pox the rash is distributed +chiefly on the trunk, and less on the limbs. (2) Some of the vesicles +are oval, whereas in smallpox they are always hemispherical. They are +also more superficial, and have not at the outset the hard shotty +feeling of the more virulent disease. (3) The vesicles attain their full +growth within twelve to twenty-four hours. (4) The pustules are usually +monocular. (5) There is no prodromal period. + + + + +CHICLANA, or CHICLANA DE LA FRONTERA, a town of southern Spain, in the +province of Cadiz, 12 m. by rail S.E. of Cadiz. Pop. (1900) 10,868. +Chiclana occupies a fertile valley, watered by the river Lirio, and +sheltered, on the north and south, by low hills covered with vines and +plantations. It faces the gulf of Cadiz, 3 m. W., and, from its mild +climate and pleasant surroundings, is the favourite summer residence of +the richer Cadiz merchants; its hot mineral springs also attract many +visitors. In the neighbourhood are the Roman ruins of Chiclana la Vieja, +the town of Medina Sidonia (q.v.), and, about 5 m. S., the battlefield +of Barrosa, where the British under Sir Thomas Graham (Lord Lynedoch) +defeated the French under Marshal Victor, on the 5th of March 1811. + + + + +CHICOPEE, a city of Hampden county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on +the E. side of the Connecticut river, at the mouth of the Chicopee +river, immediately N. of Springfield. Pop. (1890) 14,050; (1900) 19,167, +of whom 8139 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,401. Chicopee is +served by the Boston & Maine railway. The city, which has an area of +about 25 sq. m., contains five villages. Chicopee Center, Chicopee +Falls, Willimansett, Fairview and Aldenville. Chicopee Falls lies on +both sides of the Chicopee river, which falls some 70 ft. in less than 3 +m. and furnishes valuable power for manufactories. The most important +products are cotton goods (two large factories having, together, about +200,000 spindles), fire-arms (especially the Stevens rifles), tools, +rubber and elastic goods, sporting goods, swords, automobiles and +agricultural implements. Here, too, is a bronze statuary foundry, in +which some of the finest monuments, bronze doors, &c., in the country +have been cast, including the doors of the Capitol at Washington. The +bronze casting industry here was founded by Nathan Peabody Ames +(1803-1847), who was first a sword-maker and in 1836 began the +manufacture of cannon and church bells. The total value of the city's +factory product in 1905 was $7,715,653, an increase of 43.2% in five +years. There is a public library. The municipality owns and operates the +water-works system and the electric lighting plant. Chicopee was settled +about 1638, was set off from Springfield as an independent township in +1848, and was chartered as a city in 1890. Chicopee Falls was the home +of Edward Bellamy. The name of the city is an Indian word meaning +"cedar-tree" or "birch-bark place." + + + + +CHICORY. The chicory or succory plant, _Cichorium Intybus_ (natural +order, Compositae), in its wild state is a native of Great Britain, +occurring most frequently in dry chalky soils, and by road-sides. It has +a long fleshy tap-root, a rigid branching hairy stem rising to a height +of 2 or 3 ft.--the leaves around the base being lobed and toothed, not +unlike those of the dandelion. The flower heads are of a bright blue +colour, few in number, and measure nearly an inch and a half across. +Chicory is cultivated much more extensively on the continent of +Europe--in Holland, Belgium, France and Germany--than in Great Britain; +and as a cultivated plant it has three distinct applications. Its roots +roasted and ground are used as a substitute for, adulterant of, or +addition to coffee; both roots and leaves are employed as salads; and +the plant is grown as a fodder or herbage crop which is greedily +consumed by cattle. In Great Britain it is chiefly in its first +capacity, in connexion with coffee, that chicory is employed. A large +proportion of the chicory root used for this purpose is obtained from +Belgium and other neighbouring continental countries; but a considerable +quantity is cultivated in England, chiefly in Yorkshire. For the +preparation of chicory the older stout white roots are selected, and +after washing they are sliced up into small pieces and kiln-dried. In +this condition the material is sold to the chicory roaster, by whom it +is roasted till it assumes a deep brown colour; afterwards when ground +it is in external characteristics very like coffee, but is destitute of +its pleasing aromatic odour. Neither does the roasted chicory possess +any trace of the alkaloid caffeine which gives their peculiar virtues to +coffee and tea. The fact, however, that for over a hundred years it has +been successfully used as a substitute for or recognized addition to +coffee, while in the meantime innumerable other substances have been +tried for the same purpose and abandoned, indicates that it is agreeable +and harmless. It gives the coffee additional colour, bitterness and +body. It is at least in very extensive and general use; and in Belgium +especially its infusion is largely drunk as an independent beverage. + +The blanched leaves are much esteemed by the French as a winter salad +known by the name of _Barbe de capucin_. When intended for winter use, +chicory is sown in May or June, commonly in drills, and the plants are +thinned out to 4 in. apart. If at first the leaves grow very strong, +they are cut off, perhaps in the middle of August, about an inch from +the ground, so as to promote the production of new leaves, and check the +formation of flower-stems. About the beginning of October the plants are +raised from the border, and all the large leaves cut off; the roots are +also shortened, and they are then planted pretty closely together in +boxes filled with rich light mould, and watered when needful. When frost +comes on, the boxes are protected by any kind of litter and haulm. As +the salad is wanted, they are removed into some place having a +moderately increased temperature, and where there is no light. Each box +affords two crops of blanched leaves, and these are reckoned fit for +cutting when about 6 in. long. Another mode of obtaining the young +leaves of this plant in winter is to sow seeds in a bed of light rich +mould, or in boxes in a heat of from 55° to 60°, giving a gentle +watering as required. The leaves will be fit to be cut in a fortnight +after sowing, and the plants will afford a second crop. + +In Belgium a variety of chicory called _Witloef_ is much preferred as a +salad to the French _Barbe de capucin_. The seeds are sown and the +plants thinned out like those of the ordinary sort. They are eventually +planted in light soil, in succession, from the end of October to +February, at the bottom of trenches a foot or more in depth, and covered +over with from 2 to 3 ft. of hot stable manure. In a month or six weeks, +according to the heat applied, the heads are fit for use and should be +cut before they reach the manure. The plants might easily be forced in +frames on a mild hot-bed, or in a mushroom-house, in the same way as +sea-kale. In Belgium the fresh roots are boiled and eaten with butter, +and throughout the Continent the roots are stored for use as salads +during winter. + + See also ENDIVE (_Cichorium endivia_). + + + + +CHIDAMBARAM, or CHEDUMBRUM, a town of British India, in the South Arcot +district of Madras, 7 m. from the coast and 151 m. S. of Madras by rail. +Pop. (1901) 19,909. The pagodas at Chidambaram are the oldest in the +south of India, and portions of them are gems of art. Here is supposed +to have been the northern frontier of the ancient Chola kingdom, the +successive capitals of which were Uriyur on the Cauvery, Combaconum and +Tanjore. The principal temple is sacred to Siva, and is said to have +been rebuilt or enlarged by a leper emperor, who came south on a +pilgrimage and was cured by bathing in the temple tank; upwards of +60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every December. It contains a "hall of +a thousand pillars," one of numerous such halls in India, the exact +number of pillars in this case being 984; each is a block of solid +granite, and the roof of the principal temple is of copper-gilt. Three +hundred of the highest-caste Brahmins live with their families within +the temple enclosure. + + + + +CHIEF (from Fr. _chef_, head, Lat. _caput_), the head or upper part of +anything, and so, in heraldry, the upper part of the escutcheon, +occupying one-third of the whole. When applied to a leading personage, a +head man or one having the highest authority, the term chief or +chieftain (Med. Lat. _capitanus_, O. Fr. _chevetaine_) is principally +confined to the leader of a clan or tribe. The phrase "in chief" (Med. +Lat. _in capite_) is used in feudal law of the tenant who holds his fief +direct from the lord paramount (see FEUDALISM). + + + + +CHIEMSEE, also called BAYRISCHES MEER, the largest lake in Bavaria, +lying on a high plateau 1600 ft. above the sea, between the rivers Inn +(to which it drains through the Alz) and Salzach. With a length of 6 and +a breadth of 9 m., it has an area of about 33 sq. m., and contains three +islands, Herrenwörth, Frauenwörth and Krautinsel. The first, which has a +circumference of 6½ m. and is beautifully wooded, is remarkable for the +romantic castle which Louis II. of Bavaria erected here. It was the seat +of a bishop from 1215 to 1805, and until 1803 contained a Benedictine +monastery. The shores of the lake are flat on the north and south sides, +but its other banks are flanked by undulating hills, which command +beautiful and extensive views. The waters are clear and it is well +stocked with trout and carp; but the fishing rights are strictly +preserved. Steamers ply on the lake, and the railway from Rosenheim to +Salzburg skirts the southern shores. + + + + +CHIENG MAI, the capital of the Lao state of the same name and of the +provincial division of Siam called Bayap, situated in 99° 0' E., 18° 46' +N. The town, enclosed by massive but decaying walls, lies on the right +bank of the river Me Ping, one of the branches of the Me Nam, in a plain +800 ft. above sea-level, surrounded by high, wooded mountains. It has +streets intersecting at right angles, and an enceinte within which is +the palace of the Chao, or hereditary chief. The east and west banks of +the river are connected by a fine teak bridge. The American Presbyterian +Mission, established here in 1867, has a large number of converts and +has done much good educational work. Chieng Mai, which the Burmese have +corrupted into Zimmé, by which name it is known to many Europeans, has +long been an important trade centre, resorted to by Chinese merchants +from the north and east, and by Burmese, Shans and Siamese from the west +and south. It is, moreover, the centre of the teak trade of Siam, in +which many Burmese and several Chinese and European firms are engaged. +The total value of the import and export trade of the Bayap division +amounts to about £2,500,000 a year. The Siamese high commissioner of +Bayap division has his headquarters in Chieng Mai, and though the +hereditary chief continues as the nominal ruler, as is also the case in +the other Lao states of Nan, Prè, Lampun, Napawn Lampang and Tern, which +make up the division, the government is entirely in the hands of that +official and his staff. The government forest department, founded in +1896, has done good work in the division, and the conservator of forests +has his headquarters in Chieng Mai. The headquarters of an army division +are also situated here. A British consul resides at Chieng Mai, where, +in addition to the ordinary law courts, there is an international court +having jurisdiction in all cases in which British subjects are parties. +The population, about 20,000, consists mainly of Laos, with many Shans, +a few Burmese, Chinese and Siamese and some fifty Europeans. Hill tribes +(Ka) inhabit the neighbouring mountains in large numbers. + +Chieng Mai was formerly the capital of a united Lao kingdom, which, at +one time independent, afterwards subject to Burma and then to Siam, and +later broken up into a number of states, has finally become a provincial +division of Siam. In 1902 a rising of discontented Shans took place in +Bayap which at one time seemed serious, several towns being attacked and +Chieng Mai itself threatened. The disturbance was quelled and the +malcontents eventually hunted out, but not without losses which included +the commissioner of Prè and a European officer of gendarmerie. + + + + +CHIERI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of +Turin, 13 m. S.E. by rail and 8 m. by road from the town of Turin. Pop. +(1901) 11,929 (town), 13,803 (commune). Its Gothic cathedral, founded in +1037 and reconstructed in 1405, is the largest in Piedmont, and has a +13th century octagonal baptistery. Chieri was subject to the bishop of +Turin in the 9th and 10th centuries, it became independent in the 11th +century. In 1347 it submitted voluntarily to Count Amedeus VI. of Savoy +to save itself from the marquis of Monferrato, and finally came under +the dominion of Savoy in the 16th century. In 1785 it was made into a +principality of the duke of Aosta. It was an early centre of trade and +manufacture; and in the middle of the 15th century produced about +100,000 pieces of cotton goods per annum. + + See L. Cibrario, _Delle storie di Chieri_ (Turin, 1855). + + + + +CHIETI, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province of +Chieti, and the seat of an archbishop, 140 m. E.N.E. of Rome by rail, +and 9 m. W. of Castellammare Adriatico. Pop. (1901) 26,368. It is +situated at a height of 1083 ft. above sea-level, 3 m. from the railway +station, from which it is reached by an electric tramway. It commands a +splendid view of the Apennines on every side except the east, where the +Adriatic is seen. It is an active modern town, upon the site of the +ancient _Teate Marrucinorum_ (q.v.), with woollen and cotton +manufactories and other smaller industries. The origin of the see of +Chieti dates from the 4th century, S. Justinus being the first bishop. +The cathedral has been spoilt by restoration, and the decoration of the +exterior is incomplete; the Gothic campanile of 1335 is, however, fine. +The cathedral possesses two illuminated missals. Close by is the town +hall, which contains a small picture gallery, in which, in 1905, was +held an important exhibition of ancient Abruzzese art. The de Laurentiis +family possesses a private collection of some importance. To the north +of Chieti is the octagonal church of S. Maria del Tricaglio, erected in +1317, which is said (without reason) to stand upon the site of a temple +of Diana. The order of the Theatines, founded in 1524, takes its name +from the city. Under the Lombards Chieti formed part of the duchy of +Benevento; it was destroyed by Pippin in 801, but was soon rebuilt and +became the seat of a count. The Normans made it the capital of the +Abruzzi. + + + + +CHI-FU, CHEFOO, or YEN-T'AI (as it is called by the natives), a seaport +of northern China, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Chih-li, in the +province of Shan-tung, near the mouth of the Yi-ho, about 30 m. E. of +the city of Têng-chow-fu. It was formerly quite a small place, and had +only the rank of an unwalled village; but it was chosen as the port of +Têng-chow, opened to foreign trade in 1858 by the treaty of Tientsin, +and it is now the residence of a Tao-t'ai, or intendant of circuit, the +centre of a gradually increasing commerce, and the seat of a British +consulate, a Chinese custom-house, and a considerable foreign +settlement. The native town is yearly extending, and though most of the +inhabitants are small shop-keepers and coolies of the lowest class, the +houses are for the most part well and solidly built of stone. The +foreign settlement occupies a position between the native town and the +sea, which neither affords a convenient access for shipping nor allows +space for any great extension of area. Its growth, however, has hitherto +been steady and rapid. Various streets have been laid out, a large +hotel erected for the reception of the visitors who resort to the place +as a sanatorium in summer, and the religious wants of the community are +supplied by a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church. Though the harbour +is deep and extensive, and possessed of excellent anchorage, large +vessels have to be moored at a considerable distance from the shore. +Chi-fu has continued to show fair progress as a place of trade, but the +total volume is inconsiderable, having regard to the area it supplies. +In 1880 the total exports and imports were valued at £2,724,000, in 1899 +they amounted to £4,228,000, and in 1904 to £4,909,908. In 1895 there +entered the port 905 vessels representing a tonnage of 835,248 tons, +while in 1905 the number of vessels had risen to 1842, representing a +tonnage of 1,492,514 tons. The imports are mainly woollen and cotton +goods, iron and opium, and the exports include bean cake, bean oil, +peas, raw silk, straw-braid, walnuts, a coarse kind of vermicelli, +vegetables and dried fruits. Communication with the interior is only by +roads, which are extremely defective, and nearly all the traffic is by +pack animals. From its healthy situation and the convenience of its +anchorage, Chi-fu has become a favourite rendezvous for the fleets of +the European powers in Chinese waters, and consequently it has at times +been an important coaling station. It lies in close proximity to Korea, +Port Arthur and Wei-hai-Wei, and it shared to some extent in the +excitement to which the military and naval operations in these quarters +gave rise. The Chi-fu convention was signed here in 1876 by Sir Thomas +Wade and Li-Hung-Chang. + + + + +CHIGI-ALBANI, the name of a Roman princely family of Sienese extraction +descended from the counts of Ardenghesca. The earliest authentic mention +of them is in the 13th century, and they first became famous in the +person of Agostino Chigi (d. 1520), an immensely rich banker who built +the palace and gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by +Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments; Pope +Julius II. made him practically his finance minister and gave him the +privilege of quartering his own (Della Rovere) arms with those of the +Chigi. Fabio Chigi, on being made pope (Alexander VII.) in 1655, +conferred the Roman patriciate on his family, and created his nephew +Agostino prince of Farnese and duke of Ariccia, and the emperor Leopold +I. created the latter _Reichsfürst_ (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) in +1659. In 1712 the family received the dignity of hereditary marshals of +the Church and guardians of the conclaves, which gave them a very great +importance on the death of every pope. On the marriage in 1735 of +another Agostino Chigi (1710-1769) with Giulia Albani, heiress of the +Albani, a Venetian patrician family, said to be of Albanian origin, her +name was added to that of Chigi. The family owns large estates at Siena. + + See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, vol. iii. (Berlin, + 1868); _Almanach de Gotha_. + + + + +CHIGWELL, a parish and residential district in the Epping parliamentary +division of Essex, England; with stations (Chigwell Lane and Chigwell) +on two branches of the Great Eastern railway, 12 m. N.E. from London. +Pop. (1901) 2508. The old village church of St Mary, principally +Perpendicular, has a Norman south door. The village lies in a branch of +the Roding valley, fragments of Hainault Forest lying to the south and +east, bordering the village of Chigwell Row. The village of Chigwell +appears in the Domesday survey. The pleasant scenery of the +neighbourhood, which attracts large numbers both of visitors and of +residents from London, is described in Dickens's novel, _Barnaby Rudge_, +and the King's Head Inn, Dickens's "Maypole," still stands. The old +grammar school, founded by Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (d. +1631), whose fine memorial brass is in St Mary's church, has become one +of the minor modern institutions of the English public school type. +William Penn attended school at Chigwell from his home at Wanstead. + + + + +CHIH-LI ("Direct Rule"), the metropolitan province of China, in which is +situated Peking, the capital of the empire. It contains eleven +prefectural cities, and occupies an area of 58,950 sq. m. The population +is 29,400,000, the vast majority of whom are resident in the plain +country. This province forms part of the great delta plain of China +proper, 20,000 sq. m. of which are within the provincial boundaries; the +remainder of the territory consists of the mountain ranges which define +its northern and western frontier. The plain of Chih-li is formed +principally by detritus deposited by the Pei-ho and its tributary the +Hun-ho ("muddy river"), otherwise known as the Yung-ting-ko, and other +streams having their sources in mountains of Shan-si and other ranges. +It is bounded E. by the Gulf of Chih-li and Shan-tung, and S. by +Shan-tung and Ho-nan. The proportion of Mahommedans among the population +is very large. In Peking there are said to be as many as 20,000 +Mahommedan families, and in Pao-ting Fu, the capital of the province, +there are about 1000 followers of the prophet. The extremes of heat and +cold in Chih-li are very marked. During the months of December, January +and February the rivers are frozen up, and even the Gulf of Chih-li is +fringed with a broad border of ice. There are four rivers of some +importance in the province: the Pei-ho, with the Hun-ho, which rises in +the mountains in Mongolia and, flowing to the west of Peking, forms a +junction with the Pei-ho at Tientsin; the Shang-si-ho, which rises in +the mountains on the north of the province of Shan-si, and takes a +south-easterly course as far as the neighbourhood of Ki Chow, from which +point it trends north-east and eventually joines the Hun-ho some 15 m. +above Tientsin; the Pu-to-ho, which rises in Shan-si, and after running +a parallel course to Shang-si-ho on the south, empties itself in the +same way into the Hun-ho; and the Lan-ho, which rises in Mongolia, +enters the province on the north-east after passing to the west of +Jehol, passes the city of Yung-p'ing Fu in its course (which is +south-easterly) through Chih-li, and from thence winds its way to the +north-eastern boundary of the Gulf of Chih-li. The province contains +three lakes of considerable size. The largest is the Ta-lu-tsze Hu, +which lies in 37° 40' N. and 115° 20' E.; the second in importance is +one which is situated to the east of Pao-ting Fu; and the third is the +Tu-lu-tsze Hu, which lies east by north of Shun-te Fu. Four high roads +radiate from Peking, one leading to Urga by way of Süan-hwa Fu, which +passes through the Great Wall at Chang-kiu K'ow; another, which enters +Mongolia through the Ku-pei K'ow to the north-east, and after continuing +that course as far as Fung-ning turns in a north-westerly direction to +Dolonnor; a third striking due east by way of T'ung-chow and Yung-p'ing +Fu to Shan-hai Kwan, the point where the Great Wall terminates on the +coast; and a fourth which trends in a south-westerly direction to +Pao-ting Fu and on to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si. The mountain ranges to +the north of the province abound with coal, notably at Chai-tang, +T'ai-gan-shan, Miao-gan-ling, and Fu-tao in the Si-shan or Western +Hills. "At Chai-tang," wrote Baron von Richthofen, "I was surprised to +walk over a regular succession of coal-bearing strata, the thickness of +which, estimating it step by step as I proceeded gradually from the +lowest to the highest strata, exceeds 7000 ft." The coal here is +anthracite, as is also that at T'ai-gan-shan, where are found beds of +greater value than any in the neighbourhood of Peking. In Süan-hwa Fu +coal is also found, but not in such quantities as in the places above +named. Iron and silver also exist in small quantities in different parts +of the province, and hot and warm springs are very common at the foot of +the hills along the northern and western edges of the province. The +principal agricultural products are wheat, kao-liang, oats, millet, +maize, pulse and potatoes. Fruits and vegetables are also grown in large +quantities. Of the former the chief kinds are pears, apples, plums, +apricots, peaches, persimmons and melons. Tientsin is the Treaty Port of +the province. + + + + +CHIHUAHUA, a northern frontier state of Mexico, bounded N. and N.E. by +the United States (New Mexico and Texas), E. by Coahuila, S. by Durango, +and W. by Sinaloa and Sonora. Pop. (1895) 260,008; (1900) 327,784. Area, +87,802 sq. m. The surface of the state is in great part an elevated +plateau, sloping gently toward the Rio Grande. The western side, +however, is much broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which form +elevated valleys of great fertility. An arid sandy plain extending from +the Rio Grande inland for 300 to 350 m. is quite destitute of vegetation +where irrigation is not used. There is little rainfall in this region +and the climate is hot and dry. The more elevated plateaus and valleys +have the heavier rainfall, but the average for the state is barely 39 +in.; an impermeable clay substratum prevents its absorption by the soil, +and the bare surface carries it off in torrents. The great Bolsón de +Mapimí depression, in the S.E. part of the state, was once considered to +be an unreclaimable desert, but experiments with irrigation have shown +its soil to be highly fertile, and the conversion of the narrow valleys +of the sierras on the west into irrigation reservoirs promises to +reclaim a considerable part of its area. The only river of consequence +is the Conchos, which flows north and north-east into the Rio Grande +across the whole length of the state. In the north there are several +small streams flowing northward into lakes. Agriculture has made little +progress in Chihuahua, and the scarcity of water will always be a +serious obstacle to its development outside the districts where +irrigation is practicable. The climate and soil are favourable to the +production of wheat, Indian corn, beans, indigo, cotton and grapes, from +which wine and brandy are made. The principal grape-producing district +is in the vicinity of Ciudad Juárez. Stock-raising is an important +industry in the mountainous districts of the west, where there is +excellent pasturage for the greater part of the year. The principal +industry of the state, however, is mining--its mineral resources +including gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead and coal. The silver mines +of Chihuahua are among the richest in Mexico, and include the famous +mining districts of Batopilas, Chihuahuilla, Cosihuiriachic, Jesús +María, Parral, and Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua el Viejo. There are more +than one hundred of these mines, and the total annual yield at the end +of the 19th century was estimated at $4,500,000. The state is traversed +from north to south by the Mexican Central railway, and there are short +branches to some of the mining districts. + +Chihuahua originally formed part of the province of Nueva Viscaya, with +Durango as the capital. In 1777 the northern provinces, known as the +Provincias Internas, were separated from the viceroyalty, and in 1786 +the provinces were reorganized as intendencias, but Chihuahua was not +separated from Durango until 1823. An effort was made to overthrow +Spanish authority in 1810, but its leader Hidalgo and two of his +lieutenants were captured and executed, after which the province +remained passive until the end of the struggle. The people of the state +have been active partizans in most of the revolutionary outbreaks in +Mexico, and in the war of 1862-66 Chihuahua was loyal to Juárez. The +principal towns are the capital Chihuahua, El Parral, 120 m. S.S.E. of +the state capital, in a rich mining district (pop. 14,748 in 1900), +Ciudad Juárez and Jimenez, 120 m. S.E. of Chihuahua (pop. 5881 in 1900). + + + + +CHIHUAHUA, a city of Mexico, capital of the above state, on the +Chihuahua river, about 1000 m. N.W. of Mexico City and 225 m. S. by E. +of El Paso. Pop. (1895) 18,279; (1900) 30,405. The city stands in a +beautiful valley opening northward and hemmed in on all other sides by +spurs of the Sierra Madre. It is 4635 ft. above sea-level, and its +climate is mild and healthy. The city is laid out regularly, with broad +streets, and a handsome plaza with a monument to Hidalgo and his +companions of the revolution of 1810, who were executed here. The most +noteworthy of its public buildings is the fine old parish church of San +Francisco, begun in 1717 and completed in 1789, one of the best +specimens of 18th-century architecture in Mexico. It was built, it is +said, with the proceeds of a small tax on the output of the Santa +Eulalia mine. Other prominent buildings are the government palace, the +Porfirio Diaz hospital, the old Jesuit College (now occupied by a modern +institution of the same character), the mint, and an aqueduct built in +the 18th century. Chihuahua is a station on the Mexican Central railway, +and has tramways and telephones. Mining is the principal occupation of +the surrounding district, the famous Santa Eulalia or Chihuahua el Viejo +mines being about 12 m. from the city. Next in importance is +agriculture, especially fruit-growing. Manufacturing is making good +progress, especially the weaving of cotton fabrics by modern methods. +The manufacture of cotton and woollen goods are old industries in +Chihuahua, but the introduction of American skill and capital toward the +end of the 19th century placed them on an entirely new footing. The +manufacture of gunpowder for mining operations is another old industry. + +Chihuahua was founded between 1703 and 1705 as a mining town, and was +made a villa in 1715 with the title San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua. +Because of the rich mines in its vicinity it soon became one of the most +prosperous towns in northern Mexico, although the state was constantly +raided by hostile Indians. In 1763 it had a population of nearly 5000. +The war of independence was followed by a period of decline, owing to +political disorder and revolution, which lasted until the presidency of +General Porfirio Diaz. In the war between Mexico and the United States, +Chihuahua was captured on the 1st of March 1847, by Colonel A.W. +Doniphan, and again on the 7th of March by General Price. In 1864 +President Juárez made the city his provisional capital for a short time. + + + + +CHILAS, a hill village in the North-West Frontier Province of India. It +is dominated by a fort on the left bank of the Indus, about 50 m. below +Bunji, 4100 ft. above sea-level. It was occupied by a British force +early in 1893, when a determined attack was made on the place by the +Kohistanis from the Indus valley districts to the south-west, aided by +contingents from Darel and Tangir west of Gilgit and north of the Indus. +Its importance consists in its position with reference to the +Kashmir-Gilgit route via Astor, which it flanks. It is now connected +with Bunji by a metalled road. Chilas is also important from its command +of a much shorter and more direct route to Gilgit from the Punjab +frontier than that of Kashmir and the Burzil pass. By the Kashmir route +Gilgit is 400 m. from the rail-head at Rawalpindi. The Kagan route would +bring it 100 m. nearer, but the unsettled condition of the country +through which the road passes has been a bar to its general use. + + + + +CHILBLAINS (or KIBE; _Erythema pernio_), a mild form of frostbite, +affecting the fingers or toes and other parts, and causing a painful +inflammatory swelling, with redness and itching of the affected part. +The chief points to be noticed in its aetiology are (1) that the lesions +occur in the extremities of the circulation, and (2) that they are +usually started by rapid changes from heat to cold or vice versa. The +treatment is both general and local. In the general treatment, if a +history of blanching fingers (fingers or hands going "dead") can be +obtained, the chilblains may be regarded as mild cases of Raynaud's +disease, and these improve markedly under a course of nitrites. Cardiac +tonics are often helpful, especially in those cases where there is some +attendant lesion of the heart. But the majority of cases improve +wonderfully on a good course of a calcium salt, _e.g._ calcium lactate +or chloride; fifteen grains three times a day will answer in most cases. +The patient should wash in soft tepid water, and avoid extremes of heat +and cold. In the local treatment, two drugs are of great value in the +early congestive stage--ichthyol and formalin. Ichthyol, 10 to 20% in +lanoline spread on linen and worn at night, often dispels an attack at +the beginning. Formalin is equally efficacious, but requires more skill +in its use. It can be used as an ointment, 10 to 50% for delicate skins, +stronger for coarser skins. It should be replaced occasionally by +lanoline. If the stage of ulceration has been reached, a paste made from +the following prescription, spread thickly on linen and frequently +changed, soon cures:--Hydrarg. ammoniat. gr. v., ichthyol [minim]x, +pulveris zinci oxidi [drachm]iv, vaseline [ounce]ss. + + + + +CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713), English banker, was a Wiltshire man, +who, having been apprenticed to a goldsmith, became himself a London +goldsmith in 1664. In 1671 he married Elizabeth (d. 1720), daughter of +another goldsmith named William Wheeler (d. 1663), and with his wife's +stepfather, Robert Blanchard (d. 1681), took over about the same time +the business of goldsmiths hitherto carried on by the Wheelers. This was +the beginning of Child's Bank. Child soon gave up the business of a +goldsmith and confined himself to that of a banker. He inherited some +wealth and was very successful in business; he was jeweller to the +king, and lent considerable sums of money to the government. Being a +freeman of the city of London, Child was elected a member of the court +of common council in 1681; in 1689 he became an alderman, and in the +same year a knight. He served as sheriff of London in 1691 and as lord +mayor in 1699. His parliamentary career began about this time. In 1698 +he was chosen member of parliament for Devizes and in 1702 for the city +of London, and was again returned for Devizes in 1705 and 1710. He died +on the 4th of October 1713, and was buried in Fulham churchyard. Sir +Francis, who was a benefactor to Christ's hospital, bought Osterley +Park, near Isleworth, now the residence of his descendant the earl of +Jersey. + +Child had twelve sons. One, Sir Robert, an alderman, died in 1721. +Another, Sir Francis (c. 1684-1740), was lord mayor of London in 1732, +and a director of the East India Company. He was chosen member of +parliament for the city of London in 1722, and was member for Middlesex +from 1727 until his death. After the death of the younger Sir Francis at +Fulham on the 20th of April 1740 the banking business passed to his +brother Samuel, and the bank is still owned by his descendants, the +principal proprietor being the earl of Jersey. Child's Bank was at first +conducted at the Marygold, next Temple Bar in Fleet Street, London; and +the present bank occupies the site formerly covered by the Marygold and +the adjacent Devil tavern. + + + + +CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896), American scholar and educationist, was +born in Boston on the 1st of February 1825. He graduated at Harvard in +1846, taking the highest rank in his class in all subjects; was tutor in +mathematics in 1846-1848; and in 1848 was transferred to a tutorship in +history, political economy and English. After two years of study in +Europe, in 1851 he succeeded Edward T. Channing as Boylston professor of +rhetoric, oratory and elocution. Child studied the English drama (having +edited _Four Old Plays_ in 1848) and Germanic philology, the latter at +Berlin and Göttingen during a leave of absence, 1849-1853; and he took +general editorial supervision of a large collection of the British +poets, published in Boston in 1853 and following years. He edited +Spenser (5 vols., Boston, 1855), and at one time planned an edition of +Chaucer, but contented himself with a treatise, in the _Memoirs of the +American Academy of Arts and Sciences_ for 1863, entitled "Observations +on the Language of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales," which did much to +establish Chaucerian grammar, pronunciation and scansion as now +generally understood. His largest undertaking, however, grew out of an +original collection, in his British Poets series, of _English and +Scottish Ballads_, selected and edited by himself, in eight small +volumes (Boston, 1857-1858). Thenceforward the leisure of his life--much +increased by his transfer, in 1876, to the new professorship of +English--was devoted to the comparative study of British vernacular +ballads. He accumulated, in the university library, one of the largest +folklore collections in existence, studied manuscript rather than +printed sources, and carried his investigations into the ballads of all +other tongues, meanwhile giving a sedulous but conservative hearing to +popular versions still surviving. At last his final collection was +published as _The English and Scottish Popular Ballads_, at first in ten +parts (1882-1898), and then in five quarto volumes, which remain the +authoritative treasury of their subject. Professor Child worked--and +overworked--to the last, dying in Boston on the 11th of September 1896, +having completed his task save for a general introduction and +bibliography. A sympathetic biographical sketch was prefixed to the work +by his pupil and successor George L. Kittredge. + + + + +CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690), governor of Bombay, and in fact if not in +name the first governor-general of the British settlements in India, was +born in London. He was sent as a little boy to his uncle, the chief of +the factory at Rajapur; and in 1682 was appointed chief of the East +India Company's affairs at Surat and Bombay, while at the same time his +brother, Sir Josiah Child (q.v.), was governor of the company at home. +The two brothers showed themselves strong men and guided the affairs of +the company through the period of struggle between the Moguls and +Mahrattas. They have been credited by history with the change from +unarmed to armed trade on the part of the company; but as a matter of +fact both of them were loth to quarrel with the Mogul. War broke out +with Aurangzeb in 1689, but in the following year Child had to sue for +peace, one of the conditions being that he should be expelled from +India. He escaped this expulsion by his death in 1690. + + + + +CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (1630-1699), English merchant, economist and governor +of the East India Company, was born in London in 1630, the second son of +Richard Child, a London merchant of old family. After serving his +apprenticeship in the business, to which he succeeded, he started on his +own account at Portsmouth, as victualler to the navy under the +Commonwealth, when about twenty-five. He amassed a comfortable fortune, +and became a considerable stock-holder in the East India Company, his +interest in India being accentuated by the fact that his brother John +(q.v.) was making his career there. He was returned to parliament in +1659 for Petersfield; and in later years sat for Dartmouth (1673-1678) +and for Ludlow (1685-1687). He was made a baronet in 1678. His advocacy, +both by speech and by pen, under the pseudonym of Philopatris, of the +East India Company's claims to political power, as well as to the right +of restricting competition with its trade, brought him to the notice of +the shareholders, and he became a director in 1677, and, subsequently, +deputy-governor and governor. In this latter capacity he was for a +considerable time virtually the sole ruler of the company, and directed +its policy as if it were his own private business. He and his brother +have been credited with the change from unarmed to armed traffic; but +the actual renunciation of the Roe doctrine of unarmed traffic by the +company was resolved upon in January 1686, under Governor Sir Joseph +Ash, when Child was temporarily out of office. He died on the 22nd of +June 1699. Child made several important contributions to the literature +of economics; especially _Brief Observations concerning Trade and the +Interest of Money_ (1668), and _A New Discourse of Trade_ (1668 and +1690). He was a moderate in those days of the "mercantile system," and +has sometimes been regarded as a sort of pioneer in the development of +the free-trade doctrines of the 18th century. He made various proposals +for improving British trade by following Dutch example, and advocated a +low rate of interest as the "_causa causans_ of all the other causes of +the riches of the Dutch people." This low rate of interest he thought +should be created and maintained by public authority. Child, whilst +adhering to the doctrine of the balance of trade, observed that a people +cannot always sell to foreigners without ever buying from them, and +denied that the export of the precious metals was necessarily +detrimental. He had the mercantilist partiality for a numerous +population, and became prominent with a new scheme for the relief and +employment of the poor; it is noteworthy also that he advocated the +reservation by the mother country of the sole right of trade with her +colonies. Sir Josiah Child's eldest son, Richard, was created Viscount +Castlemain in 1718 and earl of Tylney in 1731. + + See also Macaulay, _History of England_, vol. iv.; R. Grant, _Sketch + of the History of the East India Company_ (1813); D. Macpherson, + _Annals of Commerce_ (1805); B. Willson, _Ledger and Sword_ (1903). + (T. A. I.) + + + + +CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880), American author, was born at Medford, +Massachusetts, on the 11th of February 1802. She was educated at an +academy in her native town and by her brother Convers Francis +(1795-1863), a Unitarian minister and from 1842 to 1863 Parkman +professor in the Harvard Divinity School. Her first stories, _Hobomok_ +(1824) and _The Rebels_ (1825), were popular successes. She was a +schoolmistress until 1828, when she married David Lee Child (1794-1874), +a brilliant but erratic Boston lawyer and journalist. From 1826 to 1834 +she edited _The Juvenile Miscellany_, the first children's monthly +periodical in the United States. About 1831 both she and her husband +began to identify themselves with the anti-slavery cause, and in 1833 +she published _An Appeal for that Class of Americans called Africans_, a +stirring portrayal of the evils of slavery, and an argument for +immediate abolition, which had a powerful influence in winning recruits +to the anti-slavery cause. Henceforth her time was largely devoted to +the anti-slavery cause. From 1840 to 1844, assisted by her husband, she +edited the _Anti-Slavery Standard_ in New York City. After the Civil War +she wrote much in behalf of the freedmen and of Indian rights. She died +at Wayland, Massachusetts, on the 20th of October 1880. In addition to +the books above mentioned, she wrote many pamphlets and short stories +and _The (American) Frugal Housewife_ (1829), one of the earliest +American books on domestic economy, _The Mother's Book_ (1831), a +pioneer cook-book republished in England and Germany, _The Girls' Own +Book_ (1831), _History of Women_ (2 vols., 1832), _Good Wives_ (1833), +_The Anti-Slavery Catechism_ (1836), _Philothea_ (1836), a romance of +the age of Pericles, perhaps her best book, _Letters from New York_ (2 +vols., 1843-1845), _Fact and Fiction_ (1847), _The Power of Kindness_ +(1851), _Isaac T. Hopper: a True Life_ (1853), _The Progress of +Religious Ideas through Successive Ages_ (3 vols., 1855), _Autumnal +Leaves_ (1857), _Looking Toward Sunset_ (1864), _The Freedman's Book_ +(1865), _A Romance of the Republic_ (1867), and _Aspirations of the +World_ (1878). + + See _The Letters of Lydia Maria Child, with a Biographical + Introduction by J.G. Whittier_ (Boston, 1883); and a chapter in T.W. + Higginson's _Contemporaries_ (Boston, 1899). + + + + +CHILD, the common term for the offspring of human beings, generally +below the age of puberty; the term is the correlative of "parent," and +applies to either sex, though some early dialectical uses point to a +certain restriction to a girl. The word is derived from the A.S. _cild_, +an old Teutonic word found in English only, in other Teutonic languages +_kind_ and its variants being used, usually derived from the +Indo-European root _ken_, seen in Gr. [greek: genos], Lat. _genus_, and +Eng. "kin"; _cild_ has been held to be a modification of the same root, +but the true root is _kilth_, seen in Goth. _kilthei_, womb, an origin +which appears in the expressions "child-birth," "to be with child," and +the like; the plural in A.S. was _cild_, and later _cildru_, which in +northern M.E. became _childre or childer_, a form dialectically extant, +and in southern English _childeren_ or _children_ (with the plural +termination -en, as in "brethren"). There are several particular uses of +"child" in the English version of the Bible, as of a young man in the +"Song of the three holy children," of descendants or members of a race, +as in "children of Abraham," and also to express origin, giving a +description of character, as "children of darkness." During the 13th and +14th centuries "child" was used, in a sense almost amounting to a title +of dignity, of a young man of noble birth, probably preparing for +knighthood. In the _York Mysteries_ of about 1440 (quoted in the _New +English Dictionary_) occurs "be he churl or child," obviously referring +to gentle birth, cf. William Bellenden's translation (1553) of Livy (ii. +124) "than was in Rome ane nobill childe ... namit Caius Mucius." The +spelling "childe" is frequent in modern usage to indicate its archaic +meaning. Familiar instances are in the line of an old ballad quoted in +_King Lear_, "childe Roland to the dark tower came," and in Byron's +_Childe Harold_. With this use may be compared the Spanish and +Portuguese _Infante_ and _Infanta_, and the early French use of _Valet_ +(q.v.). + +_Child-study._--The physical, psychological and educational development +of children, from birth till adulthood, has provided material in recent +years for what has come to be regarded as almost a distinct part of +comparative anthropological or sociological science, and the literature +of adolescence (q.v.) and of "child-study" in its various aspects has +attained considerable proportions. In England the British Child Study +Association was founded in 1894, its official organ being the +_Paidologist_, while similar work is done by the Childhood Society, and, +to a certain extent, by the Parents' National Educational Union (which +issues the _Parents' Review_). In America, where specially valuable work +has been done, several universities have encouraged the study (notably +Chicago, while under the auspices of Professor John Dewey); and +Professor G. Stanley Hall's initiative has led to elaborate inquiries, +the principal periodical for the movement being the _Pedagogical +Seminary_. The impetus to this study of the child's mind and capacities +was given by the classic work of educationists like J.A. Comenius, J.H. +Pestalozzi, and F.W.A. Froebel, but more recent writers have carried it +much further, notably W.T. Preyer (_The Mind of the Child_, 1881), whose +psychological studies stamp him as one of the chief pioneers in new +methods of investigation. Other authorities of first-rate importance +(their chief works only being given here) are J. Sully (_Studies of +Childhood_, 1896), Earl Barnes (_Studies in Education_, 1896, 1902), +J.M. Baldwin (_Mental Development in the Child and the Race_, 1895), +Sigismund (_Kind und Welt_, 1897), A.F. Chamberlain (_The Child_, 1900), +G. Stanley Hall (_Adolescence_, 1904; he had from 1882 been the leader +in America of such investigations), H. Holman and R. Langdon Down +(_Practical Child Study_, 1899), E.A. Kirkpatrick (_Fundamentals of +Child-study_, 1903), and Prof. Tracy of Toronto (_Psychology of +Childhood_, 5th ed., 1901); while among a number of contributions worth +particular attention may be mentioned W.B. Drummond's excellent summary, +_Introduction to Child Study_ (1907), which deals succinctly with +methods and results; Irving King's _Psychology of Child Development_ +(1906, useful for its bibliography); Prof. David R. Major's _First Steps +in Mental Growth_ (1906); and Miss M. Shinn's _Notes an the Development +of a Child_ (1893) and Mrs Louise E. Hogan's _Study of a Child_ (1898), +which are noteworthy among individual and methodical accounts of what +children will do. In such books as those cited a great deal of important +material has been collected and analysed, and a number of conclusions +suggested which bear both on psychology and the science of education; +but it must be borne in mind, as regards a great deal of the voluminous +literature of the subject, that it is often more pertinent to general +psychology and hygiene than to any special conclusions as to the +essential nature of a child--whatever "_a_ child" generically may be as +the special object of a special science. The child, after all, is in a +transition stage to an adult, and there is often a tendency in modern +"child students" to interpret the phenomena exhibited by a particular +child with a _parti pris_, or to exaggerate child-study--which is really +interesting as providing the knowledge of growth towards full human +equipment--as though it involved the discovery of some distinct form of +animal, of separate value on its own account. + +_Growth._--Into the psychical characteristics and development of the +child and all the interesting educational problems involved it is +impossible to enter here, and reference must be made to the works cited +above. But a knowledge of the more important features of normal physical +development has a constant importance. Some of these, as matters of +comparative physiology or pathology, are dealt with in other articles in +this work. One of these chief matters of interest is weight and height, +and this is naturally affected by race, nutrition and environment. But +while the standard in different countries somewhat differs, the British +average for healthy children may here be followed. At birth the average +weight of a baby is a little over 7 lb and the length about 20 in. The +following are the averages for weight and height, taking the age in +years of the child at the last birthday:-- + + +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+ + | Age. | Height, in inches. | Weight, in pounds. | + +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+ + | | Girls | Boys | Girls | Boys | + | | | | | | + | 1 | 28.7 | 29 | 19.8 | 20.5 | + | 2 | 32.5 | 32.5 | 25.5 | 26.5 | + | 3 | 35 | 35 | 30 | 31.2 | + | 4 | 38 | 38 | 34 | 35 | + | 5 | 40.5 | 41 | 39.2 | 41.2 | + | 6 | 42.8 | 44 | 41.7 | 44.4 | + | 7 | 44.5 | 46 | 47.5 | 49.7 | + | 8 | 46.6 | 47 | 52.1 | 54.9 | + | 9 | 48.7 | 49 | 55.5 | 60.4 | + | 10 | 51 | 51.8 | 62 | 67.5 | + | 11 | 53.1 | 53.5 | 68 | 72 | + | 12 | 55.6 | 55 | 76.4 | 76.7 | + | 13 | 57.7 | 57 | 87.2 | 82.6 | + | 14 | 59.8 | 59.3 | 96.7 | 92 | + | 15 | 60.9 | 62 | 102.7 | 106 | + +--------+----------+---------+----------+---------+ + + See also CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO; CHILDREN'S COURTS; CHILDREN'S + GAMES; INFANT; &c. + + + + +CHILDEBERT, the name of three Frankish kings. + + +CHILDEBERT I. (d. 558) was one of the four sons of Clovis. In the +partition of his father's realm in 511 he received as his share the town +of Paris, and the country to the north as far as the river Somme, and to +the west as far as the English Channel, with the Armorican peninsula. In +524, after the murder of Chlodomer's children, Childebert annexed the +cities of Chartres and Orleans. He took part in the various expeditions +against the kingdom of Burgundy, and in 534 received as his share of the +spoils of that kingdom the towns of Mâcon, Geneva and Lyons. When +Vitiges, the king of the Ostrogoths, ceded Provence to the Franks in +535, the possession of Arles and Marseilles was guaranteed to Childebert +by his brothers. Childebert also made a series of expeditions against +the Visigoths of Spain; in 542 he took possession of Pampeluna with the +help of his brother Clotaire I., and besieged Saragossa, but was forced +to retreat. From this expedition he brought back to Paris a precious +relic, the tunic of St Vincent, in honour of which he built at the gates +of Paris the famous monastery of St Vincent, known later as St +Germain-des-Prés. He died without issue in 558, and was buried in the +abbey he had founded, where his tomb has been discovered. + + See "Nouveaux documents sur le tombeau de Childebert à + Saint-Germain-des-Prés," in the _Bulletin de la Société des + Antiquaires_ (1887). + + +CHILDEBERT II. (570-595), king of Austrasia, was a son of Sigebert. When +his father was assassinated in 575, Childebert was taken from Paris by +Gundobald, one of his faithful _leudes_, to Metz, where he was +recognized as sovereign. He was then only five years old, and during his +long minority the power was disputed between his mother Brunhilda and +the nobles. Chilperic, king at Paris, and King Gontran of Burgundy, +sought alliance with Childebert, who was adopted by both in turn. But +after the assassination of Chilperic in 584, and the dangers occasioned +to the Frankish monarchy by the expedition of Gundobald in 585, +Childebert threw himself unreservedly into the arms of Gontran. By the +pact of Andelot in 587 Childebert was recognized as Gontran's heir, and +with his uncle's help he quelled the revolts of the nobles and succeeded +in seizing the castle of Woëwre. Many attempts were made on his life by +Fredegond, who was anxious to secure Gontran's inheritance for her son +Clotaire II. On the death of Gontran in 592 Childebert annexed the +kingdom of Burgundy, and even contemplated seizing Clotaire's estates +and becoming sole king of the Franks. He died, however, in 595. +Childebert II. had had relations with the Byzantine empire, and fought +in 585 in the name of the emperor Maurice against the Lombards in Italy. + + +CHILDEBERT III. was one of the last and feeblest of the Merovingians. A +son of King Theuderich III., he succeeded his brother Clovis III. in +695, and reigned until 711. + + See B. Krusch, "Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Könige," in + _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxii. 451-490. (C. PF.) + + + + +CHILDERIC, the name of three Frankish kings. + + +CHILDERIC I. (c. 437-481), king of the Salian Franks, succeeded his +father Merwich (Merwing) as king about. 457. With his tribe he was +established around the town of Tournai, on lands which he had received +as a _foederatus_ of the Romans, and for some time he kept the peace +with his allies. About 463, in conjunction with the Roman general +Egidius, he fought against the Visigoths, who hoped to extend their +dominion along the banks of the Loire; after the death of Egidius he +assisted Count Paul in attempting to check an invasion of the Saxons. +Paul having perished in the struggle, Childeric delivered Angers from +some Saxons, followed them to the islands at the mouth of the Loire, and +massacred them there. He also stopped a band of the Alamanni who wished +to invade Italy. These are all the facts known about him. The stories of +his expulsion by the Franks; of his stay of eight years in Thuringia +with King Basin and his wife Basine; of his return when a faithful +servant advised him that he could safely do so by sending to him half of +a piece of gold which he had broken with him; and of the arrival at +Tournai of Queen Basine, whom he married, are entirely legendary. After +the fall of the Western Empire in 476 there is no doubt that Childeric +regarded himself as freed from his engagements towards Rome. He died in +481 and was buried at Tournai, leaving a son Clovis (q.v.), afterwards +king of the Franks. His tomb was discovered in 1653, when numerous +precious objects, arms, jewels, coins and a ring with a figure of the +king, were found. + + +CHILDERIC II. (c. 653-673), king of Austrasia, was a son of the Frankish +king Clovis II., and in 660, although a child, was proclaimed king of +Austrasia, while his brother, Clotaire III., ruled over the rest of the +dominions of Clovis. After the death of Clotaire in 670 he became ruler +of the three Frankish kingdoms, Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, but +soon quarrelled with some supporters in Neustria, and was assassinated +whilst hunting. He was buried at St Germain near Paris. + + +CHILDERIC III. (d. c. 751), king of the Franks, was the last king of the +Merovingian dynasty. The throne had been vacant for seven years when the +mayors of the palace, Carloman and Pippin the Short, decided in 743 to +recognize Childeric as king. We cannot say whose son he was, or what +bonds bound him to the Merovingian family. He took no part in public +business, which was directed, as before, by the mayors of the palace. +When in 747 Carloman retired into a monastery, Pippin resolved to take +the royal crown for himself; taking the decisive step in 751 after +having received the celebrated answer of Pope Zacharias that it were +better to name king him who possessed the power than him who possessed +it not. Childeric was dethroned and placed in the monastery of St Omer; +his son, Theuderich, was imprisoned at Saint-Wandrille. + + See W. Junghans, _Die Geschichte der fränkischen Könige Childerich und + Clodovech_ (Göttingen, 1857); J.J. Chiflet, _Anastasis Childerici I. + Francorum regis_ (Antwerp, 1655); J.B.D. Cochet, _Le Tombeau de + Childeric I, roi des Francs_ (Paris, 1859); and E. Lavisse, _Histoire + de France_, tome ii. (Paris, 1903). + + + + +CHILDERS, HUGH CULLING EARDLEY (1827-1896), British statesman, was born +in London on the 25th of June 1827. On leaving Cambridge he went out to +Australia (1850), and became a member of the government of Victoria, but +in 1857 returned to England as agent-general of the colony. Entering +parliament in 1860 as Liberal member for Pontefract (a seat that he +continued to hold till 1885), he became civil lord of the admiralty in +1864, and in 1865 financial secretary to the treasury. Childers occupied +a succession of prominent posts in the various Gladstone ministries. He +was first lord of the admiralty from 1868 to 1871, and as such +inaugurated a policy of retrenchment. Ill-health compelled his +resignation of office in 1871, but next year he returned to the ministry +as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. From 1880 to 1882 he was +secretary for war, a post he accepted somewhat unwillingly; and in that +position he had to bear the responsibility for the reforms which were +introduced into the war office under the parsimonious conditions which +were then part of the Liberal creed. During his term of office the +Egyptian War occurred, in which Childers acted with creditable energy; +and also the Boer War, in which he and his colleagues showed to less +advantage. From 1882 to 1885 he was chancellor of the exchequer, and the +beer and spirit duty in his budget of the latter year was the occasion +of the government's fall. Defeated at the general election at +Pontefract, he was returned as a Home Ruler (one of the few Liberals who +adopted this policy before Mr Gladstone's conversion) in 1886 for South +Edinburgh, and was home secretary in the ministry of 1886. When the +first Home Rule bill was introduced he demurred privately to its +financial clauses, and their withdrawal was largely due to his threat of +resignation. He retired from parliament in 1892, and died on the 29th of +January 1896, his last piece of work being the drafting of a report for +the royal commission on Irish financial relations, of which he was +chairman. Childers was a capable and industrious administrator of the +old Liberal school, and he did his best, in the political conditions +then prevailing, to improve the naval and military administration while +he was at the admiralty and war office. His own bent was towards +finance, but no striking reform is associated with his name. His most +ambitious effort was his attempt to effect a conversion of consols in +1884, but the scheme proved a failure, though it paved the way for the +subsequent conversion in 1888. + + The _Life_ (1901) of Mr Childers, by his son, throws some interesting + side-lights on the inner history of more than one Gladstonian cabinet. + + + + +CHILDERS, ROBERT CAESAR (1838-1876), English Oriental scholar, son of +the Rev. Charles Childers, English chaplain at Nice, was born in 1838. +In 1860 he received an appointment in the civil service of Ceylon, which +he retained until 1864, when he was compelled to return to England owing +to ill-health. He had studied P[=a]li during his residence in Ceylon, +under Yátrámullé Unnánsé, a learned Buddhist for whom he cherished a +life-long respect, and he had gained an insight into the Sinhalese +character and ways of thought. In 1869 he published the first P[=a]li +text ever printed in England, and began to prepare a P[=a]li dictionary, +the first volume of which was published in 1872, and the second and +concluding volume in 1875. In the following year it was awarded the +Volney prize by the Institute of France, as being the most important +philological work of the year. He was a frequent contributor to the +Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, in which he published the +_Mah[=a]-parinibb[=a]na Sutta_, the P[=a]li text giving the account of +the last days of Buddha's life. In 1872 he was appointed sub-librarian +at the India Office, and in the following year he became the first +professor of P[=a]li and Buddhist literature at University College, +London. He died in London on the 25th of July 1876. + + + + +CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO. English law has always in theory given to +children the same remedies as to adults for ill-usage, whether by their +parents or by others, and has never recognized the _patria potestas_ as +known to the earlier Roman law; and while powers of discipline and +chastisement have been regarded as necessarily incident to paternal +authority, the father is civilly liable to his children for wrongs done +to them. The only points in which infancy created a defect in civil +status were that infants were subject to the restraints on complete +freedom of action involved in their being in the legal custody of the +father, and that it was and is lawful for parents, guardians, employers +and teachers to inflict corporal punishment proportioned in amount and +severity to the nature of the fault committed and the age and mental +capacity of the child punished. But the court of chancery, in delegated +exercise of the authority of the sovereign as _parens patriae_, always +asserted the right to take from parents, and if necessary itself to +assume the wardship of children where parental rights were abused or +serious cruelty was inflicted, the power being vested in the High Court +of Justice. Abuse of the power of correction was regarded as giving a +cause of action or prosecution for assault; and if attended by fatal +results rendered the parent liable to indictment for murder or +manslaughter. + +The conception of what constitutes cruelty to children undoubtedly +changed considerably with the relaxation of the accepted standard of +severity in domestic or scholastic discipline and with the growth of new +ideas as to the duties of parents to children, which in their latest +developments tend enormously to enlarge the parental duties without any +corresponding increase of filial obligations. + +Starting from the earlier conception, which limited ill-treatment +legally punishable to actual threats or blows, the common law came to +recognize criminal liability in cases where persons, bound under duty or +contract to supply necessaries to a child, unable by reason of its +tender years to provide for itself, wilfully neglected to supply them, +and thereby caused the death of the child or injury to its health, +although no actual assault had been committed. Questions have from time +to time arisen as to what could be regarded as necessary within this +rule; and quite apart from legislation, popular opinion has influenced +courts of justice in requiring more from parents and employers than used +to be required. But parliament has also intervened to punish abandonment +or exposure of infants of under two years, whereby their lives are +endangered, or their health has been or is likely to be permanently +injured (Offences against the Person Act of 1861, s. 27), and the +neglect or ill-treatment of apprentices or servants (same act, s. 26, +and Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875, s. 6). By the Poor +Law Amendment Act 1868, parents were rendered _summarily_ punishable who +wilfully neglected to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid or +lodging for their children under fourteen years of age in their custody, +whereby the health of the child was or was likely to be seriously +injured. This enactment (now superseded by later legislation) made no +express exception in favour of parents who had not sufficient means to +do their duty without resort to the poor law, and was construed as +imposing criminal liability on parents whose peculiar religious tenets +caused them advisedly to refrain from calling in a doctor to a sick +child. + +The chief progress in the direction of adequate protection for children +prior to 1889 lay less in positive legal enactment on the subject than +in the institution of an effective system of police, whereby it became +possible to discover and repress cruelty punishable under the ordinary +law. It is quite inaccurate to say that children had very few rights in +England, or that animals were better protected. But before the +constitution of the present police force, and in the absence of any +proper system of public prosecution, it is undeniable that numberless +cases of neglect and ill-treatment went unpunished and were treated as +nobody's business, because there was no person ready to undertake in the +public interest the protection of the children of cruel or negligent +parents. In 1889 a statute was passed with the special object of +preventing cruelty to children. This act was superseded in 1894 by a +more stringent act, which was repealed by the Prevention of Cruelty to +Children Act 1904, in its turn superseded for the most part by the +Children Act 1908, which introduced many new provisions in the law +relating to children and specifically deals with the offence of +"cruelty" to them. This offence can only be committed by a person over +sixteen in respect of a child under sixteen of whom he has "custody," +"charge" or "care." The act presumes that a child is in the custody of +its parents, step-parents, or a person cohabiting with its parent, or of +its guardians or persons liable by law to maintain it; that it is in the +charge of a person to whom the parent has committed such charge (e.g. a +schoolmaster), and that it is in the care of a person who has actual +possession or control of it. Cruelty is defined as consisting in +assault, ill-treatment (falling short of actual assault), neglect, +abandonment or exposure of the child in a manner likely to cause +_unnecessary_ suffering or injury to health, including injury to or loss +of sight, hearing or limb, or any organ of the body or any mental +derangement; and the act or omission must be wilful, i.e. deliberate and +intentional, and not merely accidental or inadvertent. The offence may +be punished either summarily or on indictment, and the offender may be +sent to penal servitude if it is shown that he was directly or +indirectly interested in any sum of money payable on the death of the +child, e.g. by having taken out a policy permitted under the Friendly +Societies Acts. A parent or other person legally liable to maintain a +child or young person will be deemed to have "neglected" him by failure +to provide adequate food, clothing, medical aid, or lodging, or if in +the event of inability to provide such food, &c., by failure to take +steps to procure the same under acts relating to the relief of the poor. + +These statutes overlap the common law and the statutes already +mentioned. Their real efficacy lies in the main in the provisions which +facilitate the taking of evidence of young children, in permitting poor +law authorities to prosecute at the expense of the rates, and in +permitting a constable on arresting the offender to take the child away +from the accused, and the court of trial on conviction to transfer the +custody of the child from the offender to some fit and willing person, +including any society or body corporate established for the reception of +poor children or for the prevention of cruelty to children. The +provisions of the acts as to procedure and custody extend not only to +the offence of cruelty but also to all offences involving bodily injury +to a child under sixteen, such as abandonment, assault, kidnapping and +illegally engaging a child in a dangerous public performance. The act +of 1908 also makes an endeavour to check the heavy mortality of infants +through "overlaying,"[1] enacting that where it is proved that the death +of an infant under three years of age was caused by suffocation whilst +the infant was in bed with some other person over the age of sixteen, +and that that person was at the time of going to bed under the influence +of drink, that other person shall be deemed to have neglected the child +in manner likely to cause injury to its health, as mentioned above. The +acts have been utilized with great zeal and on the whole with much +discretion by various philanthropic societies, whose members make it +their business to discover the ill-treated and neglected children of all +classes in society, and particularly by the Society for the Prevention +of Cruelty to Children, which is incorporated under royal charter of the +28th of May 1895, for the purposes _inter alia_ of preventing the public +and private wrongs of children, and the corruption of their morals and +of taking action to enforce the laws for their protection. + +The act of 1908 enacted more stringent provisions against baby-farming +(q.v.). The Infant Life Protection Act of 1897 did not apply where only +one child was taken, but now by the act of 1908, where a person +undertakes for reward the nursing and maintenance of one or more infants +under the age of _seven_ years apart from their parents or having no +parents, he must give notice in writing to the local authority within +forty-eight hours from the reception of the child. If an infant is +already in the care of a person without reward and he undertakes to +continue the nursing for reward, such undertaking is a reception of the +child. The notice to the local authority must state the name, sex, date +and place of birth of the infant, the name and address of the person +receiving the infant and of the person from whom the infant was +received. Notice must also be given of any change of address of the +person having the care of the infant, or of the death of the infant, or +of its removal to the care of some other person, whose name and address +must also be given. It is the duty of local authorities to provide for +the carrying-out in their districts of that portion of the act which +refers to nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint infants' +protection visitors, to fix the number of infants which any person may +retain for nursing, to remove infants improperly kept, &c. Relatives or +legal guardians of an infant who undertake its nursing and maintenance, +hospitals, convalescent homes, or institutions, established for the +protection and care of infants, and conducted in good faith for +religious and charitable purposes, as well as boarding schools at which +efficient elementary education is given, are exempt from the provisions +of the act. + +The acts of 1904 and 1908 deal with many other offences in relation to +children and young persons. The act of 1904 introduced restrictions on +the employment of children which lie on the border land between cruelty +and the regulation of child labour. It prohibits custodians of children +from taking them, or letting them be, in the street or in public-houses +to sing, play, perform or sell between 9 P.M. and 6 A.M. These +provisions apply to boys under fourteen and girls under sixteen. There +are further prohibitions (1) on allowing children under eleven to sing, +play, perform or be exhibited for profit, or offer anything for sale in +public-houses or places of public amusement at any hour without a +licence from a justice, which is granted only as to children over ten +and under stringent conditions; (2) on allowing children under sixteen +to be trained as acrobats, contortionists, or circus performers, or for +any dangerous performance; and the Children's Dangerous Performances Act +1879, as amended in 1897, makes it an offence to employ a male young +person under sixteen and a female under eighteen in a dangerous public +performance. + +The act of 1908 renders liable to a fine not exceeding £25, or +alternatively, or in addition thereto, imprisonment with or without hard +labour for any term not exceeding three months, any custodian, &c., of +any child or young person who allows him to be in any street, premises +or place for the purpose of begging or receiving alms, or of inducing +the giving of alms, whether or not there is a pretence of singing, +playing, performing or offering anything for sale. An important +departure in the act of 1908 was the attempt to prevent the exposure of +children to the risk of burning. Any custodian, &c., of a child under +seven who allows that child to be in a room Containing an open grate not +sufficiently protected to guard against the risk of burning or scalding +is liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding £10. Provision +is made against allowing children between the ages of four and sixteen +to be in brothels; it is also made a misdemeanour if any custodian, &c., +of a girl under sixteen causes or encourages her seduction or +prostitution, and any person having the custody of a young girl may be +bound over to exercise proper care if it is shown to the satisfaction of +a court of summary jurisdiction, on the complaint of any person, that +she is exposed to such risk. + +The act of 1908, following legislation in many parts of the United +States and in some of the British colonies, places a penalty on selling +tobacco to any person apparently under the age of sixteen, whether for +his own use or not. It empowers constables and park keepers to seize +tobacco in the possession of any person apparently under sixteen found +smoking in any street or public place, as well as to search them; it +also empowers a court, of summary jurisdiction to prevent automatic +machines for the sale of tobacco being used by young persons. The act +also contains useful provisions empowering the clearing of a court +whilst a child or young person is giving evidence in certain cases (e.g. +of decency or morality), and the forbidding children (other than infants +in arms) being present in court during the trial of other persons; it +places a penalty on pawnbrokers taking an article in pawn from children +under fourteen; and on vagrants for preventing children above the age of +five receiving education. It puts a penalty on giving intoxicating +liquor to any child under the age of five, except upon the orders of a +duly qualified medical practitioner, or in case of sickness, or other +urgent cause; also upon any holder of the licence of any licensed +premises who allows a child to be at any time in the bar of the licensed +premises; or upon any person who causes or attempts to cause a child to +be in the bar of licensed premises other than railway refreshment rooms +or premises used for any purpose to which the holding of a licence is +merely auxiliary, or where the child is there simply for the purpose of +passing through to some other part of the premises. It makes provision +for the safety of children at entertainments, and consolidates the law +relating to reformatory and industrial schools, and to juvenile +offenders (see JUVENILE OFFENDERS). + +In the act of 1908, "child" is denned as a person under the age of +fourteen years, and "young person" as a person who is fourteen years and +upwards and under the age of sixteen years. The act applies to Scotland +and Ireland. In the application of the act to Ireland exception is made +relative to the exclusion of children from bars of licensed premises, in +the case of a child being on licensed premises where a substantial part +of the business carried on is a drapery, grocery, hardware or other +business wholly unconnected with the sale of intoxicating liquor, and +the child is there for the purpose of purchasing goods other than +intoxicating liquor. + +_British Possessions._--Legislation much on the lines of the acts of +1889-1908 has been passed in many British possessions, e.g. Tasmania +(1895, 1906), Queensland (1896, 1905), Jamaica (1896), South Australia +(1899, 1904), New South Wales (1892 and 1900), New Zealand (1906), +Mauritius (1906), Victoria (1905,1906). In South Australia a State +Children's Department has been created to care for and manage the +property and persons of destitute and neglected children, and the +officials of the council may act in cases of cruelty to children; the +legislation of Victoria and Queensland is based on that of South +Australia. See also CHILDREN'S COURTS, EDUCATION and LABOUR LEGISLATION. + (W. F. C.; T. A. I.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] There has been some doubt as to whether it is more correct to + say a person "_overlays_" or "_overlies_" a child, and the question + came up in committee on the bill. According to Sir J.A.H. Murray + (see Letter in _The Times_, 12th of May 1908) "to lie," an + intransitive verb, becomes transitive when combined with a + preposition, e.g. a nurse lies over a child or overlies a child; "to + lay" is the causal derivative of "to lie," and is followed by two + objects, e.g. to lay the table with a cloth, or to lay a cloth on + the table; similarly, to overlay a surface with varnish, or to + overlay a child with a blanket, or with the nurse's or mother's + body. The instrument can be left unexpressed, and a person can be + said to overlay a child, i.e. with her own body, a pillow, &c. Thus, + while "overlie" covers the case where the woman herself lies over + the child, "overlay" is the more general word. + + + + +CHILDRENITE, a rare mineral species; a hydrous basic aluminium iron +phosphate, orthorhombic in crystallization. The ferrous oxide is in part +replaced by manganous oxide and lime, and in the closely allied and +isomorphous species eosphorite manganese predominates over iron. The +general formula for the two species is Al(Fe, Mn)(OH)2PO2 + H2O. +Childrenite is found only as small brilliant crystals of a +yellowish-brown colour, somewhat resembling chalybite in general +appearance. They are usually pyramidal in habit, often having the form +of double six-sided pyramids with the triangular faces deeply striated +parallel to their shorter edges. Hardness 4.5-5; specific gravity +3.18-3.24. The mineral, named after the zoologist and mineralogist J.G. +Children (1777-1852), secretary of the Royal Society, was detected in +1823 on specimens obtained some years previously during the cutting of a +canal near Tavistock in Devonshire. It has also been found in a few +copper mines in Cornwall and Devonshire. + +Eosphorite occurs as crystals of prismatic habit with angles very nearly +the same as those of childrenite. Unlike childrenite, it has a distinct +cleavage in one direction, and often occurs in compact masses as well as +in crystals. The colour is sometimes yellowish-white, but usually +rose-pink, and on this account the mineral was named from [Greek: +êosphoros], dawn-bearer. Hardness 5; specific gravity 3.11-3.145. It was +discovered in 1878 in a pegmatite-vein at Branchville, Connecticut, +where it is associated with other rare manganese phosphates. (L. J. S.) + + + + +CHILDREN'S COURTS, or JUVENILE COURTS, a special system of tribunals for +dealing with juvenile offenders, first suggested in the United States. +The germ of such institutions was planted in Massachusetts in 1869, when +a plan was introduced at Boston of hearing charges against children +separately, and apart from the ordinary business of the lesser +tribunals. No great progress was made in the development of the idea in +Massachusetts, as the legal authorities were not fully convinced of the +utility or need for a separate court so long as the children were kept +strictly apart from adults, and this could be assured by a separate +session. But the system of "probation," by which children were handed +over to the kindly care and guardianship of an appointed officer, and +thus escaped legal repression, was created about the same time in Boston +and produced excellent results. The probation officer is present at the +judge's side when he decides a case, and is given charge of the +offender, whom he takes by the hand, either at his parent's residence or +at school, and continually supervises, having power if necessary to +bring him again before the judge. The example of Massachusetts in due +course influenced other countries, and especially the British colony of +South Australia, where a State Children's Department was created at +Adelaide in 1895, and three years later a juvenile court was opened +there for the trial of persons under eighteen and was conducted with +great success, though the system of probation officers was not +introduced. A juvenile court was also established at Toronto (Canada) on +the South Australian model. + +The movement when once fully appreciated went ahead very rapidly. In the +United States Illinois was the first state to call a distinct children's +court into existence, and Judge Richard Tuthill was the pioneer at +Chicago, where the court was established in 1899. Many states followed +suit, including New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Kansas, +Colorado, Indiana and others, till the number rose to nineteen in 1906. +In New York, where juvenile probation is supervised by the Society for +the Protection of Children, there is a separate children's court with +rooms attached, where the children for detention wait till they are +brought in for trial. Brooklyn has also a children's court. In +Pennsylvania, where the juvenile court was at first opposed as +unconstitutional, the difficulty was met by first bringing the child +before the magistrate in the police court, a course which (though +followed by his transferring the case to the special court) perpetuated +the very evils the children's court was intended to avoid; the work of +probation was, however, most effectively carried out, chiefly by female +officers. The Chicago Juvenile Court sits twice weekly under an +especially appointed judge, and policemen act as probation officers to +some extent. The court of Indianapolis, however, gained the reputation +of being the most complete and perfect in the United States. It works +with a large and highly efficient band of volunteer probation officers +under a chief. The juvenile court of Denver, Colorado, attained +remarkable results under Judge B. Lindsey, whose magnetic personality, +wonderful comprehension of boy nature, and extraordinary influence over +them achieved great results. The court meets once a fortnight, when +fresh cases are tried and boys already on probation report themselves, +often to the number of two hundred at a time. The latter appear before +the judge in batches, each hands in his school report in a sealed +letter, and according to its purport receives praise or blame, or he may +be committed to the Detention House. An efficient court was also +constituted at Baltimore, Maryland, with a judge especially chosen to +preside, probation being for fixed periods, varying from three months to +three years, and children being brought back to the court for parole or +discharge, or, if necessary, committal to the house of one of the +philanthropic societies. In Washington, D.C., the system of having no +distinct court or judge, but holding a separate session, was followed, +and it was found that numbers of children came to the court for help and +guidance, looking upon the judge for the time being as their friend and +counsellor. Probation in this instance offered peculiar difficulties on +account of the colour question, two-thirds of the children having negro +blood and a white boy being always preferred for a vacant situation. +Throughout, the action of juvenile courts in the United States has been +to bring each individual into "human touch" with kindly helpful workers +striving to lead the young idea aright and train it to follow the +straight path. It was the result always of the effort of private persons +and not due to government initiative, indeed the advocates and champions +of the system only established it by overcoming strong opposition from +the authorities. + +Progress in the same direction has been made in England. The home office +had recommended London police magistrates to keep children's cases +separate from those of adults; the same practice or something analogous +obtained in many county boroughs, such as Bath, Birmingham, Bristol, +Bolton, Bradford, Hull, Manchester, Walsall, Halifax and others, and the +Children Act 1908 definitely established children's courts. This act +enacted that courts of summary jurisdiction when hearing charges, &c., +against children or young persons should, unless the child or young +person is charged jointly with an adult, sit in a different building or +room from that in which the ordinary sittings of the court are held, or +on different days or at different times. Furthermore, provision must be +made for preventing persons apparently under the age of sixteen years +whilst being conveyed to or from court, or whilst waiting before or +after their attendance in court, from associating with adults, unless +such adults are charged jointly with them. The act prohibits any persons +other than members and officers of the court, the parties to the case, +their solicitors, counsel and other persons directly concerned in the +case, from being present in a juvenile court, except by leave of the +court. Bona-fide press representatives are also excepted. The main +object of the whole system is to keep the child, the embryotic offender +who has probably erred from ignorance or the pressure of circumstances +or misfortune, altogether free from the taint or contagion that attaches +to criminal proceedings. The moral atmosphere of a legal tribunal is +injurious to the youthful mind, and children who appear before a bench, +whether as accused or as witness, gain a contemptuous familiarity with +legal processes. + +The most beneficial action of the children's court comes from its +association with the system of personal guardianship and close +supervision exercised by the probation officers, official and voluntary. +Where the intervention of the newly constituted tribunal can not only +save the child from evil association when first arrested, but can rescue +him without condemnation and committal to prison, its functions may be +relied upon to diminish crime by cutting it off at the source. Much +depends upon the quality and temperament of the presiding authority. +Where a judge with special aptitude can be appointed, firm, sympathetic, +tactful and able to gain the confidence of those brought before him, he +may do great good, by dealing with each individual and not merely with +his offence, realizing that the court does not exist to condemn but to +strengthen and give a fresh chance. Where the children's court is only a +branch of the existing jurisdiction worked by the regular magistrate or +judge fulfilling his ordinary functions and not specially chosen, the +beneficial results are not so noticeable. (A. G.) + + + + +CHILDREN'S GAMES. The study of traditional games has in recent years +become an important branch of folklore research in England, and has +contributed not a little towards elucidating many unrecorded facts in +early history. These games may be broadly divided into two +kinds--dramatic games, and games of skill and chance. These differ +materially in their object. Games of skill and chance are played for the +purpose of winning property from a less fortunate player. The dramatic +games consist of non-singing and singing games; they are divided between +boys' games and girls' games. Boys' games are mostly of a contest +character, girls' of a more domestic type. The boys' dramatic games have +preserved some interesting beliefs and customs, but the tendency in +these games, such as "prisoner's base," has been to drop the words and +tune and to preserve only that part (action) which tends best for +exercise and use in school playgrounds. The girls' singing-games have +not developed on these lines, and have therefore not lost so much of +their early characteristics. The singing games consist of words, tune +and action. The words, in verse, express ideas contained in customs not +now in vogue, and they may be traced back to events taking place between +men and women and between people of different villages. The tunes are +simple, and the same tune is frequently used for different games. The +actions are illustrative of the ideas to be expressed. The players +represent various objects--animals, villages and people. The singing +game is therefore not a game in the usual sense of the word. There is no +element of "gambling" or playing "to win" in it--no one is richer or +poorer for it; it also requires a number of children to play together. +It is really a "play," and has survived because it has handed down some +instances of custom and belief which were deeply rooted and which made a +strong appeal to the imagination of our ancestors. The singing games +represent in dramatic form the survival of those ceremonial dances +common to people in early stages of development. These dances celebrated +events which served to bind the people together and to give them a +common interest in matters affecting their welfare. They were dramatic +in character, singing and action forming a part of them, and their +performers were connected by ties of place or kindred. They are probably +survivals of what we might call folk drama. In these times it was held +imperative to perform religious ceremonies periodically; at sowing and +harvesting to ensure good crops; in the care of cattle and on occasions +of marriage, birth and death. These were matters affecting the welfare +of the whole community. Events were celebrated with dance, song and +feasting, and no event was too trivial to be unconnected with some +belief which rendered ceremony necessary. + +At first these ceremonial dances had deep religious feeling for their +basis, but in process of time they became purely secular and were +performed at certain seasons only, because it was the custom to do so. +They then became recognized as beautiful or pleasing things in the life +of the people, and so continued, altering somewhat in ideas but +retaining their old dramatic forms. They were danced by old and young at +festivals and holidays, these being held about the same time of year as +that at which the previous religious ceremonies had been held. + +Singing games are danced principally in one of two methods, "line" and +"circle." These represent two of the early forms of dramatic action. The +"line" form (two lines of players standing opposite each other having a +space of ground between them, advancing and retiring in turn) represents +two different and opposing parties engaged in a struggle or contest. +This method is used in all cases where contest is involved. The "circle" +form, on the other hand, where all players join hands, represents those +occasions when all the people of one place were engaged in celebrating +events in which all were interested. Thus games celebrating sowing and +harvest, and those associated with love and marriage, are played in this +form. Both these methods allow of development. The circle varies from +examples where all perform the same actions and say the same words to +that where two or more players have principal parts, the others only +singing or acting in dumb show, to examples where the singing has +disappeared. The form or method of play and the actions constitute the +oldest remaining parts of the game (the words being subject to +alterations and loss through ignorance of their meaning), and it is to +this form or method, the actions and the accompaniment of song, that +they owe their survival, appealing as they do to the strong dramatic +instinct of children and of uncultured folk. + +It will be convenient to give a few instances of the best-known singing +games. In "line" form, a fighting game is "We are the Rovers." The words +tell us of two opposing parties fighting for their land; both sides +alternately deride one another and end by fighting until one side is +victorious. Two other "line" games, "Nuts in May" and "Here come three +dukes a-riding," are also games of contest, but not for territory. These +show an early custom of obtaining wives. They represent marriage by +capture, and are played in "line" form because of the element of contest +contained in the custom. Another form, the "arch," is also used to +indicate contest. + +Circle games, on the contrary, show such customs as harvest and +marriage, with love and courting, and a ceremony and sanction by +assembled friends. "Oats and beans and barley" and "Sally Water" are +typical of this form. The large majority of circle games deal with love +or marriage and domestic life. The customs surviving in these games deal +with tribal life and take us back to "foundation sacrifice," "well +worship," "sacredness of fire," besides marriage and funeral customs. + + Details may be found in the periodical publications of the Folk-lore + Society, and particularly in the following works:--A.B. Gomme's + _Traditional Games of Great Britain_ (2 vols., Nutt, 1894-1898); + Gomme's _Children's Singing Games_ (Nutt, 1904.); Eckenstein's + _Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes_ (Duckworth, 1906); Maclagan, + _Games of Argyllshire_, Folk-lore Society (1900); Newell's _Games of + American Children_ (Harper Bros., New York, 1884). In Mrs Gomme's + _Traditional Games_, several versions of each game, together with a + short account of the suggested origin and of the custom or belief + indicated, are given for each game. In vol. ii. (pp. 458-531) a memoir + of the history of games is given, and the customs and beliefs which + originated them, reviewing the whole subject from the anthropological + point of view, and showing the place which games occupy among the + evidences of early man. In Miss Eckenstein's comparative study of + nursery rhymes suggested origins are given for many of these, and an + attempt made to localize certain of the customs and events. In several + of the publications of the Folk-lore Society local collections of + games are given, all of which may be studied with advantage. Stubbes + and other early writers give many instances of boys' games in their + days, many of which still exist. Tylor and other writers on + anthropology, in dealing with savage custom, confirm the views here + expressed. For nursery rhymes see Halliwell, _Nursery Rhymes_ (1845), + and Chambers's _Popular Rhymes_ (first printed 1841, reprinted in + 1870). The recently collected _Morris Dances_ by Mr Cecil Sharp should + also be consulted. One of the morris dances, bean-setting, evidently + dealing with planting or harvest, is danced in circle form, while + others indicating fighting or rivalry are danced in line form, each + line dancing in circle before crossing over to the opposite, side, and + thus conforming to the laws already shown to exist in the more + ordinary game. (A. B. G.*) + + + + +CHILDS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1829-1894), American publisher, was born in +Baltimore, Maryland, on the 12th of May 1829. He was educated in the +public schools, and after a brief term of service in the navy, he became +in 1843 a clerk in a book-shop at Philadelphia. There, in 1847, he +established an independent book-shop, and two years later organized the +publishing house of Childs & Peterson. In 1864, with Anthony J. Drexel, +he purchased the _Public Ledger_, at that time a little known newspaper; +he completely changed its policy and methods, and made it one of the +most influential journals in the country. He died at Philadelphia on the +3rd of February 1894. Childs was widely known for his public spirit and +philanthropy. In addition to numerous private benefactions in +educational and charitable fields, he erected memorial windows to +William Cowper and George Herbert in Westminster Abbey (1877), and to +Milton in St Margaret's, Westminster (1888), a monument to Leigh Hunt at +Kensal Green, a Shakespeare memorial fountain at Stratford-on-Avon +(1887), and monuments to Edgar Allan Poe and to Richard A. Proctor. He +gave Woodland Cemetery to the Typographical Society of Philadelphia for +a printers' burial-ground, and with Anthony J. Drexel founded in 1892 a +home for Union printers at Colorado Springs, Colorado. + +His _Recollections_ were published at Philadelphia in 1890. + + + + +CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua _chiri_, cold, or +_tchili_, snow), a republic of South America, occupying the narrow +western slope of the continent between Peru and its southern extremity. +(For map see ARGENTINA.) It extends from the northern boundary of the +province of Tacna, about 17° 25' S., to Cape Horn at the extreme +southern point of the Fuegian archipelago in 55° 58' 40'' S., with an +extreme meridian length of 2661 m., and with a coast line considerably +exceeding that figure owing to a westward curve of about 3-1/2° and an +eastward trend south of 50° S. of nearly 8°. Its mainland width ranges +from about 46 to 228 m., and its area, including the islands of the +southern coast, is officially computed to be 307,774 sq. m., though the +Gotha computation (1904) places it at 293,062 sq. m. Chile is thus a +ribbon-like strip of territory between the Andes and the Pacific, +comparatively regular north of the 42nd parallel, but with an extremely +ragged outline south of that line. It is bounded N. by Peru, E. by +Bolivia and Argentina, S. and W. by the Pacific. Its eastern boundary +lines are described under ARGENTINA and BOLIVIA. The war of 1879-81 with +Peru and Bolivia gave to Chile 73,993 sq. m. of territory, or one-fourth +her total area. By subsequent agreements the Bolivian department of the +Literal, or Atacama, and the Peruvian department of Tarapacá, were +formally ceded to Chile, and the northern frontier was removed to the +river Camarones, which enters the Pacific at 19° 12' S. Under the treaty +of Ancon (20th October 1883) Chile was to retain possession of the +provinces of Tacna and Arica belonging to the Peruvian department of +Moquegua for a period of ten years, and then submit "to popular vote +whether those territories are to belong to Chile or Peru." At the +expiration of the period (1893) Chile evaded compliance with the +agreement, and under various pretexts retained forcible possession of +the territory. This arbitrary retention of Tacna and Arica, which became +the province of Tacna under Chilean administration, removed the frontier +still farther north, to the river Sama, which separates that province +from the remaining part of the Peruvian department of Moquegua. Starting +from the mouth of that river, in 17° 57' S., the disputed boundary +follows its course in an irregular N.E. direction to its source in the +Alto do Toledo range, thence S. and E. along the water parting to the +Bolivian boundary line in the Cordillera Silillica. + + _Physiography._--For purposes of general topographical description + Chile may be divided into three regions: the desert region of the + north, the central agricultural region between the provinces of + Coquimbo and Llanquihue, and the heavily-forested rainy region south + of lat. 41° S. The desert region is an elevated arid plateau + descending gradually from the Andes towards the coast, where it breaks + down abruptly from elevations of 800 to 1500 ft. From the sea this + plateau escarpment has the appearance of a range of flat topped hills + closely following the coast line. The surface is made up of extensive + plains covered with sand and deposits of alkaline salts, broken by + ranges of barren hills having the appearance of spurs from the Andes, + and by irregular lateral ranges in the vicinity of the main cordillera + enclosing elevated saline plateaus. This region is rainless, barren + and inhospitable, absolutely destitute of vegetation except in some + small river valleys where irrigation is possible, and on the slopes of + some of the snow-covered peaks where the water from the melting snows + nourishes a scanty and coarse vegetation before it disappears in the + thirsty sands. It is very rich in mineral and saline deposits, + however. The eastern parts of this region lie within the higher ranges + of the Andes and include a large district awarded to Chile in 1899 + (see ARGENTINA and ATACAMA). This arid, bleak area is apparently a + continuation southward of the great Bolivian _altaplanicie_, and is + known as the Puna de Atacama. Its average elevation is estimated at + 11,000 to 12,000 ft. A line of volcanoes crosses it from north to + south, and extensive lava beds cover a considerable part of its + surface. Large shallow saline lakes are also characteristic features + of this region. From 28° S. the spurs from the cordillera toward the + coast are more sharply defined and enclose deeper valleys, where the + cultivation of the soil becomes possible, at first through irrigation + and then with the aid of light periodical rains. The slopes of the + Andes are precipitous, the general surface is rough, and in the north + the higher ground and coast are still barren. Beginning with the + province of Aconcagua the coast elevations crystallize into a range of + mountains, the Cordillera Maritima, which follows the shore line south + to the province of Llanquihue, and is continued still farther south by + the mountain range of Chiloé and the islands of the western coast, + which are the peaks of a submerged mountain chain. Lying between this + coast range and the Andes is a broad valley, or plain, extending from + the Aconcagua river south to the Gulf of Ancud, a distance slightly + over 620 m. with an average width of about 60 m. It is sometimes + called the "Vale of Chile," and is the richest and most + thickly-populated part of the republic. It is a highly fertile region, + is well watered by numerous streams from the Andes, has a moderate + rainfall, and forms an agricultural and grazing region of great + productiveness. It slopes toward the south, and its lower levels are + filled with lakes and with depressions where lakes formerly existed. + It is an alluvial plain for the greater part, but contains some sandy + tracts, as in Ñuble and Arauco; in the north very little natural + forest is found except in the valleys and on the slopes of the + enclosing mountain ranges, but in the south, where the rainfall is + heavier, the plain is well covered with forest. South of 41° S. the + country is mountainous, heavily-forested and inhospitable. There are + only a few scattered settlements within its borders, and a few nomadic + tribes of savages eke out a miserable existence on the coast. The + deeply-indented coast line is filled with islands which preserve the + general outline of the continent southward to the Fuegian archipelago, + the outside groups forming a continuation of the Cordillera Maritima. + The heavy and continuous rainfall throughout this region, especially + in the latitude of Chiloé, gives rise to a large number of rivers and + lakes. Farther south this excessive precipitation is in the form of + snow in the Cordilleras, forming glaciers at a comparatively low level + which in places discharge into the inlets and bays of the sea. The + extreme southern part of this region extends eastward to the Atlantic + entrance to the Straits of Magellan, and includes the greater part of + the large island of Tierra del Fuego with all the islands lying south + and west of it. There are some comparatively level stretches of + country immediately north of the Straits, partly forested and partly + grassy plains, where sheep farming has been established with some + degree of success, but the greater part of this extreme southern + territory is mountainous, cold, wet and inhospitable. The perpetual + snow-line here descends to 3500 to 4000 ft. above sea-level, and the + forest growth does not rise above an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft. + + + Mountains. + + It has been officially estimated that the arable lands of Chile + comprise about twenty-five millions of acres (slightly over 39,000 sq. + m.), or very nearly one-eighth of its total area. The desert regions + of the north include comparatively large areas of plains and gently + sloping surfaces, traversed by ranges of barren hills. The remainder + of the republic, probably more than three-fifths of its surface, is + extremely mountainous. The western slopes of the Andes, with its spurs + and lateral ranges, cover a broad zone on the eastern side of the + republic, and the Cordillera Maritima covers another broad zone on its + western side from about lat. 33° to the southern extremity of Chiloé, + or below lat. 43°. This maritime range is traversed by several river + valleys, some of which, like the Bio-Bio, are broad and have so gentle + a slope as to be navigable. The Andes, however, present an unbroken + barrier on the east, except at a few points in the south where the + general elevation is not over 5000 to 6000 ft., and where some of the + Chilean rivers, as the Palena and Las Heras, have their sources on its + eastern side. From the 52nd to about the 31st parallel this great + mountain system, known locally as the Cordillera de los Andes, + apparently consists of a single chain, though in reality it includes + short lateral ranges at several points; continuing northward several + parallel ranges appear on the Argentine side and one on the Chilean + side which are ultimately merged in the great Bolivian plateau. The + Chilean lateral range, which extends from the 29th to the 19th + parallels, traverses an elevated desert region and possesses several + noteworthy peaks, among which are Cerro Bolson, 16,017 ft., and Cerro + Dona Ines, 16,706 ft. It is broken to some extent in crossing the + province of Antofagasta, the southern division being known as the + Sierra de Huatacondo. At the southern frontier of Bolivia the main + chain, which has served as the boundary line between Argentina and + Chile, divides into two great ranges, the principal one continuing + almost due north along the eastern side of the great Bolivian + _alta-planicie_, and the other forming its western rim, where it is + known as the Cordillera Silillica, and then following the trend of the + coast north-westward into Peru becomes the Cordillera Occidental. The + western slopes of the Andes are precipitous, with short spurs + enclosing deep valleys. The whole system is volcanic, and a + considerable number of volcanoes are still intermittently active, + noticeably in central and southern Chile. The culminating point of the + Chilean Andes is Aconcagua, which rises to a height of 23,097 ft. + + In southern Chile the coast is highly mountainous, but the relation of + these elevations to the Andes has not been clearly determined. The + highest of these apparently detached groups are Mt. Macá (lat. 45° + S.), 9711 ft., and Mt. Arenales (about 47° S. lat.), 11,286 ft. + Cathedral Peak on Wellington Island rises to a height of 3838 ft. and + the highest point on Taytao peninsula to 3937 ft. The coast range of + central Chile has no noteworthy elevations, the culminating point in + the province of Santiago being 7316 ft. Between central Chile and the + northern desert region there is a highly mountainous district where + distinct ranges or elongated spurs cross the republic from the Andes + to the coast, forming transverse valleys of great beauty and + fertility. The most famous of these is the "Vale of Quillota" between + Valparaiso and Santiago. The Chilean Andes between Tacna and Valdivia + are crossed by 24 passes, the majority of them at elevations exceeding + 10,000 ft. The best-known of these is the Uspallata pass between + Santiago and the Argentine city of Mendoza, 12,870 ft. above + sea-level. The passes of central and southern Chile are used only in + the summer season, but those of northern Chile are open throughout the + whole year. + + The volcanic origin of the Andes and their comparatively recent + elevation still subject Chile, in common with other parts of the + western coast region, to frequent volcanic and seismic disturbances. + In some instances since European occupation, violent earthquake shocks + have resulted in considerable elevations of certain parts of the + coast. After the great earthquake of 1835 Captain Robert FitzRoy + (1805-1865) of H.M.S. "Beagle" found putrid mussel-shells still + adhering to the rocks 10 ft. above high water on the island of Santa + Maria, 30 m. from Concepción, and Charles Darwin declares, in + describing that disaster, that "there can be no doubt that the land + round the bay of Concepción was upraised two or three feet." These + upheavals, however, are not always permanent, the upraised land + sometimes settling back to its former position. This happened on the + island of Santa Maria after 1835. The existence of sea-shells at + elevations of 350 to 1300 ft. in other parts of the republic shows + that these forces, supplemented by a gradual uplifting of the coast, + have been in operation through long periods of time and that the + greater part of central and southern Chile has been raised from the + sea in this way. These earthquake shocks have two distinct + characteristics, a slight vibration, sometimes almost imperceptible, + called a _temblor_, generally occurring at frequent intervals, and a + violent horizontal or rotary vibration, or motion, also repeated at + frequent intervals, called a _terremoto_, which is caused by a + fracture or displacement of the earth's strata at some particular + point, and often results in considerable damage. When the earthquake + occurs on the coast, or beneath the sea in its vicinity, tidal waves + are sometimes formed, which cause even greater damage than the + earthquake itself. Arica has been three times destroyed by tidal + waves, and other small towns of the north Chilean coast have suffered + similar disasters. Coquimbo was swept by a tidal wave in 1849, and + Concepción and Talcahuano were similarly destroyed in 1835. The great + earthquake which partially destroyed Valparaiso in 1906, however, was + not followed by a tidal wave. These violent shocks are usually limited + to comparatively small districts, though the vibrations may be felt at + long distances from the centre of disturbance. In this respect Chile + may be divided into at least four great earthquake areas, two in the + desert region, the third enclosing Valparaiso, and the fourth + extending from Concepción to Chiloé. A study of Chilean earthquake + phenomena, however, would probably lead to a division of southern + Chile into two or more distinct earthquake areas. + + + Coast. + + The coast of Chile is fringed with an extraordinary number of islands + extending from Chiloé S. to Cape Horn, the grouping of which shows + that they are in part the summits of a submerged mountain chain, a + continuation southward of the Cordillera Maritima. Three groups of + these islands, called the Chiloé, Guaytecas and Chonos archipelagoes, + lie N. of the Taytao peninsula (lat. 45° 50' to 46° 55' S.), and with + the mainland to the E. form the province of Chiloé. The largest of + these is the island of Chiloé, which is inhabited. Some of the smaller + islands of these groups are also inhabited, though the excessive + rainfall of these latitudes and the violent westerly storms render + them highly unfavourable for human occupation. Some of the smallest + islands are barren rocks, but the majority of them are covered with + forests. These archipelagoes are separated from the mainland in the + north by the gulfs of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado, 30 to 35 m. + wide, which appear to be a submerged part of the great central valley + of Chile, and farther south by the narrower Moraleda channel, which + terminates southward in a confusing network of passages between the + mainland and the islands of the Chonos group. One of the narrow parts + of the Chilean mainland is to be found opposite the upper islands of + this group, where the accidental juxtaposition of Magdalena island, + which indents the continent over half a degree at this point, and the + basin of Lake Fontana, which gives the Argentine boundary a sharp + wedge-shaped projection westward, narrows the distance between the + two to about 26 m. The Taytao peninsula, incorrectly called the Tres + Montes on some maps, is a westward projection of the mainland, with + which it is connected by the narrow isthmus of Ofqui, over which the + natives and early missionaries were accustomed to carry their boats + between the Moraleda Channel and Gulf of Peñas. A short ship canal + here would give an uninterrupted and protected inside passage from + Chacao Channel all the way to the Straits of Magellan, a distance of + over 760 m. A southern incurving projection of the outer shore-line of + this peninsula is known as Tres Montes peninsula, the most southern + point of which is a cape of the same name. Below the Taytao peninsula + is the broad open Gulf of Peñas, which carries the coast-line eastward + fully 100 m. and is noticeably free from islands. The northern + entrance to Messier Channel is through this gulf. Messier, Pitt, + Sarmiento and Smyth's Channels, which form a comparatively safe and + remarkably picturesque inside route for small steamers, about 338 m. + in length, separate another series of archipelagoes from the mainland. + These channels are in places narrow and tortuous. Among the islands + which thickly fringe this part of the coast, the largest are Azopardo + (lying within Baker Inlet), Prince Henry, Campaña, Little Wellington, + Great Wellington and Mornington (of the Wellington archipelago), Madre + de Dios, Duke of York, Chatham, Hanover, Cambridge, Contreras, Rennell + and the Queen Adelaide group of small barren rocks and islands lying + immediately north of the Pacific entrance to the Straits of Magellan. + The large number of English names on this coast is due to the fact + that the earliest detailed survey of this region was made by English + naval officers; the charts prepared from their surveys are still in + use and form the basis of all subsequent maps. None of these islands + is inhabited, although some of them are of large size, the largest + (Great Wellington) being about 100 m. long. It has likewise been + determined, since the boundary dispute with Argentina called attention + to these territories and led to their careful exploration at the + points in dispute, that Skyring Water, in lat. 53° S., opens westward + into the Gulf of Xaultegua, which transforms Ponsonby Land and Cordoba + (or Croker) peninsula into an island, to which the name of Riesco has + been given. The existence of such a channel was considered probable + when these inland waters were first explored in 1829 by Captain + FitzRoy, but it was not discovered and surveyed until three-quarters + of a century had elapsed. Belonging to the Fuegian group south of the + Straits of Magellan are Desolation, Santa Ines, Clarence, Dawson, + Londonderry, Hoste, Navarin and Wollaston islands, with innumerable + smaller islands and rocks fringing their shores and filling the + channels between them. Admirable descriptions of this inhospitable + region, the farthest south of the inhabited parts of the globe, may be + found in the _Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of His Majesty's + Ships "Adventure" and "Beagle" between the years 1826 and 1836_ (3 + vols., 1839). + + The western and larger part of Tierra del Fuego (q.v.) belongs to + Chile. About 63 m. S.W. of Cape Horn, in lat. 56° 25' S., is the Diego + Ramirez group of small, rocky islands, the most southern possession of + the republic. Its westernmost possessions are Sala-y-Gomez and Easter + islands, the former in about 27° S., 105° W., and the latter, the + easternmost inhabited Polynesian island, in 27° 6' S., 109° 17' W. + Much nearer the Chilean coast (396 m.), lying between the 33rd and + 34th parallels, are the three islands of the Juan Fernandez group, and + rising apparently from the same submerged plateau about 500 m. farther + north of the latter are the rocky islets of San Ambrosio and San + Felix, all belonging to Chile. North of Chiloé there are few islands + in close proximity to the coast. The more important of these are La + Mocha, off the southern coast of Arauco, in lat. 38° 20' S., which is + 8 m. long and rises to an elevation of 1240 ft. above the sea; Santa + Maria, 30 m. south-west of Concepcion, which partially encloses the + Bay of Arauco and is well cultivated; and Quiriquina, lying off the + port of Talcahuano in the entrance to Concepción bay. There are a few + barren islands on the desert coast, the largest of which are between + Coquimbo and Caldera. Since the removal of their guano deposits they + have become practically worthless, except where they serve to shelter + anchorages. + + + Harbours. + + The coast of northern and central Chile is singularly deficient in + good harbours. Those of the desert region are only slight indentations + in a remarkably uniform coast-line, sheltered on one side by a point + of land, or small island. The landings are generally dangerous because + of the surf, and the anchorages are unsafe from storms on the + unprotected side. Among the most frequented of these are Valparaiso, + Coquimbo, Caldera, Iquique and Arica. There are some small harbours + for coasting vessels of light draught along the coast of central + Chile, usually at the partially obstructed mouths of the larger + rivers, as San Antonio near the mouth of the Maipó, Constitución at + the mouth of the Maule, and Llico on the outlet of Lake Vichuquen, but + there is no harbour of importance until Conceptión (or Talcahuano) Bay + is reached. There are three harbours on this bay, El Tomé, Penco and + Talcahuano (q.v.), the last being the largest and best-protected port + on the inhabited part of the Chilean coast. Immediately south of this + bay is the large Bay of Arauco, into which the Bio-Bio river + discharges, and on which, sheltered by the island of Santa Maria, are + the ports of Coronel and Lota. The next important harbour is that of + El Corral, at the mouth of the Valdivia river and 15 m. below the + city of Valdivia. The Bay of San Carlos on the northern coast of + Chiloé, which opens upon the narrow Chacao channel, has the port of + Ancud, or San Carlos, and is rated an excellent harbour for vessels of + light and medium draught. Inside the island of Chiloé the large gulfs + of Chacao (or Ancud) and Corcovado are well protected from the severe + westerly storms of these latitudes, but they are little used because + the approach through the Chacao channel is tortuous and only 2 to 3 m. + wide, and the two gulfs, though over 30 m. wide and 150 m. long, are + beset with small rocky islands. At the north end of the first is the + Reloncavi, a large and nearly landlocked bay, on which stands Puerto + Montt, the southern terminus of the Chilean central railway. The large + Gulf of Peñas, south of Taytao peninsula, is open to the westerly + storms of the Pacific, but it affords entrance to several natural + harbours. Among these are the Gulfs of Tres Montes and San Estevan, + and Tarn Bay at the entrance to Messier Channel. The next 300 m. of + the Chilean coast contain numerous bays and inlets affording safe + harbours, but the mainland and islands are uninhabited and the climate + inhospitable. Behind Rennell Island in lat. 52° S., however, is a + succession of navigable estuaries which penetrate inland nearly to the + Argentine frontier. The central part of this group of estuaries is + called Worsley Sound, and the last and farthest inland of its arms is + Last Hope Inlet (Ultima Esperanza), on which is situated the Chilean + agricultural colony of Puerto Consuelo. The Straits of Magellan, about + 360 m. in length, lie wholly within Chilean territory. Midway of them + is situated Punta Arenas, the most southern town and port of the + republic. + + + Rivers. + + Except in the extreme south the hydrography of Chile is of the + simplest description, all the larger rivers having their sources in + the Andes and flowing westward to the Pacific. Their courses are + necessarily short, and only a few have navigable channels, the + aggregate length of which is only 705 m. Nearly all rivers in the + desert region are lost in the sands long before reaching the coast. + Their waterless channels are interesting, however, as evidence of a + time when climatological conditions on this coast were different. The + principal rivers of this region are Sama (which forms the provisional + boundary line with Peru), Tacna, Camarones, Loa, Copiapó, Huasco, + Elqui, Limari and Choapa. The Loa is the largest, having its sources + on the slopes of the Cordillera south of the Minho volcano, between + 21° and 21° 30' S. lat., and flowing south on an elevated plateau to + Chiuchiu, and thence west and north in a great curve to Quillaga, + whence its dry channel turns westward again and reaches the Pacific in + lat. 21° 28' S., a few miles south of the small port of Huanillos. Its + total length is estimated at 250 m. The upper courses of the river are + at a considerable elevation above the sea and receive a large volume + of water from the Cordilleras. The water of its upper course and + tributaries is sweet, and is conducted across the desert in pipes to + some of the coast towns, but in its lower course, as in all the rivers + of this region, it becomes brackish. The Copiapó, which once + discharged into the sea, is now practically exhausted in irrigating a + small fertile valley in which stands the city of that name. The + Copiapó and Huasco have comparatively short courses, but they receive + a considerable volume of water from the higher sierras. The latter is + also used to irrigate a small, cultivated valley. The rivers of the + province of Coquimbo--the Elqui or Coquimbo, Limari and Choapa--exist + under less arid conditions, and like those of the province of + Aconcagua--the Ligua and Aconcagua--are used to irrigate a much larger + area of cultivated territory. The central agricultural provinces are + traversed by several important rivers, all of them rising on the + western slopes of the snow-clad Andes and breaking through the lower + coast range to the Pacific after being extensively used to irrigate + the great central valley of Chile. These are the Maipó (Maypó or + Maipú), Rapel, Mataquito, Maule, Itata, Bio-Bio, Imperial, Tolten, + Valdivia or Calle-Calle, Bueno and Maullin. With the exception of the + first three, these rivers have short navigable channels, but they are + open only to vessels of light draught because of sand-bars at their + mouths. The largest is the Bio-Bio, which has a total length of 220 + m., 100 of which are navigable. These rivers have been of great + service in the agricultural development of this part of Chile, + affording means of transportation where railways and highways were + entirely lacking. Some of the larger tributaries of these rivers, + whose economic value has been equally great, are the Mapocho, which + flows through Santiago and enters the Maipó from the north; the + turbulent Cachapoal, which joins the Rapel from the north; the Claro, + which waters an extensive part of the province of Talca and enters the + Maule from the north; the Ñuble, which rises in the higher Andes north + of the peaks of Chillan and flows entirely across the province of + Ñuble to join the Itata on its western frontier; the Laja, which rises + in a lake of the same name near the Argentine frontier in about lat. + 35° 30' S. and flows almost due west to the Bio-Bio; and the Cautin, + which rises in the north-east corner of Cautin and after a tortuous + course westward nearly across that province forms the principal + confluent of the Imperial. The unsettled southern regions of Chiloé + (mainland) and Magallanes are traversed by a number of important + rivers which have been only partially explored. They have their + sources in the Andes, some of them on the eastern side of the line of + highest summits. The Puelo has its origin in a lake of the same name + in Argentine territory, and flows north-west through the Cordilleras + into an estuary (Reloncavi Inlet) of the Gulf of Reloncavi at the + northern end of the Gulf of Chacao. Its lower course is impeded in + such a manner as to form three small lakes, called Superior, Inferior + and Taguatagua. A large northern tributary of the Puelo, the Manso, + has its sources in Lake Mascardi and other lakes and streams + south-east of the Cerro Tronador, also in Argentina, and flows + south-west through the Cordilleras to unite with the Puelo a few miles + west of the 72nd meridian. The Reloncavi Inlet also receives the + outflow of Lake Todos los Santos through a short tortuous stream + called the Petrohue. The Comau Inlet and river form the boundary line + between the provinces of Llanquihue and Chiloé, and traverse a densely + wooded country in a north-westerly direction from the Andes to the + north-eastern shore of the Gulf of Chacao. Continuing southward, the + Yelcho is the next important river to traverse this region. It drains + a large area of Argentine territory, where it is called the Rio + Fetaleufu or Fetalauquen, its principal source being a large lake of + the same name. It flows south-west through the Andes, and then + north-west through Lake Yelcho to the Gulf of Corcovado. The Argentine + colony of the 16th of October, settled principally by Welshmen from + Chubut, is located on some of the upper tributaries of this river, in + about lat. 43° S. The Palena is another river of the same character, + having its source in a large frontier lake called General Paz and + flowing for some distance through Argentine territory before crossing + into Chile. It receives one large tributary from the south, the Roo + Pico, and enters an estuary of the Gulf of Corcovado a little north of + the 44th parallel. The Frias is wholly a Chilean river, draining an + extensive Andean region between the 44th and 45th parallels and + discharging into the Puyuguapi channel, which separates Magdalena + island from the mainland. The Aisen also has its source in Argentine + territory near the 46th parallel, and drains a mountainous region as + far north as the 45th parallel, receiving numerous tributaries, and + discharging a large volume of water into the Moraleda channel in about + lat. 45° 20' S. The lower course of this river is essentially an + inlet, and is navigable for a short distance. The next large river is + the Las Heras, or Baker, through which the waters of Lakes Buenos + Aires and Pueyrredon, or Cochrane, find their way to the Pacific. Both + of these large lakes are crossed by the boundary line. The Las Heras + discharges into Martinez Inlet, the northern part of a large estuary + called Baker or Calen Inlet which penetrates the mainland about 75 m. + and opens into Tarn Bay at the south-east corner of the Gulf of Peñas. + Azopardo (or Merino Jarpa) island lies wholly within this great + estuary, while at its mouth lies a group of smaller islands, called + Baker Islands, which separate it from Messier Channel. The course of + the Las Heras from Lake Buenos Aires is south and south-west, the + short range of mountains in which are found the Cerros San Valentin + and Arenales forcing it southward for an outlet. Baker Inlet also + receives the waters of still another large Argentine-Chilean lake, San + Martin, whose far-reaching fjord-like arms extend from lat. 49° 10' to + 48° 20' S.; its north-west arm drains into the Tero, or La Pascua, + river. Lake San Martin lies in a crooked deeply cut passage through + the Andes, and the divide between its southern extremity (Laguna Tar) + and Lake Viedma, which discharges through the Santa Cruz river into + the Atlantic, is so slight as to warrant the hypothesis that this was + once a strait between the two oceans. After a short north-westerly + course the Toro discharges into Baker Inlet in lat. 48° 15' S., long. + 73° 24' W. South of the Toro there are no large rivers on this coast, + but the narrow fjords penetrate deeply into the mountains and bring + away the drainage of their snow-capped, storm-swept elevations. A + peculiar network of fjords and connecting channels terminating inland + in a peculiarly shaped body of water with long, widely branching arms, + called Worsley Sound, Obstruction Sound and Last Hope Inlet, covers an + extensive area between the 51st and 53rd parallels, and extends nearly + to the Argentine frontier. It has the characteristics of a tidewater + river and drains an extensive region. The sources of the Argentine + river Coile are to be found among the lakes and streams of this same + region, within Chilean territory. A noteworthy peculiarity of southern + Chile, from the Taytao peninsula (about 46° 50' S. lat.) to Tierra del + Fuego, is the large number of glaciers formed on the western and + southern slopes of the Cordilleras and other high elevations, which + discharge direct into these deeply cut estuaries. Some of the larger + lakes of the Andes have glaciers discharging into them. The formation + of these icy streams at comparatively low levels, with their discharge + direct into tidewater estuaries, is a phenomenon not to be found + elsewhere in the same latitudes. + + + Lakes. + + The lakes of Chile are numerous and important, but they are found + chiefly in the southern half of the republic. In the north the only + lakes are large lagoons, or morasses, on the upper saline plateaus + between the 23rd and 28th parallels. They are fed from the melting + snows and periodical storms of the higher Andes, and most of them are + completely dry part of the year. Their waters are saturated with + saline compounds, which in some cases have considerable commercial + value. In central Chile above the Bio-Bio river the lakes are small + and have no special geographical interest, with the exception perhaps + of the Laguna del Maule, in 36° 7' S., and Laguna de la Laja, in 37° + 20', which lie in the Andes near the Argentine frontier and are + sources of the two rivers of the same names. Below the Bio-Bio river + there is a line of large picturesque lakes extending from the province + of Cautin, south through that of Llanquihue, corresponding in + character and position to the dry lacustrine depressions extending + northward in the same valley. They lie on the eastern side near the + Cordilleras, and serve the purpose of great reservoirs for the + excessive precipitation of rain and snow on their western slopes. With + one exception they all drain westward into the Pacific through short + and partly navigable rivers, and some of the lakes are also utilized + for steamship navigation. These lakes are Villarica on the southern + frontier of Cautin, Rinihue and Ranco in Valdivia, and Puyehue, + Rupanco, Llanquihue and Todos los Santos in Llanquihue. The largest of + the number are Lakes Ranco and Llanquihue, the former with an + estimated area of 200 sq. m. and the latter of 300 sq. m. Lake Todos + los Santos is situated well within the Andean foothills north-east of + Puerto Montt and at an elevation of 509 ft., considerably above that + of the other lakes, Lake Ranco being 230 ft. above sea-level. The + great Andean lakes of General Paz (near the 44th parallel), Buenos + Aires (in lat. 46° 30' S.), Pueyrredon, or Cpchrane (47° 15' S.) and + San Martin (49° S.), lie partly within Chilean territory. In the + extreme south are Lagoa Blanca, a large fresh-water lake in lat. 52° + 30' S., and two large inland salt-water sounds, or lagoons, called + Otway Water and Skyring Water, connected by FitzRoy Passage. + + _Geology._--Chile may be divided longitudinally into two regions which + differ from each other in their geological structure. Along the coast + lies a belt of granite and schist overlaid unconformably by Cretaceous + and Tertiary deposits; inland the mountains are formed chiefly of + folded Mesozoic beds, together with volcanic rocks of later date. The + great longitudinal valley of Chile runs approximately, but only + approximately, along the boundary between the two zones. Towards the + north the coastal zone disappears beneath the sea and the Andean zone + reaches to the shore. The ancient rocks which form the most + characteristic feature of the former do indeed occur upon the coast of + Peru, but in the north of Chile they are found only in isolated masses + standing close to the shore or, as at Mejillones, projecting into the + sea. South of Antofagasta the old rocks form a nearly continuous band + along the coast, extending as far as Cape Horn and Staten Island, and + occupying the greater part of the islands of southern Chile. + Lithologically they are crystalline schists, together with granite, + diorite, gabbro and other igneous rocks. They are known to be + pre-Jurassic, but whether they are Palaeozoic or Archaean is + uncertain. They are strongly folded and are overlaid unconformably by + Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. In the north both the Cretaceous and + Tertiary beds of this zone are limited in extent, but towards the + south Mesozoic beds, which are at least in part Cretaceous, form a + band of considerable width. The Tertiary beds include both marine and + terrestrial deposits, and appear to be chiefly of Miocene and Pliocene + age. The whole of the north part of Tierra del Fuego is occupied by + plateaus of horizontal Tertiary strata. + + The Chilean Andes correspond with the Western Cordillera of Bolivia + and Peru, and consist almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, + together with the products of the Tertiary eruptions. The Mesozoic + beds are thrown into a series of parallel folds which run in the + direction of the chain and which are generally free from any + complications such as overthrusting or overfolding. The Cretaceous + beds form a synclinal upon the eastern side of the chain (and, in + general, beyond the Chilean boundary), while the Jurassic beds are + thrown into a number of folds which form the axis and the western + flank. Through the Mesozoic beds are intruded granitic and other + igneous rocks of Tertiary age, and upon the folded Mesozoic foundation + rise the volcanic cones of Tertiary and later date. The Trias is known + only at La Ternera near Copiapó, where coal-seams with Rhaetic plants + have been found; but the rest of the Mesozoic series, from the Lias to + the Upper Cretaceous, appears to be represented without a break of + more than local importance. The deposits are marine, consisting mainly + of sandstone and limestone, together with tuffs and conglomerates of + porphyry and porphyrite. These porphyritic rocks form a characteristic + feature of the southern Andes, and were at one time supposed to be + metamorphic; but they are certainly volcanic, and as they contain + marine fossils they must have been laid down beneath the sea. They are + not confined to any one horizon, but occur irregularly throughout the + Jurassic and occasionally also amongst the Cretaceous strata. They + form, in fact, a special facies which may frequently be traced + laterally into the more normal marine deposit of the same age. The + fauna of the Mesozoic beds is very rich, and includes forms which are + found in northern Europe, others which occur in central Europe, and + others again which are characteristic of the Mediterranean region. It + lends no support to Neumayr's theory of climatic zones. A large part + of the chain is covered by the products of the great volcanoes which + still form the highest summits of the Chilean and Argentine Andes. The + rocks are liparites, dacites, hornblende and pyroxene andesites. The + recent lavas of the still active volcanoes of the south are + olivine-bearing hypersthene-andesite and basalt.[1] + + _Climate_.--The climate of Chile varies widely, from the tropical + heat and extreme arid conditions of the northern coast to the low + temperatures and extreme humidity of western Tierra del Fuego and the + southern coast. The high altitudes of the Andean region also introduce + vertical zones of temperature, modified to some extent by the rainless + plateaus of the north, and by the excessive rainfall of the south. In + general terms it may be said that the extremes of temperature are not + so great as in corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere, + because of the greater expanse of water in comparison with the land + areas, the summers being cooler and the winters warmer. The cold + antarctic, or Humboldt, current sweeps northward along the coast and + greatly modifies the heat of the arid, tropical plateaus. The climate + of northern and central Chile is profoundly affected by the high + mountain barrier on the eastern frontier and by the broad treeless + pampas of Argentina, which raise the easterly moisture-laden winds + from the Atlantic to so high an elevation that they sweep across Chile + without leaving a drop of rain. At very rare intervals light rains + fall in the desert regions north of Coquimbo, but these are brought by + the prevailing coast winds. With this exception these regions are the + most arid on the face of the globe, highly heated by a tropical sun + during the day and chilled at night by the proximity of snow-covered + heights and a cold ocean current. Going south the temperature slowly + falls and the rainfall gradually increases, the year being divided + into a short rainy season and a long, dry, cloudless season. At + Copiapó, in 27° 22' S., 1300 ft. above the sea, the mean annual + temperature is 60° and the rainfall about 1 in., but at Coquimbo, in + 29° 56' S., the temperature is 59.2° and the rainfall 1½ in. At + Santiago, in 33° 27' S., 1755 ft. above the sea, the mean temperature + is 54° and the annual rainfall 16½ in., though the latter varies + considerably. The number of rainy days in the year averages about 21. + At Talca, in 35° 36' S. and 334 ft. above sea-level, the mean annual + temperature is nearly one degree above that of Santiago, but the + rainfall has increased to 19.7 in. The long dry season of this region + makes irrigation necessary, and vegetation has something of a + subtropical appearance, palms growing naturally as far south as 37°. + The climate is healthy and agreeable, though the death-rate among the + common people is abnormally high on account of personal habits and + unsanitary surroundings. In southern Chile the climate undergoes a + radical change--the prevailing winds becoming westerly, causing a long + rainy season with a phenomenal rainfall. The plains as well as the + western slopes of the Andes are covered with forest, the rivers become + torrents, and the sky is covered with heavy clouds a great part of the + year. At Valdivia, in 39° 49' S. and near the sea-level, the mean + annual temperature is 52.9° and the annual rainfall 108 to 115 in., + with about 150 rainy days in the year. These meteorological conditions + are still more accentuated at Ancud, at the north end of the island of + Chiloé, in 41° 46' S., where the mean annual temperature is 50.7° and + the annual rainfall 134 in. The equable character of the climate at + this point is shown by the limited range between its summer and winter + temperatures, the mean for January being 56.5° and the mean for July + 45.9°. The almost continual cloudiness is undoubtedly a principal + cause, not only of the low summer temperatures, but also of the + comparatively high winter temperatures. Frosts are infrequent, and + snow does not lie long. The climate is considered to be healthful + notwithstanding the excessive humidity. The 600 m. of coast from the + Chonos Archipelago south to the Fuegian islands have a climate closely + approximating that of the latter. It is wet and stormy all the year + through, though the rainfall is much less than that of Ancud and + Valdivia. The line of perpetual snow, which is 6000 ft. above + sea-level between lat. 41° and 43°, descends to 3500 (to 4000) ft. in + Tierra del Fuego, affording another indication of the low maximum + temperatures ruling during the summer. At the extreme south, where + Chilean territory extends across to the Atlantic entrance to the + Straits of Magellan, a new climatic influence is encountered in the + warm equatorial current flowing down the east coast of South America, + which gives to eastern Tierra del Fuego a higher temperature than that + of the western shore. The Andes, although much broken in these + latitudes, also exert a modifying influence on these eastern + districts, sheltering them from the cold westerly storms and giving + them a drier climate. This accounts for the surprising meteorological + data obtained from Punta Arenas, in 53° 10' S., where the mean annual + temperature is 43.2° and the annual rainfall only 22.5 in. Other + observations reduce this annual precipitation to less than 16 in. + According to observations made by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition + (1901-1903), at Orange Bay, Hoste Island, in lat. 55° 31' S., long. + 68° 05' W., which is more exposed to the westerly storms, the mean + temperature for 11 months was 41.98° and the total precipitation (rain + and snow) 53.1 in. The mean maximum temperature was 49.24°, and the + mean minimum 35.83°. The observations showed 284 days with rain or + snow, of which 70 were with snow. + + _Flora_.--The indigenous flora of Chile is less extensive and less + interesting than those of Argentina and Brazil, but contains many + peculiar genera and species. A classification of this flora + necessitates its division into at least three general zones--the + desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of + the south. The first is an arid desert absolutely barren along part of + the coast, between Tacna and Copiapó, but with a coarse scanty + vegetation near the Cordilleras along watercourses and on the slopes + where moisture from the melting snows above percolates through the + sand. In the valleys of the Copiapó and Huasco rivers a meagre + vegetation is to be found near their channels, apart from what is + produced by irrigation, but the surface of the plateau and the dry + river channels below the sierras are completely barren. Continuing + southward into the province of Coquimbo a gradual change in the arid + conditions may be observed. The higher summits of the Cordilleras + afford a larger and more continuous supply of water, and so dependent + are the people in the cultivated river valleys on this source of water + supply that they watch for snowstorms in the Cordilleras as an + indication of what the coming season is to be. The arborescent growth + near the mountains is larger and more vigorous, in which are to be + found the "algarrobo" (_Prosopis siliquastrum_) and "chañar" + (_Gourliea chilensis_), but the only shrub to be found on the coast is + a species of _Skytanthus_. Near the sierras where irrigation is + possible, fruit-growing is so successful, especially the grape and + fig, that the product is considered the best in Chile. In regard to + the indigenous flora of this region John Ball[2] says: "The species + which grow here are the more or less modified representatives of + plants which at some former period existed under very different + conditions of life." Proceeding southward cacti become common, first a + dwarfed species, and then a larger columnar form (_Cereus quisco_). + The streams are fringed with willows; fruit trees and alfalfa fields + fill the irrigated valleys, and the lower mountain slopes are better + covered with a thorny arborescent growth. The divides between the + streams, however, continue barren as far south as the transverse + ranges of mountains across the province of Aconcagua. + + To some degree the flora of central Chile is of a transition character + between the northern and southern zones. It is much more than this, + however, for it has a large number of genera and species peculiarly + its own. A large majority of the 198 genera peculiar to the South + American temperate regions belong exclusively to central Chile. This + zone extends from about the 30th to the 36th parallel, perhaps a + little farther south to include some characteristic types. The + evergreens largely predominate here as well as in the extreme south, + and on the open, sunburnt plains the vegetation takes on a subtropical + aspect. One of the most characteristic trees of this zone is the + _peumo_ (_Cryptocarya peumus_), whose dense evergreen foliage is + everywhere conspicuous. The _quillay_ (_Quillaja saponaria_) is + another characteristic evergreen tree of this region, whose bark + possesses saponaceous properties. In earlier times the coquito palm + (_Jubaea spectabilis_) was to be found throughout this part of Chile, + but it has been almost completely destroyed for its saccharine sap, + from which a treacle was made. One of the most striking forest trees + is the _pehuen_ or Chilean pine (_Araucaria imbricata_), which often + grows to a height of 100 ft. and is prized by the natives for its + fruit. Three indigenous species of the beech--the _roble_ (_Fagus + obliqua_), _coyhue_ (_F. Dombeyi_), and _rauli_ (_F. procera_)--are + widely diffused and highly prized for their wood, especially the + first, which is misleadingly called _roble_ (oak). Most of the woods + used in construction and manufactures are found between the Bio-Bio + river and the Taytao peninsula, among which are the _alerce_ + (_Fitzroya patagonica_), _ciprés_ or Chiloé cypress (_Libocedrus + tetragona_), the Chilean cypress (_L. Chilensis_), _lingue_ (_Persea + lingue_), laurel (_Laurus aromatica_), _avellano_ (_Guevina + avellana_), _luma_ (_Myrtus luma_), _espino_ (_Acacia cavenia_) and + many others. Several exotic species have been introduced into this + part of Chile, some of which have thriven even better than in their + native habitats. Among these are the oak, elm, beech (_F. sylvatica_), + walnut, chestnut, poplar, willow and eucalyptus. Through the central + zone the plains are open and there are forests on the mountain slopes, + but in the southern zone there are no plains, with the exception of + small areas near the Straits of Magellan, and the forests are + universal. In the variety, size and density of their growth these + forests remind one of the tropics. They are made up, in great part, of + the evergreen beech (_Fagus betuloides_), the deciduous antarctic + beech (_F. antarctica_),[3] and Winter's bark (_Drimys Winteri_), + intermingled with a dense undergrowth composed of a great variety of + shrubs and plants, among which are _Maytenus magellanica, Arbutus + rigida, Myrtus memmolaria_, two or three species of _Berberis_, wild + currant (_Ribes antarctica_), a trailing blackberry, tree ferns, + reed-like grasses and innumerable parasites. On the eastern side of + the Cordillera, in the extreme south, the climate is drier and open, + and grassy plains are found, but on the western side the dripping + forests extend from an altitude of 1000 to 1500 ft. down to the level + of the sea. A peculiar vegetable product of this inclement region is a + small globular fungus growing on the bark of the beech, which is a + staple article of food among the Fuegians--probably the only instance + where a fungus is the bread of a people. + + It is generally conceded that the potato originated in southern Chile, + as it is found growing wild in Chiloé and neighbouring islands and on + the adjacent mainland. The strawberry is also indigenous to these + latitudes on both sides of the Andes, and Chile is credited with a + species from which the cultivated strawberry derives some of its best + qualities. Maize and quinoa (_Chenopodium quinoa_) were known in Chile + before the arrival of Europeans, but it is not certain that they are + indigenous. Species of the bean and pepper plant are also indigenous, + and the former is said to have been cultivated by the natives. Among + the many economic plants which have been introduced into Chile and + have become important additions to her resources, the more prominent + are wheat, barley, hemp and alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), together with + the staple European fruits, such as the apple, pear, peach, nectarine, + grape, fig, olive and orange. The date-palm has also been introduced + into the southern provinces of the desert region. Among the marine + productions on the southern coast, a species of kelp, _Macrocystis + pyrifera_, merits special mention because of its extraordinary length, + its habit of clinging to the rocks in strong currents and turbulent + seas, and its being a shelter for innumerable species of marine + animals. Captain FitzRoy found it growing from a depth of 270 ft. + + _Fauna._--The fauna of Chile is comparatively poor, both in species + and individuals. A great part of the northern deserts is as barren of + animal life as of vegetation, and the dense humid forests of the south + shelter surprisingly few species. There are no large mammals in all + this extensive region except the Cetacea and a species of the + _Phocidae_ of southern waters. Neither are there any dangerous species + of Carnivora, which are represented by the timid puma (_Felis + concolor_), three species of wildcats, three of the fox, two of + _Conepatus_, a weasel, sea-otter and six species of seal. The rodents + are the most numerously represented order, which includes the _coypu_ + or nutria (_Myopotamus coypus_), the chinchilla (_Chinchilla + laniger_), the tuco-tuco (_Ctenomys brasiliensis_), a rabbit, and 12 + species of mice--in all some 12 genera and 25 species. The coypu, + sometimes called the South American beaver, inhabits the river-banks, + and is highly prized for its fur. It is also found along the + river-courses of Argentina. The ruminants are represented by a few + species only--the guanaco (_Auchenia huanaco_), _vicuna_ (_A. + vicugna_), _huemul_ (_Cervus chilensis_), which appears on the Chilean + escutcheon, and the _pudu_ deer, a small and not very numerous + species. There are two species of the Edentata, _Dasypus_ and + _Pichiciego_, the latter very rare, and one of the opossums. European + animals, such as horses, cattle, sheep, swine and goats, have been + introduced into the country and do well. Sheep-raising has also been + inaugurated with some degree of success in the vicinity of the Straits + of Magellan. The avifauna, with the exception of waterfowl, is also + limited to comparatively few species. Birds of prey are represented by + the condor, vulture, two species of the carrion-hawk (_Polyborus_), + and owl. The Chilean slopes of the Andes appear to be a favourite + haunt of the condor, where neighbouring stock-raisers suffer severe + losses at times from its attacks. The _Insessores_ are represented by + a number of species. Parrots are found as far south as Tierra del + Fuego, where Darwin saw them feeding on seeds of the Winter's bark. + Humming-birds have a similar range on this coast, one species + (_Mellisuga Kingii_) being quite numerous as far south as Tierra del + Fuego. A characteristic genus is that of _Pteroptochus_, of which + there are three or four species each characterized by some conspicuous + peculiarity. These are _P. megapodius_, called _El Turco_ by the + natives, which is noticeable for its ungainly appearance and awkward + gait; the _P. albicollis_, which inhabits barren hillsides and is + called _tapacollo_ from the manner of carrying its tail turned far + forward over its back; the _P. rubecula_, of Chiloé, a small timid + denizen of the gloomy forest, called the _cheucau_ or _chuca_, whose + two or three notes are believed by the superstitious natives to be + auguries of impending success or disaster; and an allied species + (_Hylactes Tarnii_, King) called the _guid-guid_ or barking bird, + whose cry is a close imitation of the yelp of a small dog. The + southern coast and its inland waters are frequented by several species + of petrel, among which are the _Procellaria gigantea_, whose strength + and rapacity led the Spaniards to call it _quebranta huesos_ + (breakbones), the _Puffinus cinereus_, which inhabits the inland + channels in large flocks, and an allied species (_Puffinuria + Berardii_) which inhabits the inland sounds and resembles the auk in + some particulars of habit and appearance. There are numerous species + in these sheltered channels, inlets and sounds of geese, ducks, swans, + cormorants, ibises, bitterns, red-beaks, curlew, snipe, plover and + moorhens. Conspicuous among these are the great white swan (_Cygnus + anatoides_), the black-necked swan (_Anser nigricollis_), the + antarctic goose (_Anas antarctica_) and the "race-horse" or "steamer + duck" (_Micropterus brachypterus_). + + The marine fauna is less known than the others, but it is rich in + species and highly interesting in its varied forms and + characteristics. The northern coast has no sheltered waters of any + considerable extent, and the shore slopes abruptly to a great depth, + which gives it a marine life of no special importance. In the shoal + waters about Juan Fernandez are found a species of codfish (possibly + _Gadus macrocephalus_), differing in some particulars from the + Newfoundland cod, and a large crayfish, both of which are caught for + the Valparaiso market. The sheltered waters of the broken southern + coast, however, are rich in fish and molluscs, especially in mussels, + limpets and barnacles, which are the principal food resource of the + nomadic Indian tribes of those regions. A large species of barnacle, + _Balanus psittacus_, is found in great abundance from Concepción to + Puerto Montt, and is not only eaten by the natives, by whom it is + called _pico_, but is also esteemed a great delicacy in the markets of + Valparaiso and Santiago. Oysters of excellent flavour are found in + the sheltered waters of Chiloé. The Cetacea, which frequent these + southern waters, are represented by four species--two dolphins and the + sperm and right whale--and the _Phocidae_ by six species, one of which + (_Phoca lupina_) differs but little from the common seal. Another + species (_Macrorhinus leoninus_), popularly known as the sea-elephant, + is provided with short tusks and a short trunk and sometimes grows to + a length of 20 ft. Still another species, the sea-lion (_Otaria + jubata_), furnishes the natives of Tierra del Fuego with an acceptable + article of food, but like the _Phoca lupina_ it is becoming scarce. + + Of Reptilia Chile is singularly free, there being recorded only eleven + species--five saurians, four ophidians, one frog and one toad--but a + more thorough survey of the uninhabited territories of the south may + increase this list. There are no alligators in the streams, and the + tropical north has very few lizards. There are no poisonous snakes in + the country, and, in a region so filled with lakes and rivers as the + rainy south, only two species of batrachians. The insect life of these + strangely associated regions is likewise greatly restricted by adverse + climatic conditions, a considerable part of the northern desert being + absolutely barren of animal and vegetable life, while the climate of + Tierra del Fuego and the southern coast is highly unfavourable to + terrestrial animal life, for which reason comparatively few species + are to be found. Writing of a journey inland from Iquique, Charles + Darwin says (_Journal of Researches, &c._, p. 444): "Excepting the + _Vultur aura_, ... I saw neither bird, quadruped, reptile, nor + insect." Of his entomological collection in Tierra del Fuego, which + was not large, the majority were of Alpine species. Moreover, he did + not find a single species common to that island and Patagonia. These + conditions subsist with but few modifications, if any, from the + Straits northward to the 42nd parallel, the extreme humidity, abnormal + rainfall and dark skies being unfavourable to the development of + insect life, while the Andes interpose an impassable barrier to + migration from the countries of the eastern coast. The only venomous + species to be found in central Chile is that of a spider which + frequents the wheat fields in harvest time. + +_Population._--The population of Chile is largely concentrated in the +twelve agricultural provinces between and including Coquimbo and +Concepción, though the next six provinces to the south, of more recent +general settlement, have received some foreign immigrants, and are +rapidly growing. In the desert provinces the population is limited to +the mining communities, and to the ports and supply stations maintained +for their support and for the transport, smelting and export of their +produce. The province of Atacama has, in addition to its mining +population, a considerable number of agriculturists located in a few +irrigated river valleys, which class is largely increased in the +adjoining province of Coquimbo. The more northern provinces, however, +maintain their populations without the support of such small cultivated +areas. In the southern territories unfavourable conditions of a widely +different character prevail, and the population is restricted to a few +small settlements and some nomadic tribes of Indians. Here, however, +there are localities where settlements could be maintained by ordinary +means and the population could be greatly increased. Since the census of +1895 the population of Punta Arenas has been largely increased by the +discovery of gold in the vicinity. The twelve provinces first mentioned, +which include the celebrated "Vale of Chile," comprise only 17% of the +area of the republic, but the census of 1895 showed that 72% of the +total population was concentrated within their borders. The four desert +provinces north of Coquimbo had only 8% of the total, and the seven +provinces and one territory south of Concepción had 20%. According to +the census of 1895 the total population was 2,712,145, to which the +census officials added 10% to cover omissions. This shows an increase +slightly over 7% for the preceding decennial period, the population +having been returned as 2,527,320 in 1885. The census returns of 1875 +and 1866 gave respectively 2,068,447 and 2,084,943, showing an actual +decrease in population. During these years Chile held the anomalous +position of a country spending large sums annually to secure immigrants +while at the same time her own labouring classes were emigrating by +thousands to the neighbouring republics to improve their condition. +Writing in 1879, a correspondent of _The Times_[4] stated that this +emigration then averaged 8000 a year, and in bad times had reached as +many as 30,000 in one year. The condition of the Chilean labourer has +been much improved since then, however, and Chile no longer suffers so +serious a loss of population. In 1895, the foreigners included in the +Chilean population numbered 72,812, of which 42,105 were European, +29,687 American, and 1020 Asiatic, &c. According to nationality there +were 8269 Spanish, 7809 French, 7587 Italian, 7049 German, 6241 British, +1570 Swiss, 1490 Austro-Hungarian, 13,695 Peruvian, 7531 Argentine, 6654 +Bolivian, 701 American (U.S.), 797 Chinese. According to residence, +1,471,792 were inhabitants of rural districts, and 1,240,353 of towns. +The registration of births, marriages and deaths is compulsory since the +1st of January 1885, but the provisions of the law are frequently +eluded. Notwithstanding the healthiness of the climate, the death-rate +is high, especially in the large cities. In Santiago and Valparaiso the +death-rate sometimes rises to 42 and 60 per 1000, and infant mortality +is very high, being 73% of the births in some of the provincial towns. +This unfavourable state of affairs is due to the poverty, ignorance and +insanitary habits of the lower classes. The government has made repeated +efforts to secure immigrants from Europe, but the lands set apart for +immigrant settlers are in the forested provinces south of the Bio-Bio, +where the labour and hardships involved in establishing a home are +great, and the protection of the law against bandits and criminal +assaults is weak. The Germans have indeed settled in many parts of these +southern provinces since 1845, and by keeping together have succeeded in +building up several important towns and a large number of prosperous +agricultural communities. One German authority (Hüber) estimates the +number of Germans in two of these provinces at 5000. The arrivals, +however, have been on the whole discouragingly small, the total for the +years 1901-1905 being only 14,000. + +Although Chileans claim a comparatively small admixture with the native +races, it is estimated that the whites and creoles of white extraction +do not exceed 30 to 40% of the population, while the _mestizos_ form +fully 60%. This estimate is unquestionably conservative, for there has +been no large influx of European blood to counterbalance the race +mixtures of earlier times. The estimated number of Indians living within +the boundaries of Chile is about 50,000, which presumably includes the +nomadic tribes of the Fuegian archipelago, whose number probably does +not reach 5000. The semi-independent Araucanians, whose territory is +slowly being occupied by the whites, are concentrated in the eastern +forests of Bio-Bio, Malleco and Cautin, all that remains to them of the +Araucania which they so bravely and successfully defended for more than +three centuries. Their number does not much exceed 40,000, which is +being steadily reduced by drunkenness and epidemic diseases. A small +part of these Indians live in settled communities and include some very +successful stock-raisers, but the greater part live apart from +civilization. There are also some remnants of tribes in the province of +Chiloé, which inhabit the island of that name, the Chonos and Guaytecas +archipelagoes and the adjacent mainland, who have the reputation of +being good boatmen and fishermen; and there are remnants of a people +called Changos, on the desert coast, and traces of Calchaqui blood in +the neighbouring Andean foothills. + +There is a wide difference in every respect between the upper or ruling +class and the common people. The former includes the landed proprietors, +professional men and a part of those engaged in commercial and +industrial pursuits. These educated classes form only a small minority +of the population. Many of them, especially the landed proprietors, are +descendants of the original Spanish settlers and are celebrated for +their politeness and hospitality. The political control of the republic +was secured to them by the constitution of 1833. The common people were +kept in ignorance and practically in a state of hopeless servitude. They +were allowed to occupy small leaseholds on the large estates on +condition of performing a certain amount of work for the landlord. Every +avenue toward the betterment of their condition was practically closed. +The condition of the itinerant labourers (_peons_) was still worse, the +wages paid them being hardly sufficient to keep them from starvation. +The Chilean _peon_, however, comes from a hardy stock, and has borne all +these hardships with a fortitude and patience which go far to +counterbalance his faults. Recent reforms in education, &c., together +with the growth of manufacturing industries, are slowly leading to +improvements in the material condition of the common people. + +The political organization of the country has not been favourable to the +development of artistic or scientific tastes, though Chile has produced +political leaders, statesmen and polemical writers in abundance. +Historical literature has been enriched by the works of Diego Barros +Arana, Benjamin Vicuña Mackenna, Miguel Luis Amunátegui, Carlos Walker +Martinez, and others. One of the earliest native histories of Chile was +that of Abbé J. Ignacio Molina, an English translation of which has long +been a recognized authority; it is full of errors, however, and should +be studied only in connexion with modern standard works. Among these +must be included Claude Gay's monumental work, _Historia General de +Chile_, and Sir C.R. Markham's admirable studies on special parts of the +subject. In science, nearly all the important work has been done by +foreigners, among whom are Charles Darwin, Claude Gay, Eduard Pöppig, +Rudolph A. Philippi and Hans Steffen, who deserves special mention for +his excellent geographical work in the southern Andes. + + _Divisions and Towns._--Chile contains 23 provinces and one territory, + which are subdivided into 75 departments, 855 subdelegations and 3068 + districts. The territory north of the Bio-Bio was originally divided + into 13 provinces, besides which the Spaniards held Chiloé, Juan + Fernandez and Valdivia, the latter being merely a military outpost. + During the years which have elapsed since the War of Independence the + territory south of the Bio-Bio has been effectively occupied and + divided into six provinces, Chiloé and the neighbouring islands and + mainland to the east became a province, and four provinces in the + northern deserts were acquired from Bolivia and Peru. In addition to + this, Chile claimed Patagonia and the adjacent islands, and has + finally secured not only the forested strip of territory west of the + Andes, but also a large piece of the Patagonian mainland, south of + lat. 52° S., the larger part of Tierra del Fuego, and all the western + islands. This extensive region, comprising an area of 71,127 sq. m., + has been provisionally organized as the territory of Magallanes. For a + list of provinces, their areas, reduced from official returns, their + populations, and the names and populations of their capitals, see the + bottom of this page. + + +------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+-------------------+ + | | | | | Population. | + | Provinces. | Area. |Population.| Capitals. +---------+---------+ + | | | Census | | Census | Est. | + | | | 1895. | | 1895. | 1902. | + +------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+---------+---------+ + |Tacna | 9,251 | 24,160 |Tacna | 9,418 | 11,504 | + |Tarapacá | 18,131 | 89,751 |Iquique | 33,031 | 42,788 | + |Antofagasta | 46,611 | 44,035 |Antofagasta | 13,530 | 16,084 | + |Atacama | 30,729 | 59,713 |Copiapo | 9,301 | 8,991 | + |Coquimbo | 13,461 | 160,898 |La Serena | 15,712 | 19,536 | + |Aconcagua | 5,487 | 113,165 |San Felipe | 11,313 | 11,660 | + |Valparaiso | 1,953 | 220,756 |Valparaiso | 122,447 | 142,282 | + |Santiago | 5,665 | 415,636 |Santiago | 256,403 | 332,059 | + |O'Higgins | 2,342 | 85,277 |Rancagua | 6,665 | 7,133 | + |Colchagua | 3,856 | 157,566 |San Fernando | 7,447 | 8,164 | + |Curicó | 2,978 | 103,242 |Curicó | 12,669 | 14,340 | + |Talca | 3,840 | 128,961 |Talca | 33,232 | 42,766 | + |Lináres | 3,942 | 101,858 |Lináres | 7,331 | 7,256 | + |Maule | 2,475 | 119,791 |Cauquenes | 8,574 | 9,895 | + |Nuble | 3,407 | 152,935 |Chillan | 28,738 | 36,382 | + |Concepción | 3,252 | 188,190 |Concepción | 39,837 | 49,351 | + |Arauco | 2,458 | 59,237 |Lebú | 2,784 | 3,178 | + |Bio-Bio | 5,246 | 88,749 |Los Angeles | 7,868 | 7,777 | + |Malleco | 2,973 | 98,032 |Angol | 7,056 | 7,638 | + |Cautin | 5,832 | 78,221 |Temuco | 7,078 | 9,699 | + |Valdivia | 8,649 | 60,687 |Valdivia | 8,060 | 9,704 | + |Llanquihue | 45,515 | 78,315 |Puerto Montt | 3,480 | 4,140 | + |Chiloé | 8,593 | 77,750 |Ancud | 3,182 | 3,787 | + |Magallanes (Ter.) | 71,127 | 5,170 |Punta Arenas | 3,227 | 8,327 | + | +--------+-----------+ | | | + |Total, official | 307,774| 2,712,145 | | | | + |Total according to| | | | | | + | Gotha computation| 293,062| | | | | + |With 10% added for| | | | | | + | omissions | | 2,983,359 | | | | + |Official estimate | | | | | | + | for 1902 | | 3,173,783 | | | | + +------------------+--------+-----------+-------------+---------+---------+ + + In addition to the provincial capitals there are few towns of + importance. Among these may be mentioned:-- + + +------------------+---------------------+ + | | Population. | + | +----------+----------+ + | | 1895. |Est. 1902.| + +------------------+----------+----------+ + | Arica | 2,853 | 2,824 | + | Pisagua | 3,635 | 4,720 | + | Taltal | 5,834 | 6,574 | + | Tocopilla | 3,383 | 4,752 | + | Vallenar | 5,052 | 5,199 | + | Coquimbo | 7,322 | 8,165 | + | Ovalle | 5,565 | 5,772 | + | Los Andes (Santa | | | + | Rosa) | 5,504 | 6,854 | + | Quillota | 9,621 | 9,876 | + | Vina del Mar | 10,651 | ... | + | Melipilla | 4,286 | 5,023 | + | Rengo | 6,463 | 7,232 | + | Vichuquen | 826 | 3,714 | + | Molina | 3,609 | 3,222 | + | Parral | 8,586 | 10,219 | + | Constitución | 6,400 | 6,453 | + | San Carlos | 7,051 | 6,579 | + | Coronel | 4,575 | 5,959 | + | Lota | 9,797 | ... | + | Talcahuano | 10,431 | 13,499 | + | El Tomé | 3,977 | 6,189 | + | Arauco | 3,008 | 3,334 | + | Cañete | 2,000 | 2,552 | + | Mulchen | 4,268 | 4,332 | + | Traiguen | 5,732 | 7,099 | + | Victoria | 6,989 | 10,002 | + | La Unión | 2,830 | 3,908 | + | Osorno | 4,667 | 5,888 | + | Castro (Chiloé) | 1,035 | 2,166 | + +------------------+----------+----------+ + + The population is not concentrated in large cities, but is well + distributed through the cultivated parts of the country. The large + number of small towns, important as ports, market towns, or + manufacturing centres, is a natural result. Many of the foregoing + towns are only villages in size, but their importance is not to be + measured in this way. Arica is one of the oldest ports on the coast, + and has long been a favoured port for Bolivian trade because the + passes through the Cordilleras at that point are not so difficult. + Moreover, the railway from Arica to La Paz will still further add to + its importance, though it may not greatly increase its population. + Another illustration is that of Vichuquen, province of Curicó, + situated on a tide-water lake on the coast, which is the centre of a + large salt-making industry. Still another instance is that of Castro, + the oldest settlement and former capital of Chiloé, which after a + century of decay is increasing again through the efforts to develop + the industries of that island. + + _Communications._--Railway construction in Chile dates from 1850, when + work was begun on a short line between Copiapó and the port of + Caldera, in the Atacama desert region. Since then lines have been + built by private companies from the coast at several points to inland + mining centres. One of these, running from Antofagasta to the + Caracoles district, was afterwards extended to Oruro, Bolivia, and has + become a commercial route of international importance, with a total + length of 574 m., 224 of which are in Chile. It should be remembered + that many of these railway enterprises of the desert region originated + at a time when the territory belonged to Bolivia and Peru. The first + railway to be constructed in central Chile was the government line + from Valparaiso to Santiago, 115 m. in length, which was opened to + traffic in 1863. About the same time the government began the + construction of a longitudinal trunk line running southward from + Santiago midway between the Andes and the Coast range, and connecting + with all the provincial capitals and prominent ports. This is the only + railway "system" it is possible for Chile to have. The civil war of + 1891 called attention to the need of a similar inland route through + the northern provinces. A branch of the Valparaiso and Santiago line + runs to Los Andes, and its extension across the Andes connects with + the Argentine lines from Buenos Aires to Mendoza and the Chilean + frontier--all sections together forming a transcontinental route about + 850 m. in length. The Transandine section of this route crosses the + Cordillera through the Uspallata pass. A further Transandine scheme + provides for a line through the Pino Hachado pass (38° 30' to 39° S.), + and the Argentine Great Southern Company obtained a concession in 1909 + to extend its Neuquen line to the frontier of Chile. The railways of + the republic had a total mileage at the end of 1906 of 2950 m., of + which 1495 m. were owned by the state, and 1455 m. belonged to private + companies. The private lines are located in the northern provinces and + are for the most part built and maintained for the transportation of + mining products and supplies. + + In addition to her railway lines Chile has about 21,000 m. of public + roads of all descriptions, 135 m. of tramways, and 705 m. of navigable + river channels, besides a very considerable mileage of lake and coast + navigation. Telegraphic communication between all the important towns + of the republic, initiated in 1855 with a line between Santiago and + Valparaiso, is maintained by the state, which in 1903 owned 9306 m. of + line in a total of 11,080 m. Cable communication with Europe by way of + Buenos Aires was opened in 1875, and is now maintained by means of two + underground cables across the Andes, 32 m. in length. A West Coast + cable also connects with Europe and North American states by way of + Panama. There were 15,853 m. of telephone wires in the republic in + 1906, all the principal cities having an admirable service. Modern + postal facilities date from 1853. The Chilean post-office is + administered by a director-general at Santiago, and has a high degree + of efficiency and liberality, compared with those of other South + American states. The postal rates are low, and newspapers and other + periodical publications circulate free, as a means of popular + instruction. The postal revenues for 1904 amounted to 2,775,730 pesos + and the expenditures to 2,407,753 pesos. Chile is a member of the + International Postal Union, and has arrangements with the principal + commercial nations for the exchange of postal money values. + + The sea has been the only means of communication with distant parts of + the country, and must continue to be the chief transportation route. + There are said to be 56 ports on the Chilean coast, of which only 12 + are prominent in foreign trade. Many of the so-called ports are only + landing-places on an open coast, others are on shallow bays and + obstructed river-mouths, and some are little-known harbours among the + channels and islands of the south. The prosperity of Chile is + intimately connected with her ocean-going trade, and no elaborate + system of national railway lines and domestic manufactures can ever + change this relationship. These conditions should have developed a + large merchant marine, but the Chileans are not traders and are + sailors only in a military sense. In 1905 their ocean-going merchant + marine consisted of only 148 vessels, of which 54 were steamers of + 42,873 tons net, and 94 were sailing vessels of 39,346 tons. Nineteen + of the 54 steamers belonged to a subsidized national line whose West + Coast service once extended to San Francisco, California, and a large + part of the others belongs to a Lota coal-mining and copper-smelting + company which employs them in carrying coal to the northern ports and + bringing back metallic ores for smelting. The navigable rivers and + inland lakes employ a number of small steamers. The foreign commerce + of the republic is carried chiefly by foreign vessels, and the + coasting trade is also open to them. Three or four foreign companies + maintain a regular steamship service to Valparaiso and other Chilean + ports. The shipping entries at all Chilean ports during the year 1904, + both national and foreign, numbered 11,756, aggregating 17,723,138 + tons, and the clearances 11,689, aggregating 17,370,763 tons. Very + nearly one-half this tonnage was British, a little over 18% German, + and about 29% Chilean. + + _Commerce._--In the aggregate, the commerce of Chile is large and + important; in proportion to population it is exceeded among South + American states only by Argentina, Uruguay and the Guianas. Unlike + those states, it depends in great part on mining and its allied + occupations. The values of imports and exports (including bullion, + specie and re-exports) in pesos of 18d. during the five years + 1901-1905 were as follows:-- + + Imports. Exports. + Year. pesos. pesos. + + 1901 139,300,766 171,844,976 + 1902 132,428,204 185,879,965 + 1903 149,081,524 210,442,144 + 1904 164,874,928 232,493,598 + 1905 188,596,418 265,209,192 + + The principal imports comprise live animals, fish, coffee, maté (_Ilex + paraguayensis_), tea, sugar, wood and its manufactures, structural + iron and steel, hardware and machinery, railway and telegraph + supplies, lime and cement, glass and earthenware, cotton, woollen and + silk manufactures, coal, petroleum, paints, &c. Import duties are + imposed at the rates of 60, 35, 15, 5 and 25%, and certain classes of + merchandise are admitted free. The higher rates are designed chiefly + to protect national industries, while wines, liquors, cigars and + tobacco are admitted at the lowest rate. The 25% rate covers all + articles not mentioned in the schedules, which number 2260 items. The + duty free list includes raw cotton, certain descriptions of live + animals, agricultural machinery and implements, metal wire, fire + engines, structural iron and steel, and machinery in general. The + tariff is nominally _ad valorem_, but as the rates are imposed on + fixed official valuations it is essentially specific. The duties on + imports in 1905 amounted to 91,321,860 pesos, and in 1906 to + 103,507,556 pesos. The principal exports are gold, silver, copper + (bars, regulus and ores), cobalt and its ores, lead and its ores, + vanadium ores, manganese, coal, nitrate of soda, borate of lime, + iodine, sulphur, wheat and guano. Nitrate of soda forms from 70 to 75% + of the exports, and the royalty received from it is the principal + source of national revenue, yielding about £4,000,000 per annum. In + 1904 mineral products made up fully seven-eighths of the exports, + while agricultural and pastoral products did not quite reach + one-eighth. + + _Agriculture._--According to the census returns about one-half the + population of Chile lives in rural districts, and is engaged nominally + in agricultural pursuits. What may be called central Chile is + singularly well adapted to agriculture. The northern part of this + region has a sub-tropical climate, light rainfall and a long, dry + summer, but with irrigation it produces a great variety of products. + Alfalfa, or lucerne (_Medicago sativa_), is grown extensively for + shipment to the mining towns of the desert provinces. There were no + less than 108,384 acres devoted to it in 1904, a considerable part of + which was in the irrigated river valleys of Coquimbo and Aconcagua. + Considerable attention is also given to fruit cultivation in these + subtropical provinces, where the orange, lemon, fig, melon, pineapple + and banana are produced with much success. Some districts, especially + in Coquimbo, have gained a high reputation for the excellence of their + preserved fruits. The vine is cultivated all the way from Atacama and + Coquimbo, where excellent raisins are produced, south to Concepción, + where some of the best wines of Chile are manufactured. In 1904 there + were 93,370 acres devoted to grape production in this region, the + product for that year being 30,184,704 gallons of wine and 212,366 + gallons of brandy. The universal beverage of the people--_chicha_--is + made from Indian corn. Although wheat is produced in the northern part + of this region, it is grown with greater success in the south, where + the rainfall is heavier and the average temperature is lower. There + were 1,044,025 acres devoted to this cereal in 1903, which produced + 17,910,614 bushels, or an average of 17 bushels (of 60 lb) to the + acre. In 1904 the production was increased to 19,999,324 bushels, but + in 1905 it fell off to 15,771,477 bushels. At one time Chile supplied + Argentina and the entire West Coast as far north as California with + wheat, but Argentina and California have become wheat producers and + exporters, and Chile has been driven from all her old consuming + markets. Great Britain is now her best customer, and Brazil takes a + small quantity for milling mixtures. Chile has been badly handicapped + by her crude methods of cultivation, but these are passing away and + modern methods are taking their place. Formerly wheat was grown + chiefly in the region of long rainless summers, and the ripened grain + was thrown upon uncovered earth floors and threshed by horses driven + about over the straw, but this antiquated process was not suited to + the climate and enterprise of the more southern provinces, and the + modern threshing-machine has been introduced. Barley is largely + produced, chiefly for home consumption. Maize (Indian corn) is grown + in every part of Chile except the rainy south where the grain cannot + ripen, and is a principal article of food. The green maize furnishes + two popular national dishes, _choclos_ and _humitas_, which are eaten + by both rich and poor. Potatoes also are widely cultivated, but the + humid regions of the south, particularly from Valdivia to Chiloé, + produce the greatest quantity. The total annual production exceeds + three million bushels. The kidney bean (_Phaseolus vulgaris_) is + another staple product in every part of the country, and is perhaps + the most popular article of food among all classes of Chileans. Peas + are largely cultivated south of the Maule. Walnuts have become another + important product and are exported, the average annual produce being + 48,000 to 50,000 bushels. The olive was introduced from Spain in + colonial times and is widely distributed through the north central + provinces, but its economic importance is not great. Of the European + fruits introduced into the southern provinces, the apple has been the + most successful. It grows with little care and yields even better than + in its original home. The peach, apricot, plum, quince and cherry are + also cultivated with success. Wild strawberries are found on both + sides of the Andes; the cultivated varieties are unsurpassed, + especially those of the province of Concepción. + + The pastoral industries of Chile have been developed chiefly for the + home market. The climate is admirably suited to cattle-raising, as the + winters are mild and pasture is to be found throughout the whole year, + but the proximity of the Argentine pampas is fatal to its profitable + development. The government has been trying to promote cattle-breeding + by levying duties (as high as 16 pesos a head) on cattle imported from + Argentina, but with no great success. The importation, which formerly + numbered about 140,000 per annum, still numbers not far from 100,000 + head. There are some districts in central Chile where cattle-raising + is the principal occupation, but the long dry summers limit the + pasturage on the open plains and prevent the development which perhaps + would otherwise result. As in Argentina, beef is generally dried in + the sun to make _charqui_ (jerked beef), in which form it is exported + to the desert provinces. Horse and mule breeding are carried on to a + limited extent, and since the opening of the far South more attention + has been given to sheep. Goats and swine are raised in small numbers + on the large estates, but in Chiloé swine-raising is one of the chief + occupations of the people. Some attention has been given to the + production of butter and cheese, but the industry has attained no + great importance. A new industry which has made noteworthy progress, + however, is that of bee-keeping, which is greatly favoured by the mild + climate and the long season and abundance of flowers. + + _Manufactures._--The manufacturing interests of Chile have become + influential enough to force a high tariff policy upon the country. + They have been restricted principally to articles of necessity--food + preparations, beverages, textiles and wearing apparel, leather and + leatherwork, woodwork, pottery, chemicals, ironware, &c. In earlier + days, when Chile had less competition in the production of wheat, + flour mills were to be found everywhere in the wheat-producing + provinces, and flour was one of the leading exports. Concepción, + Talca, and other provincial capitals developed important milling + industries, which were extended to all the chief towns of the newer + provinces south of the Bio-Bio. There are over 500 large flour mills + in Chile, the greater part of which are equipped with modern + roller-process machinery. The development of the coal deposits in the + provinces of Concepción and Arauco has made possible other industries + besides those of smelting mineral ores, and numerous small + manufacturing establishments have resulted, especially in Santiago, + Valparaiso, Copiapó and other places where no permanent water power + exists. Tanning leather is an important industry, especially in the + south, some of the Chilean trees, notably the _algarrobilla_ + (_Balsamocarpon brevifolium_) and _lingue_ (_Persea lingue_) being + rich in tannin. To provide a market for the leather produced, + factories have been established for the manufacture of boots and + shoes, harness and saddles, and under the protection of a high tariff + are doing well. Brewing and distilling have made noteworthy progress, + the domestic consumption of their products being very large. The + breweries are generally worked by Germans and are situated chiefly in + the south, though there are large establishments in Santiago and + Valparaiso. Small quantities of their products are exported. Furniture + and carriage factories, cooperages, and other manufactories of wood + are numerous and generally prosperous. There are likewise a large + number of factories for canning and preserving fruits and vegetables. + Foundries and machine shops have been established, especially for the + manufacture of railway material. The sugar beet has been added to the + productions of Chile, and with it the manufacture on a small scale of + beet sugar. There is one large refinery at Viña del Mar, however, + which imports raw cane sugar from Peru for refining. The manufacture + of textiles is carried on at Santiago and El Tomé, and numerous small + factories are devoted to clothing of various descriptions. The great + mining industries have led to a noteworthy development in the + production of chemicals, and a considerable number of factories are + engaged in the production of pharmaceutical preparations, perfumeries, + soaps, candles, &c. + + _Mining_.--The most important of all the national industries, however, + is that of mining. In 1903 there were 11,746 registered mines, on + which mining dues were paid, the aggregate produce being valued at + 178,768,170 pesos. These mines gave employment to 46,592 labourers, of + whom 24,445 were employed by the nitrate companies, 13,710 in various + metalliferous mines, 6437 in coal mines, and 2000 in other mines. Gold + is found in nearly all the provinces from Antofagasta to Concepción, + and in Llanquihue, Chiloé and Magallanes territory, but the output is + not large. There are a great many placer washings, among which are + some extensive deposits near the Straits of Magellan. Silver is found + principally on the elevated slopes and plateaus of the Andes in the + desert provinces of the north. The second most important mining + industry in Chile, however, is that of copper, which is found in the + provinces of Antofagasta, Atacama, Coquimbo, Aconcagua, Valparaiso, + Santiago, O'Higgins, Colchagua, Curicó and Talca, but the richest + deposits are in the three desert provinces. Chile was once the largest + producer of copper in the world, her production in 1860-1864 being + rated at 60 to 67% of the total. Low prices afterwards caused a large + shrinkage in the output, but she is still classed among the principal + producers. Iron mining has never been developed in Chile, although + extensive deposits are said to exist. Manganese ores are mined in + Atacama and Coquimbo, and their export is large. The other metals + reported in the official returns are lead, cobalt and vanadium, of + which only small quantities are produced. Bolivian tin is exported + from Chilean ports. Among the non-metallic minerals are nitrate of + soda, borate of lime, coal, salt and sulphur, together with various + products derived from these minerals, such as iodine, sulphuric acid, + &c. Guano is classed among the mineral products and still figures as + an export, though the richest Chilean deposits were exhausted long + before the war with Peru. Of non-metallic products nitrate of soda is + by far the most important. Extensive deposits of the salt (called + _caliche_ in its crude, impure state) in the provinces of Tacna, + Tarapacá, Antofagasta and Atacama owe their existence to the rainless + character of the climate. Those of the first-named province have been + discovered since the war between Chile and Peru, and have greatly + extended the prospective life of the industry. The nitrate fields, + which lie between 50 and 100 m. from the coast and at elevations + exceeding 2000 ft. above sea-level, have been officially estimated at + 89,177 hectares (344 sq. m.) and to contain 2316 millions of metric + quintals (254,760,000 short tons). The first export of nitrates was in + 1830, and in 1884 it reached an aggregate of 550,000 tons, and in 1905 + of 1,603,140 tons. The latter figure is apparently about the + production agreed upon between the Chilean government and the nitrate + companies to prevent overproduction and a resulting decline in price. + Nearly all the _oficinas_, or working plants, are owned and operated + by British companies, and the railways of this desolate region are + generally owned by the same companies and form a part of the working + plant. Borate of lime also furnishes another important export, though + a less valuable one than nitrate of soda. Extensive deposits of borax + and common salt have been found in the same region, which with several + other products of these saline deposits, such as iodine, add + considerably to its exports. The coal deposits of Chile are found + chiefly in the provinces of Concepción and Arauco, the principal mines + being on the coast of the Bay of Arauco at Coronel and Lota. Coal is + found also in Valdivia, on the island of Chiloé, and in the vicinity + of Punta Arenas on the Straits of Magellan. Sulphur is found in the + volcanic regions of the north, but the principal mines are in the + provinces of Talca. + +The relative magnitude and value of these mineral products may be seen +in the following abstract from the official returns of 1903:-- + + +-----------------------+---------------+------------+-------------+ + | | Unit. | Quantity. | Value pesos | + | | | | (of 18d.). | + +-----------------------+---------------+------------+-------------+ + | Gold | grammes | 1,424,625 | 1,745,115 | + | Silver | " | 39,012,382 | 1,284,308 | + | Copper | kilogrs. | 29,923,132 | 21,438,397 | + | Lead | " | 70,984 | 9,097 | + | Cobalt ore | " | 284,990 | 99,695 | + | Lead and Vanadium ores| " | 2,000 | | + | Manganese ore | " | 17,110,000 | 682,400 | + | Coal | tons | 827,112 | 8,250,720 | + | Nitrates |metric quintals| 14,449,200 | 140,102,012 | + | Iodine | kilogrs. | 157,444 | 1,687,327 | + | Borates | " | 16,878,913 | 2,363,048 | + | Salt |metric quintals| 162,635 | 324,270 | + | Sulphur | kilogrs. | 3,440,642 | 337,515 | + | Sulphuric acid | " | 1,600,000 | 176,000 | + | Guano |metric quintals| 111,335 | 267,466 | + | Various | kilogrs. | 200 | 800 | + +-----------------------+---------------+------------+-------------+ + +_Government._--Chile is a centralized republic, whose government is +administered under the provisions of the constitution of 1833 and the +amendments of the 9th of August 1888, the 11th of August 1890, the 20th +of August 1890, the 22nd of December 1891, and the 7th of July 1892. +According to this constitution the sovereignty resides in the nation, +but suffrage is restricted to married citizens over twenty-one and +unmarried citizens over twenty-five years of age, not in domestic +service, who can read and write, and who are the owners of real estate, +or who have capital invested in business or industry, or who receive +salaries or incomes proportionate in value to such real estate as +investment; and as 75% of the population is classed as illiterate, and a +great majority of the labouring classes is landless, badly paid, and +miserably poor, it is apparent that political sovereignty in Chile is +the well-guarded possession of a small minority. The dominant element in +this minority is the rich landholding interest, and the constitution and +the laws of the first half-century were framed for the special +protection of that interest. + +The supreme powers of government are vested in three distinct +branches--legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative power is +exercised by a national congress, which consists of two chambers---a +senate of 32 members, and a chamber of deputies of 94 members. The +membership of the lower house is in the proportion of one deputy for +each 30,000 of the departmental population, and each fraction over +15,000; and the senate is entitled to one-third the membership of the +chamber. The senators are elected by provinces and by a direct +cumulative vote, and hold office for six years, one-half of the senate +being renewed every three years. The deputies are elected by departments +and by a direct cumulative vote, and hold office for three years. Both +senators and deputies must have reached the age of thirty-six, must have +a specified income, and are required to serve without salary. A +permanent committee of 14 members represents the two chambers during the +congressional recess and exercises certain supervisory and advisory +powers in the administration of public affairs. Congress convenes each +year on the 1st of June and sits until the 1st of September, but the +president may prorogue an ordinary session for a period of 50 days, and +with the consent of the council of state may convene it in extraordinary +session. Congress has the privilege of giving or withholding its +confidence in the acts of the government. + +The executive is a president who is elected for a term of five years and +is ineligible for the next succeeding term. He is chosen by electors, +who are elected by departments in the manner prescribed for deputies and +in the proportion of three electors for each deputy. These elections are +held on the 25th of June in the last year of a presidential term, the +electors cast their votes on the 25th of July, and the counting takes +place in a joint session of the two chambers of congress on the 30th of +August, congress in joint session having the power to complete the +election when no candidate has been duly chosen by the electors. The +formal installation of the president takes place on the 18th of +September, the anniversary of the declaration of national independence. +In addition to the prerogatives commonly invested in his office, the +president is authorized to supervise the judiciary, to nominate +candidates for the higher ecclesiastical offices, to intervene in the +enforcement of ecclesiastical decrees, papal bulls, &c., to exercise +supervisory police powers, and to appoint the intendants of provinces +and the governors of departments, who in turn appoint the sub-delegates +and inspectors of subordinate political divisions. The president, who is +paid £2250 per annum, must be native-born, not less than thirty years of +age, and eligible for election to the lower house. He is assisted and +advised by a cabinet of six ministers whose departments are: interior, +foreign affairs, worship and colonization, justice and public +instruction, war and marine, finance, industry and public works. In case +of a vacancy in the presidential office, the minister of interior +becomes the "vice-president of the republic" and discharges the duties +of the executive office until a successor can be legally elected. A +council of state of 12 members, consisting of the president, 6 members +appointed by congress and 5 by the president, has advisory functions, +and its approval is required in many executive acts and appointments. + +The provinces are administered by _intendentes_, and the departments by +_gobernadores_, both appointees of the national executive. The +sub-delegacies are governed by _sub-delegados_ appointed by the +governors, and the districts by _inspectores_ appointed by the +sub-delegates. Directly and indirectly; therefore, the administration of +all these political divisions is in the hands of the president, who, in +like manner, makes and controls the appointments of all judicial +functionaries, subject, however, to receiving recommendations of +candidates from the courts and to submitting appointments to the +approval of the council of state. This gives the national executive +absolute control of all administrative matters in every part of the +republic. The police force also is a national organization under the +immediate control of the minister of interior, and the public prosecutor +in every department is a representative of the national government. +There is no legislative body in any of these political divisions, nor +any administrative official directly representing the people, with this +exception: under the law of the 22nd of December 1891, municipalities, +or communes, are created and invested with certain specified powers of +local government affecting local police services, sanitation, local +improvements, primary instruction, industrial and business regulations, +&c.; they are authorized to borrow money for sanitary improvements, +road-making, education, &c., and to impose certain specified taxes for +their support; these municipalities elect their own _alcaldes_, or +mayors, and municipal councils, the latter having legislative powers +within the limits of the law mentioned. + + _Justice._--The judicial power consists of a Supreme Court of Justice + of seven members located in the national capital, which exercises + supervisory and disciplinary authority over all the law courts of the + republic; six courts of appeal, in Tacna, Serena, Valparaiso, + Santiago, Talca and Concepción; tribunals of first instance in the + department capitals; and minor courts, or justices of the peace, in + the sub-delegacies and districts. The jury system does not exist in + Chile, and juries are unknown except in cases where the freedom of the + press has been abused. All trials, therefore, are heard by one or more + judges, and appeals may be taken from a lower to a higher court. The + government is represented in each department by a public prosecutor. + The police officials, who are under the direct control of the + minister of interior, also exercise some degree of judicial authority. + This force is essentially military in its organization, and consisted + in 1901 of 500 officers, 934 non-commissioned officers and 5400 police + soldiers. Small forces of local policemen are supported by various + municipalities. The judges of the higher courts are appointed by the + national executive, and those of the minor tribunals by the federal + official governing the political division in which they are located. + + _Army_.--For military purposes the republic is divided into five + districts, the northern desert provinces forming the first, the + central provinces as far south as the Bio-Bio the second and third, + and the southern provinces and territory the fourth and fifth. Large + sums of money have been expended in arms, equipment, guns and + fortifications. The army is organized on the German model and has been + trained by European officers who have been employed both for the + school and regiment. Though the president and minister of war are the + nominal heads of the army, its immediate direction is concentrated in + a general staff comprising six service departments, at the head of + which is a chief of staff. After the triumph of the revolutionists in + the civil war of 1891, the army was reorganized under the direction of + Colonel Emil Körner, an accomplished German officer, who subsequently + served as chief of the general staff. In 1904 the permanent force + consisted of 12 battalions of infantry, 6 regiments of cavalry, 4 + regiments of mountain artillery, 1 regiment of horse artillery, 2 + regiments of coast artillery, and 5 companies of + engineers--aggregating 915 officers and 4757 men. To this nucleus were + added 6160 recruits, the contingent for that year of young men + twenty-one years of age compelled to serve with the colours. Under the + law of the 5th of September 1900, military service is obligatory for + all citizens between eighteen and forty-five years, all young men of + twenty-one years being required to serve a certain period with the + regular force. After this period they are transferred to the 1st + reserve for 9 years, and then to the 2nd reserve. The military rifle + adopted for all three branches of the service is the Mauser, 1895 + model, of 7 mm. calibre, and the batteries are provided with Krupp + guns of 7 and 7.5 cm. calibre. Military instruction is given in a + well-organized military school at Santiago, a war academy and a school + of military engineering. + + _Navy_.--The Chilean navy is essentially British in organization and + methods, and all its best fighting ships were built in British yards. + In 1906 the effective fighting force consisted of 1 battle ship, 2 + belted cruisers, 4 protected cruisers, 3 torpedo gunboats, 6 + destroyers and 8 modern torpedo boats. In addition to these there are + several inferior armed vessels of various kinds which bring the total + up to 40, not including transports and other auxiliaries. The + administration of the navy, under the president and minister of war + and marine, is confided to a general naval staff, called the + "Direccion jeneral de la Armada," with headquarters at Valparaiso. Its + duties also include the military protection of the ports, the + hydrographic survey of the coast, and the lighthouse service. The + _personnel_ comprises about 465 officers, including those of the + staff, and 4000 petty officers and men. There is a military port at + Talcahuano, in Concepción Bay, strongly fortified, and provided with + arsenal and repair shops, a large dry dock and a patent slip. The + naval school, which occupies one of the noteworthy edifices of + Valparaiso, is attended by 90 cadets and is noted for the thoroughness + of its instruction. + + _Education_.--Under the old conservative régime very little was done + for the public school outside the larger towns. As a large proportion + of the labouring classes lived in the small towns and rural + communities, they received comparatively little attention. The + increasing influence of more liberal ideas greatly improved the + situation with reference to popular education, and the government now + makes vigorous efforts to bring its public school system within the + reach of all. The constitution provides that free instruction must be + provided for the people. School attendance is not compulsory, however, + and the gain upon illiteracy (75%) appears to be very slow. The + government also gives primary instruction to recruits when serving + with the colours, which, with the increasing employment of the people + in the towns, helps to stimulate a desire for education among the + lower classes. Education in Chile is very largely under the control of + the national government, the minister of justice and public + instruction being charged with the direction of all public schools + from the university down to the smallest and most remote primary + school. The system includes the University of Chile and National + Institute at Santiago, lyceums or high schools in all the provincial + capitals and larger towns, normal schools at central points for the + training of public school teachers, professional and industrial + schools, military schools and primary schools. Instruction in all + these is free, and under certain conditions text-books are supplied. + In the normal schools, where the pupils are trained to enter the + public service as primary teachers, not only is the tuition free, but + also books, board, lodging and everything needed in their school work. + The national university at Santiago comprises faculties of theology, + law and political science, medicine and pharmacy, natural sciences and + mathematics, and philosophy. The range of studies is wide, and the + attendance large. The National Institute at Santiago is the principal + high school of the secondary grade in Chile. There were 30 of these + high schools for males and 12 for females in 1903, with an aggregate + of 11,504 matriculated students. The normal schools for males are + located at Santiago, Chillán and Valdivia; and for females at La + Serena, Santiago and Concepción. The mining schools at Copiapó, La + Serena and Santiago had an aggregate attendance of 180 students in + 1903, and the commercial schools at Iquique and Santiago an attendance + of 214. The more important agricultural schools are located at + Santiago, Chillán, Concepción and Ancud, the Quinta Normal de + Agricultura in the national capital having a large attendance. The + School of Mechanic Arts and Trades (_Escuela de Artes y Oficios_) of + Santiago has a high reputation for the practical character of its + instruction, in which it is admirably seconded by a normal handicraft + school (Slöyd system) and a night school of industrial drawing in the + same city, and professional schools for girls in Santiago and + Valparaiso, where the pupils are taught millinery, dress-making, + knitting, embroidery and fancy needlework. The government also + maintains schools for the blind and for the deaf and dumb. The public + primary schools numbered 1961 in 1903, with 3608 teachers, 166,928 + pupils enrolled, and an average attendance of 108,582. The cost of + maintaining these schools was 4,146,574 pesos, or an average of + £2:17:3 per pupil in attendance. In addition to the public schools + there are a Roman Catholic university at Santiago, which includes law + and civil engineering among its regular courses of study; numerous + private schools and seminaries of the secondary grade, with a total of + 11,184 students of both sexes in 1903; and 506 private primary + schools, with an attendance of 29,684. The private schools usually + conform to the official requirements in regard to studies and + examinations, which facilitates subsequent admission to the university + and the obtainment of degrees; probably they do better work than the + public schools, especially in the German settlements of the southern + provinces. A Consejo de Instrucción Pública (council of public + instruction) of 14 members exercises a general supervision over the + higher and secondary schools. There are schools of music and fine arts + in Santiago. The national library at Santiago, with 116,300 volumes in + 1906, and the national observatory, are both efficiently administered. + At the beginning of the 20th century there were 41 public libraries in + the republic, including public school collections, with an aggregate + of 240,000 volumes. + + _Charities._--According to the returns of 1903 there were 88 hospitals + in the republic, which reported 79,051 admissions during the year, and + had 6215 patients under treatment at its close; 628,536 patients + received gratuitous medical assistance at the public dispensaries + during the year; there were 24 foundling hospitals with 5570 children; + and there were 3092 persons in the various _hospicios_ or asylums, and + 1478 in the imbecile asylums. + + _Religion._--The Roman Catholic religion is declared by the + constitution to be the religion of the state, and the inaugural oath + of the president pledges him to protect it. A considerable part of its + income is derived from a subsidy included in the annual budget, which + makes it a charge upon the national treasury like any other public + service. The secular supervision of this service is entrusted to a + member of the president's cabinet, known as the minister of worship + and colonization. The executive and legislative powers intervene in + the appointments to the higher offices of the Church. The greater part + of the population remains loyal to the established faith. The law of + 1865 gives the privilege of religious worship to other faiths, and the + laws of 1883 made civil marriage and the civil registry of births, + deaths and marriages obligatory, and secularized the cemeteries. Under + the reform of 1865 full religious freedom is practically accorded, and + it is provided that the services of religious organizations other than + the Roman Catholic may be held in private residences or in edifices + owned by private individuals or corporations. Of the 72,812 foreigners + residing in Chile in 1895, about 16,000 were described as Protestants. + Notwithstanding the opposition of some political elements to the + Church, the Chileans themselves may all be classed as Roman Catholics. + The ecclesiastical organization includes one archbishop, who resides + at Santiago, three bishops residing at La Serena, Concepción and + Ancud, and two vicars residing in Antofagasta and Tarapacá. These + benefices are filled by appointments from lists of three prepared by + the council of state and sent to Rome by the president, and in the + case of an archbishop or bishop the appointment must also receive the + approval of the Senate. The Chilean clergy are drawn very largely from + the higher classes, and their social standing is much better than in + many South American states. The Church also possesses much property of + its own, and is therefore able to maintain itself on a comparatively + small subsidy from the public treasury, which was 985,910 pesos + (£73,943) in 1902. The Church maintains seminaries in all cathedral + towns, and these also receive a subsidy from the government. + + _Finance._--For a long time Chile was considered one of the poorest + states of Spanish America, but the acquisition of the rich + mineral-producing provinces of the north, together with the + development of new silver and copper mines in Atacama and Coquimbo, + largely increased her revenues and enabled her to develop other + important resources. During the decade 1831-1840 the annual revenues + averaged about 2,100,000 pesos (of 48d.), which in the decade + 1861-1870 had increased to an average of only 8,200,000 pesos--and + this during a period of considerable agricultural activity on account + of wheat exports to California and Australia. After 1870 the revenues + increased more rapidly owing to the development of new mining + industries, the receipts in 1879 amounting to 15,300,000 pesos, and in + 1882 to 28,900,000 pesos. The revenues from the captured Peruvian + nitrate fields then became an important part of the national income, + which ten years later (1902) reached an aggregate of 138,507,178 pesos + (of i8d.), of which 105,072,832 pesos were in gold. In 1906 the + receipts from all sources were estimated at 149,100,000 pesos, of + which 62,200,000 pesos gold were credited to the tax on nitrate, + 39,800,000 pesos gold to import duties, and 23,500,000 pesos currency + to railway receipts. During these years of fiscal prosperity the + country suffered much from financial crises caused by industrial + stagnation, an excessive and depreciated paper currency and political + disorder. To ensure an income that would meet its foreign engagements, + the government collected the nitrate and iodine taxes and import + duties in gold. As a considerable part of the expenditures were in + gold, the practice was adopted of keeping the gold and currency + accounts separate. In 1895 a conversion law was passed in which the + sterling value of the peso was reduced to 18d., at which rate the + outstanding paper should be redeemed. A conversion fund was also + created, and, although the government afterwards authorized two more + large issues, the beneficial effects of this law were so pronounced + that the customs regulations were modified in 1907 to permit the + payment of import duties in paper. The national revenue is derived + chiefly from the nitrate taxes, customs duties, alcohol tax, and from + railway, postal and telegraph receipts. There is no land tax, and + licence or business taxes are levied by the municipalities for local + purposes. The national expenditures are chiefly for the interest and + amortization charges on the public debt, official salaries, military + expenses in connexion with the army and navy, public works (including + railway construction, port improvements, water and sewage works), the + administration of the state railways, telegraph lines and post office, + church subsidies, public instruction and foreign representation. + + The ordinary and extraordinary receipts and expenditures for the five + years 1899-1903, in gold and currency, in pesos of 18d., were as + follows:-- + + +------+--------------------------+-----------------------------+ + | | Receipts, pesos. | Expenditures, pesos. | + | +-------------+------------+--------------+--------------+ + | | Gold. | Paper. | Gold. | Paper. | + +------+-------------+------------+--------------+--------------+ + | 1899 | 83,051,604 | 45,239.970 | 31,732,797 | 76,749,793 | + | 1900 | 89,869,178 | 46,515,102 | 30,564,821 | 82,143,742 | + | 1901 | 74,665,061 | 35,394,434 | 39,808,517 | 91,087,171 | + | 1902 | 105,072,832 | 33,434,346 | 45,093,278[5]| 89,170,087[5]| + | 1903 | 108,503,565 | 32,490,145 | 12,508,075 | 84,721,437 | + +------+-------------+------------+--------------+--------------+ + + For 1906 the expenditures were fixed at 149,000,000 pesos, and the + revenues were estimated to produce 149,100,000 pesos, which included + 62,200,000 pesos gold from nitrate taxes, 39,800,000 pesos gold and + 200,000 pesos paper from import duties, 23,500,000 pesos paper from + the state railways, 2,500,000 pesos paper from postal and telegraph + receipts, and 15,000,000 pesos gold from loans. How the revenues are + expended is shown in the estimates for 1907, in which the total + expenditures were estimated at 134,830,532 pesos paper and 58,796,780 + pesos gold, the principal appropriations being 16,192,780 pesos paper + and 99,733 gold for the war department, 10,460.781 paper and 6,315,731 + gold for the marine department, 40,934,273 paper and 16,984,671 gold + for railways, and 6,324,817 paper for public works. In addition to + these the budget of 1906 provided for gold expenditures in 1907 of + 7,000,000 pesos on sanitary works and 8,000,000 pesos on the Arica-La + Paz railway. The custom of dividing receipts and expenditures into + ordinary and extraordinary, of treating the receipts from loans as + revenue, of adding six months to the fiscal year for closing up + accounts, and of dividing receipts and expenditures into separate gold + and currency accounts, leads to much confusion and complication in the + returns, and is the cause of unavoidable discrepancies and + contradictions. + + In May 1906 the external debt of the republic aggregated £21,700,000, + including the loans of 1905 and 1906, amounting to £5,700.000, for + sanitary works and railway construction. At the same time the internal + debt was 107,000,000 pesos (£8,025,000), which increases the funded + indebtedness to £29,725,000. Like Brazil, Chile has been careful to + preserve her foreign credit, and though an average indebtedness of + about £10 per capita may seem large for a nation with so much absolute + poverty among its people, the government is finding no difficulty in + negotiating new loans, the mineral resources of the country and the + conservative instincts of the people being considered satisfactory + guarantees. According to official returns, the real-estate valuations + in 1903-1904 aggregated 1,777,217,704 pesos, of which 1,020,609,215 + pesos were in urban and 754,608,489 pesos in rural property. Of the + total returned, 1,775,217,704 is described as taxable, and 262,626,576 + pesos as non-taxable. The large and steadily increasing receipts from + import duties, amounting to 91,321,860 pesos in 1905, and 103,507,556 + pesos in 1906, appears to indicate an encouraging state of prosperity + in the country, although an average of 34½ pesos a year (nearly £2 : + 12s.), in addition to the increased prices paid for home manufactures, + seems to be a very heavy indirect tax upon so poor a people. + + _Currency._--The monetary circulation in Chile consists almost wholly + of paper currency, nominally based on a gold standard of 18d. per + peso. The conversion law of 1895 made the currency convertible at this + rate, although the gold peso was rated at 48d. previous to that date; + but the financial crisis of 1898 caused the suspension of specie + payments, and a forced issue of additional paper led to a further + postponement of conversion and the prompt withdrawal of specie from + circulation. The paper circulation consists of national and bank + issues. The former owes its existence very largely to the war with + Peru, the civil war of 1891, and the financial troubles of 1898. On + the 1st of January 1890 the national issues stood at 22,487,916 pesos, + and the bank issues at 16,679,790 pesos, making a total of 39,167,706 + pesos currency in circulation. This total was largely increased by + President Balmaceda in 1891. On the 31st of July 1898 the conversion + of paper notes, under the law of 1st June 1895, was suspended, and the + government issued 27,989,929 pesos to the banks of issue, which was + described as a loan at 2%, and raised their outstanding circulation to + 40,723,089 pesos, and at the same time issued on its own account + 17,693,890 pesos and assumed responsibility for 1,193,641 pesos which + had been illegally put into circulation before 1896. This gave an + aggregate registered circulation of 86,045,166 pesos in 1898. In 1904 + another issue of 30,000,000 pesos was authorized and the date of + conversion was still further postponed, and in 1907 a more general act + provided that the maximum paper circulation should not exceed + 150,000,000 pesos of the value of 18d. per peso, and that new issues + should be made only through the issue department and against deposits + of gold, which deposits would be returned to depositors on the + presentation of the currency issued. The redemption of this issue was + guaranteed by a conversion fund of 100,000,000 pesos, and by an + authorization to issue a loan of 50,000,000 pesos to redeem the + balance, if necessary. The conversion fund under the act of 1895 stood + at 77,282,257 pesos (£5,796,170) on the 31st of May 1907. There are 23 + joint-stock banks of issue, with an aggregate registered capital of + 40,689,665 pesos (£3,051,724). Their circulating notes are secured by + deposits in the national treasury of gold, government notes and other + approved securities. There is no state bank, though the Bank of Chile, + with its numerous agencies and its paid-up capital of 20,000,000 + pesos, may be said to fill the place of such an institution. Besides + these, there are four non-issue banks, two foreign banks and their + agencies, and three mortgage banks, with agencies at the important + provincial centres, which loan money on real-estate security and issue + interest bearing hypothecary notes to bearer. There are 8 savings + banks in the republic, whose aggregate deposits on the 31st of + December 1906 were 14,799,728 pesos. + + The monetary unit, the gold peso, does not form a part of the actual + coinage. The gold coins authorized by this law are the _condor_ of 20 + pesos, the _medio condor_, or _doblon_, of 10 pesos, and the _escudo_ + of 5 pesos. The silver coins are the _peso_ of 100 centavos and its + fractional parts of 20, 10 and 5 centavos. The bronze coins are of 2½, + 2, 1, and ½ centavos. + + The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard in + Chile, but the old Spanish standards are still widely used, especially + in handling mining and farm produce. Nitrate of soda is estimated in + Chilean quintals (101.41 lb) in the field, and metric quintals (220.46 + lb) at the port of shipment. In silver and copper mining the _marc_ (8 + oz.) is commonly used in describing the richness of the ores. Farm + produce is generally sold by the _arroba_ or _fanega_; the _vara_ is + used in lineal measurement, and the _cuadra_ is used by country people + in land measurement. (A. J. L.) + + +HISTORY. + + Inca conquest. + +Chile was the recognized name of the country from the beginning of its +known history. The land was originally inhabited by tribes of Indians, +who, though not mere savages, were far below the level of civilization +distinguishing the races of Mexico and Peru. When the country first +became known to the Spaniards in the 16th century the northern tribes +were found to be more civilized and much more submissive than those of +the south. The difference was no doubt due to the invasion and conquest +of northern Chile in the 15th century by Yupanqui, Inca of Peru, +grandfather of Atahualpa, ruler of Peru at the time of its conquest by +Pizarro. The dominion of the Incas in Chile was probably bounded by the +Rapel river (lat. 34° 10' S.), and, though their control of the country +was slight, the Peruvian influence led to the introduction of a higher +civilization, and, by weakening the power of the tribes, paved the way +for the invasion of the Spaniards. Beyond the limits of the Inca +conquest the Indians of Chile were distinguished by fierce independence +of character and by their warlike qualities. Rude and ignorant as they +were, they possessed a rough military organization; each community was +led by its _ulmen_ (chief), and in war the tribes fought together under +an elected leader (_toqui_). The name of the Araucanians, the most +powerful of the tribes, came to be applied to the whole confederation of +Indians living south of the Bio-bio river. + + + Spanish invasions. + +The first Spanish invasion of Chile took place in 1535, when Diego de +Almagro, the companion and rival of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, +marched into Chile in search of gold. Disappointed in his quest, and +meeting with obstinate resistance from the southern tribes, he returned +to Peru with his whole force in 1538. In 1540 Pizarro sent Pedro de +Valdivia to make a regular conquest and settlement of Chile. Valdivia +founded Santiago, the present capital of Chile, in February 1541, and +proceeded to build the towns of La Serena, Conceptión, Villarica, +Imperial, Valdivia and Angol, in order to secure his hold on the +country. But the Indians fought desperately for their independence, and +in 1553 a general rising of the tribes ended in the defeat and death of +Valdivia and in the destruction of most of his settlements. This was the +beginning of nearly a century of continuous warfare. As there was no +gold in the country the number of settlers was small, the loose tribal +organization of the natives made it impossible to inflict a vital defeat +on them, and the mountainous and thickly wooded country lent itself +admirably to a warfare of surprises and ambuscades. General after +general and army after army were despatched from Spain and Peru; Chile +was given a government independent of the viceroy of Lima; attack after +attack was made on the Indians, their lands were laid waste, and the +struggle was conducted with merciless ferocity: all in vain. Settlements +and forts were never free from assault and were taken and retaken; if +one Indian army was destroyed another took its place, if one _toqui_ was +killed another was chosen; when defeated, the Indians retired to their +forests, marshes and hills, recruited their forces, and fell on the +pursuing Spaniards. In 1612 an attempt was made by a Jesuit missionary +to negotiate a peace, but not till 1640 was the desperate struggle ended +by the treaty of Quillin, which left the Indians all the land south of +the Bio-bio river. Up to 1800 the peace was broken by three wars, in +1655, in 1723 and in 1766, the last ended by a treaty which actually +gave the Araucanians the right to have a minister at Santiago. + + + Colonial system. + +It was this constant warfare with the Indians and the necessity for hard +continuous work, owing to the lack of precious metals in Chile, that no +doubt helped to produce in the settlers the strength and hardihood of +character that distinguishes the Chileans among South American races. +But not unnaturally the material condition of the country was the +reverse of prosperous. The expenditure far exceeded the revenue. The +Indian warfare occupied nearly the whole attention of the governors and +much of the time of the settlers. By the Spanish colonial system the +development of manufactures was prohibited and the trade of the colony +was limited not only to Spain but to the one port of Cadiz. Till the +18th century ships were not allowed to sail round Cape Horn, so that the +Chileans had to trade indirectly through Peru and the Argentine. +Agriculture was the one resource of the colony, and wheat was grown for +export to Peru, but the land was concentrated in the hands of a few big +landowners, and the cultivation of the vine and olive was forbidden. At +the end of the 17th century Santiago was a town of poor one-storeyed +houses and had only 8000 inhabitants; the other towns, Valparaiso, +Concepción, La Serena, were only large villages. Books were not allowed +to be imported, and education was limited to such as was given here and +there by priests and monks. The Indians within the limits of the Spanish +colony were treated like slaves, and horribly mutilated to prevent their +escape; but at the same time a gradual fusion of races was taking place, +and the Chilean peasant (_peon_) of to-day is as much of Indian as of +Spanish descent. The Araucanians, however, continued to preserve their +independence; they jealously resented the introduction of Spanish +influence, and the missionary efforts of the Jesuits met with little +success. + +During the 18th century the condition of the colony was improved in many +ways. The Bourbon kings of Spain were more liberal in their colonial +policy. Merchant-ships were allowed to sail direct to Chile, trade with +France was sometimes permitted, and a large batch of hardy emigrants was +sent out from the Biscay provinces of Spain. Freed from the +preoccupation of the Indian wars, the governors gave more attention to +the general welfare of the country: a university was started in Santiago +in 1747, many towns were built about the same time, agriculture and +industries were promoted and a coasting trade grew up. In 1778 Charles +III. threw open all the ports of Spain to the colonies and allowed +freedom of trade with France. But in general the administration of the +colony was burdensome, oppressive and inefficient. The people had no +voice in the government. Ruling with the help of the Royal Audience, the +governor was absolute master of the country, and regulated the smallest +details of life. Such time as the officials could spare from the main +object of enriching themselves by extortion and corruption was given up +to endless official and religious ceremonies and to petty disputes of +etiquette and precedence. All the high posts and offices were filled by +men sent from Spain, with the result that bitter jealousy reigned +between them and the native-born colonists (_criollos_). The _criollos_ +as a rule filled the posts in the municipalities (_cabildos_), disposed +of by sale, so that when the revolution broke out the _cabildos_ +naturally became the centres of the movement. As in all Spanish +colonies, so in Chile, the Church played a large part in the public +life. Chile was divided into the two bishoprics of Santiago and +Concepción, and the Church managed to accumulate most of the wealth of +the country. At the same time the monks and Jesuits did useful work in +teaching industrial and agricultural arts, and in giving the people a +certain degree of education; but the influence of the Church was used to +bolster up the traditional narrow colonial system, and the constant +quarrels between the clergy and the secular powers often threw the +country into confusion. + +At the opening of the 19th century Chile was a colony whose resources +had hardly been touched, with a population of about 500,000 persons, of +Spanish and mixed Spanish and Indian blood: a people endowed with the +vigour of character bred by a mountainous country and a bracing climate +and by a hard struggle for existence, but ignorant through lack of +education, shut out by a narrow-minded commercial system from knowledge +of the outside world, and destitute of the character-training that free +institutions afford. + + + Struggle for independence. + +The national independence of Chile dates from the second decade of the +19th century. The revolt of England's North American colonies, and the +events of the French Revolution naturally suggested the idea of a +struggle for independence to the Spanish colonists, and the deposition +of Ferdinand VII. by Napoleon, and the ensuing disorganization of Spain, +supplied the desired opportunity. In 1809 risings took place in +Venezuela, in Ecuador, in Upper Peru and in the Argentine; the +revolutionary fever spread to Chile, and on the 18th of September 1810 +the _cabildo_ of Santiago secured the resignation of the governor and +vested his powers in an elected _Junta_ (board) of seven members. This +event was the beginning of the independence of Chile. But it was some +time before independence was fully attained. The mass of the people were +ignorant, intercourse between them was slight, and there was a strong +section attached to the old régime. The party determined on independence +was at first small, and compelled to conceal its aims till the ground +had been prepared for open decisive action. Further, there were +divisions between the patriots of Santiago and those of Concepción, and +bitter jealousies between the leaders, the chief of whom were Juan +Martinez de Rozas, José Miguel Carrera and Bernardo O'Higgins. Owing to +the apathy of the people and the enmities existing among the leaders, +the Spanish forces, sent by the viceroy of Peru to crush the +revolutionary movement, succeeded after two years' indecisive fighting +in completely defeating the patriots at Rancagua in 1814. For three +years the Spaniards maintained their hold on Chile, ruling the country +with tyrannical harshness, but in the spring of 1817 a patriot force +which had been organized at Mendoza in the Argentine by José de San +Martin, an Argentine officer, and by O'Higgins, crossed the Andes and +overwhelmed the royalists at the battle of Chacabuco. O'Higgins was +named director-general of Chile, while San Martin, realizing that the +independence of each colony depended on the Spanish being expelled from +the whole of South America, set about preparing an invasion of Peru. The +viceroy of Lima made one more effort to uphold the power of Spain in +Chile, but the army he despatched under Mariano Osorio, the victor of +Rancagua, was decisively defeated at the river Maipo on the 3rd of April +1818. By this battle the independence of Chile, formally proclaimed by +O'Higgins in the previous February, was finally secured. + + + The republic. + +The next few years witnessed the expulsion of the royalists from the +south of Chile, the equipment of a small fleet, placed under the command +of Manuel Blanco Encalada and Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald), and the +invasion of Peru by San Martin with the help of the fleet, ending in the +proclamation of Peruvian independence in 1821; though the Spanish power +was not finally broken until Bolivar's victory at Ayacucho in 1824. +Relieved from all fear of Spanish attacks from the north, the new +republic of Chile entered upon a period of internal confusion and +dissension bordering upon anarchy. As soon as the necessity for +establishing a stable government arose the lack of training in +self-government among the Chileans became painfully obvious. O'Higgins +as director-general, rightly perhaps, considered that firm orderly +government was more important than the concession of liberal +institutions, but his administration roused strong hostility, and in +1823 he was compelled to resign. From that date up to 1830 there were no +less than ten governments, while three different constitutions were +proclaimed. The nation was divided into small mutually hostile parties; +there were ecclesiastical troubles owing to the hostility of the Church +to the new republic; there were Indian risings in the south and royalist +revolts in the island of Chiloé; the expenditure exceeded the revenue, +and the employment of the old Spanish financial expedients naturally +increased the general discontent. Up to 1830 the Liberal party, which +favoured a free democratic régime, held the upper hand, but in that year +the Conservatives, backed by a military rising led by General Joaquin +Prieto, placed themselves in power after a sanguinary battle at Lircay. +Prieto was elected president in 1831, and a new constitution was drafted +and promulgated in 1833, which, with some modifications, remains the +constitution of Chile at the present time. This constitution invested +the executive with almost dictatorial powers, and the Conservatives +entered upon a long term of office. + +The aim of the Conservative policy was to secure above all a strong +administration; power was concentrated in the hands of a small circle; +public liberties were restricted and all opposition crushed by force. +Inaugurated under General Prieto's administration (1831-1841) by his +able minister Diego Portales, this policy was continued by his +successors General Manuel Bulnes (1841-1851) and Manuel Montt +(1851-1861), each of whom like Prieto was elected to a double term of +office. In spite of the discontent of the Liberals, the Conservative +ascendancy secured a long period of firm stable government, which was +essential to put an end to the confusion in public life and to give time +for the people to awake to a fuller realization of the duties and +responsibilities of national independence. The internal peace of the +country was only disturbed three times, by Liberal risings in 1835, in +1851 and in 1859, all of which were crushed, but not without severe +fighting. In 1836 Chile also became involved in a war with a +confederation of Peru and Bolivia, which ended in the victory of Chile +and the dissolution of the confederation. + +While refusing to allow the people any share in, or control over, the +government, the Conservative leaders devoted themselves to improving the +condition of the people and of the country, and under their firm rule +Chile advanced rapidly in prosperity. The government established a +department for education, a training college for teachers, and numerous +schools and libraries; literary magazines were started and a school of +art and an academy of music founded. By the consolidation of the foreign +debt, by the regular payment of interest, by the establishment of +several banks, and by the negotiation of commercial treaties, the +financial position of the country was improved. Internal development was +promoted by the working of the silver mines of Copiapo and the coal +mines of Lota, by the building of railways and erection of telegraphs, +and by the colonization of the rich Valdivia province with German +settlers. + +The Straits of Magellan were occupied; under an American engineer, +William Wheelwright, a line of steamers was started on the coast, and, +by a wise measure allowing merchandise to be landed free of duty for +re-exportation, Valparaiso became a busy port and trading centre; while +the demand for food-stuffs in California and Australia, following upon +the rush for gold, gave a strong impetus to agriculture. A code of law +was drawn up and promulgated, and the ecclesiastical system was +organized under an archbishop appointed by the pope. To Montt, as +minister under Bulnes and afterwards as president, must be given the +main credit for the far-seeing policy which laid the foundations of the +prosperity of Chile; and though the administration was in many ways +harsh and narrow, firm government, rather than liberty that would have +tended to anarchy, was essential for the success of the young republic. + +After 1861, however, a Liberal reaction set in, aided by divisions in +the Conservative party arising mainly over church questions. Montt's +successors, José Joaquin Perez (1861-1871), Federico Errázuriz +(1871-1876) and Anibal Pinto (1876-1881), abandoned the repressive +policy of their predecessors, invited the co-operation of the Liberals, +and allowed discontent to vent itself freely in popular agitation. Some +democratic changes were made in the constitution, notably a law +forbidding the re-election of a president, and the gradual and peaceful +transition to a Liberal policy was a proof of the progress which the +nation had made in political training. Outside the movement for +constitutional reform, the most important internal question was the +successful Liberal attack on the privileged position and narrow views of +the Church, which led to the birth of a strong ultra-montane party among +the clergy. The government continued to be animated by a progressive +spirit: schools, railways, telegraphs were rapidly extended; a steamship +mail service to Europe was subsidized, and the stability of the +government enabled it to raise new foreign loans in order to extinguish +the old high interest-bearing loans and to meet the expenses of public +works. In 1877 a financial crisis occurred, met by the emission of paper +money, but the depression was only temporary, and the country soon +rallied from the effects. + +During this period there was desultory fighting with the Indians; there +was a long boundary dispute with the Argentine, settled in 1880; and in +1865 Chilean sympathy with Peru in a quarrel with Spain led to a foolish +war with Spain. The blockade of their ports and the bombardment of +Valparaiso by a Spanish squadron impressed the Chileans with the +necessity of possessing an adequate fleet to defend their long +coast-line; and it was under President Errázuriz that the ships were +obtained and the officers trained that did such good service in the +great war with Peru. With a population of over two millions, a rapidly +increasing revenue, ruled by a government that was firm and progressive +and that enjoyed the confidence of all classes, Chile was well equipped +for the struggle with Peru that began in 1879. + + + Close of the war with Peru. + +The war of 1879-82 between Chile and Peru is the subject of a separate +article (see CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR). By the beginning of 1881 the war had +reached a stage when the final struggle was close at hand. On the 13th +of January of that year the Chilean forces under command of General +Baquedano attacked the entrenched positions of the Peruvians at daybreak +in the vicinity of Chorillos, a village some few miles from Lima, and +forming the outer line of defence for the capital. After a stubborn +fight the day ended in victory for the attacking forces; but the losses +on both sides were great, and on the following day negotiations for +peace were attempted by the representatives of the foreign powers in +Lima, the object being to avoid, if possible, any further bloodshed. +This attempt to end the conflict proved, however, abortive, and on the +15th of January at 2 P.M. hostilities recommenced in the neighbourhood +of Miraflores. After severe fighting for some four hours the Chileans +again proved victorious, and drove the Peruvians from the second line of +defence back upon the city of Lima. Lima was now at the mercy of the +Chileans, and on the 17th of January a division of 4000 men of all arms, +under the command of General Cornelio Saavedra, was sent forward to +occupy the Peruvian capital and restore order within the town limits. A +portion of the Chilean forces was shortly afterwards withdrawn from +Peru, and the army of occupation remaining in the conquered country was +in charge of Admiral Patricio Lynch, an officer who had been specially +promoted for distinguished services during the war. President Anibal +Pinto of Chile now set about to find means to conclude a treaty of peace +with Peru, but his efforts in this direction were frustrated by the +armed resistance offered in the country districts to the Chilean +authorities by the remainder of the Peruvian forces under command of +General Cáceres. So matters continued--the Chileans administering on the +seaboard and in the principal towns, the Peruvians maintaining a +guerilla warfare in the mountainous districts of the interior. In +September 1881 the term of office of president Pinto expired, and he was +succeeded in the post of chief executive of Chile by President Domingo +Santa Maria. Ex-President Pinto died three years later in Valparaiso, +leaving a memory respected and admired by all political parties in his +country. The name of Pinto will always occupy a prominent place in the +annals of Chilean history, not only because the war with Peru took place +during his term of office, but also on account of the fact that it was +largely due to the intelligent direction of all details by the president +during the struggle that the Chilean arms proved so absolutely +successful by land and sea. + + + President Santa Maria. + +Señor Domingo Santa Maria, who now acceded to the presidency of Chile, +was a Liberal in politics, and had previously held various important +posts under the government. Under the rule of President Montt he had +been an active member of the opposition and involved in various +revolutionary conspiracies; for his participation in these plots he was +at one time exiled from the country, but returned and received official +employment under President Perez. The principal task confronting +President Santa Maria on assuming the presidency was to negotiate a +treaty of peace with Peru and provide for the evacuation of the Chilean +army of occupation. The presence of the Peruvian general Cáceres and his +forces in the interior of Peru prevented for some two years the +formation of any Peruvian national administration in Lima with which the +Chilean authorities could deal. In August of 1883 the Peruvians were +defeated by the forces commanded by Admiral Lynch, and a government was +then organized under the leadership of General Iglesias. A provisional +treaty of peace was then drawn up and signed by General Iglesias and the +Chilean representative, and this was finally ratified by the Chilean and +Peruvian congresses respectively in April 1884. By the terms of this +treaty Peru ceded to Chile unconditionally the province of Tarapacá, and +the provinces of Tacna and Arica were placed under Chilean authority for +the term of ten years, the inhabitants having then to decide by a +general vote whether they remained a part of Chile or elected to belong +once more to Peru. In the event of the decision being favourable to Peru +a sum of 10,000,000 dollars was to be paid by Peru to Chile. On the +ratification of this treaty the Chilean forces were immediately +withdrawn from Lima and other points of occupation in Peruvian +territory. The government of Bolivia also attempted to negotiate a +treaty of peace with Chile in 1884, and for this purpose sent +representatives to Santiago. No satisfactory terms, however, could be +arranged, and the negotiations ended in only an armistice being agreed +to, by which Chile remained in occupation of the Bolivian seaboard +pending a definite settlement at some future period. + +The administration of President Santa Maria met with violent opposition +from the Conservatives, who included the Clerical party in their ranks, +and also from a certain section of the Liberals. The dislike of the +Conservatives to President Santa Maria was occasioned by his +introduction of the law of civil marriage, the civil registration of +births and deaths, and the freeing of the cemeteries. Hitherto no +marriage was legal unless celebrated according to the rites of the +Roman Catholic religion, and all registers of births and deaths were +kept by the parish priests. Civil employees were now appointed under the +new laws to attend to this work. Formerly the cemeteries were entirely +under the control of the Church, and, with the exception of a few places +specially created for the purpose, were reserved solely for the burial +of Roman Catholics. Under the new regime these cemeteries were made +common to the dead of all religions. Under President Perez, in 1865, a +clause in the law of constitution had been introduced permitting the +exercise of all creeds of religion, and this was now put into practice, +all restrictions being removed. On several occasions, notably in 1882 +and 1885, President Santa Maria used his influence in the elections of +senators and deputies to congress for the purpose of creating a +substantial majority in his favour. He was induced to take this course +in consequence of the violent opposition raised in the chambers by the +liberal policy he pursued in connexion with Church matters. This +intervention caused great irritation amongst the Conservatives and +dissentient Liberals, and the political situation on more than one +occasion became so strained as to bring the country to the verge of +armed revolution. No outbreak, however, took place, and in 1886 the five +years of office for which President Santa Maria had been elected came to +an end, and another Liberal, Señor José Manuel Balmaceda, then succeeded +to power. + + + Balmaceda elected president. + + Revolution of 1891. + +The election of Balmaceda was bitterly opposed by the Conservatives and +dissentient Liberals, but was finally successfully carried by the +official influence exercised by President Santa Maria. On assuming +office President Balmaceda endeavoured to bring about a reconciliation +of all sections of the Liberal party in congress and so form a solid +majority to support the administration, and to this end he nominated as +ministers representatives of the different political groups. Six months +later the cabinet was reorganized, and two most bitter opponents to the +recent election of President Balmaceda were accorded portfolios. +Believing that he had now secured the support of the majority in +congress on behalf of any measures he decided to put forward, the new +president initiated a policy of heavy expenditure on public works, the +building of schools, and the strengthening of the naval and military +forces of the republic. Contracts were given out to the value of +£6,000,000 for the construction of railways in the southern districts; +some 10,000,000 dollars were expended in the erection of schools and +colleges; three cruisers and two sea-going torpedo boats were added to +the squadron; the construction of the naval port at Talcahuano was +actively pushed forward; new armament was purchased for the infantry and +artillery branches of the army, and heavy guns were acquired for the +purpose of permanently and strongly fortifying the neighbourhoods of +Valparaiso, Talcahuano and Iquique. In itself this policy was not +unreasonable, and in many ways extremely beneficial for the country. +Unfortunately corruption crept into the expenditure of the large sums +necessary to carry out this programme. Contracts were given by favour +and not by merit, and the progress made in the construction of the new +public works was far from satisfactory. The opposition in congress to +President Balmaceda began to increase rapidly towards the close of 1887, +and further gained ground in 1888. In order to ensure a majority +favourable to his views, the president threw the whole weight of his +official influence into the elections for senators and deputies in 1888; +but many of the members returned to the chambers through this official +influence joined the opposition shortly after taking their seats. In +1889 congress became distinctly hostile to the administration of +President Balmaceda, and the political situation became grave, and at +times threatened to involve the country in civil war. According to usage +and custom in Chile, a ministry does not remain in office unless +supported by a majority in the chambers. Balmaceda now found himself in +the impossible position of being unable to appoint any ministry that +could control a majority in the senate and chamber of deputies and at +the same time be in accordance with his own views of the administration +of public affairs. At this juncture the president assumed that the +constitution gave him the power of nominating and maintaining in office +any ministers he might consider fitting persons for the purpose, and +that congress had no right of interference in the matter. The chambers +were now only waiting for a suitable opportunity to assert their +authority. In 1890 it was stated that President Balmaceda had determined +to nominate and cause to be elected as his successor at the expiration +of his term of office in 1891 one of his own personal friends. This +question of the election of another president brought matters to a head, +and congress refused to vote supplies to carry on the government. To +avoid trouble Balmaceda entered into a compromise with congress, and +agreed to nominate a ministry to their liking on condition that the +supplies for 1890 were voted. This cabinet, however, was of short +duration, and resigned when the ministers understood the full amount of +friction between the president and congress. Balmaceda then nominated a +ministry not in accord with the views of congress under Señor Claudio +Vicuña, whom it was no secret that Balmaceda intended to be his +successor in the presidential chair, and, to prevent any expression of +opinion upon his conduct in the matter, he refrained from summoning an +extraordinary session of the legislature for the discussion of the +estimates of revenue and expenditure for 1891. When the 1st of January +1891 arrived, the president published a decree in the _Diario Oficial_ +to the effect that the budget of 1890 would be considered the official +budget for 1891. This act was illegal and beyond the attributes of the +executive power. As a protest against the action of President Balmaceda, +the vice-president of the senate, Señor Waldo Silva, and the president +of the chamber of deputies, Señor Ramon Barros Luco, issued a +proclamation appointing Captain Jorje Montt in command of the squadron, +and stating that the navy could not recognize the authority of Balmaceda +so long as he did not administer public affairs in accordance with the +constitutional law of Chile. The majority of the members of the chambers +sided with this movement, and on the 7th of January Señores Waldo Silva, +Barros Luco and a number of senators and deputies embarked on board the +Chilean warship "Blanco Encalada," accompanied by the "Esmeralda" and +"O'Higgins" and other vessels, sailing out of Valparaiso harbour and +proceeding northwards to Tarapaca to organize armed resistance against +the president (see CHILEAN CIVIL WAR). It was not alone this action of +Balmaceda in connexion with congress that brought about the revolution. +He had alienated the sympathy of the aristocratic classes of Chile by +his personal vanity and ambition. The oligarchy composed of the great +landowners have always been an important factor in the political life of +the republic; when President Balmaceda found that he was not a _persona +grata_ to this circle he determined to endeavour to govern without their +support, and to bring into the administration a set of men who had no +traditions and with whom his personality would be all-powerful. The +Clerical influence was also thrown against him in consequence of his +radical ideas in respect of Church matters. + +Immediately on the outbreak of the revolution President Balmaceda +published a decree declaring Montt and his companions to be traitors, +and without delay organized an army of some 40,000 men for the +suppression of the insurrectionary movement. While both sides were +preparing for extremities, Balmaceda administered the government under +dictatorial powers with a congress of his own nomination. In June 1891 +he ordered the presidential election to be held, and Señor Claudio +Vicuña was duly declared chosen as president of the republic for the +term commencing in September 1891. The resources of Balmaceda were +running short on account of the heavy military expenses, and he +determined to dispose of the reserve of silver bullion accumulated in +the vaults of the Casa de Moneda in accordance with the terms of the law +for the conversion of the note issue. The silver was conveyed abroad in +a British man-of-war, and disposed of partly for the purchase of a fast +steamer to be fitted as an auxiliary cruiser and partly in payment for +other kinds of war material. + +The organization of the revolutionary forces went on slowly. Much +difficulty was experienced in obtaining the necessary arms and +ammunition. A supply of rifles was bought in the United States, and +embarked on board the "Itata," a Chilean vessel in the service of the +rebels. The United States authorities refused to allow this steamer to +leave San Diego, and a guard was stationed on the ship. The "Itata," +however, slipped away and made for the Chilean coast, carrying with her +the representatives of the United States. A fast cruiser was immediately +sent in pursuit, but only succeeded in overhauling the rebel ship after +she was at her destination. The "Itata" was then forced to return to San +Diego without landing her cargo for the insurgents. The necessary arms +and ammunition were arranged for in Europe; they were shipped in a +British vessel, and transferred to a Chilean steamer at Fortune Bay, in +Tierra del Fuego, close to the Straits of Magellan and the Falkland +Islands, and thence carried to Iquique, where they were safely +disembarked early in July 1891. A force of 10,000 men was now raised by +the _junta_ of the revolution, and preparations were rapidly pushed +forward for a move to the south with the object of attacking Valparaiso +and Santiago. Early in April a portion of the revolutionary squadron, +comprising the "Blanco Encalada" and other ships, was sent to the +southward for reconnoitring purposes and put into the port of Caldera. +During the night of the 23rd of April, and whilst the "Blanco Encalada" +was lying quietly at anchor, a torpedo boat called the "Almirante +Lynch," belonging to the Balmaceda faction, steamed into the bay of +Caldera and discharged a torpedo at the rebel ship. The "Blanco +Encalada" sank in a few minutes and 300 of her crew perished. + + + Defeat and suicide of Balmaceda. + +In the middle of August 1891 the rebel forces were embarked at Iquique +(where a provisional government under Captain Jorje Montt had been set +up), numbering in all about 9000 men, and sailed for the south. On the +20th of August the congressist army was disembarked at Quinteros, about +20 m. north of Valparaiso, and marched to Concon, where the Balmacedists +were entrenched. A severe fight ensued, in which the troops of President +Balmaceda were defeated with heavy loss. This reverse roused the worst +passions of the president, and he ordered the arrest and imprisonment of +all persons suspected of sympathy with the revolutionary cause. The +population generally were, however, distinctly antagonistic to +Balmaceda; and this feeling had become accentuated since the 17th of +August 1891, on which date he had ordered the execution of a number of +youths belonging to the military college at San Lorenzo on a charge of +seditious practices. The shooting of these boys created a feeling of +horror throughout the country, and a sensation of uncertainty as to what +measures of severity might not be practised in the future if Balmaceda +won the day. After the victory at Concon the insurgent army, under +command of General Campos, marched in a southerly direction towards Viña +del Mar, and thence to Placilla, where the final struggle in the +conflict took place. Balmaceda's generals Barbosa and Alcérrica had here +massed their troops in a strong position. The battle, on the 28th of +August, resulted in victory for the rebels. Both the Balmacedist +generals were killed and Valparaiso was at once occupied. Three days +later the victorious insurgents entered Santiago and assumed the +government of the republic. After the batile of Placilla it was clear to +President Balmaceda that he could no longer hope to find a sufficient +strength amongst his adherents to maintain himself in power, and in view +of the rapid approach of the rebel army he abandoned his official duties +to seek an asylum in the Argentine legation. The president remained +concealed in this retreat until the 18th of September. On the evening of +that date, when the term for which he had been elected president of the +republic terminated, he committed suicide by shooting himself. The +excuse for this act, put forward in letters written shortly before his +end, was that he did not believe the conquerors would give him an +impartial trial. The death of Balmaceda finished all cause of contention +in Chile, and was the closing act of the most severe and bloodiest +struggle that country had ever witnessed. In the various engagements +throughout the conflict more than 10,000 lives were lost, and the joint +expenditure of the two governments on military preparations and the +purchase of war material exceeded £10,000,000 sterling. + +An unfortunate occurrence soon after the close of the revolution brought +strained relations for a short period between the governments of the +United States and Chile. A number of men of the U.S.S. "Baltimore" +having been given liberty on shore, an argument arose between some of +them and a group of Chilean sailors in a drinking den in Valparaiso. +Words led to blows. The Americans were badly handled, one of their +number being killed and others severely hurt. The United States +government characterized the affair as an outrage, demanding an +indemnity as satisfaction. The Chilean authorities demurred at this +attitude, and attempted to argue the matter. James G. Elaine, then +secretary of state, refused peremptorily to listen to any explanations. +In the end Chile paid an indemnity of $75,000 as asked, but the affair +left bad feeling in its train. + + + President Jorje Montt. + +The close of the revolution against Balmaceda left the government of +Chile in the hands of the _junta_ under whose guidance the military and +naval operations had been organized. Admiral Jorje Montt had been the +head of this revolutionary committee, and he acted as president of the +provisional government when the administration of the country changed +hands after the victory of the Congressional party. An election was now +immediately ordered for the choice of a president of the republic and +for representatives in the senate and chamber of deputies. Admiral +Montt, as head of the executive power, stanchly refused to allow +official influence to be brought to bear in any way in the presidential +campaign. The great majority of the voters, however, required no +pressure to decide who was in their opinion the man most fitted to +administer the affairs of the republic. For the first time in the +history of Chile a perfectly free election was held, and Admiral Montt +was duly chosen by a nearly unanimous vote to be chief magistrate for +the constitutional term of five years. The senate and chamber of +deputies were formally constituted in due course, and the government of +the republic resumed normal conditions of existence. The new president +showed admirable tact in dealing with the difficult problem he was +called upon to face. Party feeling still ran high between the partisans +of the two sides of the recent conflict. Admiral Montt took the view +that it was politic and just to let bygones be bygones, and he acted +conscientiously by this principle in all administrative measures in +connexion with the supporters of the late President Balmaceda. Early in +1892 an amnesty was granted to the officers of the Balmaceda régime, and +they were freely permitted to return to Chile without any attempt being +made to molest them. The first political act of national importance of +the new government was the grant of control to the municipalities, which +hitherto had possessed little power to direct local affairs, and were +not even permitted to dispose of the municipal revenues to any important +amount without first obtaining the consent of the central government. +Almost absolute power was now given these corporations to manage their +own concerns, and the organization of the police was placed in their +hands; at a later period, however, it was found necessary to modify this +latter condition. + +President Montt next turned his attention towards the question of how +best to repair the damage occasioned to the country by eight months of +civil warfare. The plan of public works authorized in 1887 was +reconsidered, and the construction of portions of the various +undertakings recommenced. The army and navy were reorganized. Additional +instructors were brought from Germany, and all arms of the military +service were placed on a thoroughly efficient footing in matters of +drill and discipline. Several new and powerful cruisers were added to +the navy, and the internal economy of this branch of the national +defence was thoroughly inspected and many defects were remedied. +President Montt then took in hand the question of a reform of the +currency, the abolition of inconvertible paper money, and the +re-establishment of a gold basis as the monetary standard of the +republic. This reform of the currency became the keynote of the +president's policy during the remainder of his term of office. Great +opposition was raised by the representatives of the debtor class in +congress to the suppression of the inconvertible paper money, but in the +end President Montt carried the day, and on the 11th of February 1895 a +measure finally became law establishing a gold currency as the only +legal tender in Chile. In July 1896 the Conversion Act was put in force, +a dollar of 18d. being the monetary unit adopted. In 1895 relations with +the neighbouring republic of Argentina began to become somewhat strained +in regard to the interpretation of the treaty concerning the boundary +between the two countries. The treaties of 1881, 1893 and 1895 left +doubts in the minds of both Chileans and Argentines as to the position +of the frontier line. On the 17th of April 1896 another protocol was +drawn up, by which the contending parties agreed to submit any +differences to the arbitration of Great Britain, at the instance of one +or both governments. President Montt had now fulfilled his term of +office, and on the 18th of September 1896 he handed over the +presidential power to his successor, Señor Federico Errázuriz, who had +been duly elected in the month of June previously. + + + President Errázuriz. + + Crisis with Argentina. + +The election for the position of president of the republic was closely +contested in 1896 between Señor Errázuriz and Señor Reyes, and ended in +the triumph of the former candidate by the narrow majority of one vote. +The father of the new president had been chief magistrate of Chile from +1871 to 1876, and his administration had been one of the best the +country had ever enjoyed; his son had therefore traditions to uphold in +the post he was now called upon to fill. At the beginning of 1897 the +public attention was absorbed by foreign political questions. The +problems to be solved were the frontier difficulty with Argentina, the +question of the possession of Tacna and Arica with Peru, and the +necessity of fulfilling the obligation contracted with Bolivia to give +that country a seaport on the Pacific coast. The treaty made in 1896 +with the Argentine government, referring to the arbitration of disputed +points concerning the boundary, became practically for the moment a dead +letter, and both Argentines and Chileans began to talk openly of an +appeal to arms to settle the matter once for all. The governments of +both countries began to purchase large supplies of war material, and +generally to make preparations for a possible conflict. In these +circumstances no final settlement with Peru and Bolivia was possible, +the authorities of those republics holding back to see the issue of the +Chile-Argentine dispute, and Chile being in no position at the time to +insist on any terms being arranged. So matters drifted until the +beginning of 1898. In July of that year the crisis reached an acute +stage. Both Chile and Argentina put forward certain pretensions to +territory in the Atacama district to the north, and also to a section of +Patagonia in the south. Neither side would give way, nor was any +disposition exhibited to refer the matter to arbitration under the +protocol of 1896. The cry of an acute financial crisis emanating from +the fear of war with Argentina was now raised in Chile. The president +was advised that the only way of averting the financial ruin of the +banking institutions of the republic was to suspend the conversion law +and lend from the national treasury inconvertible notes to the banks. +Señor Errázuriz weakly gave way, and a decree was promulgated placing +the currency once more on an inconvertible paper money basis until 1902. +In August of 1898 the Chilean government determined to insist upon the +terms of the protocol of 1896 being acted upon, and intimated to +Argentina that they demanded the fulfilment of the clause relating to +arbitration on disputed points. This was practically an ultimatum, and a +refusal on the part of the Argentine government to comply with the terms +of the 1896 agreement meant a declaration of war by Chile. For a few +days the issue hung in the balance, and then the Argentine government +accepted the provisions made in 1896 for arbitration. The dispute +concerning the Atacama district was submitted to an arbitration +tribunal, consisting of the representative of the United States in +Argentina, assisted by one Argentine and one Chilean commissioner. This +tribunal, after due investigation, gave their decision in April 1899, +and the verdict was accepted unreservedly by both governments. The +dispute regarding the Patagonian territory was submitted to the +arbitration of Great Britain, and a commission--consisting of Lord +Macnaghten, Sir John Ardagh and Sir T.H. Holdich--was appointed in 1899 +to hear the case. + +The Argentine difficulty was ended, but Chile still had to find a +settlement with Peru and Bolivia. The treaty made with the former +country in 1893 was not ratified, as it was thought to concede too much +to Peru, and the subsequent _ad referendum_ treaty was rejected on +account of Peru claiming that only Peruvians, and not all residents, +should have the right to vote in the plebiscite to be taken by the terms +of the treaty of 1883 for the possession of Tacna and Arica. By the +terms of the armistice of 1883 between Chile and Bolivia, a three years' +notice had to be given by either government wishing to denounce that +agreement. By the protocol of 1895 Chile agreed to give to Bolivia the +port of Arica, or some other suitable position on the seaboard. On these +lines a settlement was proposed. Vitor, a landing-place a little to the +south of Arica, was offered by the Chilean government to Bolivia, but +refused as not complying with the conditions stated in the protocol of +1895; the Bolivians furthermore preferred to wait and see if Arica was +finally ceded by Peru to Chile, and if so to claim the fulfilment of the +terms of the protocol. + +After the accession to office of President Errázuriz there was no +stability of any ministry. Political parties in congress were so evenly +balanced and so subdivided into groups that a vote against the ministry +was easy to obtain, and the resignation of the cabinet immediately +followed in accordance with the so-called parliamentary system in vogue +in Chile. The president of the republic has no power to dissolve the +chambers, to endeavour to remedy the evil by one or another political +party obtaining a substantial working majority, but must wait to see the +results of the triennial elections. As a consequence of these conditions +Conservative, Liberal and coalition ministries held office at short +intervals. These unsettled political circumstances checked any +continuity of policy, and tended to block the passage of all useful +legislation to help forward the economic development of the country and +inhabitants; on the other hand, the financial situation was better by +the end of 1899 than in the previous year, since all proposals for a +fresh paper issue had been vetoed; and the elections for congress and +municipal office at the opening of 1900 returned a majority favourable +to a stable currency policy. + +In September 1900 a fresh outburst of hostile feeling against Chile was +created in Argentina by a note addressed by the Chilean government to +Bolivia, intimating that Chile was no longer inclined to hand over the +port of Arica or any other port on the Pacific, but considered the time +ripe for a final settlement of the questions connected with the Chilean +occupation of Bolivian territory, which had now been outstanding for +sixteen years. The foreign policy of Chile, as indicated by this note, +was considered by Argentina to be grasping and unconciliatory, and there +were rumours of an anti-Chilean South American federation. Chile +disclaimed any aggressive intentions; but in December the Bolivian +congress declined to relinquish their claim to a port, and refused to +conclude a definite treaty of peace. The year closed with a frontier +incident between Chile and Argentina in the disputed territory of Ultima +Esperanza, where some Argentine colonists were ejected by Chilean +police; but both governments signed protocols agreeing not to take +aggressive action in consequence. + + + President Riesco. + +At the opening of 1901 the country was chiefly interested in the +forthcoming presidential election, for which the candidates were Don +Pedro Montt (Conservative and Clerical) and Señor German Riesco +(Liberal). The relations between President Errázuriz and congress became +rather strained, owing to the former's inclination to retain in office a +ministry on which congress had passed a vote of censure; but Errázuriz +had been in ill-health for more than a year, and on the 1st of May he +resigned, and died in July. At the ensuing election Riesco was elected +president. The attitude of Chile towards the Pan-American Congress at +Mexico became a matter of interest in the autumn, particularly in +connexion with the proposal for compulsory arbitration between all +American governments. The Chilean government made it quite clear that +they would withdraw from the congress if this proposal was meant to be +retroactive; and their unyielding attitude testified to the +apprehensions felt by Chile concerning United States interference. In +October the Chilean government announced that the contemplated +conversion scheme, for which gold had been accumulated, would be +postponed for two years (till October 1903), the gold being held as a +reserve fund pending the result of the arbitration over the Argentine +frontier. This was generally considered to be a reasonable and +statesmanlike course. Unfortunately, a recrudescence of the excitement +over the boundary dispute was occasioned by the irritation created in +Argentina by the fact that, pending a decision, Chile was constructing +roads in the disputed territory. During December 1901 relations were +exceedingly strained, and troops were called out on both sides. But at +the end of the month it was agreed to leave the question to the British +arbitrators, and the latter decided to send one of their number, Sir +T.H. Holdich, to examine the territory. + + + Argentine boundary award. + +The survey occupied some eight months, and it was not until the autumn +that Sir T.H. Holdich returned to England to make his report. The +difficulty of ascertaining the true line watershed had been very great, +but the result was eminently successful. The award of King Edward was +signed on the 20th of November 1902, and both parties to the litigation +were satisfied. In order that future disputes might be amicably settled, +a treaty was signed by which it was agreed that any question that might +arise should be submitted to the arbitration of Great Britain or in +default of that power to the Swiss Confederation. The removal of this +source of irritation and the restoration of friendly relations between +the two republics was a great relief to the finance of Chile. Had it not +been for the political instability of the country, the effects of the +diminution of expenditure on military and naval preparations would have +effected a rapid improvement in its financial position. The constant +change of ministry (there being no stable majority in the congress) +prevented during 1903 any settled policy, or that confidence in the +government which is the basis of commercial prosperity. In 1904, +however, both trade and revenue showed signs of improvement, and the +sale of the warships "Esmeralda" and "Chambuco" for £1,000,000 furnished +a surplus, which was devoted to the improvement of the port of +Valparaiso. This was the beginning of a period of steady industrial +growth and development. The settlement of the long outstanding dispute +with Bolivia in a treaty of peace signed on the 17th of October 1905 was +very advantageous to both countries. By this treaty Bolivia ceded all +claims to a seaport and strip of the coast, on condition that Chile +constructed at her own charges a railway to Lapaz from the port of +Arica, giving at the same time to Bolivia free transit across Chilean +territory to the sea. A cash indemnity of £300,000 was also paid, and +certain stipulations were made with regard to the construction of other +railways giving access from Chile to the Bolivian interior. + + + Valparaiso earthquake + +The prosperity of Chile was to suffer a rude shock. On the 17th of +August 1906 a terrible earthquake visited Valparaiso and the surrounding +district. The town of Valparaiso was almost entirely destroyed, while +Santiago and other towns were severely shaken and suffered much damage. +It was estimated that about 3000 persons were killed, a still larger +number injured, and at least 100,000 rendered homeless. The loss of +property was enormous. The fire which broke out after the earthquake +shock had subsided added to the horror of the catastrophe. Measures +were, however, promptly taken for succouring the people, who had been +driven from their homes, and the task of restoration was vigorously +taken in hand. Before the end of the year the rebuilding of the city was +rapidly progressing. + + + President Pedro Montt. + +In 1906 Señor Pedro Montt was elected president and entered upon his +office on the 17th of September. The personality of the president, +however, had become of much less importance in modern Chile than in +earlier days. Up to 1870 the government was in the hands of a small +oligarchy of Santiago families, but the president enjoyed large powers +of initiative. Nowadays the congress has virtually absorbed the +executive power, with the result that the cabinet is often changed many +times in one year. This prevents indeed any continuity of policy, for +the majority in congress is perpetually fluctuating, and ministerial +crises rapidly follow one another. Chile, however, except in the +Balmacedist civil war, is happily distinguished by its freedom from +revolution and serious political unrest. Its history in this respect is +in marked contrast to that of the neighbouring South American states. +The completion of the Trans-Andean railway between Valparaiso and Buenos +Aires was bound to be of immense commercial and industrial value; and +eventually the making of a longitudinal railway route uniting the +nitrate province of the north with Santiago, and Santiago with Puerto +Montt in the distant south, opened up further important prospects. Such +a line of through communication, binding together the different +provinces forming the long narrow strip of territory stretching along +more than 2000 m. of the Pacific littoral, could only be looked forward +to, both politically and economically, as an inestimable benefit to the +country. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_General History_.--The most valuable authority is D. + Barros Arana's _Historia jeneral de Chile_ (15 vols., Santiago, 1884), + from the earliest days up to 1830. Smaller handbooks covering the + whole period are: A.U. Hancock, a _History of Chile_ (Chicago, 1893), + the only general history in English, and containing a bibliography; + Gaspar Toro, _Compendio de la historia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1879), a + good clear abstract of Chilean history; and F. Valdes Vergara, + _Historia de Chile_ (Valparaiso, 1898), written primarily for schools, + but containing useful sketches of leading figures in Chilean history. + + _Works on Special Periods_.--Colonial Period: M.L. Amunátequi, + _Descubri miento y conquista de Chile_ (Santiago, 1885), a valuable + detailed account of the Spanish conquest; by same author, _Los + Precursores de la independencia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1870), a clear + useful description of the evils of the Spanish colonial system; + Horacio Lara, _Cronica de la Araucania_ (Santiago, 1889), a history of + the Araucanian Indians right up to recent dates; Abbé Eyzaguirre, + _Histoire du Chili_ (Lille, 1855), mainly dealing with the position of + the Church during the colonial period. Perez Garcia's _Historia del + reino de Chile_ (Santiago, 1900), an old history by a Spanish officer + written about 1780, and Molina's _History of Chili_ in the English + translation (London, 1809), will also be found useful. Useful material + for research exists in J.T. Medina's _Coleccion de documentos para la + historia de Chile_ (Santiago, 1888), a collection of despatches and + official documents; his _Cosas de la colonia_ (Santiago, 1889), an + accumulation of undigested information about life in the colonial + period; and _Historiadores de Chile_ (21 vols., Santiago, 1861), a + collection of ancient chronicles and official documents up to the + early part of the 17th century. + + _Revolutionary Period_.--A. Roldan, _Las Primeras Asambleas + nacionales_ (Santiago, 1890), an account of the struggles in the first + national assemblies; A. Valdes, _Revolucion Chilena y campañas de la + independencia_ (Santiago, 1888), an account of the early fighting and + rivalry of the revolutionary leaders; W. Pilling, _Emancipation of + South America_ (London, 1893), a translation of B. Mitre's life of San + Martin, describing the fighting in the wars of independence; Lord + Cochrane, _Narrative of Services in Chile, Peru and Brazil_ (London, + 1859), an autobiography describing the naval exploits that helped to + secure the expulsion of the Spaniards; B. Vicuña Machenna, _Vida de + O'Higgins_ (Santiago, 1882), giving a useful account of the + revolutionary struggle and the main actors; and the same author's + _Historia jeneral de la republica de Chile_, a collection of essays on + the early republican history by various writers. + + _Later History_.--R. Sotomayor Valdes, _Historia de Chili, + 1831-1871_, a detailed account of the period (Santiago, 1875); the + same author's _Campaña del ejercito Chileno en 1837_ (Santiago, 1896), + describing the fighting of the first Peruvian War; B. Vicuña Machenna, + _D. Diego Portales_ (Valparaiso, 1863), a good account of the life and + time of Portales, the famous minister of the Conservative party; P.B. + Fiqueroa, _Historia de la revolution constituyente 1858-59_ (Santiago, + 1889), an account of the revolution at the end of Montt's presidency; + F. Fonch, _Chile in der Gegenwart_ (Berlin, 1870), a description of + Chile at the time; _Statement on Behalf of Chile_ (in the + Chilean-Argentine Boundary Arbitration) (6 vols., London, 1901-1902); + Sir Thomas Holdich, _Countries of the King's Award_ (1904); Beltran y + Rospido, _Los Pueblos hispano-americanos en el siglo XX._ (Madrid, + 1904); P.F. Martin, _Through Five Republics of South America_ (London, + 1906); Wright, _The Republic of Chile_ (London, 1905); G.F. Scott + Elliot, _Chilé_ (London, 1907); Sir W.M. Conway, _Aconcagua and + Tierra del Fuego_ (London, 1902); "Chile-Argentine Arbitration" in the + _Geog. Journal_ (January 1903); C.M. Pepper, _Panama to Patagonia_ + (London, 1907); C.E. Akers, _History of South America, 1854-1904_ + (London, 1904); M. Hume, _Lecture on the Republic of Chile_ (London, + 1902). (E. G. J. M.; C. E. A.; G. E.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See A. Pissis, "Sur la constitution géologique de la chaîne des + Andes entre le 16° et le 55° degré de latitude sud," _Ann. des + mines_, ser. 7, vol. iii. (Mém.), 1873, pp. 402-426, pils. ix., x.; + R.A. Philippi, _Die tertiären und quartären Versteinerungen Chiles_ + (Leipzig, 1887), (includes also descriptions of some Cretaceous + fossils), and _Los Fósiles secondarios de Chile_ (Santiago, 1899); + Karl Burckhardt, "Profils géologiques transversaux de la Cordillère + argentino-chilienne. Stratigraphie et tectonique," _Anales Mus. La + Plata_, 1900, and "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Jura- und + Kreide-formation der Cordillere," _Palaeontographica_, vol. 1. + (1903-1904) pp. 1-144, pls. i.-xvi.; see also a series of papers on + South American geology by G. Steinmann and his collaborators in + _Neues Jahrb, für Min._ Beil.-band viii. et seq. + + [2] _Notes of a Naturalist in South America_, p. 134. + + [3] Also classified as _Nothofagus_ (Mirb.). + + [4] A. Gallenga, _South America_ (London, 1880), p. 181. + + [5] The expenditures of 1902 are also given as 25,882,702 pesos gold, + and 108,844,693 pesos currency. + + + + +CHILEAN CIVIL WAR (1891). The Chilean civil war grew out of political +dissensions between the president of Chile, J.M. Balmaceda, and his +congress (see CHILE: _History_), and began in January 1891. On the 6th, +at Valparaiso, the political leaders of the Congressional party went on +board the ironclad "Blanco Encalada," and Captain Jorje Montt of that +vessel hoisted a broad pennant as commodore of the Congressional fleet. +Preparations had long been made for the naval _pronunciamento_, and in +the end but few vessels of the Chilean navy adhered to the cause of the +"dictator" Balmaceda. But amongst these were two new and fast torpedo +gunboats, "Almirante Condell" and "Almirante Lynch," and in European +dockyards (incomplete) lay the most powerful vessel of the navy, the +"Arturo Prat," and two fast cruisers. If these were secured by the +Balmacedists the naval supremacy of the congress would be seriously +challenged. For the present, and without prejudice to the future, +command of the sea was held by Montt's squadron (January). The rank and +file of the army remained faithful to the executive, and thus in the +early part of the war the "Gobernistas," speaking broadly, possessed an +army without a fleet, the congress a fleet without an army. Balmaceda +hoped to create a navy; the congress took steps to recruit an army by +taking its sympathizers on board the fleet. The first shot was fired, on +the 16th of January, by the "Blanco" at the Valparaiso batteries, and +landing parties from the warships engaged small parties of government +troops at various places during January and February. The dictator's +principal forces were stationed in and about Iquique, Coquirabo, +Valparaiso, Santiago and Concepción. The troops at Iquique and Coquimbo +were necessarily isolated from the rest and from each other, and +military operations began, as in the campaign of 1879 in this quarter, +with a naval descent upon Pisagua followed by an advance inland to +Dolores. The Congressional forces failed at first to make good their +footing (16th-23rd of January), but, though defeated in two or three +actions, they brought off many recruits and a quantity of munitions of +war. On the 26th they retook Pisagua, and on the 15th of February the +Balmacedist commander, Eulojio Robles, who offered battle in the +expectation of receiving reinforcements from Tacna, was completely +defeated on the old battlefield of San Francisco. Robles fell back along +the railway, called up troops from Iquique, and beat the invaders at +Haura on the 17th, but Iquique in the meanwhile fell to the +Congressional fleet on the 16th. The Pisagua line of operations was at +once abandoned, and the military forces of the congress were moved by +sea to Iquique, whence, under the command of Colonel Estanislao Del +Canto, they started inland. The battle of Pozo Almonte, fought on the +7th of March, was desperately contested, but Del Canto was superior in +numbers, and Robles was himself killed and his army dispersed. After +this the other Balmacedist troops in the north gave up the struggle. +Some were driven into Peru, others into Bolivia, and one column made a +laborious retreat from Calama to Santiago, in the course of which it +twice crossed the main chain of the Andes. + +The Congressional _Junta de Gobierno_ now established in Iquique +prosecuted the war vigorously, and by the end of April the whole country +was in the hands of the "rebels" from the Peruvian border to the +outposts of the Balmacedists at Coquimbo and La Serena. The _Junta_ now +began the formation of a properly organized army for the next campaign, +which, it was believed universally on both sides, would be directed +against Coquimbo. But in a few months the arrival of the new ships from +Europe would reopen the struggle for command of the sea; the +_torpederas_ "Condell" and "Lynch" had already weakened the +Congressional squadron severely by sinking the "Blanco Encalada" in +Caldera Bay (23rd of April), and the Congressional party could no longer +aim at a methodical conquest of successive provinces, but was compelled +to attempt to crush the dictator at a blow. Where this blow was to fall +was not decided up to the last moment, but the instrument which was to +deliver it was prepared with all the care possible under the +circumstances. Del Canto was made commander-in-chief, and an ex-Prussian +officer, Emil Körner, chief of staff. The army was organized in three +brigades of all arms, at Iquique, Caldera and Vallenar. Körner +superintended the training of the men, gave instruction in tactics to +the officers, caused maps to be prepared, and in general took every +precaution that his experience could suggest to ensure success. Del +Canto was himself no mere figurehead, but a thoroughly capable leader +who had distinguished himself at Tacna (1880) and Miraflores (1881), as +well as in the present war. The men were enthusiastic, and the officers +unusually numerous. The artillery was fair, the cavalry good, and the +train and auxiliary services well organized. About one-third of the +infantry were armed with the (Männlicher) magazine rifle, which now made +its first appearance in war, the remainder had the Gras and other +breech-loaders, which were also the armament of the dictator's infantry. +Balmaceda could only wait upon events, but he prepared his forces as +best he was able, and his _torpederas_ constantly harried the +Congressional navy. By the end of July Del Canto and Körner had done +their work as well as time permitted, and early in August the troops +prepared to embark, not for Coquimbo, but for Valparaiso itself. + +The expedition by sea was admirably managed, and Quinteros, N. of +Valparaiso and not many miles out of range of its batteries, was +occupied on the 20th of August 1891. Balmaceda was surprised, but acted +promptly. The first battle was fought on the Aconcagua at Concon on the +21st. The eager infantry of the Congressional army forced the passage of +the river and stormed the heights held by the Gobernistas, capturing 36 +guns. The killed and wounded of the Balmacedists numbered 1600, and +nearly all the prisoners, about 1500 men, enrolled themselves in the +rebel army, which thus more than made good its loss of 1000 killed and +wounded. The victors pressed on towards Valparaiso, but were soon +brought up by the strong fortified position of the Balmacedist general +Barbosa at Viña del Mar, whither Balmaceda hurried up all available +troops from Valparaiso and Santiago, and even from Concepción. Del Canto +and Körner now resolved on a daring step. Supplies of all kinds were +brought up from Quinteros to the front, and on the 24th of August the +army abandoned its line of communications and marched inland. The flank +march was conducted with great skill, little opposition was encountered, +and the rebels finally appeared to the south-east of Valparaiso. Here, +on the 28th, took place the decisive battle of La Placilla. Concon had +been perhaps little more than the destruction of an isolated corps; the +second battle was a fair trial of strength, for Barbosa was well +prepared, and had under his command the greater part of the existing +forces of the dictator. But the splendid fighting qualities of the +Congressional troops and the superior generalship of their leaders +prevailed in the end over every obstacle. The government army was +practically annihilated, 941 men were killed, including Barbosa and his +second in command, and 2402 wounded. The Congressional army lost over +1800 men. Valparaiso was occupied the same evening and Santiago soon +afterwards. There was no further fighting, for so great was the effect +of the battles of Concon and La Placella that even the Coquimbo troops +surrendered without firing a shot. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lieut. Sears and Ensign Wells, U.S.N., _The Chilian + Revolution of 1891_ (Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1893); + _The Capture of Valparaiso, 1891_ (Intelligence Department, War + Office, London, 1892); Hermann Kunz, _Taktische Beispiele aus den + Kriegen der neuesten Zeit; der Bürgerkrieg in Chile_ (Berlin, 1901); + _Revista militar de Chile_ (February-March 1892); Hugo Kunz, _Der + Bürgerkrieg in Chile_ (Vienna, 1892); _Militär Wochenblatt_ (5th + supplement, 1892); Sir W. Laird Clowes, _Four Modern Naval Campaigns_ + (London, 1902); _Proceedings of U.S. Naval Institute_ (1894) (for La + Placilla); and the military and naval periodicals of 1892. + + + + +CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR (1879-1882). The proximate cause of this war was the +seizure, by the authorities of Bolivia, of the effects of the Chilean +Nitrate Company at Antofagasta, then part of the Bolivian province of +Atacama. The first act of hostility was the despatch of 500 soldiers to +protect Chilean interests at Antofagasta. This force, under Colonel +Sotomayor, landed and marched inland; the only resistance encountered +was at Calama on the river Loa, where a handful of newly raised militia +was routed (23rd March 1879). About the same time Chilean warships +occupied Cobija and Tocapilla, and Sotomayor, after his victory at +Calama, marched to the latter port. Bolivia had declared war on the 1st +of March, but Peru not till the 5th of April: this delay gave the +Chileans time to occupy every port on the Bolivian coast. Thus the +Chilean admiral was able to proceed at once to the blockade of the +southern ports of Peru, and in particular Iquique, where there took +place the first naval action of the war. On the 21st of April the +Chilean sloop "Esmeralda" and the gunboat "Covadonga"--both small and +weak ships--engaged the Peruvian heavy ironclads "Huascar" and +"Independencia"; after a hot fight the "Huascar" under Miguel Grau sank +the "Esmeralda" under Arturo Piat, who was killed, but Carlos Condell in +the "Covadonga" manoeuvred the "Independencia" aground and shelled her +into a complete wreck. The Chileans now gave up the blockade and +concentrated all their efforts on the destruction of the "Huascar," +while the allies organized a field army in the neighbourhood of Tacna +and a large Chilean force assembled at Antofagasta. + +On the 8th of October 1879 the "Huascar" was brought to action off +Angamos by the "Blanco Encalada," and the "Almirante Cochrane." Grau was +outmatched as hopelessly and made as brave a fight as Prat at Iquique. +Early in the action a shot destroyed the Peruvian's conning tower, +killing Grau and his staff, and another entered her turret, killing the +flag captain and nearly all the crew of the turret guns. When the +"Huascar" finally surrendered she had but one gun left in action, her +fourth commander and three-quarters of her crew were killed and wounded, +and the steering-gear had been shot away. The Peruvian navy had now +ceased to exist. The Chileans resumed the blockade, and more active +operations were soon undertaken. The whole force of the allies was about +20,000 men, scattered along the seaboard of Peru. The Chileans on the +other hand had a striking force of 16,000 men in the neighbourhood of +Antofagasta, and of this nearly half was embarked for Pisagua on the +26th of October. The expeditionary force landed, in the face of +considerable opposition, on the 2nd of November, and captured Pisagua. +From Pisagua the Peruvians and Bolivians fell back along the railway to +their reinforcements, and when some 10,000 men had been collected they +moved forward to attack the Chilean position of San Francisco near +Dolores station (19th November). In the end the Chileans were +victorious, but their only material gain was the possession of Iquique +and the retreat of the allies, who fell back inland towards Tarapacá. +The tardy pursuit of the Chileans ended in the battle of Tarapacá on the +27th. In this the allies were at first surprised, but, rapidly +recovering themselves, took the offensive, and after a murderous fight, +in which more men were killed than were wounded, the Chileans suffered a +complete defeat. For some inexplicable reason the allies made no use of +their victory, continued to retreat and left the Chileans in complete +possession of the Tarapacá region. With this the campaign of 1879 ended. +Chile had taken possession of the Bolivian seaboard and of the Peruvian +province of Tarapacá, and had destroyed the hostile navy. + + The objective of the Chileans in the second campaign was the province + of Tacna and the field force of the allies at Tacna and Arica. The + invasion was again carried out by sea, and 12,000 Chileans were landed + at Pacocha (Ylo), far to the N. of Arica. Careful preparations were + made for a desert march, and on the 12th of March 1880 the advanced + corps started inland for Moquegua, which was occupied on the 20th. + Near Moquegua the Peruvians, some 2000 strong, took up an unusually + strong position in the defile of Cuesta de los Angeles. But the great + numerical superiority of the assailants enabled them to turn the + flanks and press the front of the Peruvian position, and after a + severe struggle the defence collapsed (March 22nd), In April the army + began its advance southward from Moquegua to Tacna, while the Chilean + warships engaged in a series of minor naval operations in and about + the bay of Callao. Arica was also watched, and the blockade was + extended north of Lima. The land campaign had ere this culminated in + the battle of Tacna (May 26th), in which the Chileans attacked at + first in several disconnected bodies, and suffered severely until all + their forces came on the field. Then a combined advance carried all + before it. The allies engaged under General Narciso Campero, the new + president of Bolivia, lost nearly 3000 men, and the Chileans, + commanded by Manuel Baquedano, lost 2000 out of 8500 on the field. The + defeated army was completely dissolved, and it only remained for the + Chileans to march on Arica from the land side. The navy co-operated + with its long-range guns, on the 7th of June a general assault was + made, and before nightfall the whole of the defences were in the hands + of the Chileans. Their second campaign had given them entire + possession of another strip of Peru (from Pisagua to Ylo), and they + had shown themselves greatly superior, both in courage and leadership, + to their opponents. While the army prepared for the next campaign, the + Chilean navy was active; the blockade became more stringent and + several fights took place, in one of which the "Covadonga" was sunk; + an expeditionary force about 3000 strong, commanded by Patricio Lynch, + a captain in the Chilean navy, carried out successful raids at various + places on the coast and inland. + + The Chilean army was reorganized during the summer, and prepared for + its next operation, this time against Lima itself. General Baquedano + was in command. The leading troops disembarked at Pisco on the 18th of + November 1880, and the whole army was ready to move against the + defences of Lima six weeks later. These defences consisted of two + distinct positions, Chorrillos and Miraflores, the latter being about + 4000 yds. outside Lima. The first line of defence was attacked by + Baquedano on the 13th of January 1881. Reconnaissances proved that the + Peruvian lines could not be turned, and the battle was a pure frontal + attack. The defenders had 22,000 men in the lines, the Chileans + engaged about 24,000. The battle of Chorrillos ended in the complete + defeat of the Peruvians, less than a quarter of whose army rallied + behind the Miraflores defences. The Chileans lost over 3000 men. Two + days later took place the battle of Miraflores (January 15th). Here + the defences were very strong, and the action began with a daring + counter-attack by some Peruvians. Neither party had intended to fight + a battle, for negotiations were in progress, but the action quickly + became general. Its result was, as before, the complete dissolution of + the defending army. Lima, incapable of defence, was occupied by the + invaders on the 17th, and on the 18th Callao surrendered. The + resistance of the Peruvians was so far broken that Chile left only a + small army of occupation to deal with the remnants of their army. The + last engagement took place at Caxacamara in September 1882, when the + Peruvians won an unimportant success. + + See T.B.M. Mason, _The War on the Pacific Coast, 1879-1881_ (U.S. + Office of Naval Intelligence, Washington, 1883); Captain Châteauminois + (transl.), _Mémoire du Ministre de la Guerre du Chili sur la guerre + Chilo-Péruvienne_ (1882); Barros Arana, _Hist. de la guerre du + Pacifique_ (1884); Sir W. Laird Clowes, _Four Modern Naval Campaigns_ + (London, 1902); Anon., _Précis de la guerre du Pacifique_ (Paris, + 1886); Clements R. Markham, _The War between Peru and Chile_. + + + + +CHILIASM (from Gr. [Greek: Chiliasmos, Chilioi], a thousand), the belief +that Christ will return to reign in the body for a thousand years, the +doctrine of the Millennium (q.v.). + + + + +CHILLÁN, a city and the capital of the province of Ñuble, in the +southern part of central Chile, 35° 56' S., 71° 37' W., 246 m. by rail +S.S.W. of Santiago and about 56 m. direct (108 by rail) N.E. of +Concepción. Pop. (1895) 28,738; (1902, official estimate) 36,382. +Chillán is one of the most active commercial cities of central Chile, +and is surrounded by a rich agricultural and grazing country. Chillán +was founded by Ruiz de Gambôa in 1594. Its present site was chosen in +1836. The original site, known as Chillán Viejo, forms a suburb of the +new city. The hot sulphur springs of Chillán, which were discovered in +1795, are about 45 m. E.S.E. They issue from the flanks of the "Volcan +Viejo," about 7000 ft. above sea-level. The highest temperature of the +water issuing from these springs is a little over 135°. The principal +volcanoes of the Chillán group are the Nevado (9528 ft.) and the Viejo. +After a repose of about two centuries the Nevado de Chillán broke out in +eruption early in 1861 and caused great destruction. The eruption ceased +in 1863, but broke out again in 1864. + + + + +CHILLIANWALLA, a village of British India in the Punjab, situated on the +left bank of the river Jhelum, about 85 m. N.W. of Lahore. It is +memorable as the scene of a battle on the 13th of January 1849, between +a British force commanded by Lord Gough and the Sikh army under Sher +Singh. The loss of the Sikhs was estimated at 4000, while that of the +British in killed and wounded amounted to 2800, of whom nearly 1000 were +Europeans and 89 were British and 43 native officers. An obelisk +erected at Chillianwalla by the British government preserves the names +of those who fell. + +CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Livingston county, Missouri, +U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state, on the Grand river, about +80 m. N.E. of Kansas City. Pop. (1890) 5717; (1900) 6905 (538 negroes); +(1910) 6265. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the +Wabash, and the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. There are various +manufactures. Coal and limestone are found in the vicinity, and much +live stock is raised, wool and hides being shipped from Chillicothe. +Chillicothe was settled about 1830, and the town was laid out in 1837 on +land granted directly by the Federal government; it was incorporated in +1855. + + + + +CHILLICOTHE, a city and the county-seat of Ross county, Ohio, U.S.A., on +the W. bank of the Scioto river, on the Ohio & Erie Canal, about 50 m. +S. of Columbus. Pop. (1890) 11,288; (1900) 12,976, of whom 986 were +negroes, and 910 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,508. Chillicothe is +served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western (which has railway shops +here), and other railways. The city has two parks. There are several +ancient mounds in the vicinity. Chillicothe is built on a plain about 30 +ft. above the river, in the midst of a fertile agricultural region, and +has a large trade in grain and coal, and in manufactures. The value of +the city's factory products increased from $1,615,959 in 1900 to +$3,146,890 in 1905, or 94.7%. Chillicothe was founded in 1796, and was +first incorporated in 1802. In 1800-1803 it was the capital of the +North-West Territory, and in 1803-1810 and 1812-1816 the capital of +Ohio. Three Indian villages bore the name Chillicothe, each being in +turn the chief town of the Chillicothe, one of the four tribal divisions +of the Shawnee, in their retreat before the whites; the village near +what is now Oldtown in Greene county was destroyed by George Rogers +Clark in 1780; that in Miami county, where Piqua is now, was destroyed +by Clark in 1782; and the Indian village near the present Chillicothe +was destroyed in 1787 by Kentuckians. + + See Henry Howe, _Historical Collections of Ohio_ (Columbus, 1891). + + + + +CHILLINGWORTH, WILLIAM (1602-1644), English divine and controversialist, +was born at Oxford in October 1602. In June 1618 he became a scholar of +Trinity College, Oxford, and was made a fellow of his college in June +1628. He had some reputation as a skilful disputant, excelled in +mathematics, and gained some credit as a writer of verses. The marriage +of Charles I. with Henrietta Maria of France had stimulated the +propaganda of the Roman Catholic Church, and the Jesuits made the +universities their special point of attack. One of them, "John Fisher," +who had his sphere at Oxford, succeeded in making a convert of young +Chillingworth, and prevailed upon him to go to the Jesuit college at +Douai. Influenced, however, by his godfather, Laud, then bishop of +London, he resolved to make an impartial inquiry into the claims of the +two churches. After a short stay he left Douai in 1631 and returned to +Oxford. On grounds of Scripture and reason he at length declared for +Protestantism, and wrote in 1634, but did not publish, a confutation of +the motives which had led him over to Rome. This paper was lost; the +other, on the same subject, was probably written on some other occasion +at the request of his friends. He would not, however, take orders. His +theological sensitiveness appears in his refusal of a preferment offered +to him in 1635 by Sir Thomas Coventry, lord keeper of the great seal. He +was in difficulty about subscribing the Thirty-nine Articles. As he +informed Gilbert Sheldon, then warden of All Souls, in a letter, he was +fully resolved on two points--that to say that the Fourth Commandment is +a law of God appertaining to Christians is false and unlawful, and that +the damnatory clauses in the Athanasian Creed are most false, and in a +high degree presumptuous and schismatical. To subscribe, therefore, he +felt would be to "subscribe his own damnation." At this time his +principal work was far towards completion. It was undertaken in defence +of Dr Christopher Potter, provost of Queen's College in Oxford, who had +for some time been carrying on a controversy with a Jesuit known as +Edward Knott, but whose real name was Matthias Wilson. Potter had +replied in 1633 to Knott's _Charity Mistaken_ (1630), and Knott +retaliated with _Mercy and Truth_. This work Chillingworth engaged to +answer, and Knott, hearing of his intention and hoping to bias the +public mind, hastily brought out a pamphlet tending to show that +Chillingworth was a Socinian who aimed at perverting not only +Catholicism but Christianity. + +Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury, was not a little solicitous about +Chillingworth's reply to Knott, and at his request, as "the young man +had given cause why a more watchful eye should be held over him and his +writings," it was examined by the vice-chancellor of Oxford and two +professors of divinity, and published with their approbation in 1637, +with the title _The Religion of Protestants a Safe Way to Salvation_. +The main argument is a vindication of the sole authority of the Bible in +spiritual matters, and of the free right of the individual conscience to +interpret it. In the preface Chillingworth expresses his new view about +subscription to the articles. "For the Church of England," he there +says, "I am persuaded that the constant doctrine of it is so pure and +orthodox, that whosoever believes it, and lives according to it, +undoubtedly he shall be saved, and that there is no error in it which +may necessitate or warrant any man to disturb the peace or renounce the +communion of it. This, in my opinion, is all intended by subscription." +His scruples having thus been overcome, he was, in the following year +(1638), promoted to the chancellorship of the church of Sarum, with the +prebend of Brixworth in Northamptonshire annexed to it. In the great +civil struggle he used his pen against the Scots, and was in the king's +army at the siege of Gloucester, inventing certain engines for +assaulting the town. Shortly afterwards he accompanied Lord Hopton, +general of the king's troops in the west, in his march; and, being laid +up with illness at Arundel Castle, he was there taken prisoner by the +parliamentary forces under Sir William Waller. As he was unable to go to +London with the garrison, he was conveyed to Chichester, and died there +in January 1644. His last days were harassed by the diatribes of the +Puritan preacher, Francis Cheynell. + + Besides his principal work, Chillingworth wrote a number of smaller + anti-Jesuit papers published in the posthumous _Additional Discourses_ + (1687), and nine of his sermons have been preserved. In politics he + was a zealous Royalist, asserting that even the unjust and tyrannous + violence of princes may not be resisted, although it might be avoided + in terms of the instruction, "when they persecute you in one city, + flee into another." His writings long enjoyed a high popularity. The + _Religion of Protestants_ is characterized by much fairness and + acuteness of argument, and was commended by Locke as a discipline of + "perspicuity and the way of right reasoning." The charge of + Socinianism was frequently brought against him, but, as Tillotson + thought, "for no other cause but his worthy and successful attempts to + make the Christian religion reasonable." His creed, and the whole gist + of his argument, is expressed in a single sentence, "I am fully + assured that God does not, and therefore that men ought not to, + require any more of any man than this, to believe the Scripture to be + God's word, and to endeavour to find the true sense of it, and to live + according to it." + + A _Life_ by Rev. T. Birch was prefixed to the 1742 edition of + Chillingworth's _Works_. + + + + +CHILOÉ (from _Chile_ and _hué_, "part of Chile"), a province of southern +Chile, and also the name of a large island off the Chilean coast forming +part of the province. The province, area 8593 sq. m., pop. (1895) +77,750, is composed of three groups of islands, Chiloé, Guaitecas and +Chonos, and extends from the narrow strait of Chacao in 41° 40' S. to +the peninsula of Taytao, about 45° 45' S. The population is composed +mainly of Indians, distantly related to the tribes of the mainland, and +mestizos. The capital of the province is Ancud or San Carlos, at the +northern end of the island of Chiloé, on the sheltered bay of San +Carlos, once frequented by whalers. It is the seat of a bishopric; pop. +(1905) 3182. Other towns are Castro, the former capital, on the eastern +shore of Chiloé, and the oldest town of the island (founded 1566), once +the seat of a Jesuit mission, and Melinca on an island of the Guaitecas +group. + + The island of Chiloé, which lies immediately south of the province of + Llanquihue, is a continuation of the western Chilean formation, the + coast range appearing in the mountainous range of western Chiloé and + the islands extending south along the coast. Between this coast range + and the Andes, the gulfs of Chacao, or Ancud and Corcovado (average + width, 30 m.) separate the island from the mainland. Chiloé has an + extreme length north to south of about 118 m., and an average width of + 35 to 40 m., with an area of about 4700 sq. m. There are several lakes + on the island--Cucao, 12 m. long, being the largest,--and one small + river, the Pudeto, in the northern part of the island, is celebrated + as the scene of the last engagement in the war for independence, the + Spanish retaining possession of Chiloé until 1826. + + + + +CHILON, of Sparta, son of Damagetus, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, +flourished about the beginning of the 6th century B.C. In 560 (or 556) +he acted as ephor, an office which he is even said to have founded. The +tradition was that he died of joy on hearing that his son had gained a +prize at the Olympic games. According to Chilon, the great virtue of man +was prudence, or well-grounded judgment as to future events. + + A collection of the sayings attributed to him will be found in F.W. + Mullach, _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, i.; see Herodotus i. 69; + Diogenes Laertius i. 68; Pausanias iii. 16, x. 24. + + + + +CHILPERIC, the name of two Frankish kings. + + +CHILPERIC I. (d. 584) was one of the sons of Clotaire I. Immediately +after the death of his father in 561 he endeavoured to take possession +of the whole kingdom, seized the treasure amassed in the royal town of +Berny and entered Paris. His brothers, however, compelled him to divide +the kingdom with them, and Soissons, together with Amiens, Arras, +Cambrai, Thérouanne, Tournai and Boulogne, fell to Chilperic's share, +but on the death of Charibert in 567 his estates were augmented. When +his brother Sigebert married Brunhilda, Chilperic also wished to make a +brilliant marriage. He had already repudiated his first wife, Audovera, +and had taken as his concubine a serving-woman called Fredegond. He +accordingly dismissed Fredegond, and married Brunhilda's sister, +Galswintha. But he soon tired of his new partner, and one morning +Galswintha was found strangled in her bed. A few days afterwards +Chilperic married Fredegond. This murder was the cause of long and +bloody wars, interspersed with truces, between Chilperic and Sigebert. +In 575 Sigebert was assassinated by Fredegond at the very moment when he +had Chilperic at his mercy. Chilperic retrieved his position, took from +Austrasia Tours and Poitiers and some places in Aquitaine, and fostered +discord in the kingdom of the east during the minority of Childebert II. +One day, however, while returning from the chase to the town of Chelles, +Chilperic was stabbed to death. + +Chilperic may be regarded as the type of Merovingian sovereigns. He was +exceedingly anxious to extend the royal authority. He levied numerous +imposts, and his fiscal measures provoked a great sedition at Limoges in +579. He wished to bring about the subjection of the church, and to this +end sold bishoprics to the highest bidder, annulled the wills made in +favour of the bishoprics and abbeys, and sought to impose upon his +subjects a rationalistic conception of the Trinity. He pretended to some +literary culture, and was the author of some halting verse. He even +added letters to the Latin alphabet, and wished to have the MSS. +rewritten with the new characters. The wresting of Tours from Austrasia +and the seizure of ecclesiastical property provoked the bitter hatred of +Gregory of Tours, by whom Chilperic was stigmatized as the Nero and the +Herod of his time. + + See Sérésia, _L'Église et l'État sous les rois francs au VIe siècle_ + (Ghent, 1888). + + +CHILPERIC II. (d. 720) was the son of Childeric II. He became king of +Neustria in 715, on which occasion he changed his name from Daniel to +Chilperic. At first he was a tool in the hands of Ragenfrid, the mayor +of the palace. Charles Martel, however, overthrew Ragenfrid, accepted +Chilperic as king of Neustria, and, on the death of Clotaire IV., set +him over the whole kingdom. The young king died soon afterwards. + (C. PF.) + + + + +CHILTERN HILLS, or THE CHILTERNS, a range of chalk hills in England, +extending through part of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire and Bedfordshire. +Running from S.W. to N.E., they form a well-marked escarpment +north-westward, while the south-eastern slope is long. The name of +Chilterns is applied to the hills between the Thames in the +neighbourhood of Goring and the headwaters of its tributary the Lea +between Dunstable and Hitchin, the crest line between these points being +about 55 m. in length. But these hills are part of a larger chalk +system, continuing the line of the White Horse Hills from Berkshire, and +themselves continued eastward by the East Anglian ridge. The greatest +elevation of the Chilterns is found in the centre from Watlington to +Tring, where heights from 800 to 850 ft. are frequent. Westward towards +the Thames gap the elevation falls away but little, but eastward the +East Anglian ridge does not often exceed 500 ft., though it continues +the northward escarpment across Hertfordshire. There are several passes +through the Chilterns, followed by main roads and railways converging on +London, which lies in the basin of which these hills form part of the +northern rim. The most remarkable passes are those near Tring, Wendover +and Prince's Risborough, the floors of which are occupied by the gravels +of former rivers. The Chilterns were formerly covered with a forest of +beech, and there is still a local supply of this wood for the +manufacture of chairs and other articles in the neighbourhood of +Wycombe. + + + + +CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An old principle of English parliamentary law +declared that a member of the House of Commons, once duly chosen, could +not _resign_ his seat. This rule was a relic of the days when the local +gentry had to be compelled to serve in parliament. The only method, +therefore, of avoiding the rule came to be by accepting an office of +profit from the crown, a statute of 1707 enacting that every member +accepting an office of profit from the crown should thereby vacate his +seat, but should be capable of re-election, unless the office in +question had been created since 1705, or had been otherwise declared to +disqualify for a seat in parliament. Among the posts of profit held by +members of the House of Commons in the first half of the 18th century +are to be found the names of several crown stewardships, which +apparently were not regarded as places of profit under the crown within +the meaning of the act of 1707, for no seats were vacated by appointment +to them. The first instance of the acceptance of such a stewardship +vacating a seat was in 1740, when the house decided that Sir W.W. Wynn, +on inheriting from his father, in virtue of a royal grant, the +stewardship of the lordship and manor of Bromfield and Yale, had _ipso +facto_ vacated his seat. On the passing of the Place Act of 1742, the +idea of utilizing the appointment to certain crown stewardships +(possibly suggested by Sir W.W. Wynn's case) as a pretext for enabling a +member to resign his seat was carried into practice. These nominal +stewardships were eight in number, but only two survived to be used in +this way in contemporary practice--those of the Chilterns and +Northstead; and when a member wished to vacate his seat, he was +accordingly spoken of as taking the Chiltern Hundreds. + + 1. _Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, County Bucks._--The + Chiltern Hundreds formed a bailiwick of the ordinary type. They are + situated on the Chiltern Hills, and the depredations of the bandits, + who found shelter within their recesses, became at an early period so + alarming that a special officer, known as the steward of the Chiltern + Hundreds, was appointed for the protection of the inhabitants of the + neighbouring districts. It is doubtful at what date the necessity for + such an appointment disappeared, but the three hundreds of Stoke, + Burnham and Desborough are still distinguished by the old name. The + appointment of steward was first used for parliamentary purposes in + 1750, the appointment being made by the chancellor of the exchequer + (and at his discretion to grant or not), and the warrant bestowing on + the holder "all wages, fees, allowances and other privileges and + pre-eminences." Up to the 19th century there was a nominal salary of + 20s. attached to the post. It was laid down in 1846 by the chancellor + of the exchequer that the Chilterns could not be granted to more than + one person in the same day, but this rule has not been strictly + adhered to, for on four occasions subsequent to 1850 the Chilterns + were granted twice on the same day. The Chilterns might be granted to + members whether they had taken the oath or not, or during a recess, + though in this case a new writ could not be issued until the House met + again. Each new warrant expressly revoked the grant to the last + holder, the new steward retaining it in his turn until another should + be appointed. + + 2. _Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of East Hundred, or Hendred, + Berks._--This stewardship was first used for parliamentary purposes in + 1763, and was in more or less constant use until 1840, after which it + disappeared. This manor comprised copyholds, the usual courts were + held, and the stewardship was an actual and active office, the duties + being executed by a deputy steward. The manor was sold by public + auction in 1823 for £910, but in some manner the crown retained the + right of appointing a steward for seventeen years after that date. + + 3. _Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead, Yorkshire._--This + manor was crown property before 1750, but was in lease until 1838. It + has no copyhold lands, nor are there any records of manor courts. + There are no traces of any profits having ever been derived from the + office. It was used for parliamentary purposes in 1844 and + subsequently. + + 4. _Steward of the Manor of Hempholme, Yorkshire._--This manor appears + to have been of the same nature as that of Northstead. It was in lease + until 1835. It was first used for parliamentary purposes in 1845 and + was in constant use until 1865. It was sold in 1866. + + 5. _Escheator of Munster._--Escheators were officers commissioned to + secure the rights of the crown over property which had legally + escheated to it. In Ireland mention is made of escheators as early as + 1256. In 1605 the escheatorship of Ireland was split up into four, one + for each province, but the duties soon became practically nominal. The + escheatorship of Munster was first used for parliamentary purposes in + the Irish parliament from 1793 to 1800, and in the united parliament + (24 times for Irish seats and once for a Scottish seat) from 1801 to + 1820. After 1820 it was discontinued and finally abolished in 1838. + + 6. _Steward of the Manor of Old Shoreham, Sussex._--This manor + belonged to the duchy of Cornwall, and it is difficult to understand + how it came to be regarded as a crown appointment. It was first used + for parliamentary purposes in 1756, and then, occasionally, until + 1799, in which year it was sold by the duchy to the duke of Norfolk. + + 7. _Steward of the Manor of Poynings, Sussex._--This manor reverted to + the crown on the death of Lord Montague about 1804, but was leased up + to about 1835. It was only twice used for parliamentary purposes, in + 1841 and 1843. + + 8. _Escheator of Ulster._--This appointment was used in the united + parliament three times, for Irish seats only; the last time in 1819. + + See parliamentary paper--_Report from the Select Committee on House of + Commons (Vacating of Seats)_ (1894). (T.A.I.) + + + + +CHILWA (incorrectly SHIRWA), a shallow lake in south-east Africa, S.S.E. +of Lake Nyasa, cut by 35°20'E., and lying between 15° and 15°35'S. The +lake is undergoing a process of desiccation, and in some dry seasons (as +in 1879 and 1903) the "open water" is reduced to a number of large +pools. Formerly the lake seems to have found an outlet northwards to the +Lujenda branch of the Rovuma, but with the sinking of its level it is +now separated from the Lujenda by a wooded ridge some 30 to 40 ft. above +the surrounding plains. There are four islands, the largest rising 500 +ft. above the water. The lake was discovered by David Livingstone in +1859 and was by him called Shirwa, from a mishearing of the native name. + + + + +CHIMAERA, in Greek mythology, a fire-breathing female monster resembling +a lion in the fore part, a goat in the middle, and a dragon behind +(_Iliad_, vi. 179), with three heads corresponding. She devastated Caria +and Lycia until she was finally slain by Bellerophon (see H.A. Fischer, +_Bellerophon_, 1851). The origin of the myth was the volcanic nature of +the soil of Lycia (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 110; Servius on _Aeneid_, vi. +288), where works have been found containing representations of the +Chimaera in the simple form of a lion. In modern art the Chimaera is +usually represented as a lion, with a goat's head in the middle of the +back, as in the bronze Chimaera of Arezzo (5th century). The word is now +used generally to denote a fantastic idea or fiction of the imagination. + + + + +CHIMAY, a town in the extreme south-east of the province of Hainaut, +Belgium, dating from the 7th century. Pop. (1904) 3383. It is more +commonly spoken of as being in the district _entre Sambre et Meuse_. +Owing to its proximity to the French frontier it has undergone many +sieges, the last of which was in 1640, when Turenne gave orders that it +should be reduced to such ruin that it could never stand another. The +town is chiefly famous for the castle and park that bear its name. +Originally a stronghold of the Cröy family, it has passed through the +D'Arenbergs to its present owners, the princes of Caraman-Chimay. The +castle, which before Turenne's order to demolish it possessed seven +towers, has now only one in ruins, and a modern château was built in the +Tudor style in the 18th century. This domain carried with it the right +to one of the twelve peerages of Hainaut. Madame Tallien, daughter of Dr +Cabarrus, the Lady of Thermidor, married as her second husband the +prince de Chimay, and held her little court here down to her death in +1835. There is a memorial to her in the church, which also contains a +fine monument of Phillippe de Cröy, chamberlain and comrade in arms of +the emperor Charles V. John Froissart the chronicler died and was buried +here. There is a statue in his honour on the Grand Place. Chimay is +situated on a stream called the White Water, which in its lower course +becomes the Viroin and joins the Meuse. + + + + +CHIME, (1) (Probably derived from a mistaken separation into two words, +_chimbe bell_, of _chymbal_ or _chymbel_, the old form of "cymbal," Lat. +_cymbalum_), a mechanical arrangement by which a set of bells in a +church or other tower, or in a clock, are struck so as to produce a +sequence of musical sounds or a tune. For the mechanism of such an +arrangement in a clock and in a set of bells, see the articles CLOCK and +BELL. The word is also applied to the tune thus played by the bells and +also to the harmonious "fall" of verse, and so, figuratively, to any +harmonious agreement of thought or action. (2) (From Mid. Eng. _chimb_, +a word meaning "edge," common in varied forms to Teutonic languages, cf. +Ger. _Kimme_), the bevelled rim formed by the projecting staves at the +ends of a cask. + + + + +CHIMERE (Lat. _chimera, chimaera_; O. Fr. _chamarre_, Mod. Fr. +_simarre_; Ital. _zimarra_; cf. Span. _zamarra_, a sheepskin coat; +possibly derived ultimately from Gr. [Greek: cheimerios], "wintry," i.e. +a winter overcoat), in modern English use the name of a garment worn as +part of the ceremonial dress of Anglican bishops. It is a long +sleeveless gown of silk or satin, open down the front, gathered in at +the back between the shoulders, and with slits for the arms. It is worn +over the rochet (q.v.), and its colour is either black or scarlet +(convocation robes). By a late abuse the sleeves of the rochet were, +from motives of convenience, sometimes attached to the chimere. The +origin of the chimere has been the subject of much debate; but the view +that it is a modification of the cope (q.v.) is now discarded, and it is +practically proved to be derived from the medieval tabard (_tabardum, +taberda_ or _collobium_), an upper garment worn in civil life by all +classes of people both in England and abroad. It has therefore a common +origin with certain academic robes (see ROBES, § _Academic dress_). + +The word "chimere," which first appears in England in the 14th century, +was sometimes applied not only to the tabard worn over the rochet, but +to the sleeved cassock worn under it. Thus Archbishop Scrope is +described as wearing when on his way to execution (1405) a blue chimere +with sleeves. But the word properly applies to the sleeveless tabard +which tended to supersede, from the 15th century onwards, the +inconvenient _cappa clausa_ (a long closed cloak with a slit in front +for the arms) as the out-of-doors upper garment of bishops. These +chimeres, the colours of which (murrey, scarlet, green, &c.) may +possibly have denoted academical rank, were part of the civil costume of +prelates. Thus in the inventory of Walter Skirlawe, bishop of Durham +(1405-1406), eight chimeres of various colours are mentioned, including +two for riding (_pro equitatura_). The chimere was, moreover, a cold +weather garment. In summer its place was taken by the tippet. + +In the Anglican form for the consecration of bishops the newly +consecrated prelate, hitherto vested in rochet, is directed to put on +"the rest of the episcopal habit," i.e. the chimere. The robe has thus +become in the Church of England symbolical of the episcopal office, and +is in effect a liturgical vestment. The rubric containing this direction +was added to the Book of Common Prayer in 1662; and there is proof that +the development of the chimere into at least a choir vestment was +subsequent to the Reformation. Foxe, indeed, mentions that Hooper at his +consecration wore "a long scarlet chymere down to the foot" (_Acts and +Mon._, ed. 1563, p. 1051), a source of trouble to himself and of scandal +to other extreme reformers; but that this was no more than the full +civil dress of a bishop is proved by the fact that Archbishop Parker at +his consecration wore surplice and tippet, and only put on the chimere, +when the service was over, to go away in. This civil quality of the +garment still survives alongside the other; the full dress of an +Anglican prelate at civil functions of importance (e.g. in parliament, +or at court) is still rochet and chimere. + + The continental equivalent of the chimere is the _zimarra_ or + _simarre_, which is defined by foreign ecclesiologists (Moroni, + Barbier de Montault) as a kind of _soutane_ (cassock), from which it + is distinguished by having a small cape and short, open arms + (_manches-fausses_) reaching to the middle of the upper arm and + decorated with buttons. In France and Germany it is fitted more or + less to the figure; in Italy it is wider and falls down straight in + front. Like the _soutane_, the _zimarra_ is not proper to any + particular rank of clergy, but in the case of bishops and prelates it + is ornamented with red buttons and bindings. It never has a train + (_cauda_). It is not universally worn, e.g. in Germany apparently only + by prelates. G. Moroni identifies the _zimarra_ with the _epitogium_ + which Domenico Magri, in his _Hierolexicon_ (ed. 1677), calls the + uppermost garment of the clergy, worn over the _soutane_ (_toga_) + instead of the _mantellum_ (_vestis suprema clericorum loco pallii_), + with a cross-reference to _Tabardum_, the "usual" upper garment + (_pallium usuale_); and this definition is repeated in the 8th edition + of the work (1732). From this it appears that so late as the middle of + the 18th century the _zimarra_ was still in common use as an + out-of-doors overcoat. But, according to Moroni, by the latter half of + the 19th century the _zimarra_, though still worn by certain civilians + (e.g. notaries and students), had become in Italy chiefly the domestic + garment of the clergy, notably of superiors, parish priests, rectors, + certain regulars, priests of congregations, bishops, prelates and + cardinals. It was worn also by the Roman senators, and is still worn + by university professors. A black _zimarra_ lined with white, and + sometimes ornamented with a white binding and gold tassels, is worn by + the pope. + + More analogous to the Anglican chimere in shape, though not in + significance, is the purple _mantelletum_ worn over the rochet by + bishops, and by others authorized to wear the episcopal insignia, in + presence of the pope or his legates. This symbolizes the temporary + suspension of the episcopal jurisdiction (symbolized by the rochet) so + long as the pope or his representative is present. Thus at the Curia + cardinals and prelates wear the _mantelletum_, while the pope wears + the _zimarra_, and the first act of the cardinal camerlengo after the + pope's death is to expose his rochet by laying aside the + _mantelletum_, the other cardinals following his example, as a symbol + that during the vacancy of the papacy the pope's jurisdiction is + vested in the Sacred College. On the analogy of the _mantelletum_ + certain Anglican prelates, American and colonial, have from time to + time appeared in purple chimeres; which, as the Rev. N.F. Robinson + justly points out, is a most unhappy innovation, since it has no + historical justification, and its symbolism is rather unfortunate. + + AUTHORITIES.--See the _Report_ of the sub-committee of Convocation on + the ornaments of the church and its ministers, p. 31 (London, 1908); + the Rev. N.F. Robinson, "The black chimere of Anglican Prelates: a + plea for its retention and proper use," in _Transactions of the St + Paul's Ecclesiological Soc._ vol. iv. pp. 181-220 (London, 1898); + Herbert Druitt, _Costume on Brasses_ (London, 1906); G. Moroni, + _Dizionario dell' erudizione storico-ecclesiastica_ (Venice, 1861), + vol. 103, s.v. "Zimarra": X. Barbier de Montault, _Traité pratique de + la construction, &c., des églises_, ii. 538 (Paris, 1878). (W. A. P.) + + + + +CHIMESYAN (_Tsimshian_), a tribe of North American Indians, now some +3000 in number, living around the mouth of the Skeena river, British +Columbia, and on the islands near the coast. They are a powerfully built +people, who tattoo and wear labrets and rings in noses and ears. They +are skilful fishermen, and live in large communal houses. They are +divided into clans and distinct social orders. + + + + +CHIMKENT, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of Syr-darya, 70 m. +by rail N.N.E. of Tashkent. Pop. (1897) 10,756, mostly Sarts. It +occupies a strategical position at the west end of the valley between +the Alexander range and the Ala-tau (or Talas-tau), at the meeting of +commercial routes from (1) Vyernyi and Siberia beyond, from the +north-east, (2) the Aral Sea and Orenburg (connected with it by rail +since 1905) to the north-west, and (3) Ferghana and Bokhara to the +south. The citadel, which was stormed by the Russians in 1864, stands on +high ground above the town, but is now in ruins. Chimkent is visited by +consumptive patients who wish to try the koumiss cure. It has cotton +mills and soap-works. + + + + +CHIMNEY (through the Fr. _cheminée_, from _caminata_, sc. _camera_, a +Lat. derivative of _caminus_, an oven or furnace), in architecture, that +portion of a building, rising above the roof, in which are the flues +conveying the smoke to the outer air. Originally the term included the +fireplace as well as the chimney shaft. At Rochester Castle (1130) and +Heddington, Essex, there were no external chimney shafts, and the flue +was carried through the wall at some height above the fireplace. In the +early examples the chimney shaft was circular, with one flue only, and +was terminated with a conical cap, the smoke issuing from openings in +the side, which at Sherborne Abbey (A.D. 1300) were treated +decoratively. It was not till the 15th century that the smoke issued at +the top, and later in the century that more than one flue was carried up +in the same shaft. There are a few examples of the clustered shaft in +stone, but as a rule they are contemporaneous with the general use of +brick. The brick chimney shafts, of which there are fine specimens at +Hampton Court, were richly decorated with chevrons and other geometrical +patterns. One of the best examples is that at Thornton Castle, +Gloucestershire. + +In the 15th and 16th centuries in France the chimney shaft was +recognized as an important architectural feature, and was of +considerable elevation in consequence of the great height of the roofs. +In the château of Meillant (1503) the chimney shafts are decorated with +angle buttresses, niches and canopies, in the late Flamboyant style; and +at Chambord and Blois they are carved with pilasters and niches with +panelling above, carved with the salamander and other armorial devices. +In the Roman palaces they are sometimes masked by the balustrades, and +(when shown) take the form of sepulchral urns, as if to disguise their +real purpose. Though not of a very architectural character, the chimneys +at Venice present perhaps the greatest variety of terminations, and as a +rule the smoke comes out on the sides and not through the top. + (R. P. S.) + + _Factory Chimneys_.--Chimneys, besides removing the products of + combustion, also serve to provide the fire with the air requisite for + burning the fuel. The hot air in the shaft, being lighter than the + cold air outside it, tends to rise, and as it does so air flows in at + the bottom to take its place. An ascending current is thus established + in the chimney, its velocity, other things being equal, varying as the + square root of the height of the shaft above the grate. The velocity + also increases with increase of temperature in the gas column, but + since the weight of each cubic foot grows less as the gases expand, + the amount of smoke discharged by a chimney does not increase + indefinitely with the temperature; a maximum is reached when the + difference in temperature between the gases in the shaft and the + outside air is about 600° F., but the rate of increase is very slow + after the difference has passed about 300° F. In designing a chimney + the dimensions (height and sectional area) have to be so proportioned + to the amount of fuel to be burnt in the various furnaces connected + with it that at the temperature employed the products of combustion + are effectively removed, due allowance being made for the frictional + retardation of the current against the sides of the flues and shafts + and in passing through the fire. The velocity of the current in actual + chimneys varies widely, from 3 or 4 to 50 or 60 ft. a second. + Increased velocity, obtainable by increasing the height of the shaft, + gives increased delivering capacity, but a speed of 10 or 12 ft. a + second is regarded as good practice. Ordinary factory chimneys do not + in general exceed 180 or 200 ft. in height, but in some cases, + especially when, as in chemical works, they are employed to get rid of + objectionable vapours, they have been made double that height, or even + more. In section they are round, octagonal or square. The circular + form offers the least resistance to wind pressure, and for a given + height and sectional area requires less material to secure stability + than the octagonal and still less than the square; on the other hand, + there is more liability to cracking. Brick is the material commonly + used, but many chimneys are now made of iron or steel. Reinforced + concrete is also employed. + + + + +CHIMNEYPIECE, the term given to the projecting hood which in medieval +times was built over a fireplace to catch the smoke, and at a later date +to the decorative framework, often carried up to the ceiling. +"Chimneypiece" or "mantelpiece" is now the general term for the jambs, +mantelshelf and external accessories of a fireplace. For many centuries +the chimneypiece was the most ornamental and most artistic feature of a +room, but as fireplaces have become smaller, and modern methods of +heating have been introduced, its artistic as well as its practical +significance has grown less. + + Up to the 12th century rooms were warmed entirely by a hypocaust, or + with braziers, or by fires on the hearth, the smoke finding its way up + to a lantern in the roof. The earliest chimneypiece known is that in + the King's House at Southampton, with Norman shafts in the joints + carrying a segmental arch, which is attributed to the first half of + the 12th century. At a later date, in consequence of the greater width + of the fireplace, flat or segmental arches were thrown across and + constructed with voussoirs, sometimes joggled, the thrust of the arch + being resisted by bars of iron at the back. In domestic work of the + 14th century the chimneypiece was greatly increased in order to allow + of the members of the family sitting on either side of the fire on the + hearth, and in these cases great beams of timber were employed to + carry the hood; in such cases the fireplace was so deeply recessed as + to become externally an important architectural feature, as at Haddon + Hall. The largest chimneypiece existing is in the great hall of the + Palais des Comtes at Poitiers, which is nearly 30 ft. wide, having two + intermediate supports to carry the hood; the stone flues are carried + up between the tracery of an immense window above. In the early + Renaissance style, the chimneypiece of the Palais de Justice at Bruges + is a magnificent example; the upper portion, carved in oak, extends + the whole width of the room, with statues of nearly life size of + Charles V. and others of the royal family of Spain. The most prolific + modern designer of chimneypieces was J.B. Piranesi, who in 1765 + published a large series, on which at a later date the Empire style in + France was based. In France the finest work of the early Renaissance + period is to be found in the chimneypieces, which are of infinite + variety of design. + + The English chimneypieces of the early 17th century, when the purer + Italian style was introduced by Inigo Jones, were extremely simple in + design, sometimes consisting only of the ordinary mantelpiece, with + classic architraves and shelf, the upper part of the chimney breast + being panelled like the rest of the room. In the latter part of the + century the classic architrave was abandoned in favour of a much + bolder and more effective moulding, as in the chimneypieces at Hampton + Court, and the shelf was omitted. + + In the 18th century the architects returned to the Inigo Jones classic + type, but influenced by the French work of Louis XIV. and XV. Figure + sculpture, generally represented by graceful figures on each side, + which assisted to carry the shelf, was introduced, and the overmantel + developed into an elaborate frame for the family portrait over the + chimneypiece. Towards the close of the 18th century the designs of the + brothers Adam superseded all others, and a century later they came + again into fashion. The Adam mantels are in wood enriched with + ornament, cast in moulds, sometimes copied from the carved wood + decoration of old times. (R. P. S.) + + + + +CHIMPANZEE (_Chimpanzi_), the vernacular name of the highest species of +the man-like apes, forming the typical representatives of the genus +_Anthropopithecus_. Chimpanzees, of which there appear to be at least +two species, range through the tropical forest-zone of Africa from the +west coast to Uganda. The typical _A. troglodytes_ has been long known +to European science, Dr Tyson, a celebrated surgeon and anatomist of his +time, having dissected a young individual, and described it, as a pigmy +or _Homo sylvestris_, in a book published in 1699. Of this baby +chimpanzee the skeleton may be seen in the Natural History branch of the +British Museum alongside the volume in which it is described. It was +not, however, till 1788 that the chimpanzee received what is now +recognized as a scientific name, having been christened in that year +_Simia troglodytes_ by the naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin. In his +classification it was included in the same genus as the orang-utan; and +it has recently been suggested that the name _Simia_ pertains of right +to the chimpanzee rather than to the orang-utan. Between the typical +West African chimpanzee and the gorilla (q.v.) there is no difficulty in +drawing a distinction; the difficulty comes in when we have to deal with +the aberrant races, or species, of chimpanzee, some of which are so +gorilla-like that it is by no means easy to determine to which group +they really pertain. In height the adult male chimpanzee of the typical +form does not exceed 5 ft., and the colour of the hair is a full black, +while the skin, especially that of the face, is light-coloured; the ears +are remarkably large and prominent, and the hands reach only a short +distance below the knees. The head is rounded and short, without +prominent beetling ridges above the eyes, or a strong crest along the +middle line of the back of the skull; and the tusks of the old males are +of no very great length and prominence. Moreover, there is no very +marked difference in the size of the two sexes. Gentleness and docility +are specially characteristic of the species, even when full-grown; while +in the native state its habits are thoroughly arboreal. + + In central Africa the chimpanzees assume more or less marked + gorilla-like traits. The first of these aberrant types is + Schweinfurth's chimpanzee (_Anthropopithecus troglodytes + schweinfurthi_), which inhabits the Niam-Niam country, and, although + evidently belonging to the same species as the typical race, exhibits + certain gorilla-like features. These traits are still more developed + in the bald chimpanzee (_A. tschego_) of Loango, the Gabun, and other + regions of French Congo, which takes its English name from the sparse + covering of hair on the head. The most gorilla-like of all the races + is, however, the kulu-kamba chimpanzee (_A. kulu-kamba_) of du + Chaillu, which inhabits central Africa. The celebrated ape "Mafuka," + which lived in the Dresden zoological gardens during 1875, and came + from Loango, was apparently a member of this species, although it was + at one time regarded as a hybrid between a chimpanzee and a gorilla. + These gorilla-like traits were still more pronounced in "Johanna," a + female chimpanzee living in Barnum & Bailey's show in 1899, which has + been described and figured by Dr A. Keith. The heavy ridges over the + brow, originally supposed to be distinctive of the gorilla, are + particularly well marked in "Johanna," and they would doubtless be + still more noticeable in the male of the same race, which seems to be + undoubtedly du Chaillu's kulu-kamba. Still the large size and + prominence of the ears proclaim that both "Mafuka" and "Johanna" were + chimpanzees and not gorillas. A gorilla-like feature in "Johanna" is, + however, the presence of large folds at the sides (_ala_) of the + nostrils, which are absent in the typical chimpanzee, but in the + gorilla extend down to the upper lip. Chimpanzees exhibit great + docility in confinement, where, however, they seldom survive for any + great length of time. They likewise display a much higher degree of + intelligence than any of the other man-like apes. (See PRIMATES.) + (R. L.*) + + + + +CHINA, a country of eastern Asia, the principal division of the Chinese +empire. In addition to China proper the Chinese Empire includes +Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet and Sin-kiang (East Turkestan, Kulja, +Dzungaria, &c., _i.e._ all the Chinese dependencies lying between +Mongolia on the north and Tibet on the south). Its most southern point +is in 18° 50' N.; its most northern in 53° 25' N.; its most western in +74° E., and its most eastern in 135° E. It lies, however, mainly between +20° and 50° N. and 80° and 130° E. It is considerably larger than the +whole of Europe. Though its area has not been exactly ascertained the +various estimates closely approximate, varying between 4,277,000 and +4,300,000 sq. m. It is bounded N.W., N. and N.E. by Asiatic Russia, +along a frontier extending some 6000 m.; E. by Korea and those parts of +the Pacific known as the Yellow Sea and China Sea; S. and S.W. by the +China Sea, French Indo-China, Upper Burma and the Himalayan states. It +is narrowest in the extreme west. Chinese Turkestan along the meridian +of Kashgar (76° E.) has a breadth of but 250 m. It rapidly broadens and +for the greater part of its area is over 1800 m. across in a direct N. +and S. line. Its greatest length is from the N.E. corner of Manchuria to +the S.W. confines of Tibet, a distance of 3100 m. in a direct line. Its +seaboard, about 5000 m. following the indentations of the coast, is +almost, wholly in China proper, but the peninsula of Liao-tung and also +the western shores of the Gulf of Liao-tung are in Manchuria. + +China[1] proper or the Eighteen Provinces (_Shih-pa-shêng_) occupies the +south-eastern part of the empire. It is bounded N. by Mongolia, W. by +Turkestan and Tibet, S.W. by Burma, S. by Tongking and the gulf of that +name, S.E. by the South China Sea, E. by the East China Sea, the Yellow +Sea, Gulf of Chih-li and Manchuria. Its area is approximately 1,500,000 +sq. m. + +This vast country is separated from the rest of continental Asia by +lofty tablelands and rugged mountain ranges, which determine the general +course--west to east--of its principal rivers. On the north and west the +Mongolian and Tibetan tablelands present towards China steep escarpments +across which are very few passes. On the S.W. and S., on the borders of +Yun-nan, high mountains and deep valleys separate China from Burma and +Tongking. On the narrow N.E. frontier the transition from the Manchurian +plateau to the alluvial plain of northern China is not abrupt, but, +before the advent of railways, Manchuria afforded few and difficult +means of access to other regions. Thus China was almost cut off from the +rest of the world save by sea routes. + + +I. THE COUNTRY + +Western China consists of highlands often sparsely, and eastern China of +lowlands densely peopled. Western China contains the only provinces +where the population is under 100 per sq. m. From the Tibetan and +Mongolian tablelands project mountain ranges which, ramifying over the +western region, enclose elevated level tracts and lower basins and +valleys. East of this mountainous region, which extends into central +China and covers probably fully half of the kingdom, are, in the north +a great alluvial plain and in the south a vast calcareous tableland +traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation (see §§ _Mountains_ and +_Geology_). In north-eastern China there is only one mountain system, +the group of hills---highest peak 5060 ft.---forming the Shan-tung +peninsula. This peninsula was formerly an island, but has been attached +to the mainland by the growth of the alluvial plain. Besides the broad +division of the country into western and eastern China it may also be +considered as divided into three regions by the basins of its chief +rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow river) in the north, the Yangtsze-kiang in +the centre, and the Si-kiang (West river) in the south. In the northern +provinces of Kan-suh and Shen-si the basins of the Hwang-ho and +Yangtsze-kiang are separated by a mountain chain with various names--the +eastern termination of the Kuen-lun range of central Asia. These +mountains, in China, attain, in the Tsing-ling Shan, a maximum elevation +of 13,000 ft. East of Shen-si, in Ho-nan the Fu-niu-shan continue the +range, but with decreasing elevation, and beyond this the deltaic plain +is entered. + +The watershed between the Yangtsze-kiang and that of the Si-kiang is +less clearly marked. It traverses the immense tableland which occupies a +great part of the south-west provinces of Yun-nan and Kwei-chow and is +continued eastward by the lower tableland of Kwang-si and the Nanshan +hills (whose elevation seldom exceeds 6000 ft.). The basin of the +Yangtsze-kiang forms the whole of central China. Its western border, in +Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan, is wholly mountainous, with heights exceeding +19,000 ft. Central Sze-ch'uen, which is shut in by these mountains on +the west, by the Yun-nan and Kwei-chow plateau on the south, by the +Kiu-lung range on the north, and by highlands eastward (save for the +narrow valley through which the Yangtsze-kiang forces its way), is a +vast red sandstone tableland of about 1600 ft. elevation. It is +exceedingly fertile and supports a dense population. Eastward of +Sze-ch'uen the Yangtsze valley is studded with lakes. Finally it enters +the deltaic plain. The basin of the Si-kiang fills the two southern +provinces of Kwang-si and Kwang-tung and contains no very striking +orographic features. It may be added that in the extreme S.W. portion of +China is part of a fourth drainage area. Here the Mekong, Salween, +Song-koi (Red river), &c. flow south to Indo-China. + + _The Coast_.--The coast-line, following all the minor indentations, + is reckoned at over 4500 m.; if only the larger inlets and + promontories be regarded, the coast-line is about 2150 m. in length. + Its shape is that of a semicircle, with its most easterly point midway + (30° N.) between its northern and southern extremities. At either end + of this semicircular sweep lies a peninsula, and beyond the peninsula + a gulf. In the north are the peninsula of Shan-tung and the gulf of + Chih-li; in the south the Lien-chow peninsula and the gulf of + Tongking. Due south of Lien-chow peninsula, separated rom it by a + narrow strait, is Hai-nan, the only considerable island of China. From + the northern point of the gulf of Chih-li to 30° N., where is + Hang-chow bay, the shores are flat and alluvial save where the + Shan-tung peninsula juts out. Along this stretch there are few good + natural harbours, except at the mouths of rivers and in the Shan-tung + promontory; the sea is shallow and has many shoals. The waters + bordering the coast of Chih-li are partly frozen in winter; at 10 m. + from the shore the water is only 20 ft. deep. The proximity of Peking + gives its few ports importance; that of Taku is at the mouth of the + Peiho. In Shan-tung, deeply indented on its southern coast, are the + ports of Chi-fu, Wei-hai-wei and Tsing-tao (the last in Kiao-chow + bay). South of Shan-tung and north of the mouth of the Yangtsze huge + sandbanks border the coast, with narrow channels between them and the + shore. The estuary of the Yangtsze is 60 m. across; it contains + islands and sandbanks, but there is easy access to Wusung (Shanghai) + and other river ports. The bay of Hangchow, as broad at its entrance + as the Yangtsze estuary, forms the mouth of the Tsien-tang-kiang. The + Chusan and other groups of islands lie across the entrance of the bay. + + South of Hang-chow bay the character of the coast alters. In place of + the alluvial plain, with flat, sandy and often marshy shores, the + coast is generally hilly, often rocky and abrupt; it abounds in small + indentations and possesses numerous excellent harbours; in this region + are Fu-chow, Amoy, Swatow, Hongkong, Macao, Canton and other + well-known ports. The whole of this coast is bordered by small + islands. Formosa lies opposite the S.E. coast, the channel between it + and Fu-kien province being about 100 m. wide. Formosa protects the + neighbouring regions of China from the typhoons experienced farther + north and farther south. + + + Deltaic Plain. + + _Surface_.---As already indicated, one of the most noticeable features + in the surface of China is the immense deltaic plain in the + north-eastern portion of the country, which, curving round the + mountainous districts of Shan-tung, extends for about 700 m. in a + southerly direction from the neighbourhood of Peking and varies from + 150 to 500 m. in breadth. This plain is the delta of the Yellow river + and, to some extent, that of the Yangtsze-kiang also. Beginning in the + prefecture of Yung-p'ing Fu, in the province of Chih-li, its outer + limit passes in a westerly direction as far as Ch'ang-p'ing Chow, + north-west of Peking. Thence running a south-south-westerly course it + passes westward of Chêng-ting Fu and Kwang-p'ing Fu till it reaches + the upper waters of the Wei river in Ho-nan. From this point it turns + westward and crosses the Hwang-ho or Yellow river in the prefecture of + Hwai-k'ing. Leaving this river it takes a course a little to the east + of south, and passing west of Ju-ning Fu, in the province of Ho-nan, + it turns in a more easterly direction as far as Luchow Fu. From this + prefecture an arm of the plain, in which lies the Chao Lake, stretches + southward from the Hwai river to the Yangtsze-kiang, and trending + eastward occupies the region between that river and Hangchow Bay. To + the north of this arm rises a hilly district, in the centre of which + stands Nanking. The greater part of this vast plain descends very + gently towards the sea, and is generally below the level of the Yellow + river, hence the disastrous inundations which so often accompany the + rise of that river. Owing to the great quantity of soil which is + brought down by the waters of the Yellow river, and to the absence of + oceanic currents, this delta is rapidly increasing and the adjoining + seas are as rapidly becoming shallower. As an instance, it is said + that the town of P'utai was one Chinese mile[2] west of the seashore + in the year 200 B.C., and in 1730 it was 140 m. inland, thus giving a + yearly encroachment upon the sea of about 100 ft. Again, + Sien-shwuy-kow on the Peiho was on the seashore in A.D. 500, and it is + now about 18 m. inland. + + + Mountains. + + Some of the ranges connected with the mountain system of central Asia + which enter the western provinces of China have been mentioned above, + others may be indicated here. In the eastern portion of Tibet the + Kuen-lun range throws off a number of branches, which spread first of + all in a south-easterly direction and eventually take a north and + south course, partly in the provinces of Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan, where + they divide the beds of the rivers which flow into Siam and French + Indo-China, as well as the principal northern tributaries of the + Yangtsze-kiang. In the north-west, traversing the western portion of + the province of Kan-suh, are parallel ranges running N.W. and S.E. and + forming a prolongation of the northern Tibetan mountains. They are + known as the Lung-shan, Richthofen and Nan-shan, and join on the + south-east the Kuen-lun range. The Richthofen range (locally called + Tien-shan, or Celestial Mountains) attains elevations of over 20,000 + ft. Several of its peaks are snowclad, and there are many glaciers. + Forming the northern frontier of the province of Sze-ch'uen run the + Min-shan and the Kiu-lung (or Po-mêng) ranges, which, entering China + in 102° E., extend in a general easterly course as far as 112° E. in + the province of Hu-peh. These ranges have an average elevation of 8000 + and 11,000 ft. respectively. In the south a number of parallel ranges + spread from the Yun-nan plateau in an easterly direction as far as the + province of Kwang-tung. Then turning north-eastward they run in lines + often parallel with the coast, and cover large areas of the provinces + of Fu-kien, Kiang-si, Cheh-kiang, Hu-nan and southern Ngan-hui, until + they reach the Yangtsze-kiang; the valley of that river from the + Tung-ting Lake to Chin-kiang Fu forming their northern boundary. In + Fu-kien these hills attain the character of a true mountain range with + heights of from 6500 to nearly 10,000 ft. Besides the chief ranges + there are the Tai-hang Mountains in Shan-si, and many others, among + which may be mentioned the ranges--part of the escarpment of the + Mongolian plateau--which form the northern frontier of Chih-li. Here + the highest peak is Ta-kuang-ting-tzu (6500 ft.), about 300 m. N.N.E. + of Peking and immediately north of Wei Ch'ang (the imperial hunting + grounds). + + + The Yellow River. + + _Rivers and Canals._--The rivers of China are very numerous and there + are many canals. In the north the rivers are only navigable by small + craft; elsewhere they form some of the most frequented highways in the + country. The two largest rivers, the Yangtsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho + (Yellow river), are separately noticed. The Hwang-ho (length about + 2400 m.) has only one important tributary in China, the Wei-ho, which + rises in Kan-suh and flows through the centre of Shen-si. Below the + confluence the Hwang-ho enters the plains. According to the Chinese + records this portion of the river has changed its course nine times + during 2500 years, and has emptied itself into the sea at different + mouths, the most northerly of which is represented as having been in + about 39° N., or in the neighbourhood of the present mouth of the + Peiho, and the most southerly being that which existed before the + change in 1851-1853, in 34° N. Owing to its small value as a navigable + highway and to its propensity to inundate the regions in its + neighbourhood, there are no considerable towns on its lower course. + + + The Yangtsze-kiang. + + The Yangtsze-kiang is the chief waterway of China. The river, flowing + through the centre of the country, after a course of 2900 m., empties + itself into the Yellow Sea in about 31° N. Unlike the Yellow river, + the Yangtsze-kiang is dotted along its navigable portions with many + rich and populous cities, among which are Nanking, An-ch'ing + (Ngank'ing), Kiu-kiang, Hankow and I-ch'ang. From its mouth to + I-ch'ang, about 1000 m., the river is navigable by large steamers. + Above this last-named city the navigation becomes impossible for any + but light native craft or foreign vessels specially constructed for + the navigation, by reason of the rapids which occur at frequent + intervals in the deep mountain gorges through which the river runs + between Kwei-chow and I-ch'ang. Above Kwei-chow it receives from the + north many tributaries, notably the Min, which water the low + table-land of central Sze-ch'uen. The main river itself has in this + province a considerable navigable stretch, while below I-ch'ang it + receives the waters of numerous navigable affluents. The Yangtsze + system is thus all important in the economic and commercial + development of China. + + Perhaps the most remarkable of the affluents of the Yangtsze is the + Han-kiang or Han river. It rises in the Po-mêng mountains to the north + of the city of Ning-kiang Chow in Shen-si. Taking a generally easterly + course from its source as far as Fan-cheng, it from that point takes a + more southerly direction and empties itself into the Yangtsze-kiang at + Han-kow, "the mouth of the Han." Here it is only 200 ft. wide, while + higher up it widens to 2600 ft. It is navigable by steamers for 300 m. + The summer high-water line is for a great part of its course, from + I-ch'eng Hien to Han-kow, above the level of its banks. Near + Sien-t'ao-chên the elevation of the plain above low water is no more + than 1 ft., and in summer the river rises about 26 ft. above its + lowest level. To protect themselves against inundations the natives + have here, as elsewhere, thrown up high embankments on both sides of + the river, but at a distance from the natural banks of about 50 to 100 + ft. This intervening space is flooded every year, and by the action of + the water new layers of sand and soil are deposited every summer, thus + strengthening the embankments from season to season. + + The Hwai-ho is a large river of east central China flowing between the + Hwang-ho and the Yangtsze-kiang. The Hwai-ho and its numerous + affluents (it is said to have 72 tributaries) rise in Ho-nan. The main + river flows through the centre of Ngan-hui, in which province it + receives from the N.W. the Sha-ho, Fei-ho and other important + affluents. Formerly it received through the Sha-ho part of the waters + of the Hwang-ho. The Hwai-ho flows into the Hungtso lake, through + which it feeds the Grand Canal, not far from the old course of the + Hwang-ho, and probably at one time joined that river not far from its + mouth. It has a length of about 800 m. and is navigable from the point + where it leaves the hill country of Ho-nan to Lake Hungtso. It is + subject to violent floods, which inundate the surrounding country for + a distance of 10 to 20 m. Many of its tributaries are also navigable + for considerable distances. + + + Grand Canal. + + Next in importance to the Yangtsze-kiang as a water highway is the + Yun-ho, or, as it is generally known in Europe, the Grand Canal. This + magnificent artificial river reaches from Hang-chow Fu in the province + of Cheh-kiang to Tientsin in Chih-li, where it unites with the Peiho, + and thus may be said to extend to Tung-chow in the neighbourhood of + Peking. According to the itineraries published by Père Gandar, the + total length of the canal is 3630 _li_, or about 1200 m. A rough + measurement, taking account only of the main bends of the canal, makes + its length 850 m. After leaving Hang-chow the canal passes round the + eastern border of the Tai-hu or Great Lake, surrounding in its course + the beautiful city of Su-chow, and then trends in a generally + north-westerly direction through the fertile districts of Kiang-su as + far as Chin-kiang on the Yangtsze-kiang. In this, the southern + section, the slope is gentle and water is plentiful (from 7 ft. at low + water to 11 ft., and occasionally 13 ft. at high water). Between + Su-chow and Chin-kiang the canal is often over 100 ft. wide, and its + sides are in many places faced with stone. It is spanned by fine stone + bridges, and near its banks are many memorial arches and lofty + pagodas. In the central portion of the canal, that is between + Chin-kiang and Tsing-kiang-pu, at which latter place it crosses the + dry channel which marks the course of the Yellow river before 1852, + the current is strong and difficult to ascend in the upward (northern) + journey. This part of the canal skirts several lakes and is fed by the + Hwai-ho as it issues from the Hungtso lake. The country lying west of + the canal is higher than its bed; while the country east is lower than + the canal. The two regions are known respectively as Shang-ho (above + the river) and Ssia-ho (below the river). Waste weirs opening on the + Ssia-ho (one of the great rice-producing areas of China) discharge the + surplus water in flood seasons. The northern and considerably the + longest section of the canal extends from the old bed of the Yellow + river to Tientsin. It largely utilizes existing rivers and follows + their original windings. Between Tsing-kiang-pu and the present course + of the Yellow river the canal trends N.N.W., skirting the highlands of + Shan-tung. In this region it passes through a series of lagoons, which + in summer form one lake--Chow-yang. North of that lake on the east + bank of the canal, is the city of Tsi-ning-chow. About 25 m. N. of + that city the highest level of the canal is reached at the town of Nan + Wang. Here the river Wen enters the canal from the east, and about 30 + m. farther N. the Yellow river is reached. On the west side of the + canal, at the point where the Yellow river now cuts across it, there + is laid down in Chinese maps of the 18th century a dry channel which + is described as being that once followed by the Yellow river, i.e. + before it took the channel it abandoned in 1851-1853. The passage of + the Yellow river to the part of the canal lying north of that stream + is difficult, and can only be effected at certain levels of the + river. Frequently the waters of the river are either too low or the + current is too strong to permit a passage. Leaving this point the + canal passes through a well-wooded and hilly country west of + Tung-p'ing Chow and east of Tung-ch'ang Fu. At Lin-ching Chow it is + joined at right angles by the Wei river in the midst of the city. Up + to this point, i.e. from Tsing-kiang-pu to Lin-ching Chow, a distance + of over 300 m., navigation is difficult and the water-supply often + insufficient. The differences of level, 20 to 30 ft., are provided for + by barrages over which the boats--having discharged their cargo--are + hauled by windlasses. Below the junction with the Wei the canal + borrows the channel of the river and again becomes easily navigable. + Crossing the frontier into Chih-li, between Te Chow and Tsang Chow, + which it passes to the west, it joins the Peiho at Tientsin, after + having received the waters of the Keto river in the neighbourhood of + Tsing Hien.[3] + + The most ancient part of the canal is the section between the Yangtsze + and the Hwai-ho. This part is thought, on the strength of a passage in + one of the books of Confucius, to have been built c. 486 B.C. It was + repaired and enlarged in the 3rd century A.D. The southern part, + between the Yangtsze and Hang-chow, was built early in the 7th century + A.D. The northern part is stated to have been constructed in the three + years 1280-1283. The northern portion of the canal is now of little + use as a means of communication between north and south.[4] It is + badly built, neglected and charged with the mud-laden waters of the + Yellow river. The "tribute fleet" bearing rice to Peking still uses + this route; but the rice is now largely forwarded by sea. The central + and southern portions of the canal are very largely used. + + The Peiho (length about 350 m.) is of importance as being the high + waterway to Peking. Taking its rise in the Si-shan, or Western + Mountains, beyond Peking, it passes the city of T'sung-chow, the port + of Peking, and Tientsin, where it meets the waters of the Hun-ho and + empties itself into the gulf of Chih-li at the village of Taku. The + Peiho is navigable for small steamers as far as Tientsin during the + greater part of the year, but from the end of November to the + beginning of March it is frozen up. + + + The Si-kiang. + + In the southern provinces the Si-kiang, or Western river, is the most + considerable. It has a length of over 1000 m. This river takes its + rise in the prefecture of Kwang-nan Fu in Yun-nan, whence it reaches + the frontier of Kwang-si at a distance of about 90 li from its source. + Then trending in a north-easterly direction it forms the boundary + between the two provinces for about 150 li. From this point it takes a + generally south-easterly course, passing the cities of Tsien Chow, + Fung-e Chow, Shang-lin Hien, Lung-ngan Hien, Yung-kang Chow and + Nan-ning Fu to Yung-shan Hien. Here it makes a bend to the north-east, + and continues this general direction as far as Sin-chow Fu, a distance + of 800 li, where it meets and joins the waters of the Kien-kiang from + the north. Its course is then easterly, and after passing Wu-chow Fu + it crosses the frontier into Kwang-tung. In this part of its course it + flows through a gorge 3 m. long and in places but 270 yds. in width. + Both above and below this gorge it is 1 m. wide. Some 30 m. above + Canton it divides into two main and several small branches. The + northern branch, called Chu-kiang, or Pearl river, flows past Fat-shan + and Canton and reaches the sea through the estuary called the Bocca + Tigris or Bogue, at the mouth of which is the island of Hong-Kong. The + southern branch, which retains the name of Si-kiang, reaches the sea + west of Macao. Near the head of its delta the Si-kiang receives the + Pei-kiang, a considerable river which flows through Kwang-tung in a + general N. to S. direction. Like the Yangtsze-kiang the Si-kiang is + known by various names in different parts of its course. From its + source to Nan-ning Fu in Kwang-si it is called the Si-yang-kiang, or + river of the Western Ocean; from Nan-ning Fu to Sin-chow Fu it is + known as the Yu-kiang, or the Bending river; and over the remainder of + its course it is recognized by the name of the Si-kiang, or Western + river. The Si-kiang is navigable as far as Shao-king, 130 m., for + vessels not drawing more than 15 ft. of water, and vessels of a light + draught may easily reach Wu-chow Fu, in Kwang-si, which is situated 75 + m. farther up. In winter the navigation is difficult above Wu-chow Fu. + Above that place there is a rapid at low water, but navigation is + possible to beyond Nan-ning Fu. + + [Illustration: CHINA] + + _Lakes._--There are numerous lakes in the central provinces of China. + The largest of these is the Tung-t'ing in Hu-nan, which, according to + the Chinese geographers, is upwards of 800 li, or 266 m., in + circumference. In native gazetteers its various portions are known + under distinct names; thus it is said to include the Ts'ing-ts'ao, or + Green Grass Lake; the Ung, or Venerable Lake; the Chih-sha, or Red + Sand Lake; the Hwang-yih, or Imperial Post-house Lake; the Ngan-nan, + or Peaceful Southern Lake; and the Ta-tung, or Great Deep Lake. In + ancient times it went by the name of the Kiu-kiang Hu, or Lake of the + Nine Rivers, from the fact that nine rivers flowed into it. Its chief + affluents are the Siang-kiang, which rises in the highlands in the + north of Kwang-si and flows in a general N.N.E. direction, and the + Yuen-kiang, which flows N. and then E. from the eastern border of + Kwei-chow. The lake is connected with the Yangtsze-kiang by two + canals, the Taping and the Yochow Fu. In summer it is fed by the + overflow from the Yangtsze-kiang; in winter it pours its waters into + that river through the Yochow Fu canal. During the winter and spring + the water of the lake is so low that the shallow portions become + islands, separated by rivers such as the Siang and Yuen, and + numberless streams; but in summer, owing to the rise in the waters of + the Yangtsze-kiang, the whole basin of the lake is filled. It is then + about 75 m. long and 60 m. broad. About 180 m. E. of the Tung-t'ing + lake is the Poyang lake, which occupies the low-lying part of the + province of Kiang-si, and is connected with the Yangtsze by the Hu-kow + canal. The Poyang lake is also subject to a wide difference between + high and low water, but not quite to the same extent as the Tung-t'ing + lake, and its landmarks are more distinctly defined. It is about 90 m. + long by 20 broad. The T'ai lake, in the neighbourhood of Su-chow Fu, + is also celebrated for its size and the beauty of its surroundings. It + is about 150 m. in circumference, and is dotted over with islands, on + which are built temples for the devotees of religion, and + summer-houses for the votaries of pleasure from the rich and + voluptuous cities of Hang-chow and Su-chow. The boundary line between + the provinces of Cheh-kiang and Kiang-su crosses its blue waters, and + its shores are divided among thirteen prefectures. Besides these lakes + there are, among others, two in Yun-nan, the Kun-yang-hai (Tien-chi) + near Yun-nan Fu, which is 40 m. long and is connected with the + Yangtsze-kiang by the Pu-to river, and the Erh-hai (Urh-hai) to the + east of the city of Tali. + + _The Great Wall._--Along the northern provinces of Chih-li, Shan-si, + Shen-si and Kan-suh, over 22° of longitude (98° to 120° E.), stretches + the Great Wall of China, built to defend the country against foreign + aggression. It was begun in the 3rd century B.C., was repaired in the + 15th century, and in the 16th century was extended by 300 m. Following + the windings the wall is 1500 m. long. Starting near the seashore[5] + at Shan-hai-kwan on the gulf of Liao-tung, where the Chinese and + Manchurian frontiers meet, it goes eastward past Peking (which is + about 35 m. to the south) and then trends S. and E. across Shan-si to + the Hwang-ho. From the neighbourhood of Peking to the Hwang-ho there + is an inner and an outer wall. The outer (northern) wall passes + through Kalgan, thus guarding the pass into Mongolia. A branch wall + separates the greater part of the western frontier of Chih-li from + Shan-si. West of the Hwang-ho the Great Wall forms the northern + frontier of Shen-si, and west of Shen-si it keeps near the northern + frontier of Kan-suh, following for some distance in that province the + north bank of the Hwang-ho. It ends at Kiayu-kwan (98° 14'E.) just + west of Su-chow. This part of the wall was built to protect the one + main artery leading from central Asia to China through Kan-suh and + Shen-si by the valley of the Wei-ho, tributary of the Hwang-ho. There + is a branch wall in Kan-suh running west and south to protect the + Tibetan frontier. The height of the wall is generally from 20 to 30 + ft., and at intervals of some 200 yds. are towers about 40 ft. high. + Its base is from 15 to 25 ft. thick and its summit 12 ft. wide. The + wall is carried over valleys and mountains, and in places is over 4000 + ft. above sea-level. Military posts are still maintained at the chief + gates or passes--at Shan-hai-kwan, the Kalgan pass, the Yenmun pass + (at the N. of Shan-si) and the Kaiyu pass in the extreme west, through + which runs the caravan route to Barkal in Turkestan. Colonel A.W.S. + Wingate, who in the opening years of the 20th century visited the + Great Wall at over twenty places widely apart and gathered many + descriptions of it in other places, states that its position is + wrongly shown "on the maps of the day" (1907) in a number of places; + while in others it had ceased to exist, "the only places where it + forms a substantial boundary being in the valley bottoms, on the + passes and where it crosses main routes. These remarks apply with + particular force to the branch running south-west from the Nan-k'ow + pass and forming the boundary of Chih-li and Shan-si provinces." In + Colonel Wingate's opinion the wall was originally built by degrees and + in sections, not of hewn stone, but of round boulders and earth, the + different sections being repaired as they fell into ruin. "Only in the + valley bottoms and on the passes was it composed of masonry or + brickwork. The Mings rebuilt of solid masonry all those sections + through which led a likely road for invading Tatars to follow, or + where it could be seen at a distance from the sky-line." The building + of the wall "was a sufficiently simple affair," not to be compared + with the task of building the pyramids of Egypt.[6] + + _Climate._--The climate over so vast an area as China necessarily + varies greatly. The southern parts of Yun-nan, Kwang-si and Kwang-tung + (including the city of Canton) lie within the tropics. The northern + zone (in which lies Peking) by contrast has a climate which resembles + that of northern Europe, with winters of Arctic severity. The central + zone (in which Shanghai is situated) has a generally temperate + climate. But over both northern and central China the influence of the + great plateau of Mongolia tends to establish uniform conditions + unusual in so large an area. The prevailing winds during summer--the + rainy season--are south-easterly, caused by heat and the ascending + current of air over the sandy deserts of central Asia, thus drawing in + a current from the Pacific Ocean. In the winter the converse takes + place, and the prevailing winds, descending from the Mongolian + plateau, are north and north-west, and are cold and dry. From October + to May the climate of central China is bracing and enjoyable. The + rainfall is moderate and regular. + + In northern China the inequalities both of temperature and rainfall + are greater than in the central provinces. In the province of Chih-li, + for example, the heat of summer is as intense as is the cold of + winter. In summer the rains often render the plain swampy, while the + dry persistent westerly winds of spring create dust storms + (experienced in Peking from March to June). The rainfall is, however, + uncertain, and thus the harvests are precarious. The provinces of + Shan-tung and Shan-si are peculiarly liable to prolonged periods of + drought, with consequent severe famines such as that of 1877-1878, + when many millions died. In these regions the air is generally + extremely dry, and the daily variations of temperature consequent on + excessive radiation are much greater than farther south. + + Accurate statistics both of heat and rainfall are available from a few + stations only. The rainfall on the southern coasts is said to be about + 100 in. yearly; at Peking the rainfall is about 24 in. a year. In the + coast regions the temperatures of Peking, Shanghai and Canton may be + taken as typical of those of the northern, central and southern zones. + In Peking (39° N.) the mean annual temperature is about 53° F., the + mean for January 23°, for July 79°. In Shanghai (31° 11' N.)[7] the + mean annual temperature is 59°, the mean for January 36.2°, for July + 80.4°. In Canton (23° 15' N.) the mean annual temperature is 70°, the + mean for January 54°, for July 82°. The range of temperature, even + within the tropics, is noteworthy. At Peking and Tientsin the + thermometer in winter falls sometimes to 5° below zero and rises in + summer to 105° (at Taku 107° has been recorded); in Shanghai in winter + the thermometer falls to 18° and in summer rises to 102°. In Canton + frost is said to have been recorded, but according to the _China Sea + Directory_ the extreme range is from 38° to 100°.[8] The climate of + Shanghai, which resembles, but is not so good as, that of the + Yangtsze-kiang valley generally, is fairly healthy, but there is an + almost constant excess of moisture. The summer months, July to + September, are very hot, while snow usually falls in December and + January. + + At Canton and along the south coast the hot season corresponds with + the S.W. monsoon; the cool season--mid October to end of April--with + the N.E. monsoon. Farther north, at Shanghai, the S.W. monsoon is + sufficiently felt to make the prevailing wind in summer southerly. + + _Provinces._--China proper is divided into the following provinces: + Cheh-kiang, Chih-li, Fu-kien, Ngan-hui (An-hui), Ho-nan, Hu-nan, + Hu-peh, Kan-suh, Kiang-si, Kiang-su, Kwang-si, Kwang-tung, Kwei-chow, + Shan-si, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan. See the separate + notices of each province and the article on Shêng-king, the southern + province of Manchuria. (X.) + + + _Geology._ + + The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of + the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary + deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin. + From the close of the Palaeozoic period down to the present day the + greater part of the empire has been dry land, and it is only in the + southern portion of Tibet and in the western Tian Shan that any + evidence of a Mesozoic sea has yet been found. The geological sequence + may be summarized as follows:-- + + _Archean._--Gneiss, crystalline schists, phyllites, crystalline + limestones. Exposed in Liao-tung, Shan-tung, Shan-si, northern Chih-li + and in the axis of the mountain ranges, e.g. the Kuen-lun and the + ranges of southern China. + + _Sinian._--Sandstones, quartzites, limestones. Sometimes rests + unconformably upon the folded rocks of the Archaen system; but + sometimes, according to Lóczy, there is no unconformity. Covers a + large area in the northern part of China proper; absent in the eastern + Kuen-lun; occurs again in the ranges of S.E. China. In Liao-tung + Cambrian fossils have been found near the summit of the series; they + belong to the oldest fauna known upon the earth, the fauna of the + _Olenellus_ zone. It is, however, not improbable that in many places + beds of considerably later date have been included in the Sinian + system. + + _Ordovician._--Ordovician fossils have been found in the Lung-shan, + Kiang-su (about 50 m. east of Nan-king), in the south-west of + Cheh-kiang and in the south-east of Yun-nan. Ordovician beds probably + occur also in the Kuen-lun. + + _Silurian._--Limestones and slates with Silurian corals and other + fossils have been found in Sze-ch'uen. + + _Devonian._--Found in Kan-suh and in the Tsing-ling-shan, but becomes + much more important in southern China. Occurs also on the south of the + Tian-shan, in the Altyn-tagh, the Nan-shan and the western Kuen-lun. + + _Carboniferous._--Covers a large area in northern China, in the + plateau of Shen-si and Shan-si, extending westwards in tongues between + the folds of the Kuen-lun. In this region it consists of a lower + series of limestones and an upper series of sandstones with seams of + coal, which may perhaps be in part of Permian age. This is probably + the most extensive coalfield in the world. + + In south China the whole series consists chiefly of limestones, and + the coal seams are comparatively unimportant. Carboniferous beds are + also found in the Tian-shan, the Nan-shan, Kan-suh, on the southern + borders of the Gobi, &c. + + _Mesozoic._--Marine Triassic beds containing fossils similar to those + of the German Muschelkalk have been found by Lóczy near Chung-tien, on + the eastern border of the Tibetan plateau. Elsewhere, however, the + Mesozoic is represented chiefly by a red sandstone, which covers the + greater part of Sze-ch'uen and fills also a number of troughs amongst + the older beds of southern China. No marine fossils are found in this + sandstone, but remains of plants are numerous, and these belong to the + Rhaetic, Lias and Lower Oolite. No Cretaceous beds are known in China + excepting in S. Tibet (on the shores of the Tengri-nor) and in the + western portion of the Tian-shan. + + _Cainozoic and Recent._--No marine deposits of this age are known. + Although the loess of the great plain and the sand of the desert are + still in process of formation, the accumulation of these deposits + probably began in the Tertiary period. + + _Volcanic Rocks._--Amongst the Archean rocks granitic and other + intrusions are abundant, but of more modern volcanic activity the + remains are comparatively scanty. In south China there is no evidence + of Tertiary or Post-Tertiary volcanoes, but groups of volcanic cones + occur in the great plain of north China. In the Liao-tung and + Shan-tung peninsulas there are basaltic plateaus, and similar + outpourings occur upon the borders of Mongolia. All these outbursts + appear to be of Tertiary or later data. + + _Loess._--One of the most characteristic deposits of China is the + loess, which not merely imparts to north China the physical character + of the scenery, but also determines the agricultural products, the + transport, and general economic life of the people of that part of the + country. It is peculiar to north China and it is not found south of + the Yangtsze. The loess is a solid but friable earth of + brownish-yellow colour, and when triturated with water is not unlike + loam, but differs from the latter by its highly porous and tubular + structure. The loess soil is extremely favourable to agriculture. (See + LOESS and _infra, § Agriculture._) + + The loess is called by the Chinese _Hwang-t'u_, or yellow earth, and + it has been suggested that the imperial title _Hwang-ti_, Yellow + Emperor or Ruler of the Yellow, had its origin in the fact that the + emperor is lord of the loess or yellow earth. + + + Structure. + + Structurally, China proper may be divided into two regions, separated + from each other by the folded range of the Tsing-ling-shan, which is a + continuation of the folded belt of the Kuen-lun. North of this chain + the Palaeozoic beds are in general nearly horizontal, and the + limestones and sandstones of the Sinian and Carboniferous systems form + an extensive plateau which rises abruptly from the western margin of + the great plain of northern China. The plateau is deeply carved by the + rivers which flow through it; and the strata are often faulted, but + they are never sharply folded. South of the Tsing-ling-shan, on the + other hand, the Palaeozoic beds are thrown into a series of folds + running from W. 30° S. to E. 30° N., which form the hilly region of + southern China. Towards Tongking these folds probably bend southwards + and join the folds of Further India. Amongst these folded beds lie + trough-like depressions filled with the Mesozoic red sandstone which + lies unconformably upon the Palaeozoic rocks. + + The present configuration of China is due, in a very considerable + degree, to faulting. The abrupt eastern edge of the Shan-si plateau, + where it overlooks the great plain, is a line of fault, or rather a + series of step faults, with the downthrow on the east; and von + Richthofen has shown reason to believe that this line of faulting is + continued far to the south and to the north. He believed also that the + present coast-line of China has to a large extent been determined by + similar faults with their downthrow on the east. + + Concerning the structure of the central Asian plateau our knowledge is + still incomplete. The great mountain chains, the Kuen-lun, the + Nan-shan and the Tian-shan, are belts of folding; but the Mongolian + Altai is a horst--a strip of ancient rock lying between two faults and + with a depressed area upon each side. In the whole of this northern + region faulting, as distinct from folding, seems to have played an + important part. Along the southern margin of the Tian-shan there is a + remarkable trough-like depression which appears to lie between two + approximately parallel faults. (P. LA.) + + + _Fauna_. + + China lies within two zoological provinces or regions, its southern + portion forming a part of the Oriental or Indian region and having a + fauna close akin to that of the western Himalaya, Burma and Siam, + whereas the districts to the north of Fu-chow and south of the + Yangtsze-kiang lie within the eastern Holarctic (Palaearctic) region, + or rather the southern fringe of the latter, which has been separated + as the Mediterranean transitional region. Of these two divisions of + the Chinese fauna, the northern one is the more interesting, since it + forms the chief home of a number of peculiar generic types, and also + includes types represented elsewhere at the present day (exclusive in + one case of Japan) only in North America. The occurrence in China of + these types common to the eastern and western hemispheres is important + in regard to the former existence of a land-bridge between Eastern + Asia and North America by way of Bering Strait. + + Of the types peculiar to China and North America the alligator of the + Yangtsze-kiang is generically identical with its Mississippi relative. + The spoon-beaked sturgeon of the Yangtsze and Hwang-ho is, however, + now separated, as _Psephurus_, from the closely allied American + _Polyodon_. Among insectivorous mammals the Chinese and Japanese + shrew-moles, respectively forming the genera _Uropsilus_ and + _Urotrichus_, are represented in America by _Neurotrichus_. The giant + salamander of the rivers of China and Japan and the Chinese mandarin + duck are by some included in the same genera as their American + representatives, while by others they are referred to genera apart. + Whichever view we take does not alter their close relationship. One + wapiti occurs on the Tibetan frontier, and others in Manchuria and + Amurland. + + As regards mammals and birds, the largest number of generic and + specific types peculiar to China are met with in Sze-ch'uen. Foremost + among these is the great panda (_Aeluropus melanoleucus_), + representing a genus by itself, probably related to bears and to the + true panda (_Aelurus_), the latter of which has a local race in + Sze-ch'uen. Next come the snub-nosed monkeys (_Rhinopithecus_), of + which the typical species is a native of Sze-ch'uen, while a second is + found on the upper Mekong, and a third in the mountains of central + China. In the Insectivora the swimming-shrew (_Nectogale_) forms + another generic type peculiar to Sze-ch'uen, which is also the sole + habitat of the mole-like _Scaptochirus_, of _Uropsilus_, near akin to + the Japanese _Urotrichus_, of _Scaptonyx_, which connects the latter + with the moles (_Talpa_), and of _Neotetracus_, a relative of the + Malay rat-shrews (_Gymnura_). Here also may be mentioned the + raccoon-dog, forming the subgenus _Nyctereutes_, common to China and + Japan. The Himalayan black and the Malay bear have each a local race + in Sze-ch'uen, where the long-haired Fontanier's cat (_Felis tristis_) + and the Tibet cat (_F. scripta_) connect Indo-Malay species with the + American ocelots, while the bay cat (_F. temmincki_), a Malay type, is + represented by local forms in Sze-ch'uen and Fu-chow. The Amurland + leopard and Manchurian tiger likewise constitute local races of their + respective species. + + Among ruminants, the Sze-ch'uen takin represents a genus (_Budorcas_) + found elsewhere in the Mishmi Hills and Bhutan, while serows + (_Nemorhaedus_) and gorals (_Urotragus_), allied to Himalayan and + Burmo-Malay types, abound. The Himalayan fauna is also represented by + a race of the Kashmir hangul deer. Of other deer, the original habitat + of Père David's milu (_Elaphurus_), formerly kept in the Peking park, + is unknown. The sika group, which is peculiar to China, Japan and + Formosa, is represented by _Cervus hortulorum_ in Manchuria and the + smaller _C. manchuricus_ and _sika_ in that province and the Yangtsze + valley; while musk-deer (_Moschus_) abound in Kan-suh and Sze-ch'uen. + The small water-deer (_Hydropotes_ or _Hydrelaphus_) of the Yangtsze + valley represents a genus peculiar to the country, as do the three + species of tufted deer (_Elaphodus_), whose united range extends from + Sze-ch'uen to Ning-po and I-ch'ang. Muntjacs (_Cervulus_) are likewise + very characteristic of the country, to which the white-tailed, + plum-coloured species, like the Tenasserim _C. crinifrons_, are + peculiar. The occurrence of races of the wapiti in Manchuria and + Amurland has been already mentioned. + + To refer in detail to the numerous forms of rodents inhabiting China + is impossible here, and it must suffice to mention that the + flying-squirrels (_Pteromys_) are represented by a large and handsome + species in Sze-ch'uen, where is also found the largest kind of + bamboo-rat (_Rhizomys_), the other species of which are natives of the + western Himalaya and the Malay countries. Dwarf hamsters of the genus + _Cricetulus_ are natives of the northern provinces. In the extreme + south, in Hai-nan, is found a gibbon ape (_Hylobates_), while langur + (_Semnopithecus_) and macaque monkeys (_Macacus_) likewise occur in + the south, one of the latter also inhabiting Sze-ch'uen. + + To give an adequate account of Chinese ornithology would require space + many times the length of this article. The gorgeous mandarin duck + (_Aix galerita_) has already been mentioned among generic types common + to America. In marked distinction to this is the number of species of + pheasants inhabiting north-western China, whence the group ranges into + the eastern Himalaya. Among Chinese species are two of the three + species of blood-pheasants (_Ithagenes_), two tragopans (_Ceriornis_ + or _Tragopan_), a monal (_Lophophorus_), three out of the five species + of _Crossoptilum_, the other two being Tibetan, two kinds of + _Pucrasia_, the gorgeous golden and Amherst's pheasants alone + representing the genus _Chrysolophus_, together with several species + of the typical genus _Phasianus_, among which it will suffice to + mention the long-tailed _P. reevesi_. The Himalayan bamboo-partridges + (_Bambusicola_) have also a Chinese representative. The only other + large bird that can be mentioned is the Manchurian crane, misnamed + _Grus japonensis_. Pigeons include the peculiar subgenus + _Dendroteron_; while among smaller birds, warblers, tits and finches, + all of an Eastern Holarctic type, constitute the common element in the + avifauna. Little would be gained by naming the genera, peculiar or + otherwise. + + China has a few peculiar types of freshwater tortoises, among which + _Ocadia sinensis_ represents a genus unknown elsewhere, while there is + also a species of the otherwise Indian genus _Damonia_. The Chinese + alligator, _Alligator sinensis_, has been already mentioned. Among + lizards, the genera _Plestiodon_, _Mabuia_, _Tachydromus_ and _Gecko_, + of which the two latter are very characteristic of the Oriental + region, range through China to Japan; and among snakes, the Malay + python (_Python reticulatus_) is likewise Chinese. The giant + salamander (_Cryptobranchus_, or _Megalobatrachus, maximus_) + represents, as mentioned above, a type found elsewhere only in North + America, while _Hynobius_ and _Onychodactylus_ are peculiar generic + types of salamanders. Among fishes, it must suffice to refer to the + spoon-beaked sturgeon (_Psephurus_) of the Yangtsze-kiang, and the + numerous members of the carp family to be found in the rivers of + China. From these native carp the Chinese have produced two highly + coloured breeds, the goldfish and the telescope-eyed carp. + + Among the invertebrates special mention may be made of the great + ailanthus silk-moth (_Attacus cynthia_) of northern China and Japan, + and also of its Manchurian relative _A. pernyi_; while it may be added + that the domesticated "silkworm" (_Bombyx mori_) is generally believed + to be of Chinese origin, although this is not certain. Very + characteristic of China is the abundance of handsomely coloured + swallow-tailed butterflies of the family _Papilionidae_. The Chinese + kermes (_Coccus sinensis_) is also worth mention, on account of it + yielding wax. As regards land and freshwater snails, China exhibits a + marked similarity to Siam and India; the two groups in which the + Chinese province displays decided peculiarities of its own being + _Helix_ (in the wider sense) and _Clausilia_. There are, for instance, + nearly half a score of subgenera of _Helix_ whose headquarters are + Chinese, while among these, forms with sinistral shells are relatively + common. The genus _Clausilia_ is remarkable on account of attaining a + second centre of development in China, where its finest species, + referable to several subgenera, occur. Carnivorous molluscs include a + peculiar slug (_Rathouisia_) and the shelled genera _Ennea_ and + _Streptaxis_. In the western provinces species of _Buliminus_ are + abundant, and in the operculate group _Heudeia_ forms a peculiar type + akin to _Helicina_, but with internal foldings to the shell. + + Lastly, it has to be mentioned that the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang + are inhabited by a small jelly-fish, or medusa (_Limnocodium kawaii_), + near akin to _L. sowerbii_, which was discovered in the hot-house + tanks in the Botanical Gardens in the Regent's Park, London, but whose + real home is probably the Amazon. (R. L.*) + + + _Flora_. + + The vegetation of China is extremely rich, no fewer than 9000 species + of flowering plants having been already enumerated, of which nearly a + half are endemic or not known to occur elsewhere. Whole provinces are + as yet only partially explored; and the total flora is estimated to + comprise ultimately 12,000 species. China is the continuation eastward + of the great Himalayan mass, numerous chains of mountains running + irregularly to the sea-board. Thousands of deep narrow valleys form + isolated areas, where peculiar species have been evolved. Though the + greater part of the country has long ago been cleared of its primeval + forest and submitted to agriculture, there still remain some extensive + forests and countless small woods in which the original flora is well + preserved. Towards the north the vegetation is palaearctic, and + differs little in its composition from that of Germany, Russia and + Siberia. The flora of the western and central provinces is closely + allied to that of the Himalayas and of Japan; while towards the south + this element mingles with species derived from Indo-China, Burma and + the plain of Hindostan. Above a certain elevation, decreasing with the + latitude, but approximately 6000 ft. in the Yangtsze basin, there + exist in districts remote from the traffic of the great rivers, + extensive forests of conifers, like those of Central Europe in + character, but with different species of silver fir, larch, spruce and + Cembran pine. Below this altitude the woods are composed of deciduous + and evergreen broad-leafed trees and shrubs, mingled together in a + profusion of species. Pure broad-leafed forests of one or two species + are rare, though small woods of oak, of alder and of birch are + occasionally seen. There is nothing comparable to the extensive beech + forests of Europe, the two species of Chinese beech being sporadic and + rare trees. The heaths, _Calluna_ and _Erica_, which cover great + tracts of barren sandy land in Europe, are absent from China, where + the Ericaceous vegetation is made up of numerous species of + _Rhododendron_, which often cover vast areas on the mountain slopes. + Pine forests occur at low levels, but are always small in extent. + + The appearance of the vegetation is very different from that of the + United States, which is comparable to China in situation and in + extent. Though there are 60 species of oak in China, many with + magnificent foliage and remarkable cupules, the red oaks, so + characteristic of North America, with their bristle-pointed leaves, + turning beautiful colours in autumn, are quite unknown. The great + coniferous forest west of the Rocky Mountains has no analogue in + China, the gigantic and preponderant Douglas fir being absent, while + the giant _Sequoias_ are represented only on a small scale by + _Cryptomeria_, which attains half their height. + + Certain remnants of the Miocene flora which have disappeared from + Europe are still conspicuous and similar in North America and China. + In both regions there are several species of _Magnolia_; one species + each of _Liriodendron, Liquidambar_ and _Sassafras_; and curious + genera like _Nyssa, Hamamelis, Decumaria_ and _Gymnocladus_. The + swamps of the south-eastern states, in which still survive the once + widely spread _Taxodium_ or deciduous cypress, are imitated on a small + scale by the marshy banks of rivers near Canton, which are clad with + _Glyptostrobus_, the "water-pine" of the Chinese. _Pseudolarix, + Cunninghamia_ and _Keteleeria_ are coniferous genera peculiar to + China, which have become extinct elsewhere. The most remarkable tree + in China, the only surviving link between ferns and conifers, _Ginkgo + biloba_, has only been seen in temple gardens, but may occur wild in + some of the unexplored provinces. Its leaves have been found in the + tertiary beds of the Isle of Mull. + + Most of the European genera occur in China, though there are curious + exceptions like the plane tree, and the whole family of the + _Cistaceae_, which characterize the peculiar _maquis_ of the + Mediterranean region. The rhododendrons, of which only four species + are European, have their headquarters in China, numbering 130 species, + varying in size from miniature shrubs 6 in. high to tall trees. + _Lysimachia, Primula, Clematis, Rubus_ and _Gentiana_ have each a + hundred species, extraordinary variable in habit, in size and in + colour of the flowers. The ferns are equally polymorphic, numbering + 400 species, and including strange genera like _Archangiopteris_ and + _Cheiropteris_, unknown elsewhere. About 40 species of bamboos have + been distinguished; the one with a square stem from Fu-kien is the + most curious. + + With a great wealth of beautiful flowering shrubs and herbaceous + plants, the Chinese at an early period became skilled horticulturists. + The emperor Wu Ti established in 111 B.C. a botanic garden at + Ch'ang-an, into which rare plants were introduced from the west and + south. Many garden varieties originated in China. The chrysanthemum, + perhaps the most variable of cultivated flowers, is derived from two + wild species (small and inconspicuous plants), and is mentioned in the + ancient Chinese classics. We owe to the skill of the Chinese many + kinds of roses, lilies, camellias and peonies; and have introduced + from China some of the most ornamental plants in our gardens, as + _Wistaria, Diervilla, Kerria, Incarvillea, Deutzia, Primula sinensis, + Hemerocallis_, &c. The peach and several oranges are natives of China. + The varnish tree (_Rhus vernicifera_), from which lacquer is obtained; + the tallow tree (_Sapium sebiferum_); the white mulberry, on which + silkworms are fed; and the tea plant were all first utilized by the + Chinese. The Chinese have also numerous medicinal plants, of which + ginseng and rhubarb are best known. Nearly all our vegetables and + cereals have their counterpart in China, where there are numerous + varieties not yet introduced into Europe, though some, like the Soy + bean, are now attracting great attention. (A. HE.*) + + AUTHORITIES.--L. Richard (S.J.), _Géographie de l'empire de Chine_ + (Shanghai, 1905)--the first systematic account of China as a whole in + modern times. The work, enlarged, revised and translated into English + by M. Kennelly (S.J.), was reissued in 1908 as Richard's + _Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies_. This + is the standard authority for the country and gives for each section + bibliographical notes. It has been used in the revision of the present + article. Valuable information on northern, central and western China + is furnished by Col. C.C. Manifold and Col. A.W.S. Wingate in the + _Geog. Journ._ vol. xxiii. (1904) and vol. xxix. (1907). Consult also + Marshall Broomhall (ed.), _The Chinese Empire: a General and + Missionary Survey_ (London, 1907); B. Willis, E. Blackwelder and + others, _Research in China_, vol. i. part i. "Descriptive Topography + and Geology," part ii. "Petrography and Zoology," and Atlas + (Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1906-1907); Forbes and Hemsley, + "Enumeration of Chinese Plants," in _Journ. Linnean Soc. (Bot.)_, + vols. xxiii. and xxxvi.; Bretschneider, _History of European Botanical + Discoveries in China_; E. Tiessen, _China das Reich der achtzehn + Provinzen_, Teil i. "Die allgemeine Geographie des Landes" (Berlin, + 1902); and _The China Sea Directory_ (published by the British + Admiralty), a valuable guide to the coasts: vol. ii. (5th ed., 1906) + deals with Hong-Kong and places south thereof, vol. iii. (4th ed., + 1906, supp. 1907) with the rest of the Chinese coast; vol. i. (5th + ed., 1906) treats of the islands and straits in the S.W. approach to + the China Sea. Much of China has not been surveyed, but considerable + progress has been made since 1900. _The Atlas of the Chinese Empire_ + (London, 1908), a good general atlas, which, however, has no hill + shading, gives maps of each province on the scale of 1:3,000,000. The + preface contains a list of the best regional maps. + + _The Journal af the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_ + contains papers on all subjects relating to China. + + +II. THE PEOPLE + + Population. + +China is noted for the density of its population, but no accurate +statistics are forthcoming. The province of Shan-tung is reputed to +have a population of 680 per sq. m. The provinces of central China, in +the basin of the Yangtsze-kiang--namely Sze-ch'uen, Hu-peh, Ngan-hui, +Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang--contain probably a third of thes total +population, the density of the people in these provinces being +represented as from 490 to 310 per sq. m. Ho-nan, which belongs partly +to the basin of the Hwang-ho and partly to that of the Yangtsze-kiang, +as well as the S.E. coast provinces of Fu-kien and Kwang-tung, are also +densely peopled, Ho-nan being credited with 520 persons per sq. m., +Fu-kien with 490 and Kwang-tung with about 320. + + The Chinese government prints from time to time in the _Peking + Gazette_ returns of the population made by the various provincial + authorities. The method of numeration is to count the households, and + from that to make a return of the total inhabitants of each province. + There would be no great difficulty in obtaining fairly accurate + returns if sufficient care were taken. It does not appear, however, + that much care is taken. Mr E.H. Parker published in the _Statistical + Society's Journal_ for March 1899 tables translated from Chinese + records, giving the population from year to year between 1651 and + 1860. These tables show a gradual rise, though with many fluctuations, + up till 1851, when the total population is stated to be 432 millions. + From that point it decreases till 1860, when it is put down at only + 261 millions. The Chinese Imperial Customs put the total population of + the empire in 1906 at 438,214,000 and that of China proper at + 407,253,000. It has been held by several inquirers that these figures + are gross over-estimates. Mr Rockhill, American minister at Peking + (1905-1909), after careful inquiry[9] concluded that the inhabitants + of China proper did not exceed, in 1904, 270,000,000. Other competent + authorities are inclined to accept the round figure of 400,000,000 as + nearer the accurate number. Eleven cities were credited in 1908 with + between 500,000 and 1,000,000 inhabitants each, and smaller cities are + very numerous, but the population is predominantly rural. In addition + to the Chinese the population includes a number of aboriginal races + such as the Lolos (q.v.), the Miaotsze (q.v.), the Ikias of Kwei-chow + and Kwang-si, the Hakka, found in the south-east provinces, and the + Hoklos of Kwang-tung province.[10] The Manchus resident in China are + estimated to number 4,000,000. According to the Imperial Customs + authorities, the number of foreigners resident in China in 1908 was + 69,852. Of these 44,143 were Japanese, 9520 Russian, 9043 British, + 3637 German, 3545 American, 3353 Portuguese, 2029 French, 554 Italian + and 282 Belgian. + + + Emigration. + + The Chinese are a colonizing race, and in Manchuria, Mongolia and + Turkestan they have brought several districts under cultivation. In + the regions where they settle they become the dominant race--thus + southern Manchuria now differs little from a province of China proper. + In Indo-China, the Malay Peninsula and throughout the Far East Chinese + are numerous as farmers, labourers and traders; in some places, such + as Singapore, Chinese are among the principal merchants. This + colonizing spirit is probably due more to the enterprise of the people + than to the density of the population. There were Chinese settlements + at places on the east coast of Africa before the 10th century A.D. + Following the discovery of gold in California there was from 1850 + onwards a large emigration of Chinese to that state and to other parts + of America. But in 1879 Chinese exclusion acts were passed by the + United States, an example followed by Australia, where Chinese + immigration was also held to be a public danger. Canada also adopted + the policy of excluding Chinese, but not before there had been a + considerable immigration into British Columbia. Two factors, a racial + and an economic, are at work to bring about these measures of + exclusion. As indentured labourers Chinese have been employed in the + West Indies, South America and other places (see COOLIE). + + In addition to several million Chinese settlers in Manchuria, and + smaller numbers in Mongolia, Turkestan and Tibet, it was estimated in + 1908 that there were over 9,000,000 Chinese resident beyond the + empire. Of these 2,250,000 were in Formosa, which for long formed a + part of the empire, and over 6,000,000 in neighbouring regions of Asia + and in Pacific Islands. In the West Indies (chiefly Cuba) the number + of Chinese was estimated at 100,000, in South America (Brazil, Peru + and Chile) at 72,000, in the United States at 150,000, in Canada at + 12,000, and in Australia and New Zealand at 35,000. There are + comparatively few Chinese in Japan (if Formosa be excepted) and Korea. + The number is given in 1908 as 17,000 in Japan and 11,000 in Korea. + + +_Social Life._ + +The awakening of the East which has followed the Russo-Japanese War of +1904-5 has affected China also. It is too soon to say how far the influx +of European ideas will be able to modify the immemorial customs and +traditions of perhaps the most conservative people in the world; but the +process has begun, and this fact makes it difficult to give a picture of +Chinese habits and customs which shall be more than historical or +provisional. Moreover, the difficulty of presenting a picture which +shall be true of China as a whole is enhanced by the different +characteristics observable in various regions of so vast a country. The +Chinese themselves, until the material superiority of Western +civilization forced them to a certain degree to conform to its +standards, looked down from the height of their superior culture with +contempt on the "Western barbarians." Nor was their attitude wholly +without justification. Their civilization was already old at a time when +Britain and Germany were peopled by half-naked barbarians, and the +philosophical and ethical principles on which it was based remain, to +all appearances, as firmly rooted as ever. That these principles have, +on the whole, helped to create a national type of a very high order few +Europeans who know the Chinese well would deny. The Chinese are +naturally reserved, earnest and good-natured; for the occasional +outbursts of ferocious violence, notably against foreign settlements, +are no index to the national character. There is a national proverb that +"the men of the Four Seas are all brothers," and even strangers can +travel through the country without meeting with rudeness, much less +outrage. If the Chinese character is inferior to the European, this +inferiority lies in the fact that the Chinaman's whole philosophy of +life disinclines him to change or to energetic action. He is +industrious; but his industry is normally along the lines marked out by +authority and tradition. He is brave; but his courage does not naturally +seek an outlet in war. The jealously exclusive empire, into which in the +19th century the nations of the West forced an entrance, was organized +for peace; the arts of war had been all but forgotten, and soldiers were +of all classes the most despised. + + The whole social and political organization of the Chinese is based, + in a far more real sense than in the West, on the family. The supreme + duty is that of the child to its parent; on this the whole Chinese + moral system is built up. Filial piety, according to the teaching of + Confucius, is the very foundation of society; the nation itself is but + one great family, and the authority of the government itself is but an + extension of the paternal authority, to which all its children are + bound to yield implicit obedience. The western idea of the liberty and + dignity of the individual, as distinct from the community to which he + belongs, is wholly alien to the Chinese mind. The political unit in + China is not the individual but the family, and the father of the + family is supposed to be responsible for the qualities and views of + all his kin. He is rewarded for their virtues, punished for their + faults; the deserts of a son ennoble the father and all his ancestors, + and conversely his crimes disgrace them. + + An outcome of this principle is the extraordinary importance in China + of funeral rites, especially in the case of the father. The eldest + son, now head of the family, or, failing him, his first-born or + adopted son, fixes one of the three souls of the dead in the tablet + commemorating his virtues, burns incense to his shade, and supplies + him with paper money and paper representations of everything (clothes, + servants, horses) that he may require in his journey to the other + world. Mourning lasts for three years, during which the mourners wear + white garments and abstain from meat, wine and public gatherings. + Custom, too, dictates that wherever the Chinaman may die he must be + brought back for burial to the place of his birth; one of the objects + of the friendly societies is to provide funds to charter ships to + transport home the bodies of those who have died abroad. Annually, in + May, the white-clad people stream to the graves and mortuary temples + with flowers, fruit and other offerings for the dead. Christian + missionaries have found in this ancestor worship the most serious + obstacle to the spread of a religion which teaches that the convert + must, if need be, despise his father and his mother and follow Christ. + + The same elaborate ceremonialism that characterizes the Chinese + funeral customs is found also in their marriage rites and the rules of + their social intercourse generally. Confucius is reported to have said + that "all virtues have their source in etiquette," and the due + observance of the "ceremonial" (_li_) in the fulfilling of social + duties is that which, in Chinese opinion, distinguishes civilized from + barbarous peoples. The Board of Rites, one of the departments of the + central government, exists for the purpose of giving decisions in + matters of etiquette and ceremony. As to marriage, the rule that the + individual counts for nothing obtains here in its fullest + significance. The breeding of sons to carry on the ancestral cult is a + matter of prime importance, and the marriage of a young man is + arranged at the earliest possible age. The bride and bridegroom have + little voice in the matter, the match being arranged by the parents + of the parties; the lifting of the bride's veil, so that the + bridegroom may see her face, is the very last act of the long and + complicated ceremony. + + In the traditional Chinese social system four classes are + distinguished: the literary, the agricultural, the artisan and the + trading class. Hereditary nobility, in the European sense, scarcely + exists, and the possession of an hereditary title gives in itself no + special privileges. Official position is more highly esteemed than + birth and the bureaucracy takes the place of the aristocracy in the + west. There are, nevertheless, besides personal decorations for merit, + such as the yellow jacket, five hereditary rewards for merit; these + last only for a fixed number of lives. A few Chinese families, + however, enjoy hereditary titles in the full sense, the chief among + them being the Holy Duke of Yen (the descendant of Confucius). The + Imperial Clansmen consist of those who trace their descent direct from + the founder of the Manchu dynasty, and are distinguished by the + privilege of wearing a yellow girdle; collateral relatives of the + imperial house wear a red girdle. Twelve degrees of nobility (in a + descending scale as one generation succeeds another) are conferred on + the descendants of every emperor; in the thirteenth generation the + descendants of emperors are merged in the general population, save + that they retain the yellow girdle. The heads of eight houses, the + "Iron-capped" (or helmeted) princes, maintain their titles in + perpetuity by rule of primogeniture in virtue of having helped the + Manchu in the conquest of China. Imperial princes apart, the highest + class is that forming the civil service. (See also § _Government and + Administration_.) The peasant class forms the bulk of the population. + The majority of Chinese are small landowners; their standard of living + is very low in comparison with European standards. This is in part due + to the system of land tenure. A parent cannot, even if he wished to do + so, leave all his land to one son. There must be substantially an + equal division, the will of the father notwithstanding. As early + marriages and large families are the rule, this process of continual + division and subdivision has brought things down to the irreducible + minimum in many places. Small patches of one-tenth or even + one-twentieth of an acre are to be found as the estate of an + individual landowner, and the vast majority of holdings run between + one and three acres. With three acres a family is deemed very + comfortable, and the possession of ten acres means luxury. + + The only class which at all resembles the territorial magnates of + other countries is the class of retired officials. The wealth of an + official is not infrequently invested in land, and consequently there + are in most provinces several families with a country seat and the + usual insignia of local rank and influence. On the decease of the + heads or founders of such families it is considered dignified for the + sons to live together, sharing the rents and profits in common. This + is sometimes continued for several generations, until the country seat + becomes an agglomeration of households and the family a sort of clan. + A family of this kind, with literary traditions, and with the means to + educate the young men, is constantly sending its scions into the + public service. These in turn bring their earnings to swell the common + funds, while the rank and dignity which they may earn add to the + importance and standing of the group as a whole. The members of this + class are usually termed the _literati_ or gentry. + + The complex character of the Chinese is shown in various ways. Side by + side with the reverence of ancestors the law recognizes the right of + the parent to sell his offspring into slavery and among the poor this + is not an uncommon practice, though in comparison with the total + population the number of slaves is few. The kidnapping of children for + sale as slaves is carried on, but there is no slave raiding. There are + more female than male slaves; the descendants of male slaves acquire + freedom in the fifth generation. While every Chinese man is anxious to + have male children, girls are often considered superfluous. + + The position of women is one of distinct inferiority; a woman is + always subject to the men of her family--before marriage to her + father, during marriage to her husband, in widowhood to her son; these + states being known as "the three obediences." Sons who do not, + however, honour their mothers outrage public opinion. Polygamy is + tolerated, secondary wives being sometimes provided by the first wife + when she is growing old. Secondary wives are subordinate to first + wives. A wife may be divorced for any one of seven reasons. The sale + of wives is practised, but is not recognized by law. Women of the + upper classes are treated with much respect. The home of a Chinese man + is often in reality ruled by his mother, or by his wife as she + approaches old age, a state held in veneration. Chinese women + frequently prove of excellent business capacity, and those of high + rank--as the recent history of China has conspicuously + proved--exercise considerable influence on public affairs. + + Deforming the feet of girls by binding and stopping their growth has + been common for centuries. The tottering walk of the Chinese lady + resulting from this deformation of the feet is the admiration of her + husband and friends. Foot-binding is practised by rich and poor in all + parts of the country, but is not universal. In southern and western + China Hakka women and certain others never have their feet bound. It + has been noted that officials (who all serve on the itinerary system) + take for secondary wives natural-footed women, who are frequently + slaves.[11] Every child is one at birth, and two on what Europeans + call its first birthday, the period of gestation counting as one year. + + In their social intercourse the Chinese are polite and ceremonious; + they do not shake hands or kiss, but prostrations (kotowing), + salutations with joined hands and congratulations are common. They + have no weekly day of rest, but keep many festivals, the most + important being that of New Year's Day. Debts are supposed to be paid + before New Year's Day begins and for the occasion new clothes are + bought. Other notable holidays are the Festival of the First Full + Moon, the Feast of Lanterns and the Festival of the Dragon Boat. A + feature of the festivals is the employment of thousands of lanterns + made of paper, covered with landscapes and other scenes in gorgeous + colours. Of outdoor sports kite-flying is the most popular and is + engaged in by adults; shuttle-cock is also a favourite game, while + cards and dominoes are indoor amusements. The theatre and marionette + shows are largely patronized. The habit of opium smoking is referred + to elsewhere; tobacco smoking is general among both sexes. + + Except in their head-dress and their shoes little distinction is made + between the costumes of men and women.[12] Both sexes wear a long + loose jacket or robe which fits closely round the neck and has wide + sleeves, and wide short trousers. Over the robe shorter jackets--often + sleeveless--are worn, according to the weather. For winter wear the + jackets are wadded, and a Chinaman will speak of "a three, four or six + coat cold day." A man's robe is generally longer than that of a woman. + Petticoats are worn by ladies on ceremonial occasions and the long + robe is removed when in the house. "It is considered very unwomanly + not to wear trousers, and very indelicate for a man not to have skirts + to his coat." No Chinese woman ever bares any part of her body in + public--even the hands are concealed in the large sleeves--and the + evening dress of European ladies is considered indelicate; but Hakka + women move about freely without shoes or stockings. A Chinese man + will, however, in warm weather often strip naked to the waist. Coolies + frequently go bare-legged; they use sandals made of rope and possess + rain-coats made of palm leaves. The garments of the poorer classes are + made of cotton, generally dyed blue. Wealthy people have their clothes + made of silk. Skirts and jackets are elaborately embroidered. Costly + furs and fur-lined clothes are much prized, and many wealthy Chinese + have fine collections of furs. Certain colours may only be used with + official permission as denoting a definite rank or distinction, e.g. + the yellow jacket. The colours used harmonize--the contrasts in colour + seen in the clothes of Europeans is avoided. Dark purple over blue are + usual colour combinations. The mourning colour is white. Common shoes + are made of cotton or silk and have thick felt soles; all officials + wear boots of satin into which is thrust the pipe or the fan--the + latter carried equally by men and women. The fan is otherwise stuck at + the back of the neck, or attached to the girdle, which may also hold + the purse, watch, snuff-box and a pair of chop-sticks. + + Formerly Chinese men let their hair grow sufficiently long to gather + it in a knot at the top; on the conquest of the country by the Manchu + they were compelled to adopt the queue or pigtail, which is often + artificially lengthened by the employment of silk thread, usually + black in colour. The front part of the head is shaved. As no Chinese + dress their own hair, barbers are numerous and do a thriving trade. + Women do not shave the head nor adopt the queue. Men wear in general a + close-fitting cap, and the peasants large straw hats. Circular caps, + larger at the crown than round the head and with an outward slope are + worn in winter by mandarins, conical straw hats in summer. Women have + elaborate head ornaments, decking their hair with artificial flowers, + butterflies made of jade, gold pins and pearls. The faces of Chinese + ladies are habitually rouged, their eyebrows painted. Pearl or bead + necklaces are worn both by men and women. Officials and men of leisure + let one or two finger nails grow long and protect them with a metal + case. + + The staple food of the majority of the Chinese in the south and + central provinces is rice; in the northern provinces millet as well as + rice is much eaten. In separate bowls are placed morsels of pork, + fish, chicken, vegetables and other relishes. Rice-flour, bean-meal, + macaroni, and shell fish are all largely used. Flour balls cooked in + sugar are esteemed. Beef is never eaten, but Mahommedans eat mutton, + and there is hardly any limit to the things the Chinese use as food. + In Canton dogs which have been specially fed are an article of diet. + Eggs are preserved for years in a solution of salt, lime and wood-ash, + or in spirits made from rice. Condiments are highly prized, as are + also preserved fruits. Special Chinese dishes are soups made from + sea-slugs and a glutinous substance found in certain birds' nests, + ducks' tongues, sharks' fins, the brains of chickens and of fish, the + sinews of deer and of whales, fish with pickled fir-tree cones, and + roots of the lotus lily. A kind of beer brewed from rice is a usual + drink; _samshu_ is a spirit distilled from the same grain and at + dinners is served hot in small bowls. Excellent native wines are + made. The Chinese are, however, abstemious with regard to alcoholic + liquors. Water is drunk hot by the very poor, as a substitute for tea. + Tea is drunk before and after meals in cups without handle or saucer; + the cups are always provided with a cover. Two substantial meals are + taken during the day--luncheon and dinner; the last named at varying + hours from four till seven o'clock. At dinner a rich man will offer + his guest twenty-four or more dishes (always a multiple of 4), four to + six dishes being served at a time. Food is eaten from bowls and with + chop-sticks (q.v.) and little porcelain spoons. Men dine by themselves + when any guests are present; dinner parties are sometimes given by + ladies to ladies. Chinese cookery is excellent; in the culinary art + the Chinese are reputed to be second only to the French. + + Ethnologically the Chinese are classed among the Mongolian races (in + which division the Manchus are also included), although they present + many marked contrasts to the Mongols. The Tatars, Tibetans, Burmese, + Shans, Manchu and other races--including the Arab and Japanese--have + mingled with the indigenous population to form the Chinese type, while + aboriginal tribes still resist the pressure of absorption by the + dominant race (see ante, _Population_). The Chinese are in fact + ethnically a very mixed people, and the pure Mongol type is uncommon + among them. Moreover, natives of different provinces still present + striking contrasts one to another, and their common culture is + probably the strongest national link. By some authorities it is held + that the parent stock of the Chinese came from the north-west, beyond + the alluvial plain; others hold that it was indigenous in eastern + China. Notwithstanding the marked differences between the inhabitants + of different provinces and even between those living in the same + province, certain features are common to the race. "The stature is + below the average and seldom exceeds 5 ft. 4 in., except in the North. + The head is normally brachycephalic or round horizontally, and the + forehead low and narrow. The face is round, the mouth large, and the + chin small and receding. The cheek-bones are prominent, the eyes + almond-shaped, oblique upwards and outwards, and the hair coarse, lank + and invariably black. The beard appears late in life, and remains + generally scanty. The eyebrows are straight and the iris of the eye is + black. The nose is generally short, broad and flat. The hands and feet + are disproportionately small, and the body early inclines to obesity. + The complexion varies from an almost pale-yellow to a dark-brown, + without any red or ruddy tinge. Yellow, however, predominates."[13] + + A few words may be added concerning the Manchus, who are the ruling + race in China. Their ethnic affinities are not precisely known, but + they may be classed among the Ural-Altaic tribes, although the term + Ural-Altaic (q.v.) denotes a linguistic rather than a racial group. By + some authorities they are called Tung-tatze, i.e. Eastern Tatars---the + Tatars of to-day being of true Mongol descent. Manchu is the name + adopted in the 13th century by one of several tribes which led a + nomadic life in Manchuria and were known collectively in the 11th + century as Nüchihs. Some authorities regard the Khitans (whence the + European form Cathay), who in the 9th and 10th centuries dwelt in the + upper Liao region, as the ancestors of this race. It was not until the + 16th century that the people became known generally as Manchus and + obtained possession of the whole of the country now bearing their name + (see MANCHURIA). They had then a considerable mixture of Chinese and + Korean blood, but had developed a distinct nationality and kept their + ancient Ural-Altaic language. In China the Manchus retained their + separate nationality and semi-military organization. It was not until + the early years of the 20th century that steps were officially taken + to obliterate the distinction between the two races. The Manchus are a + more robust race than the inhabitants of central and southern China, + but resemble those of northern China save that their eyes are + horizontally set. They are a lively and enterprising people, but have + not in general the intellectual or business ability of the Chinese. + They are courteous in their relations with strangers. The common + people are frugal and industrious. The Manchu family is generally + large. The women's feet are unbound; they twist their hair round a + silver bangle placed cross-wise on the top of the head. The Manchus + have no literature of their own, but as the language of the court + Manchu has been extensively studied in China. + + AUTHORITIES.--Sir John F. Davies, _China_ (2 vols., London, 1857); É. + Réclus, _The Universal Geography_, vol. vii. (Eng. trans. ed. by E.G. + Ravenstein and A.H. Keane); É. and O. Réclus, _L'Empire du milieu_ + (Paris, 1902); Sir R.K. Douglas, _Society in China_ (London, 1895); J. + Doolittle, _Social Life of the Chinese_ (2 vols., New York, 1867); + H.A. Giles, _China and the Chinese_ (1902); E. Bard, _Les Chinois chez + eux_ (Paris, 1900); A.G. Jones, _Desultory Notes on Chinese Etiquette_ + (Shanghai, 1906); Mrs Archibald Little, _Intimate China_ (London, + 1899) and _The Land of the Blue Gown_ (London, 1902); E.H. Parker, + _John Chinaman and a Few Others_ (London, 1901); J. Dyer-Ball, _Things + Chinese_ (Shanghai, 1903); Cheng Kitung, _The Chinese Painted by + Themselves_ (Eng. trans. by J. Millington, London, 1885); L. Richard, + _Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire_ (Shanghai, 1908). (X.) + + +_Religion._ + + The ancient faith. + +The earliest traces of religious thought and practice in China point to +a simple monotheism. There was a Divine Ruler of the universe, abiding +on high, beyond the ken of man. This Power was not regarded as the +Creator of the human race, but as a Supreme Being to whom wickedness was +abhorrent and virtuous conduct a source of joy, and who dealt out +rewards and punishments with unerring justice, claiming neither love nor +reverence from mankind. If a man did his duty towards his neighbour, he +might pass his whole time on earth oblivious of the fact that such a +Power was in existence; unless perchance he wished to obtain some good +or attain some end, in which case he might seek to propitiate Him by +sacrifice and prayer. There was no Devil to tempt man astray, and to +rejoice in his fall; neither was there any belief that righteous +behaviour in this world would lead at death to absorption in the Deity. +To God, understood in this sense, the people gave the name _Tien_, which +in the colloquial language was used of the sky; and when, in the first +stages of the written character, it became necessary to express the idea +of _Tien_, they did not attempt any vague picture of the heavens, but +set down the rude outline of a man. Perhaps about this period the title +_Shang Ti_, or Supreme Ruler, came into vogue as synonymous with _Tien_. +But although the two terms were synonyms, and both may be equally +rendered by "God," there is nevertheless an important distinction to be +observed, much as though _Tien_ and _Shang Ti_ were two Persons in one +substance. _Tien_ is far more an abstract Being, while _Shang Ti_ +partakes rather of the nature of a personal God, whose anthropomorphic +nature is much more strongly accentuated. _Shang Ti_ is described as +walking and talking, as enjoying the flavour of sacrifices, as pleased +with music and dancing in his honour, and even as taking sides in +warfare; whereas _Tien_ holds aloof, wrapped in an impenetrable majesty, +an _ignotum pro mirifico_. So much for religion in primeval days, +gathered scrap by scrap from many sources; for nothing like a history of +religion is to be found in Chinese literature. + +Gradually to this monotheistic conception was added a worship of the +sun, moon and constellations, of the five planets, and of such +noticeable individual stars as (e.g.) Canopus, which is now looked upon +as the home of the God of Longevity. Earth, too--Mother Earth--came in +for her share of worship, indicated especially by the God of the Soil, +and further distributed among rivers and hills. Wind, rain, heat, cold, +thunder and lightning, as each became objects of desire or aversion, +were invested with the attributes of deities. The various parts of the +house--door, kitchen-stove, courtyard, &c.--were also conceived of as +sheltering some spirit whose influence might be benign or the reverse. +The spirits of the land and of grain came to mean one's country, the +commonwealth, the state; and the sacrifices of these spirits by the +emperor formed a public announcement of his accession, or of his +continued right to the throne. Side by side with such sacrificial rites +was the worship of ancestors, stretching so far back that its origin is +not discernible in such historical documents as we possess. In early +times only the emperor, or the feudal nobles, or certain high officials, +could sacrifice to the spirits of nature; the common people sacrificed +to their own ancestors and to the spirits of their own homes. For three +days before performing such sacrifices, a strict vigil with purification +was maintained; and by the expiration of that time, from sheer +concentration of thought, the mourner was able to see the spirits of the +departed, and at the sacrifice next day seemed to hear their movements +and even the murmur of their sighs. Ancestral worship in China has +always been, and still is, worship in the strict sense of the term. It +is not a memorial service in simple honour of the dead; but sacrifices +are offered, and the whole ceremonial is performed that the spirits of +former ancestors may be induced to extend their protection to the living +and secure to them as many as possible of the good things of this world. + +For Confucianism, which cannot, strictly speaking, be classed as a +religion, see CONFUCIUS. + + + Taoism. + + Around the scanty utterances of Lao Tz[)u] or Lao-tsze (q.v.; see also + § _Chinese Literature, §§ Philosophy_) an attempt was made by later + writers to weave a scheme of thought which should serve to satisfy the + cravings of mortals for some definite solution of the puzzle of life. + Lao Tz[)u] himself had enunciated a criterion which he called _Tao_, + or the Way, from which is derived the word Taoism; and in his usual + paradoxical style he had asserted that the secret of this Way, which + was at the beginning apparently nothing more than a line of right + conduct, could not possibly be imparted, even by those who understood + it. His disciples, however, of later days proceeded to interpret the + term in the sense of the Absolute, the First Cause, and finally as + One, in whose obliterating unity all seemingly opposed conditions of + time and space were indistinguishably blended. This One, the source of + human life, was placed beyond the limits of the visible universe; and + for human life to return thither at death and to enjoy immortality, it + was only necessary to refine away all corporeal grossness by following + the doctrines of Lao Tz[)u]. By and by, this One came to be regarded + as a fixed point of dazzling luminosity in remote ether, around which + circled for ever and ever, in the supremest glory of motion, the souls + of those who had left the slough of humanity behind them. These + transcendental notions were entirely corrupted at a very early date by + the introduction of belief in an elixir of life, and later still by + the practice of alchemistic experiments. Opposed by Buddhism, which + next laid a claim for a share in the profits of popular patronage, + Taoism rapidly underwent a radical transformation. It became a + religion, borrowing certain ceremonial, vestments, liturgies, the idea + of a hell, arrangement of temples, &c., from its rival; which rival + was not slow in returning the compliment. As Chu Hsi said, "Buddhism + stole the best features of Taoism; Taoism stole the worst features of + Buddhism. It is as though one took a jewel from the other, and the + loser recouped the loss with a stone." At the present day there is not + much to choose between the two religions, which flourish peaceably + together. As to their temples, priests and ceremonial, it takes an + expert to distinguish one from the other. + + + Buddhism. + + There is no trustworthy information as to the exact date at which + Buddhism first reached China. It is related that the emperor Ming Ti + (A.D. 58-76) had a dream in which a golden man appeared to him, and + this mysterious visitant was interpreted by the emperor's brother to + be none other than Sh[=a]kyamuni Buddha, the far-famed divinity of the + West. This shows that Buddhism must then have been known to the + Chinese, at any rate by hearsay. The earliest alleged appearance of + Buddhism in China dates from 217 B.C., when certain Shamans who came + to proselytize were seized and thrown into prison. They escaped + through the miraculous intervention of a golden man, who came to them + in the middle of the night and opened their prison doors. Hsü Kuan, a + writer of the Sung dynasty, quotes in his _Tung Chai Chi_ passages to + support the view that Buddhism was known in China some centuries + before the reign of Ming Ti; among others, the following from the _Sui + Shu Ching Chi Chih_: "These Buddhist writings had long been circulated + far and wide, but disappeared with the advent of the Ch'in dynasty," + under which (see § _Chinese Literature, §§ History_) occurred the + Burning of the Books. It is, however, convenient to begin with the + alleged dream of Ming Ti, as it was only subsequent to that date that + Buddhism became a recognized religion of the people. It is certain + that in A.D. 65 a mission of eighteen members was despatched to Khotan + to make inquiries on the subject, and that in 67 the mission returned, + bringing Buddhist writings and images, and accompanied by an Indian + priest, Kashiapmadanga, who was followed shortly afterwards by another + priest, Gobharana. A temple was built for these two at Lo-yang, then + the capital of China, and they settled down to the work of translating + portions of the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese; but all that now + remains of their work is the S[=u]tra of Forty-two Sections, + translated by Kashiapmadanga. During the next two hundred and fifty + years an unbroken line of foreign priests came to China to continue + the task of translation, and to assist in spreading the faith. Such + work was indeed entirely in their hands, for until the 4th century the + Chinese people were prohibited from taking orders as priests; but by + that date Buddhism had taken a firm hold upon the masses, and many + Chinese priests were attracted towards India, despite the long and + dangerous journey, partly to visit the birthplace of the creed and to + see with their own eyes the scenes which had so fired their + imaginations, and partly in the hope of adding to the store of books + and images already available in China (see § _Chinese Literature, §§ + Geography and Travel_). Still, the train of Indian missionaries, + moving in the opposite direction, did not cease. In 401, Kumarajiva, + the nineteenth of the Western Patriarchs and translator of the Diamond + S[=u]tra, finally took up his residence at the court of the soi-disant + emperor, Yao Hsing. In 405 he became State Preceptor and dictated his + commentaries on the sacred books of Buddhism to some eight hundred + priests, besides composing a _sh[=a]stra_ on Reality and Semblance. + Dying in 417, his body was cremated, as is still usual with priests, + but his tongue, which had done such eminent service during life, + remained unharmed in the midst of the flames. In the year 520 + B[=o]dhidharma, or Ta-mo, as he is affectionately known to the + Chinese, being also called the White Buddha, reached Canton, bringing + with him the sacred bowl of the Buddhist Patriarchate, of which he was + the last representative in the west and the first to hold office in + the east. Summoned to Nanking, he offended the emperor by asserting + that real merit lay, not in works, but solely in purity and wisdom + combined. He therefore retired to Lo-yang, crossing the swollen waters + of the Yangtsze on a reed, a feat which has ever since had a great + fascination for Chinese painters and poets. There he spent the rest of + his life, teaching that religion was not to be learnt from books, but + that man should seek and find the Buddha in his own heart. Thus + Buddhism gradually made its way. It had to meet first of all the + bitter hostility of the Taoists; and secondly, the fitful patronage + and opposition of the court. Several emperors and empresses were + infatuated supporters of the faith; one even went so far as to take + vows and lead the life of an ascetic, further insisting that to render + full obedience to the Buddhist commandment, "Thou shalt not kill," the + sacrificial animals were to be made of dough. Other emperors, + instigated by Confucian advisers, went to the opposite extreme of + persecution, closed all religious houses, confiscated their property, + and forced the priests and nuns to return to the world. From about the + 11th century onwards Buddhism has enjoyed comparative immunity from + attack or restriction, and it now covers the Chinese empire from end + to end. The form under which it appears in China is to some extent of + local growth; that is to say, the Chinese have added and subtracted + not a little to and from the parent stock. The cleavage which took + place under Kanishka, ruler of the Indo-Scythian empire, about the 1st + century A.D., divided Buddhism into the Mah[=a]y[=a]na, or Greater + Vehicle, and the Hin[=a]y[=a]na, as it is somewhat contemptuously + styled, or Lesser Vehicle. The latter was the nearer of the two to the + Buddhism of Sh[=a]kyamuni, and exhibits rather the mystic and esoteric + sides of the faith. The former, which spread northwards and on to + Nepaul, Tibet, China, Mongolia and Japan, leaving southern India, + Burma and Siam to its rival, began early to lean towards the + deification of Buddha as a personal Saviour. New Buddhas and + B[=o]dhisatvas were added, and new worlds were provided for them to + live in; in China, especially, there was an enormous extension of the + mythological element. In fact, the Mah[=a]y[=a]na system of Buddhism, + inspired, as has been observed, by a progressive spirit, but without + contradicting the inner significance of the teachings of Buddha, + broadened its scope and assimilated other religio-philosophical + beliefs, whenever this could be done to the advantage of those who + came within its influence. Such is the form of this religion which + prevails in China, of which, however, the Chinese layman understands + nothing. He goes to a temple, worships the gods with prostrations, + lighted candles, incense, &c., to secure his particular ends at the + moment; he may even listen to a service chanted in a foreign tongue + and just as incomprehensible to the priests as to himself. He pays his + fees and departs, absolutely ignorant of the history or dogmas of the + religion to which he looks for salvation in a future state. All such + knowledge, and there is now not much of it, is confined to a few of + the more cultured priests. + + + Mardaism. + + The 7th century seems to have been notable in the religious history of + China. Early in that century, Mazdaism, or the religion of Zoroaster, + based upon the worship of fire, was introduced into China, and in 621 + the first temple under that denomination was built at Ch'ang-an in + Shensi, then the capital. But the harvest of converts was + insignificant; the religion failed to hold its ground, and in the 9th + century disappeared altogether. + + + Mahommedanism. + + Mahommedans first settled in China in the Year of the Mission, A.D. + 628, under Wahb-Abi-Kabha, a maternal uncle of Mahomet, who was sent + with presents to the emperor. Wahb-Abi-Kabha travelled by sea to + Canton, and thence overland to Ch'ang-an, the capital, where he was + well received. The first mosque was built at Canton, where after + several restorations, it still exists. Another mosque was erected in + 742; but many of the Mahommedans went to China merely as traders, and + afterwards returned to their own country. The true stock of the + present Chinese Mahommedans was a small army of 4000 Arab soldiers + sent by the caliph Abu Giafar[14] in 755 to aid in putting down a + rebellion. These soldiers had permission to settle in China, where + they married native wives; and four centuries later, with the + conquests of Jenghiz Khan, large numbers of Arabs penetrated into the + empire and swelled the Mahommedan community. Its members are now + indistinguishable from the general population; they are under no civic + disabilities, and are free to open mosques wherever they please, so + long as, in common with Buddhists and Taoists, they exhibit the tablet + of the emperor's sovereignty in some conspicuous position. + + + Nestorianism. + + In A.D. 631 the Nestorians sent a mission to China and introduced + Christianity under the name of the Luminous Doctrine. In 636 they were + allowed to settle at Ch'ang-an; and in 638 an Imperial Decree was + issued, stating that Olopun, a Nestorian priest who is casually + mentioned as a Persian, had presented a form of religion which his + Majesty had carefully examined and had found to be in every way + satisfactory, and that it would henceforth be permissible to preach + this new doctrine within the boundaries of the empire. Further, the + establishment of a monastery was authorized, to be served by + twenty-one priests. For more than a century after this, Nestorian + Christianity seems to have flourished in China. In 781 the famous + Nestorian Tablet, giving a rough outline of the object and scope of + the faith, was set up at Ch'ang-an (the modern Si-gan Fu), + disappearing soon afterwards in the political troubles which laid the + city in ruins, to be brought to light again in 1625 by Father Semedo, + S.J. The genuineness of this tablet was for many years in dispute, + Voltaire, Renan, and others of lesser fame regarding it as a pious + Jesuit fraud; but all doubts on the subject have now been dispelled by + the exhaustive monograph of Père Havret, S.J., entitled _La Stèle de + Si-ngan_. The date of the tablet seems to mark the zenith of Nestorian + Christianity in China; after this date it began to decay. Marco Polo + refers to it as existing in the 13th century; but then it fades out of + sight, leaving scant traces in Chinese literature of ever having + existed. + + + Manichaeism. + + The Manichaeans, worshippers of the Chaldaean Mani or Man[=e]s, who + died about A.D. 274, appear to have found their way to China in the + year 694. In 719 an envoy from Tokharestan reached Ch'ang-an, bringing + a letter to the emperor, in which a request was made that an + astronomer who accompanied the mission might be permitted to establish + places of worship for persons of the Manichaean faith. Subsequently, a + number of such chapels were opened at various centres; but little is + known of the history of this religion, which is often confounded by + Chinese writers with Mazdeism, the fate of which it seems to have + shared, also disappearing about the middle of the 9th century. + + + Judaism. + + By "the sect of those who take out the sinew," the Chinese refer to + the Jews and their peculiar method of preparing meat in order to make + it _kosher_. Wild stories have been told of their arrival in China + seven centuries before the Christian era, after one of the numerous + upheavals mentioned in the Old Testament; and again, of their having + carried the Pentateuch to China shortly after the Babylonish + captivity, and having founded a colony in Ho-nan in A.D. 72. The Jews + really reached China for the first time in the year A.D. 1163, and + were permitted to open a synagogue at the modern K'ai-fêng Fu in 1164. + There they seem to have lived peaceably, enjoying the protection of + the authorities and making some slight efforts to spread their tenets. + There their descendants were found, a dwindling community, by the + Jesuit Fathers of the 17th century; and there again they were visited + in 1850 by a Protestant mission, which succeeded in obtaining from + them Hebrew rolls of parts of the Pentateuch in the square character, + with vowel points. After this, it was generally believed that the few + remaining stragglers, who seemed to be entirely ignorant of everything + connected with their faith, had become merged in the ordinary + population. A recent traveller, however, asserts that in 1909 he found + at K'ai-fêng Fu a Jewish community, the members of which keep as much + as possible to themselves, worshipping in secret, and preserving their + ancient ritual and formulary. + + See H. Hackmann, _Buddhism as a Religion_ (1910); H.A. Giles, + _Religions of Ancient China_ (1905); G. Smith, _The Jews at + K'ae-fung-foo_ (1851); Dabry de Thiersant, _Le Mahométisme en Chine_ + (1878); P. Havret. S.J., _La Stèle chrétienne de Si-ngan-fou_ (1895). + (H. A. GI.) + + + Christian missions. + + [Christian missions, both Roman Catholic and Protestant, are + established in every province in China. Freedom to embrace the + Christian faith has been guaranteed by the Chinese government since + 1860, and as a rule the missionaries have free scope in teaching and + preaching, though local disturbances are not infrequent. The number of + members of the Roman Catholic Church in China was reckoned by the + Jesuit fathers at Shanghai to be, in 1907, "about one million"; in the + same year the Protestant societies reckoned in all 250,000 church + members. By the Chinese, Roman Catholicism is called the "Religion of + the Lord of Heaven"; Protestantism the "Religion of Jesus." For the + progress and effects of Christianity in China see § _History_, and + MISSIONS, § _China_. ED.] + + +_Education and the Press._ + +The educational system of China till nearly the close of the 19th +century was confined in its scope to the study of Chinese classics. +Elementary instruction was not provided by the state. The well-to-do +engaged private tutors for their sons; the poorer boys were taught in +small schools on a voluntary basis. No curriculum was compulsory, but +the books used and the programme pursued followed a traditional rule. +The boys (there were no schools for girls) began by memorizing the +classics for four or five years. Then followed letter-writing and easy +composition. This completed the education of the vast majority of the +boys not intended for the public service. The chief merit of the system +was that it developed the memory and the imitative faculty. For +secondary education somewhat better provision was made, practically the +only method of attaining eminence in the state being through the schools +(see § _Civil Service_). At prefectural cities and provincial capitals +colleges were maintained at the public expense, and at these +institutions a more or less thorough knowledge of the classics might be +obtained. At the public examinations held periodically the exercises +proposed were original poems and literary essays. Three degrees were +conferred, _Siu-ts'ai_ (budding talent), _Chû-jên_ (promoted scholar) +and _Chin-shih_ (entered scholar). The last degree was given to those +who passed the final examination at Peking, and the successful +candidates were also called metropolitan graduates. + + The first education on western lines was given by the Roman Catholic + missionaries. In 1852 they founded a college for the education of + native priests; they also founded and maintained many primary and some + higher schools--mainly if not exclusively for the benefit of their + converts. The Protestant missions followed the example of the Roman + Catholics, but a new departure, which has had a wide success, was + initiated by the American Protestant missionary societies in founding + schools--primary and higher--and colleges in which western education + was given equally to all comers, Christian or non-Christian. + Universities and medical schools have also been established by the + missionary societies. They also initiated a movement for the education + of girls and opened special schools for their instruction. + + Missionary effort apart, the first step towards western education was + the establishment of two colleges in 1861, one at Peking, the other at + Canton in connexion with the imperial maritime customs. These + institutions were known as T'ung Wen Kwan, and were provided with a + staff of foreign professors and teachers. These colleges were mainly + schools of languages to enable young Chinese to qualify as + interpreters in English, French, &c. Similar schools were established + at Canton, Fuchow and one or two other places, with but indifferent + results. A more promising plan was conceived in 1880, or thereabouts, + by the then viceroy of Nanking, who sent a batch of thirty or forty + students to America to receive a regular training on the understanding + that on their return they would receive official appointments. The + promise was not kept. A report was spread that these students were + becoming too much Americanized. They were hastily recalled, and when + they returned they were left in obscurity. The next step was taken by + the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95. + The viceroy wrote a book, _China's Only Hope_, which he circulated + throughout the empire, and in which he strongly advocated a reform of + the traditional educational system. His scheme was to make Chinese + learning the foundation on which a western education should be + imparted.[15] The book was one of the factors in the 1898 reform + movement, and Chang Chih-tung's proposals were condemned when that + movement was suppressed. But after the Boxer rising the Peking + government adopted his views, and in 1902 regulations were issued for + the reform of the old system of public instruction. A university on + western lines was established in that year at Peking, the T'ung Wen + Kwan at the capital being incorporated in it. The new educational + movement gained enormously in strength as the result of the + Russo-Japanese War, and in 1906 a new system, theoretically almost + perfect, was established. The new system comprises the study of the + Chinese language, literature and composition, modern sciences, history + and geography, foreign languages,[16] gymnastics, drill and, in the + higher grades, political economy, and civil and international law. + + By 1910 primary and secondary government schools and schools for + special subjects (such as agriculture and engineering) had been + established in considerable numbers. In every province an Imperial + University was also established. The Imperial University at Peking now + teaches not only languages and Chinese subjects but also law, + chemistry, mathematics, &c. A medical school was founded at Peking in + 1906 through the energy of British Protestant missionaries, and is + called the Union Medical College. When in 1908, the United States, + finding that the indemnity for the Boxer outrages awarded her was + excessive, agreed to forgo the payment of £2,500,000, China undertook + to spend an equal amount in sending students to America. + + The general verdict of foreign observers on the working of the new + system up to 1910 was that in many instances the teaching was + ineffective, but there were notable exceptions. The best teachers, + next to Europeans, were foreign or mission-trained Chinese. The + Japanese employed as teachers were often ignorant of Chinese and were + not as a rule very successful. (See further § _History_.) A remarkable + indication of the thirst for western learning and culture was the + translation into Chinese and their diffusion throughout the country of + numerous foreign standard and other works, including modern fiction. + + + Native press. + + The _Peking Gazette_, which is sometimes called the oldest paper in + the world, is not a newspaper in the ordinary sense, but merely a + court gazette for publishing imperial decrees and such public + documents as the government may wish to give out. It never contains + original articles nor any discussion of public affairs. The first + genuine native newspaper was published at Shanghai about 1870. It was + termed the _Shen Pao_ or _Shanghai News_, and was a Chinese + speculation under foreign protection, the first editor being an + Englishman. It was some years before it made much headway, but success + came, and it was followed by various imitators, some published at + Shanghai, some at other treaty ports and at Hong-Kong. In 1910 there + were over 200 daily, weekly or monthly journals in China. The effect + of this mass of literature on the public mind of China is of + first-rate importance. + + The attitude of the central government towards the native press is + somewhat undefined. Official registration of a newspaper is required + before postal facilities are given. There are no press laws, but as + every official is a law unto himself in these matters, there is + nothing to prevent him from summarily suppressing an obnoxious + newspaper and putting the editor in prison. The emperor, among other + reform edicts which provoked the _coup d'état_ of 1898, declared that + newspapers were a boon to the public and appointed one of them a + government organ. The empress-dowager revoked this decree, and + declared that the public discussion of affairs of state in the + newspapers was an impertinence, and ought to be suppressed. + Nevertheless the newspapers continued to flourish, and their outspoken + criticism had a salutary effect on the public and on the government. + The official classes seem to have become alarmed at the independent + attitude of the newspapers, but instead of a campaign of suppression + the method was adopted, about 1908, of bringing the vernacular press + under official control. This was accomplished chiefly by the purchase + of the newspapers by the mandarins, with the result that at the + beginning of 1910 there was said to be hardly an independent native + daily newspaper left in China. The use of government funds to + subsidize or to purchase newspapers and thus to stifle or mislead + public opinion provoked strong protests from members of the Nanking + provincial council at its first sitting in the autumn of 1909. The + appropriation by the Shanghai Taot'ai of moneys belonging to the + Huangpu conservancy fund for subsidizing papers led to his impeachment + by a censor and to the return of the moneys.[17] (X.) + + +III. ECONOMICS + +_Agriculture and Industry._ + +China is pre-eminently an agricultural country. The great majority of +its inhabitants are cultivators of the soil. The holdings are in general +very small, and the methods of farming primitive. Water is abundant and +irrigation common over large areas. Stock-raising, except in Sze-ch'uen +and Kwang-tung, is only practised to a small extent; there are few large +herds of cattle or flocks of sheep, nor are there any large meadows, +natural or cultivated. In Sze-ch'uen yaks, sheep and goats are reared in +the mountains, and buffaloes and a fine breed of ponies on the plateau. +Cattle are extensively reared in the mountainous districts of +Kwang-tung. The camel, horse and donkey are reared in Chih-li. Forestry +is likewise neglected. While the existing forests, found mainly in high +regions in the provinces of Hu-nan, Fu-kien and Kwei-chow, are +disappearing and timber has to be imported, few trees are planted. This +does not apply to fruit trees, which are grown in great variety, while +horticulture is also a favourite pursuit. + +The Chinese farmer, if his methods be primitive, is diligent and +persevering. In the richer and most thickly populated districts terraces +are raised on the mountain sides, and even the tops of lofty hills are +cultivated. The nature of the soil and means of irrigation as well as +climate are determining factors in the nature of the crops grown; rice +and cotton, for example, are grown in the most northern as well as the +most southern districts of China. This is, however, exceptional and each +climatic region has its characteristic cultures. + + + Soils. + + The loess soil (see § _Geology_) is the chief element in determining + the agricultural products of north China. Loess soil bears excellent + crops, and not merely on the lower grounds, but at altitudes of 6000 + and 8000 ft. Wherever loess is found the peasant can live and thrive. + Only one thing is essential, and that is the annual rainfall. As, + owing to the porous nature of loess, no artificial irrigation is + possible, if the rain fails the crops must necessarily fail. Thus + seasons of great famine alternate with seasons of great plenty. It + appears, also, that the soil needs little or no manuring and very + little tillage. From its extremely friable nature it is easily broken + up, and thus a less amount of labour is required than in other parts. + The extreme porosity of the soil probably also accounts for the length + of time it will go on bearing crops without becoming exhausted. The + rainfall, penetrating deeply into the soil in the absence of + stratification, comes into contact with the moisture retained below, + which holds in solution whatever inorganic salts the soil may + contain, and thus the vegetation has an indefinite store to draw + upon.[18] + + There is no one dominant deposit in south China, where red sandstone + and limestone formations are frequent. Cultivation here is not + possible on the high elevations as in the north, but in the plains and + river valleys the soil is exceedingly fertile, while the lower slopes + of the mountains are also cultivated. In the north, moreover, but one + crop, in general, can be raised in the year. In the centre two and + sometimes three crops are raised yearly, and in the south, especially + in the lower basin of the Si-kiang, three crops are normally gathered. + In the north, too, the farmer has frequently to contend with drought + or with rain or floods; in the central and southern regions the + weather is more settled. + + + Distribution of crops. + + In the north of China wheat, barley, millet, buckwheat and maize are + the staple crops. Beans and peas are also cultivated. Rice thrives in + north-east Kan-suh, in some districts of Shan-si, in the extreme south + of Shan-tung and in parts of the Wei-ho plain in Shen-si. Cotton is + grown in Shen-si and Shan-tung. In Kan-suh and Shen-si two crops are + raised in favoured localities, cereals in spring and cotton or rice in + summer. Tobacco and the poppy are also grown in several of the + northern provinces. Rhubarb and fruit trees are largely cultivated in + the western part of north China. + + In the central provinces tea, cotton, rice and ramie fibre are the + chief crops. Tea is most largely cultivated in Ngan-hui, Kiang-si, + Hu-peh, Hu-nan, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan. Cotton is chiefly grown in + Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and Hu-peh. The seed is sown in May and the crops + gathered in September. The cotton is known as white and yellow, the + white variety being the better and the most cultivated. The poppy is + largely cultivated and, in connexion with the silk industry, the + mulberry tree. The mulberry is found principally in the provinces of + Sze-ch'uen, Kiang-su and Cheh-kiang. The central provinces are also + noted for their gum-lac, varnish and tallow trees. + + The crops of the south-eastern provinces are much the same as those of + the central provinces, but are predominantly rice, the sugar-cane, + ground-nuts and cinnamon. Tea is the chief crop in Fu-kien. The + sugar-cane is principally cultivated in Kwang-tung, Fu-kien and + Sze-ch'uen. In the south-western provinces the poppy, tea, tobacco and + rice are the chief crops. Wheat, maize and barley are also largely + raised. + + While rice does not, unlike tea and cotton, form the principal crop of + any one province it is more universally cultivated than any other + plant and forms an important item in the products of all the central + and southern provinces. Regarding China as a whole it forms the staple + product and food of the country. Two chief varieties are grown, that + suited only to low-lying regions requiring ample water and the red + rice cultivated in the uplands. Next to rice the most extensively + cultivated plants are tea and cotton, the sugar-cane, poppy and + bamboo. Besides the infinite variety of uses to which the wood of the + bamboo is applied, its tender shoots and its fruit are articles of + diet. + + + Fruits. + + Fruit is extensively cultivated throughout China. In the northern + provinces the chief fruits grown are pears, plums, apples, apricots, + peaches, medlars, walnuts and chestnuts, and in Kan-suh and Shan-tung + the jujube (q.v.). Strawberries are an important crop in Kan-suh. In + Shan-si, S.W. Chih-li and Shan-tung the vine is cultivated; the grapes + of Shan-si are reputed to produce the best wine of China. Oranges are + also grown in favoured localities in the north. The chief fruits of + the central and southern provinces are the orange, lichi, mango, + persimmon, banana, vine and pineapple, but the fruits of the northern + regions are also grown. The coco-nut and other palms flourish on the + southern coast. + + + The poppy. + + As shown above, the poppy has been grown in almost every district of + China. In 1906 it was chiefly cultivated in the following provinces: + Yun-nan, Kwei-chow, Sze-ch'uen, Kan-suh, Shen-si, Shan-si, Shan-tung, + Ho-nan, Kiang-su (northern part) and Cheh-kiang. The poppy is first + mentioned in Chinese literature in a book written in the first half of + the 8th century A.D., and its medicinal qualities are referred to in + the _Herbalist's Treasury_ of 973. It was not then nor for centuries + later grown in China for the preparation of opium.[19] There is no + evidence to show that the Chinese ever took opium in the shape of + pills (otherwise than medicinally). The cultivation of the poppy for + the manufacture of opium began in China in the 17th century, but it + was not until after 1796, when the importation of foreign opium was + declared illegal, that the plant was cultivated on an extensive scale. + After 1906 large areas which had been devoted to the poppy were given + over to other crops, in consequence of the imperial edict aimed at the + suppression of opium-smoking (see § _History_). + +_Mining._--The mineral resources of China are great, but the government +has shown a marked repugnance to allow foreigners to work mines, and +the mineral wealth has been very inadequately exploited. Mining +operations are controlled by the Board of Commerce. In 1907 this board +drew up regulations respecting the constitution of mining and other +companies. They contained many features against which foreign powers +protested. + + + Coal. + + Coal, iron, copper and tin are the principal minerals found in China; + there are also extensive deposits of coal and other minerals in + Manchuria. In China proper the largest coal measures are found in + Shan-si, Hu-nan, Kwei-chow and Sze-ch'uen. There are also important + coalfields in Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Ho-nan, Yun-nan, Hu-peh and + Kwang-tung--and almost all of the seven other provinces have also coal + measures of more or less value. The lack of transport facilities as + well as the aversion from the employment of foreign capital has + greatly hindered the development of mining. Numerous small mines have + been worked for a long period by the natives in the province of + Hu-nan. There are two principal local fields in this province, one + lying in the basin of the Lei river and yielding anthracite, and the + other in the basin of the Siang river yielding bituminous coal. Both + rivers drain into the Yangtsze, and there is thus an easy outlet by + water to Hankow. The quality of the coal, however, is inferior, as the + stratification has been much disturbed, and the coal-seams have been + in consequence crushed and broken. The largest coalfield in China lies + in the province of Shan-si. Coal and iron have here been worked by the + natives from time immemorial, but owing to the difficulty of transport + they have attained only a limited local circulation. The whole of + southern Shan-si, extending over 30,000 sq. m., is one vast coalfield, + and contains, according to the estimate of Baron von Richthofen, + enough coal to last the world at the present rate of consumption for + several thousand years. The coal-seams, which are from 20 to 36 ft. in + thickness, rest conformably on a substructure of limestone. The + stratification is throughout undisturbed and practically horizontal. + As the limestone bed is raised some 2000 ft. above the neighbouring + plain the coal-seams crop out in all directions. Mining is thus + carried on by adits driven into the face of the formation, rendering + the mining of the coal extremely easy. The coalfield is divided into + two by a mountain range of ancient granitic formation running + north-east and south-west, termed the Ho-shan. It is of anterior date + to the limestone and coal formations, and has not affected the + uniformity of the stratification, but it has this peculiarity, that + the coal on the east side is anthracite, and that on the west side is + bituminous. A concession to work coal and iron in certain specified + districts in this area was granted to a British company, the Peking + Syndicate, together with the right to connect the mines by railway + with water navigation. The syndicate built a railway in Shan-si from + P'ingyang to Tsi-chow-fu, the centre of a vast coalfield, and + connected with the main Peking-Hankow line; lines to serve coal mines + have also been built in Hu-nan and other provinces. The earliest in + date was that to the K'aip'ing collieries in the east of the province + of Chih-li, the railway connecting the mines with the seaport of Taku. + The coal at K'aip'ing is a soft bituminous coal with a large + proportion of dust. The output is about 1,500,000 tons per annum. A + mine has also been opened in the province of Hu-peh, about 60 m. below + Hankow, and near the Yangtsze, in connexion with iron-works. + + + Iron. + + Iron ore of various qualities is found almost as widely diffused as + coal. The districts where it is most worked at present lie within the + coalfield of Shan-si, viz. at Tsi-chow-fu and P'ing-ting-chow. The ore + is a mixture of clay iron ore and spathic ore, together with limonite + and hematite. It is found abundantly in irregular deposits in the Coal + Measures, and is easily smelted by the natives in crucibles laid in + open furnaces. This region supplies nearly the whole of north China + with the iron required for agricultural and domestic use. The out-turn + must be very considerable, but no data are available for forming an + accurate estimate. The province of Sze-ch'uen also yields an abundance + of iron ores of various kinds. They are worked by the natives in + numerous places, but always on a small scale and for local consumption + only. The ores occur in the Coal Measures, predominant among them + being a clay iron ore. Hu-nan, Fu-kien, Cheh-kiang and Shan-tung all + furnish iron ores. Iron (found in conjunction with coal) is worked in + Manchuria. + + + Copper, tin, &c. + + Copper is found chiefly in the provinces of Kwei-chow and Yun-nan, + where a rich belt of copper-bearing ores runs east and west across + both provinces, and including south Sze-ch'uen. The chief centres of + production are at the cities of Tung-ch'uen-fu, Chow-t'ung and + Ning-yuen. The mines are worked as a government monopoly, private + mining being nominally prohibited. The output is considerable, but no + statistics are published by government. Rich veins of copper ore are + also worked near Kiu-kiang. Tin is mined in Yun-nan, the headquarters + of the industry being the city of Meng-tsze, which since 1909 has been + connected with Hanoi by railway. This is an important industry, the + value of tin exported in 1908 being £600,000. Tin is also mined in + Hai-nan and lead in Yun-nan. Antimony ore is exported from Hu-nan; + petroleum is found in the upper Yangtsze region. Quicksilver is + obtained in Kwei-chow. Salt is obtained from brine wells in Shan-si + and Sze-ch'uen, and by evaporation from sea water. Excellent kaolin + abounds in the north-eastern part of Kiang-si, and is largely used in + the manufacture of porcelain. + + + Precious metals. + + The Chinese government has opened small gold mines at Hai-nan, in + which island silver is also found. A little gold-washing is done in + the sandy beds of certain rivers, for instance, the Han river and the + upper Yangtsze, above Su-chow (Suifu), which here goes by the name of + the "Goldsand" river. The amount so extracted is extremely small and + hardly pays the labour of washing, but the existence of gold grains + points to a matrix higher up. The whole of south-western China has the + reputation of being highly metalliferous. Gold is obtained in some + quantities on the upper waters of the Amur river, on the frontier + between China and Siberia. The washings are carried on by Chinese. + Gold has also been found in quartz veins at P'ing-tu, in Shan-tung, + but hardly in paying quantities. There are silver mines in Yun-nan. + + + Silk and porcelain. + + _Manufactures._--The principal native manufactures before the + competition of western nations made itself felt were--apart from the + preparation of tea and other produce for the market--those of + porcelain and silk. The silks and gauzes of Su-chow and Nanking in the + province of Kiang-su, and those of Hang-chow in Cheh-kiang, are highly + esteemed throughout China. Silk-weaving is still carried on solely in + native looms and chiefly in the cities named. The greater part of the + silk spun is used in China, but a considerable export trade has grown + up and 27% of the world's supply of raw silk is from China. The + reeling of silk cocoons by steam-machinery is supplanting native + methods. There are filatures for winding silk at Shanghai, Canton, + Chifu and other cities. + + The most famous porcelain came from the province of Kiang-si, the seat + of the industry being the city of King-te-chen. Imperial works were + established here about the year A.D. 1000, and the finest porcelain is + sent to Peking for the use of the emperor. At one time 1,000,000 + work-people were said to be employed, and the kilns numbered 600. The + Taiping rebels destroyed the kilns in 1850. Some of them have been + rebuilt. "Activity begins to reign anew, but the porcelain turned out + is far from equalling in colour and finish that of former times. At + the present day King-te-chen has but 160 furnaces and employs 160,000 + workmen."[20] The common rice bowls sold throughout China are + manufactured here. The value of the export sales is said to be about + £500,000 yearly. + + + Cotton, &c. + + The spinning and weaving of cotton on hand-looms is carried on almost + universally. Besides that locally manufactured, the whole of the large + import of Indian yarn is worked up into cloth by the women of the + household. Four-fifths of the clothing of the lower classes is + supplied by this domestic industry. Of minor industries Indian ink is + manufactured in Ngan-hui and Sze-ch'uen, fans, furniture, lacquer ware + and matting in Kwang-tung, dyes in Cheh-kiang and Chih-li, and + varnished tiles in Hu-nan. Paper, bricks and earthenware are made in + almost all the provinces. + + Of industries on a large scale--other than those indicated--the most + important are cotton-spinning and weaving mills established by foreign + companies at Shanghai. Permission to carry on this industry was + refused to foreigners until the right was secured by the Japanese + treaty following the war of 1894-95. Some native-owned mills had been + working before that date, and were reported to have made large + profits. Nine mills, with an aggregate of 400,000 spindles, were + working in 1906, five of them under foreign management. There are also + four or five mills at one or other of the ports working 80,000 + spindles more. These mills are all engaged in the manufacture of yarn + for the Chinese market, very little weaving being done. Chinese-grown + cotton is used, the staple of which is short; only the coarser counts + can be spun. + + At certain large centres flour and rice mills have been erected and + are superseding native methods of treating wheat and rice; at Canton + there are sugar refineries. At Hanyang near Hankow are large + iron-works owned by Chinese. They are supplied with ore from the mines + at Ta-ye, 60 m. distant, and turn out (1909) about 300 steel rails a + day. + + +_Commerce_. + + The foreign trade of China is conducted through the "treaty ports," + i.e. sea and river ports and a few inland cities which by the treaty + of Nanking (1842) that of Tientsin (1860) and subsequent treaties have + been thrown open to foreigners for purposes of trade. (The Nanking + treaty recognized five ports only as open to foreigners--Canton,[21] + Amoy, Fu-chow, Ning-po and Shanghai.) These places are as follows, + treaty ports in Manchuria being included: Amoy, Antung, Canton, + Chang-sha, Dairen, Chin-kiang, Chinwantao, Ch'ungk'ing, Chifu, + Fu-chow, Funing (Santuao), Hang-chow, Hankow, I-ch'ang, Kang-moon, + Kiao-chow, Kiu-kiang, K'iung-chow, Kow-loon, Lappa, Lung-chow, + Mengtsze, Mukden, Nanking, Nanning, Ning-po, Niu-chwang, Pakhoi, + Sanshui, Shanghai, Shasi, Su-chow, Swatow, Szemao, Tatungkow, + Tientsin, Teng-yueh, Wen-chow, Wu-chow, Wuhu, Yo-chow. + + The progress of the foreign trade of China is set out in the + following table. The values are given both in currency and sterling, + but it is to be remarked that during the period when silver was + falling, that is, from 1875 to 1893, the silver valuation represents + much more accurately variations in the volume of trade than does the + gold valuation. Gold prices fell continuously during this period, + while silver prices were nearly constant. Since 1893 silver prices + have tended to rise, and the gold valuation is then more accurate. The + conversion from silver to gold is made at the rate of exchange of the + day, and therefore varies from year to year. + + + _Table of Imports and Exports, exclusive of Bullion._ + + +--------+---------------------------+---------------------------+ + | | Imports. | Exports. | + | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Year. | Value in |Equivalent in| Value in |Equivalent in| + | | Taels. | Sterling. | Taels. | Sterling. | + +--------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + | 1875 | 66,344,000 | £19,903,000 | 77,308,000 | £23,193,000 | + | 1885 | 84,803,000 | 22,618,000 | 73,899,000 | 19,206,000 | + | 1890 | 113,082,000 | 29,213,000 | 96,695,000 | 24,980,000 | + | 1895 | 154,685,000 | 25,136,000 | 154,964,000 | 25,181,000 | + | 1898 | 189,991,000 | 28,498,000 | 170,743,000 | 25,612,000 | + |[A]1904 | 344,060,000 | 49,315,000 | 239,486,000 | 34,326,000 | + |[A]1905 | 447,100,791 | 67,065,118 | 227,888,197 | 34,183,229 | + +--------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + + [A] This marked increase is partly owing to a more complete + presentation of statistics; in 1903 an additional number of vessels + were placed under the control of the imperial maritime customs. + + + In 1907 the net imports were valued at £67,664,222 and the exports at + £42,961,863. In 1908 China suffered from the general depression in + trade. In that year the imports were valued at £52,600,730, the + exports at £36,888,050. The distribution of the trade among the + various countries of the world is shown in the table which is given + below. Hong-Kong is a port for trans-shipment. The imports into China + from it come originally from Great Britain, India, Germany, France, + America, Australia, the Straits Settlements, &c., and the exports from + China to it go ultimately to the same countries. + + + _Imports into China._ (000's omitted.) + + +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+ + | Imports from |1875.|1880.|1885.| 1890.| 1895.| 1905.| 1908.| + +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+ + |United Kingdom |£6340|£6382|£6396|£6,357|£5,518|£1,971| £9,647| + |Hong-Kong | 8282| 8829| 9404|18,615|14,331|22,240| 20,033| + |India | 4451| 6039| 4306| 2,661| 2,753| 5,220| 4,066| + |Other British possessions| 396| 346| 542| 571| 732| 963| | + |United States | 304| 351| 884| 949| 827|11,538| 5,499| + |Continent of Europe | | | | | | | | + | (except Russia) | 230| 671| 671| 638| 1,227| 4,295|[B]3,332| + |Russian Empire | .. | .. | .. | 231| 309| 302| 422| + |Japan | 746| 1021| 1404| 1,909| 2,794| 9,197| 7,000| + +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+ + + + _Exports from China._ (000's omitted.) + + +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+ + | Imports from |1875.|1880.|1885.| 1890.| 1895.| 1905.| 1908.| + +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+ + |United Kingdom |£6340|£6382|£6396|£6,357|£5,518|£1,971| £9,647| + |Hong-Kong | 8282| 8829| 9404|18,615|14,331|22,240| 20,033| + |India | 4451| 6039| 4306| 2,661| 2,753| 5,220| 4,066| + |Other British possessions| 396| 346| 542| 571| 732| 963| | + |United States | 304| 351| 884| 949| 827|11,538| 5,499| + |Continent of Europe | | | | | | | | + | (except Russia) | 230| 671| 671| 638| 1,227| 4,295|[B]3,332| + |Russian Empire | .. | .. | .. | 231| 309| 302| 422| + |Japan | 746| 1021| 1404| 1,909| 2,794| 9,197| 7,000| + +-------------------------+-----+-----+-----+------+------+------+--------+ + + [B] Germany, France, Belgium and Italy only. + + + The chief imports are cotton goods, opium, rice and sugar, metals, + oil, coal and coke, woollen goods and raw cotton, and fish. Cotton + goods are by far the most important of the imports. They come chiefly + from the United Kingdom, which also exports to China woollen + manufactures, metals and machinery. China is next to India the + greatest consumer of Manchester goods. The export of plain cotton + cloths to China and Hong-Kong has for some years averaged 500,000,000 + yds. per annum. The only competitor which Great Britain has in this + particular branch of trade is the United States of America, which has + been supplying China with increasing quantities of cotton goods. The + value in sterling of the total imports into China from the United + Kingdom long remained nearly constant, but inasmuch as the gold prices + were falling the volume of the export was in reality steadily growing. + The imports into England, however, of Chinese produce have fallen off, + mainly because China tea has been driven out of the English market by + the growth of the India and Ceylon tea trade, and also because the + bulk of the China silk is now shipped directly to Lyons and other + continental ports instead of to London, as formerly was the rule. The + growth of the import of Indian yarn into China has been very rapid. In + 1884 the import was 35,000,000 lb and in 1904 it reached 217,171,066 + lb. The imports into China from all countries for 1908 were as + follows:-- + + Opium £4,563,000 Coal and coke 1,124,000 + Cotton goods 14,786,000 Oil, kerosene 2,666,000 + Raw cotton 232,000 Rice 3,543,000 + Woollen goods 717,000 Sugar 3,514,000 + Metals 2,956,000 Fish, &c. 1,028,000 + + The principal exports from China are silk and tea. These two articles, + indeed, up to 1880 constituted more than 80% of the whole export. + Owing, however, mainly to the fall in silver, and partly also to cheap + ocean freights, it has become profitable to place on the European + market a vast number of miscellaneous articles of Chinese produce + which formerly found no place in the returns of trade. The silver + prices in China did not change materially with the fall in silver, and + Chinese produce was thus able to compete favourably with the produce + of other countries. The following table shows the relative condition + of the export trade in 1880 and 1908:-- + + +---------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Exports of | 1880. | 1908. | + +---------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Silk | £9,750,000 | £11,055,000 | + | Tea | 11,774,000 | 4,384,000 | + | Miscellaneous | 4,058,000 | 21,448,000 | + +---------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Total | £25,582,000 | £36,888,000 | + +---------------+-------------+-------------+ + + In the miscellaneous class the chief items of exports in 1908 were + beans and beancake, £3,142,000; raw cotton, £1,379,000; hides, + £1,028,000; straw braid, £1,002,000; furs and skin rugs, £760,000; + paper, £458,000; and clothing, £177,000. Sugar, tobacco, mats and + matting are also exported. The export of all cereals except pulse is + forbidden. Of the tea exported in 1908 the greater part went to Russia + and Siberia, the United States and Great Britain. There is a regular + export of gold amounting on an average to about a million sterling per + annum. A part of it would seem to be the hoardings of the nation + brought out by the high price of gold in terms of silver, but a part + is virgin gold derived from gold workings in Manchuria on the upper + waters of the Amur river. + + Customs duty is levied on exports as well as imports, both being + assessed at rates based on a nominal 5% ad val. + + _Shipping and Navigation._--Besides the over-sea trade China has a + large coasting and river trade which is largely carried on by British + and other foreign vessels. During the year 1908, 207,605 vessels, of + 83,991,289 tons (86,600 being steamers of 77,955,525 tons), entered + and cleared Chinese ports.[22] Of these 28,445 vessels of 34,405,761 + tons were British; 33,539 of 11,998,588 tons, Chinese vessels of + foreign type; 103,124 of 4,947,272 tons, Chinese junks; 5496 vessels + of 6,585,671 tons, German; 30,708 of 18,055,138 tons, Japanese; 653 of + 998,775 tons, American; 3901 of 5,071,689 tons, French; 1033 of + 980,635 tons, Norwegian. + + Of vessels engaged in the foreign trade only the entrances during the + year numbered 38,556 of 12,187,140 tons, and the clearances 36,602 of + 12,057,126 tons. The nationality of the vessels (direct foreign trade) + was mainly as follows:-- + + +-------------+--------------------+--------------------+ + | | Entrances. | Clearances. | + | Nationality +--------+-----------+--------+-----------+ + | 1908. | No. | Tons. | No. | Tons. | + +-------------+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+ + | British | 4,569 | 4,678,094 | 4,614 | 4,754,087 | + | German | 891 | 1,195,775 | 928 | 1,124,872 | + | Norwegian | 255 | 254,211 | 259 | 255,295 | + | French | 468 | 629,680 | 468 | 616,883 | + | American | 136 | 440,602 | 131 | 439,947 | + | Japanese | 2,187 | 2,587,818 | 2,046 | 2,461,132 | + | Chinese | 29,775 | 2,001,872 | 27,888 | 1,915,258 | + +-------------+--------+-----------+--------+-----------+ + + The tonnage of the Dutch, Austrian and Russian vessels cleared and + entered was in each case between 102,000 and 127,000. + + +_Communications._ + + External communication is carried on by ancient caravan routes + crossing Central Asia, by the trans-Siberian railway, which is + increasingly used for passenger traffic, but chiefly by steamship, + the steamers being almost entirely owned by foreign companies. There + is regular and rapid communication with Europe (via the Suez canal + route) and with Japan and the Pacific coast of America. Other lines + serve the African and the Australasian trade. The only important + Chinese-owned steamers are those of the Chinese Merchants' Steam + Navigation Company, which has its headquarters at Shanghai. + + Internal communications are by river, canal, road and railway, the + railways since the beginning of the 20th century having become a very + important factor. In 1898 the Chinese government agreed that all + internal waterways should be open to foreign and native steamers, and + in 1907 there were on the registers of the river ports for inland + water traffic 609 steamers under the Chinese flag and 255 under + foreign flags. + + + The Pioneer Line destroyed. + + China's first efforts. + + The era of concessions. + + Administration. + + _Railways._--A short line of railway between Shanghai and Wusung was + opened in 1875. The fate of this pioneer railway may be mentioned as + an introduction to what follows. The railway was really built without + any regular permission from the Chinese government, but it was hoped + that, once finished and working, the irregularity would be overlooked + in view of the manifest benefit to the people. This might have been + accomplished but for an unfortunate accident which happened on the + line a few months after it was opened. A Chinaman was run over and + killed, and this event, of course, intensified the official + opposition, and indeed threatened to bring about a riot. The working + of the line was stopped by order of the British minister, and + thereupon negotiations were entered into with a view to selling the + line to the Chinese government. A bargain was struck sufficiently + favourable to the foreign promoters of the line, and it was further + agreed that, pending payment of the instalments which were spread over + a year, the line should continue to be worked by the company. The + expectation was that when the officials once got the line into their + own hands, and found it a paying concern, they would continue to run + it in their own interest. Not so, however, did things fall out. The + very day that the twelve months were up the line was closed; the + engines were dismantled, the rails and sleepers were torn up, and the + whole concern was shipped off to the distant island of Formosa, where + carriages, axles and all the rest of the gear were dumped on the shore + and left for the most part to disappear in the mud. The spacious area + of the Shanghai station was cleared of its buildings, and thereon was + erected a temple to the queen of heaven by way of purifying the sacred + soil of China from such abomination. This put a stop for nearly twenty + years to all efforts on the part of foreigners to introduce railways + into China. The next step in railway construction was taken by the + Chinese themselves, and on the initiative of Li Hung-chang. In 1886 a + company was formed under official patronage, and it built a short + line, to connect the coal-mines of K'aip'ing in Chih-li with the mouth + of the Peiho river at Taku. The government next authorized the + formation of a Native Merchants' Company, under official control, to + build a line from Taku to Tientsin, which was opened to traffic in + 1888. It was not, however, till nine years later, viz. in 1897, that + the line was completed as far as Peking. A British engineer, Mr + Kinder, was responsible for the construction of the railway. Meantime, + however, the extension had been continued north-east along the coast + as far as Shanhai-Kwan, and a farther extension subsequently connected + with the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The money for these extensions was + mostly found by the government, and the whole line is now known as the + Imperial Northern railway. The length of the line is 600 m. Meanwhile + the high officials of the empire had gradually been brought round to + the idea that railway development was in itself a good thing. Chang + Chih-tung, then viceroy of the Canton provinces, memorialized strongly + in this sense, with the condition, however, that the railways should + be built with Chinese capital and of Chinese materials. In particular, + he urged the making of a line to connect Peking with Hankow for + strategic purposes. The government took him at his word, and he was + transferred from Canton to Hankow, with authority to proceed forthwith + with his railway. True to his purpose, he at once set to work to + construct iron-works at Hankow. Smelting furnaces, rolling mills, and + all the machinery necessary for turning out steel rails, locomotives, + &c., were erected. Several years were wasted over this preliminary + work, and over £1,000,000 sterling was spent, only to find that the + works after all were a practical failure. Steel rails could be made, + but at a cost two or three times what they could be procured for in + Europe. After the Japanese War the hope of building railways with + Chinese capital was abandoned. A prominent official named Sheng + Hsuan-hwai was appointed director-general of railways, and empowered + to enter into negotiations with foreign financiers for the purpose of + raising loans. It was still hoped that at least the main control would + remain in Chinese hands, but the diplomatic pressure of France and + Russia caused even that to be given up, and Great Britain insisting on + equal privileges for her subjects, the future of railways in China + remained in the hands of the various concessionaires. But after the + defeat of Russia by Japan (1904-1905) the theory of the undivided + Chinese control of railways was resuscitated. The new spirit was + exemplified in the contracts for the financing and construction of + three railways--the Canton-Kowloon line in 1907, and the + Tientsin-Yangtsze and the Shanghai-Hangchow-Ning-po lines in 1908. In + the first of these instances the railway was mortgaged as security for + the loan raised for its construction, and its finance and working were + to be modelled on the arrangements obtaining in the case of the + Imperial Northern railway, under which the administration, while + vested in the Chinese government, was supervised by a British + accountant and chief engineer. In the other two instances, however, no + such security was offered; the Chinese government undertook the + unfettered administration of the foreign capital invested in the + lines, and the Europeans connected with these works became simply + Chinese employés. Moreover, in 1908 the Peking-Hankow line was + redeemed from Belgian concessionaires, a 5% loan of £5,000,000 being + raised for the purpose in London and Paris. In that year there was + much popular outcry against foreign concessionaires being allowed to + carry out the terms of their contract, and the British and Chinese + corporation in consequence parted with their concession for the + Su-chow, Ning-po and Hang-chow railway, making instead a loan of + £1,500,000 to the ministry of communications for the provinces through + which the line would run. A double difficulty was encountered in the + construction and management of the railways; the reconciliation of the + privileges accorded to foreign syndicates and governments with the + "Recovery of Rights" campaign, and the reconciliation of the claims of + the central government at Peking with the demands of the provincial + authorities. As to the foreigners, Great Britain, France, Germany, the + United States, Russia and Japan, all had claims and concessions, many + of them conflicting; while as between Peking and the provinces there + was a quarrel mainly concerned with the spoils and "squeezes" to be + obtained by railway construction; in some instances the provinces + proved more powerful than the central government, as in the case of + the Su-chow-Ning-po line, and notably in the matter of the + Tientsin-Pukau (Nanking) railway. In that case the provincial + authorities overrode the central government, with the result that "for + wholesale jobbery, waste and mismanagement the enterprise acquired + unenviable notoriety in a land where these things are generally + condoned." The good record of one or two lines notwithstanding, the + management of the railways under Chinese control had proved, up to + 1910, inefficient and corrupt.[23] Nevertheless, so great was the + economic development following the opening of the line, that in + Chinese hands the Peking-Hankow railway yielded a profit. + + + The Railway systems. + + The main scheme of the railway systems of China is simple. It consists + of lines, more or less parallel, running roughly north and south, + linked by cross lines with coast ports, or abutting on navigable + rivers. One great east and west line will run through central China, + from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen. Connexion with Europe is afforded by the + Manchuria-trans-Siberia main line, which has a general east and west + direction. From Harbin on this railway a branch runs south to Mukden, + which since 1908 has become an important railway centre. Thence one + line goes due south to Port Arthur; another south-east to An-tung (on + the Yalu) and Korea; a third south and west to Tientsin and Peking. A + branch from the Mukden-Tientsin line goes round the head of the Gulf + of Liao-tung and connects Niu-chwang with the Mukden-Port Arthur line. + By this route it is 470 m. from Peking to Niu-chwang. + + From Peking the trunk line (completed in 1905) runs south through the + heart of China to Hankow on the Yangtsze-kiang. This section (754 m. + long) is popularly known as "the Lu-Han line," from the first part of + the names of the terminal stations. The continuation south of this + line from Hankow to Canton was in 1910 under construction. Thus a + great north and south connexion nearly 2000 m. long is established + from Canton to Harbin. From Mukden southward the line is owned and + worked by China. + + A railway (German concession) starts from Kiao-chow and runs westward + through Shan-tung to Chinan Fu, whence an extension farther west to + join the main Lu-Han line at Cheng-ting Fu in Chih-li was undertaken. + Westward from Cheng-ting Fu a line financed by the Russo-Chinese Bank + runs to T'ai-yuen Fu in Shan-si. + + Another main north and south railway parallel to, but east of, the + Lu-Han line and following more or less the route of the Grand Canal, + is designed to connect Tientsin, Su-chow (in Kiang-su), Chin-kiang, + Nanking, Shanghai, Hang-chow and Ning-po. The southern section + (Nanking, Shanghai, &c.) was open in 1909. This Tientsin-Ning-po + railway connects at Chinan-Fu with the Shan-tung lines. + + A third north and south line starts from Kiu-Kiang on the Yangtsze + below Hankow and traversing the centre of Kiang-si province will join + the Canton-Hankow line at Shao-Chow in Kwang-tung province. The + construction of the first section, Kiu-Kiang to Nanchang (76 m.), + began in 1910. + + In southern China besides the main Canton to Hankow railway (under + construction) a line (120 m. long) runs from Canton to Kowloon + (opposite Hong-Kong), and there are local lines running inland from + Swatow and Fuchow. The French completed in 1909 a trunk line (500 m. + long) from Haiphong in Tong King to Yun-nan Fu, the capital of + Yun-nan, some 200 m. being in Chinese territory. The French hold + concessions for railways in Kwang-si and Kwang-tung. The British + government has the right to extend the Burma railway system through + Yun-nan and north to the Yangtsze. + + There are local lines in Hu-nan and Ho-nan which connect with the + trunk line from Canton to Peking. The Peking-Kalgan line (122 m. long) + is a distinct undertaking. The Chinese propose to continue it another + 530 m. north-westward to Urga in Mongolia, and an eventual junction + with the trans-Siberian railway in the neighbourhood of Lake Baikal is + contemplated. This line would greatly shorten the distance between + Moscow and Peking. + + In 1910 there were open for traffic in China (not reckoning the + Russian and Japanese systems in Manchuria, _q.v._) over 3000 m. of + railway, and 1500 m. of trunk lines were under construction. + + + Roads, rivers, and canals. + + China is traversed in all directions by roads. Very few are paved of + metalled and nearly all are badly kept; speaking generally, the + government spends nothing in keeping either the roads or canals in + repair. The roads in several instances are subsidiary to the canals + and navigable rivers as a means of communication. The ancient trade + routes were twelve in number, viz.[24]:-- + + 1. The West river route (W. from Canton). + 2. The Cheling Pass route (N.W. from Canton). + 3. The Meiling Pass route (N. from Canton). + 4. The Min river route (N.W. from Fu-chow). + 5. The Lower Yangtsze route (as far W. as Hu-peh and Hu-nan). + 6. The Upper Yangtsze route (from I'chang to Sze-ch'uen). + 7. The Kwei-chow route. + 8. The Han river route (Hankow to Shen-si). + 9. The Grand Canal (already described). + 10. The Shan-si route. + 11. The Kiakhta route. + 12. The Manchurian route. + + Of the routes named, that by the West river commands the trade of + Kwang-si and penetrates to Yun-nan (where it now has to meet the + competition of the French railway from Tong King) and Kwei-chow. The + Cheling Pass route from Canton is so named as it crosses that pass + (1500 ft. high) to reach the water-ways of Hu-nan at Chen-chow on an + affluent of the Siang, and thus connects with the Yangtsze. The trade + of this route--whence in former times the teas of Hu-nan (Oonam) and + Hu-peh (Oopaek) reached Canton--has been largely diverted via Shanghai + and up the Yangtsze. The Canton-Hankow railway also supersedes it for + through traffic. The route by the Meiling Pass (1000 ft. High) links + Canton and Kiu-kiang. This route is used by the King-te Chen porcelain + works to send, to Canton the commoner ware, there to be painted with + florid and multicoloured designs. The Min river route serves mainly + the province of Fu-kien. The Lower Yangtsze is a river route, now + mainly served by steamers (though the salt is still carried by junks), + and the Upper Yangtsze is a river route also, but much more difficult + of navigation. The Kwei-chow route is up the river Yuen from Changte + and the Tung-t'ing lake. The Han river route becomes beyong Sing-nagn + Fu a land route over the Tsingling mountains to the capital of + Shen-si, and thence on to Kan-suh, Mongolia and Siberia. The Shan-si + route from Peking, wholly by road, calls for no detailed account; the + Manchurian route is now adequately served by railways. There remains + the important Kiakhta route. From Peking it goes to Kalgan (this + section is now served by a railway), whence the main route traverses + Mongolia, while branches serve Shan-si, Shen-si, Kan-suh, Turkestan, + &c. By this route go the caravans bearing tea to Siberia and Russia. + Other routes are from Yun-nan to Burma and from Sze-ch'uen province to + Tibet. + + The government maintains a number of courier roads, which, like the + main trade roads, keep approximately to a straight line. These courier + roads are sometimes cut in the steep sides of mountains or run through + them in tunnels. They are, in the plains, 20 to 25 ft. wide and are + occasionally paved. The chief courier roads starting from Peking go to + Sze-chu'en, Yun-nan, Kweilin (in Kwang-si), Canton and Fu-chow. Canals + are numerous, especially in the deltas of the Yangtsze and Si-kiang. + + In the centre and south of China the roads are rarely more than 5 ft. + broad and wheeled traffic is seldom possible. Bridges are generally of + stone, sometimes of wood; large rivers are crossed by bridges of + boats. In the north carts drawn by ponies, mules or oxen are employed; + in the centre and south passengers travel in sedan-chairs or in + wheelbarrows, or ride on ponies. Occasionally the local authorities + employ the corvée system to dig out the bed of a canal, but as a rule + roads are left to take care of themselves. + + _Posts and Telegraphs._--Every important city is now connected by + telegraph with the capital, and the service is reasonably efficient. + In 1907 there were 25,913 m. of telegraph lines. Connexion is also + established with the British lines in Burma and the Russian lines in + Siberia. The Great Northern Telegraph Company (Danish) and the Eastern + Extension Telegraph Company (British) connect Shanghai by cable with + Hong-Kong, Japan, Singapore and Europe. An imperial _postal service_ + was established in 1896 under the general control of the maritime + customs.[25] By an edict of November 1906 the control of the postal + services was transferred to the Board of Communication. The Post + Office serves all the open ports, and every important city in the + interior. There were in 1910 some 4000 native post-offices, employing + 15,000 persons, of whom about 200 only were foreigners. The treaty + powers however, still maintain their separate post offices at + Shanghai, and several other treaty ports for the despatch and receipt + of mails from Europe. During the years 1901-1908 mail matters + increased from ten millions to two hundred and fifty-two millions of + items; and the 250 tons of parcels handled to 27,155 tons. In postal + matters China has adopted a most progressive attitude. The imperial + post conforms in all respects to the universal Postal Union + regulations. (G. J.; X.) + + +IV. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION + +Changes in the traditional form of government in China--an autocracy +based on parental rule--were initiated in 1905 when a commission was +appointed to study the forms of government in other countries.[26] On +the 1st of September 1906 an imperial edict was issued in which the +establishment of parliamentary institutions in China was foreshadowed. +In 1907 an advisory council--as a sort of stepping-stone to +representative government--was established by another edict. On the +27th of August 1908 an edict announced the convocation of a parliament +in the ninth year from that date. An edict of the 3rd of December 1908 +reaffirmed that of the 27th of August. An edict of the 31st of October +1909 fixed the classes from which an Imperial Assembly (or Senate) was +to be selected, and an edict of the 9th of May 1910 gave the names of +the senators, all of whom had been nominated by the throne. The assembly +as thus constituted consisted of 200 members drawn from eight classes: +(1) princes and nobles of the imperial house--16 members; (2) Manchu and +Chinese nobles--12 members; (3) princes and nobles of dependencies--14 +members; (4) imperial clansmen other than those mentioned--6 members; +(5) Peking officials--32 members; (6) eminent scholars--10 members; (7) +exceptional property owners--10 members; (8) representatives of +provincial assemblies--100 members. The national assembly, which was +opened by the regent on the 3rd of October 1910, thus contained the +elements of a two-chambered parliament. The edict summoning the assembly +contained the following exhortations:-- + + The members should understand that this assemblage of the senate is an + unprecedented undertaking in China and will be the forerunner of the + creation of a parliament. They are earnestly desired to devote to it + their patriotism and sincerity, to observe proper order, and to fulfil + their duties in representing public opinion. Thus it is hoped that our + sincere wish to effect constitutional reforms in their proper order + and to aim at success may be duly satisfied. + +Concurrently with these steps towards a fundamental alteration in the +method of government, changes were made in many departments of the +state, and an elective element was introduced into the provincial +administrations. The old conception of government with such +modifications as had been made up to 1910 are set forth below. + + + The Chinese conception of government. + + The laws of the state prescribe the government of the country to be + based on the government of the family.[27] The emperor is the sole and + supreme head of the state, his will being absolute alike in the + highest affairs and in the humblest details of private life. The + highest form of legislation was an imperial decree, whether + promulgated in general terms or to meet a special case. In either form + it was the law of the land, and no privilege or prescriptive right + could be pleaded against it. All officers of state, all judges and + magistrates, hold their offices entirely at the imperial pleasure. + They can be dismissed, degraded, punished, without reason assigned and + without form of trial--even without knowing by whom or of what they + are accused. The monarch has an advisory council, but he is not bound + by its advice, nor need he pretend that he is acting by and with its + advice and concurrence. This condition of affairs dates back to a + primitive state of society, which probably existed among the Chinese + who first developed a civilized form of government. That this system + should have been maintained in China through many centuries is a fact + into the causes of which it is worth while to inquire. We find it + pictured in the records which make up the _Book of History_, and we + find it enforced in the writings of the great apostle of patriarchal + institutions, Confucius, and in all the other works which go to make + up the Confucian Canon. The reverence with which these scriptures are + viewed was the principal means of perpetuating the primitive form of + Chinese imperialism. The contents of their pages formed the study of + every schoolboy, and supplied the themes at the competitive + examinations through which every one had to pass who sought an + official career. Thus the mind of the nation was constantly and almost + exclusively turned towards them, and their dogmas became part and + parcel of the national training. The whole theory of government is the + embodiment of parental love and filial piety. As the people are the + children of the emperor, so is he the _T'ien-tsze_ or the Son of + Heaven. + + + The emperor. + + In practice the arbitrary power of the emperor is tempered in several + ways. Firstly, although the constitution conferred this absolute and + unchecked power on the emperor, it was not for his gratification but + that he might exercise it for the good of his people. He rules by + divine authority, and as the vicegerent of heaven upon earth. If he + rules corruptly or unjustly, heaven will send disasters and calamity + on the people as a reproof; if the rule becomes tyrannical, heaven may + withdraw its favour entirely, and then rebellion may be justified. The + Manchu dynasty came to the throne as foreign conquerors, nevertheless + they base their right to rule, not on the power of the sword, but on + divine approval. On this moral ground they claim the obedience of + their subjects, and submit themselves to the corresponding + obligations. The emperor, unless he has gained the throne by conquest, + is selected by his predecessor or by the imperial family in conclave. + He is usually a son (but seldom the eldest son) of his predecessor, + and need not be the child of the empress-consort,[28] though (other + things being equal) a son of the empress is preferred. Failing a son + another prince of the imperial house is chosen, the choice being + properly among the princes of a generation below that of the preceding + emperor, so that the new emperor may be adopted as the son of his + predecessor, and perform for him the due ceremonies at the ancestral + tablets. Apart from this ancestor-worship the emperor worships only at + the Altar of Heaven, leaving Buddhism, Taoism, and any other form of + worship to his subjects. The emperor's sacrifices and prayers to + heaven are conducted with great parade and ceremony. The chief of + these state observances is the sacrifice at the winter solstice, which + is performed before sunrise on the morning of the 21st of December at + the Temple of Heaven. The form of the altar is peculiar. + + "It consists of a triple circular terrace, 210 ft. wide at the base, + 150 in the middle, and 90 at the top.... The emperor, with his + immediate suite, kneels in front of the tablet of Shang-ti (The + Supreme Being, or Heaven), and faces the north. The platform is laid + with marble stones, forming nine concentric circles; the inner circle + consists of nine stones, cut so as to fit with close edges round the + central stone, which is a perfect circle. Here the emperor kneels, and + is surrounded first by the circles of the terraces and their enclosing + walls, and then by the circle of the horizon. He then seems to himself + and to his court to be in the centre of the universe, and turning to + the north, assuming the attitude of a subject, he acknowledges in + prayer and by his position that he is inferior to heaven, and to + heaven alone. Round him on the pavement are the nine circles of as + many heavens, consisting of nine stones, then eighteen, then + twenty-seven, and so on in successive multiples of nine till the + square of nine, the favourite number of Chinese philosophy, is reached + in the outermost circle of eighty-one stones." + + On this occasion, also, a bullock of two years old, and without + blemish, is offered as a whole burnt-offering in a green porcelain + furnace which stands close beside the altar. The emperor's life is + largely occupied with ceremonial observances, and custom ordains that + except on state occasions he should not leave the walls of the palace. + + For his knowledge of public affairs the emperor is thus largely + dependent upon such information as courtiers and high officers of + state permit to reach him.[29] The palace eunuchs have often exercised + great power, though their influence has been less under the Manchus + than was the case during previous dynasties. Though in theory the + throne commands the services and money of all its subjects yet the + crown as such has no revenues peculiarly its own. It is dependent on + contributions levied through the high officials on the several + provinces, subject always to the will of the people, and without their + concurrence and co-operation nothing can be done.[30] The power of the + purse and the power of the sword are thus exercised mediately, and the + autocratic power is in practice transferred to the general body of + high functionaries, or to that clique which for the time being has + the ear of the emperor, and is united enough and powerful enough to + impose its will on the others. + + + China governed by its civil service. + + The functionaries who thus really wield the supreme power are almost + without exception civil officials. Naturally the court has shown an + inclination to choose Manchu rather than Chinese, but of late years + this preference has become less marked, and in the imperial + appointments to provincial administrations the proportion of Manchus + chosen was at the beginning of the 20th century not more than + one-fifth of the whole number. The real reason for this change is the + marked superiority of the Chinese, in whose hands the administration + is stated to be safer for the Manchu dynasty. Practically all the high + Chinese officials have risen through the junior ranks of the civil + service, and obtained their high position as the reward--so it must be + presumed--of long and distinguished public service. + + + Functions of the central government. + + Through the weakness of some of the emperors the functions of the + central government gradually came to be to check the action of the + provincial governments rather than assume a direct initiative in the + conduct of affairs. "The central government may be said to criticize + rather than to control the action of the provincial administrations, + wielding, however, at all times the power of immediate removal from + his post of any official whose conduct may be found irregular or + considered dangerous to the stability of the state."[31] This was + written in 1877, and since then the pressure of foreign nations has + compelled the central government to assume greater responsibilities, + and the empire is now ruled from Peking in a much more effective + manner than was the case when Lord Napier in 1834 could find no + representative of the central government with whom to transact + business. + + If the central authorities take the initiative, and issue orders to + the provincial authorities, it, however, does not follow that they + will be carried out. The orders, if unwelcome, are not directly + disobeyed, but rather ignored, or specious pleas are put forward, + showing the difficulty or impossibility of carrying them out at that + particular juncture. The central government always wields the power of + removing or degrading a recalcitrant governor, and no case has been + known where such an order was not promptly obeyed. But the central + government, being composed of officials, stand by their order, and are + extremely reluctant to issue such a command, especially at the bidding + of a foreign power. Generally the opinion of the governors and + viceroys has great weight with the central government. + + + Departments of the central administration. + + Under the Ming dynasty the _Nuiko_ or Grand Secretariat formed the + supreme council of the empire. It is now of more honorific than actual + importance. Active membership is limited to six persons, namely, four + grand secretaries and two assistant grand secretaries, half of whom, + according to a general rule formerly applicable to nearly all the high + offices in Peking, must be Manchu and half Chinese. It constitutes the + imperial chancery or court of archives, and admission to its ranks + confers the highest distinction attainable by Chinese officials, + though with functions that are almost purely nominal. Members of the + grand secretariat are distinguished by the honorary title of + _Chung-t'ang._ The most distinguished viceroys are usually advanced to + the dignity of grand secretary while continuing to occupy their posts + in the provinces. The best known of recent grand secretaries was Li + Hung-chang. + + Under the Manchu dynasty the Grand Council (_Chün Chi Ch'u_) became + the actual privy council of the sovereign, in whose presence its + members daily transacted the business of the state. This council is + composed of a small knot of men holding various high offices in the + government boards at Peking. The literal meaning of Chün Chi Ch'u is + "place of plans for the army," and the institution derives its name + from the practice established by the early emperors of the Manchu + dynasty of treating public affairs on the footing of a military + council. The usual time of transacting business is from 4 to 6 a.m. In + addition to the grand council and the grand secretariat there were + boards to supervise particular departments. By a decree of the 6th of + November 1906 the central administration was remodelled, subsequent + decrees making other changes. The administration in 1910 was carried + on by the following agencies:-- + + A. _Councils._--(1)The grand council. Its title was modified in 1906 + and it is now known as the Grand Council of State Affairs or Privy + Council. It has no special function, but deals with all matters of + general administration and is presided over by the emperor (or + regent). (2) The Grand Secretariat. This body gained no increase of + power in 1906. (3) The advisory council or senate (_Tu Chêng Yuen_) + created in 1907 and containing representatives of each province. It + includes all members of the grand council and the grand secretariat + and the heads of all the executive departments.[32] The members of + these three bodies form advisory cabinets to the emperor. + + B. _Boards._--Besides boards concerned with the affairs of the court + there were, before the pressure of foreign nations and the movement + for reform caused changes to be made, six boards charged with the + conduct of public affairs. They were: (1) _Li Pu_, the Board of Civil + Appointments, controlling all appointments in the civil service from + the rank of district magistrate upwards. (2) _Hu Pu_, the Board of + Revenue, dealing with all revenues which reached the central + government. (3) _Li Pu_, the Board of Ceremonies. (4) _Ping Pu_, the + Board of War. It controlled the provincial forces. The Manchu forces + were an independent organization attached to the palace. (5) _Hsing + Pu_, the Board of Punishments. It dealt with the criminal law only, + especially the punishment of officials guilty of malpractices. (6) + _Kung Pu_, the Board of Works. Its work was limited to the control of + the construction and repair of official residences. + + As rearranged and enlarged there are now the following boards, given + in order of precedence:-- + + 1. _Wai-wu Pu_.--This was established in 1901 in succession to the + _Tsung-li Yamên_,[33] which was created in 1861 after the + Anglo-Chinese War in 1860 as a board for foreign affairs. Previous to + that war, which established the right of foreign powers to have their + representatives in Peking, all business with Western nations was + transacted by provincial authorities, chiefly the viceroy at Canton. + The only department at Peking which dealt specially with foreign + affairs was the _Li Fan Yuen_, or board of control for the + dependencies, which regulated the affairs of Mongolia, Tibet and the + tributary states generally. With the advent of formally accredited + ambassadors from the European powers something more than this was + required, and a special board was appointed to discuss all questions + with the foreign envoys. The number was originally four, with Prince + Kung, a brother of the emperor Hien Fêng, at their head. It was + subsequently raised to ten, another prince of the blood, Prince Ching, + becoming president. The members were spoken of collectively as the + prince and ministers. For a long time the board had no real power, and + was looked on rather as a buffer between the foreign envoys and the + real government. The importance of foreign affairs, however, + especially since the Japanese War, identified the _Yamên_ more with + the grand council, several of the most prominent men being members of + both. At the same time that the _Tsung-li Yamên_ was created, two + important offices were established in the provinces for dealing with + foreign commercial questions, viz. the superintendencies of trade for + the northern and southern ports. The negotiations connected with the + Boxer outbreak proved so conclusively that the machinery to the + _Tsung-li Yamên_ was of too antiquated a nature to serve the new + requirements, that it was determined to abolish the _Yamên_ and to + substitute for it a board (_Pu_) to be styled the _Wai-wu Pu_, or + "board of foreign affairs." + + 2. Board of Civil Appointments. + + 3. Board of Home Affairs. + + 4. Board of Finance and Paymaster General's Department. + + 5. Board of Ceremonies. + + 6. Army Board or Ministry of War (instituted 1906).[34] + + 7. Board of Judicature. + + 8. Board of Agriculture, Works and Commerce (instituted 1903). + + 9. Board of dependencies. + + 10. Board of Education (instituted 1903). + + 11. Board of Communications (instituted 1906). + + Each board has one president and two vice-presidents, with the + exception of the Wai-wu Pu, which has a comptroller-general and two + presidents, and the Boards of War and Education, each of which has a + comptroller-general in addition to the president. According to the + decree of 1906 no distinction, in filling up the various boards, is to + be made between Manchu and Chinese. + + Besides the boards named there are other departments of state, some of + them not limited to any one branch of the public service. The more + important are those that follow:-- + + The Censorate (_Tu Ch'a Yuen_).--An institution peculiar to China. The + constitution provides a paid body of men whose duty it is to inform + the emperor of all facts affecting the welfare of the people and the + conduct of government, and in particular to keep an eye on the + malfeasance of his officers. These men are termed _Yü shih_ (imperial + recorder), generally translated censors. Their office has existed + since the 3rd century B.C. The body consists of two presidents, a + Chinese and a Manchu, 24 supervising censors attached to the + ministries at Peking, and 56 censors, divided into fifteen divisions, + each division taking a particular province or area, so as to embrace + the whole eighteen provinces, besides one metropolitan division. The + censors are privileged to animadvert on the conduct even of the + emperor himself; to censure the manner in which all other officials + perform or neglect their duties and to denounce them to the throne. + They receive appeals made to the emperor, either by the people against + the officials or by subordinate officials against their superiors. + They exercise, in accord with the Board of Justice, an oversight over + all criminal cases and give their opinion whenever the death penalty + is to be pronounced. They superintend the working of the different + boards and are sometimes sent to various places as imperial + inspectors, hence they are called _êrh mu kuan_ (the eyes and ears of + the emperor). The censors exercise their office at times with great + boldness;[35] their advice if unpalatable may be disregarded and the + censor in question degraded. The system of the censorate lends itself + to espionage and to bribery, and it is said to be more powerful for + mischief than for good. With the growth in influence of the native + press the institution appears to lose its _raison d'être_. + + The grand court of revision (_Ta-li sze_) or Court of Cassation + exercises, in conjunction with the Board of Justice and the Censorate, + a general supervision over the administration of the criminal law. + These bodies are styled collectively _San-fah sze_ (the Three High + Justices). + + The Hanlin College (_Hanlin Yuen_, literally Forest of Pencils) is + composed of all the literate who have passed the palace examination + and obtained the title of _Hanlin_ or imperial academist. It has two + chancellors--a Manchu and a Chinese. Its functions are of a purely + literary character and it is of importance chiefly because the heads + of the college, who are presumably the most eminent scholars of the + empire, have the right of advising the throne on all public affairs, + and are eligible as members of the grand council or of the Wai-wu Pu. + The Chinese set fire to it during the fighting in Peking in June 1900 + in the hope of burning out the adjoining British legation. The whole + of the library, containing some of the most valuable manuscripts in + the world, was destroyed. + + + Provincial government. + + Each of the eighteen provinces of China proper, the three provinces of + Manchuria and the province of Sin-kiang are ruled by a viceroy placed + over one, two and in one instance three provinces, or by a governor + over a single province either under a viceroy or depending directly on + the central government, the viceroy or the governor being held + responsible to the emperor for the entire administration, political, + judicial, military and fiscal. The most important viceroyalties are + those of Chih-li, Liang-kiang and Liang-kwang. The viceroyalty of + Liang-kiang comprises the provinces of Kiang-su, Ngan-hui and + Kiang-si. The viceroy resides at Nanking and hence is sometimes called + the viceroy of Nanking. Similarly the viceroy of Liang-kwang + (comprising the provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si) through having + his residence at Canton is sometimes styled the viceroy of Canton. The + three provinces adjoining the metropolitan province of + Chih-li--Shan-tung, Shan-si and Ho-nan--have no viceroys over them; + seven provinces--including Chih-li--have no governors, the viceroy + officiating as governor. In provinces where there are both a viceroy + and a governor they act conjointly, but special departments are + administered by the one rather than the other. The viceroy controls + the military and the salt tax; the governor the civil service + generally. + + The viceroy or governor is assisted by various other high officials, + all of whom down to the district magistrate are nominated from Peking. + The chief officials are the treasurer, the judicial commissioner or + provincial judge, and the commissioner of education (this last post + being created in 1903). The treasurer controls the finances of the + whole province, receiving the taxes and paying the salaries of the + officials. The judge, the salt commissioner, and the grain collector + are the only other officials whose authority extends over the whole + province. Each province is subdivided into prefectures ruled by + prefects, and each prefecture into districts ruled by a district + magistrate, _Chih-hsien_, the official through whom the people in + general receive the orders of the government. Two or more prefectures + are united into a _tao_ or circuit, the official at the head of which + is called a _Taot'ai_. Each town and village has also its unofficial + governing body of "gentry."[36] The officials appointed from Peking + hold office for three years, but they may be re-appointed once, and in + the case of powerful viceroys they may hold office for a prolonged + period. Another rule is that no official is ever appointed to a post + in the province of his birth; a rule which, however, did not apply to + Manchuria. The Peking authorities take care also in making the high + appointments to send men of different political parties to posts in + the same province. + + The edict of the 6th of November 1906 initiating changes in the + central administration was accompanied by another edict outlining + changes in the provincial government, and an edict of the 22nd of July + 1908 ordered the election of provincial assemblies. The edict made it + clear that the functions of the assemblies were to be purely + consultative. The elections took place according to the regulations, + the number of members allotted to each province varying from 30 (Kirin + province, Manchuria, and two others) to 140 in Chih-li. The franchise + was restricted, but the returns for the first elections showed nearly + 1000 voters for each representative. The first meetings of the + assemblies were held in October 1909. + +_The Civil Service._--The bureaucratic element is a vital feature in +the government of China, the holding of office being almost the only +road to distinction. Officials are by the Chinese called collectively +_Kwan_ (rulers or magistrates) but are known to foreigners as mandarins +(q.v.). The mandarins are divided into nine degrees, distinguished by +the buttons worn on the top of their caps. These are as follows:--first +and highest, a plain red button; second, a flowered red button; third, a +transparent blue button; fourth, an opaque blue button; fifth, an +uncoloured glass button; sixth, an opaque white shell button; seventh, a +plain gilt button; eighth, a gilt button with flowers in relief; ninth, +a gilt button with engraved flowers. The buttons indicate simply rank, +not office. The peacock feathers worn in their hats are an order granted +as reward of merit, and indicate neither rank nor office. The Yellow +Jacket similarly is a decoration, the most important in China. + +The ranks of the civil service are recruited by means of examinations. +Up to the beginning of 1906 the subjects in which candidates were +examined were purely Chinese and literary with a smattering of history. +In 1906 this system was modified and an official career was opened to +candidates who had obtained honours in an examination in western +subjects (see § _Education_). The old system is so closely identified +with the life of China that some space must be devoted to a description +of it. + + As a general rule students preparing for the public examination read + with private tutors. There were neither high schools nor universities + where a regular training could be got. In most of the provincial + capitals, and at some other places, there were indeed institutions + termed colleges, supported to some extent from public funds, where + advanced students could prosecute their studies; but before the + movement initiated by the viceroy Chang Chih-tung after the + China-Japan War of 1894, they hardly counted as factors in the + national education. The private tutors, on the other hand, were + plentiful and cheap. After a series of preliminary trials the student + obtained his first qualification by examination held before the + literary chancellor in the prefecture to which he belonged. This was + termed the _Siuts'ai_, or licentiate's degree, and was merely a + qualification to enter for the higher examinations. The number of + licentiate degrees to be given was, however, strictly limited; those + who failed to get in were set back to try again, which they might do + as often as they pleased. There was no limit of age. Those selected + next proceeded to the great examination held at the capital of each + province, once in three years, before examiners sent from Peking for + the purpose. Here again the number who passed was strictly limited. + Out of 10,000 or 12,000 competitors only some 300 or 350 could obtain + degrees. The others, as before, must go back and try again. This + degree, termed _Chü jên_, or provincial graduate, was the first + substantial reward of the student's ambition, and of itself qualified + for the public service, though it did not immediately nor necessarily + lead to active employment. The third and final examination took place + at Peking, and was open to provincial graduates from all parts of the + empire. Out of 6000 competitors entering for this final test, which + was held triennially, some 325 to 350 succeeded in obtaining the + degree of _Chin shih_, or metropolitan graduate. These were the + finally selected men who became the officials of the empire. + + Several other doors were, however, open by which admission to the + ranks of bureaucracy could be obtained. In the first place, to + encourage scholars to persevere, a certain number of those who failed + to reach the _chü jên_, or second degree, were allowed, as a reward of + repeated efforts, to get into a special class from which selection for + office might be made. Further, the government reserved to itself the + right to nominate the sons and grandsons of distinguished deceased + public servants without examination. And, lastly, by a system of + "recommendation," young men from favoured institutions or men who had + served as clerks in the boards, might be put on the roster for + substantive appointment. The necessities of the Chinese government + also from time to time compelled it to throw open a still wider door + of entry into the civil service, namely, admission by purchase. During + the T'aip'ing rebellion, when the government was at its wits' end for + money, formal sanction was given to what had previously been only + intermittently resorted to, and since then immense sums of money have + been received by the sale of patents of rank, to secure either + admission to office or more rapid promotion of those already employed. + As a result of this policy, the country has been saddled with + thousands of titular officials far in excess of the number of + appointments to be given away. Deserving men were kept waiting for + years, while inferior and less capable officials were pushed ahead, + because they had money wherewith to bribe their way. Nevertheless the + purchase system admitted into the service a number of men free from + that bigoted adherence to Confucian doctrine which characterizes the + literary classes, and more in touch with modern progress. + + All candidates who succeed in entering the official ranks are eligible + for active employment, but as the number of candidates is far in + excess of the number of appointments a period of weary waiting ensues. + A few of the best scholars get admitted at once into the Hanlin + college or into one or other of the boards at Peking. The rest are + drafted off in batches to the various provinces to await their turn + for appointment as vacancies occur. During this period of waiting they + are termed "expectants" and draw no regular pay. Occasional service, + however, falls in their way, as when they are commissioned for special + duty in outlying districts, which they perform as _Wei yuens_, or + deputies of the regular officials. The period of expectancy may be + abridged by recommendation or purchase, and it is generally supposed + that this last lever must invariably be resorted to to secure any + lucrative local appointment. A poor but promising official is often, + it is said, financed by a syndicate of relations and friends, who look + to recoup themselves out of the customary perquisites which attach to + the post. Appointments to the junior provincial posts are usually left + to the provincial government, but the central government can always + interfere directly. Appointments to the lucrative posts of customs, + _taot'ai_, at the treaty ports are usually made direct from Peking, + and the officer selected is neither necessarily nor usually from the + provincial staff. It would perhaps be safe to say that this + appointment has hitherto always been the result of a pecuniary + arrangement of greater or less magnitude. + + + Bribery and torture. + + During the first five years (1906-1910) of the new method, by which + candidates for the civil service were required, in addition to Chinese + classics, to have a knowledge of western science, great efforts were + made in several provinces to train up a better class of public + official. The old system of administration had many theoretical + excellencies, and there had been notable instances of upright + administration, but the regulation which forbade a mandarin to hold + any office for more than three years made it the selfish interest of + every office-holder to get as much out of the people within his + jurisdiction as he possibly could in that time. This corruption in + high places had a thoroughly demoralizing effect. While among the + better commercial classes Chinese probity in business relations with + foreigners is proverbial, the people generally set little or no value + upon truth, and this has led to the use of torture in their courts of + justice; for it is argued that where the value of an oath is not + understood, some other means must be resorted to to extract evidence. + + _Justice._--The _Chih-Hsien_ or district magistrate decides ordinary + police cases; he is also coroner and sheriff, he hears suits for + divorce and breach of promise, and is a court of first instance in all + civil cases; "the penalty for taking a case first to a higher court is + fifty blows with the bamboo on the naked thigh."[37] Appeal from the + _Hsien_ court lies to the _Fu_, or prefectural court, and thence cases + may be taken to the provincial judge, who signs death warrants, while + there are final courts of appeal at Peking. Civil cases are usually + settled by trade gilds in towns and by village elders, or by + arbitration in rural districts. Reference has been made to the use of + torture. Flogging is the only form of torture which has been allowed + under the Manchus. The obdurate witness is laid on his face, and the + executioner delivers his blows on the upper part of the thighs with + the concave side of a split bamboo, the sharp edges of which mutilate + the sufferer terribly. The punishment is continued until the man + either supplies the evidence required or becomes insensible. + Punishment by bamboo was formally abolished by imperial edict in 1905, + and other judicial reforms were instituted. They remained largely + inoperative, and even in Shanghai, under the eyes of foreign + residents, gross cases of the infliction of torture occurred in + 1909.[38] + + For capital offences the usual modes of inflicting the extreme penalty + of the law are--in bad cases, such as parricides, "cutting to pieces," + and for less aggravated crimes either strangulation or decapitation. + The culprit who is condemned to be "cut to pieces" is fastened to a + cross, and while thus suspended cuts are made by the executioner on + the fleshy parts of the body; and he is then beheaded. Strangulation + is reserved for lesser degrees of guilt, it being considered a + privilege to pass out of life with a whole body. When it has been + granted to a criminal of rank thus to meet his end, a silken cord is + sent to him at his own home. No explanatory message is considered + necessary, and he is left to consummate his own doom. Popular + sentiment regards decapitation as a peculiarly disgraceful mode of + death. Constant practice makes the executioners wonderfully expert in + the performance of their office. No block or resting-place for the + head is used. The neck is simply outstretched to its full length by + the aid of an assistant, and one blow invariably leaves the body + headless. + + + Consular jurisdiction. + + The laws are in accord with the principle which regards the family as + a unit. Thus there is no bankruptcy law--if a debtor's own estate will + not suffice to pay his debts the deficiency must be made good by his + relatives; if a debtor absconds his immediate family are imprisoned. + By analogy if one member of a party commits an offence and the guilty + person cannot be detected, the whole party must suffer. Foreigners + residing in China resented the application of this principle of law to + themselves. As a result extra-territorial rights were sought by + European powers. They were secured by Russia as early as 1689, but it + was not until 1843 that any other nation acquired them. In that year + Great Britain obtained the right to try British subjects by its own + consuls, a right secured in more explicit terms by the United States + and France in 1844. Now eighteen powers, including Japan, have + consular courts for the trial of their own subjects according to the + laws of their native lands. Mixed courts have also been established, + that is, a defendant is tried in the court of his own nationality, the + court giving its decision under the supervision of a representative of + the plaintiff's nationality. In practice the Chinese have seldom sent + representatives to sit on the bench of consular courts, but, as the + Europeans lack confidence in the administration of Chinese justice, no + suit brought by a foreigner against a Chinese is decided without the + presence of an assessor of the plaintiff's nationality. + + + Army. + + _Defence._--The Chinese constitution in the period before the reform + edicts of 1905-1906 provided for two independent sets of military + organizations--namely, the Manchu army and the several provincial + armies. On the establishment of the dynasty in 1644 the victorious + troops, composed mainly of Manchus, but including also Mongols and + Chinese, were permanently quartered in Peking, and constituted a + hereditary national army. The force was divided into eight banners, + and under one or other of these all Manchus and all the descendants of + the members of other nationalities were enrolled. They form the bulk + of the population of the "Tatar city" of Peking. Each adult male was + by birth entitled to be enrolled as a soldier, and by virtue of his + enrolment had a right to draw rations--i.e. his allowance of the + tribute rice, whether on active service or not. Detachments from one + or other of the banners were stationed as garrisons in the chief + provincial centres, as at Canton, Fuchow and Hang-chow, &c., and their + descendants still occupy the same position. As a fighting force the + Manchu garrisons both in the capital and in the provinces had long + become quite effete. In the capital, however, the _élite_ of the + Manchu soldiery were formed into a special corps termed the Peking + Field Force. Its nominal strength was 20,000, the men were armed and + drilled after the European fashion, and fairly well paid. There were + other corps of picked Manchus better paid and better armed than the + ordinary soldier, and it was computed that in 1901 the Manchu army in + or near Peking could muster 40,000, all more or less efficient. + + The second organization was termed the army of the Green Standard, + being the Chinese provincial forces. The nominal strength was from + 20,000 to 30,000 for each province, or about 500,000 in all; the + actual strength was about one-third of this. They were enrolled to + keep the peace within their own province, and resembled a militia or + local constabulary rather than a national army. They were generally + poorly paid and equally badly drilled and armed. + + The only real fighting force which China possessed at the beginning of + the 20th century was made up of certain special corps which were not + provided for in the constitution, and consequently used to be termed + _yung_, "braves," or irregulars, but had acquired various distinctive + names. They were enlisted by provincial governors, and all had some + smattering of foreign drill. They were also fairly well paid and + armed. After the Chino-Japanese War of 1894-95 some of these corps + were quartered near Peking and Tientsin, and came generally to be + spoken of as the Army of the North. + + An imperial decree issued in 1901 after the Boxer rising ordered the + reorganization of the military forces of the empire, and on provincial + lines something was accomplished--especially in Chih-li under Yuan + Shih-k'ai, who practically created "the Army of the North." It was + not, however, until after the Russo-Japanese War that determined + efforts were made to organize a national army on western lines; an + army which should be responsible to the central government and not + dependent upon the provincial administrations. A decree of 1905 + provided (on paper) for training schools for officers in each of the + provinces, middle grade military schools in selected provinces, and a + training college and military high school in Peking. The Army Board + was reorganized and steps taken to form a general staff. Considerable + progress had been made by 1910 in the evolution of a body of efficient + officers. In practice the administration remained largely + provincial--for instance the armament of the troops was provided by + the provincial governors and was far from uniform. The scheme[39] + contemplated the creation of a force about 400,000 strong in 36 + divisions and in two armies, the northern and the southern. + Recruitment is on the voluntary principle, except in the case of the + Manchus, who apparently enter the new army instead of the "eight + banners." The terms of service are three years with the colours, three + in the reserve and four in the territorial army. The Japanese system + of training is followed. Reservists are called out for 30 days every + year and the territorialists for 30 days every other year. + + Up to 1909 six divisions and one mixed brigade of the northern army + had been organized in Shan-tung, Chih-li and Ho-nan; elsewhere three + divisions and six mixed brigades; total strength about 60,000 with 350 + guns. (These figures do not include all the provincial foreign trained + troops.) The efficiency of the troops varied; the northern army was + superior to the others in training and armament. About a third of the + 60,000 men of the new army were in 1909 stationed in Manchuria (See + also § _History_.) + + An imperial edict of the 15th of September 1907 reorganized the army + of the Green Standard. It was placed under the control of the minister + of war and formed in battalions and squadrons. The duty of the troops + in peace time remained much as previously. In war they pass under the + control of regular officers, though their use outside their own + provinces does not seem to be contemplated. + + + Navy. + + The Chinese navy in 1909 consisted of the 4300 ton cruiser "Hai Chi" + (two 8-in., ten 4.7-in. guns) of 24 knot original speed, three 3000 + ton cruisers, "Hai Yung," "Hai Schew" and "Hai Shen" (three 6-in., + eight 4-in. guns) of 19.5 knot original speed, some modern gunboats + built in Japan, a few miscellaneous vessels and some old torpedo + boats. With the destruction of the northern fleet by the Japanese at + the capture of Wei-hai-wei in 1895, the Chinese navy may be said to + have ceased to exist. Previously it consisted of two divisions, the + northern and southern, of which the former was by far the more + formidable. The southern was under the control of the viceroy of + Nanking, and took no part in the Chino-Japanese War. While the + northern fleet was grappling in a death-struggle, the southern was + lying snugly in the Yangtsze waters, the viceroy of Nanking apparently + thinking that as the Japanese had not attacked him there was no reason + why he should risk his ships. + + _The New Scheme._--An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a naval + and military advisory board. Nimrod Sound, centrally situated on the + coast of Cheh-kiang, was chosen as naval base, and four naval schools + were ordered to be established; a navigation school at Chifu, an + engineering school at Whampoa, a school for naval artificers at + Fuchow, and a gunnery and musketry school at Nimrod Sound. A superior + naval college was founded at Peking. The coast defences were placed + under the control of the naval department, and the reorganization of + the dockyards undertaken. During 1910 orders for cruisers were placed + abroad. + + _Arsenals and Dockyards._--After the loss of Port Arthur, China + possessed no dockyard which could dock vessels over 3000 tons. Many + years ago the Chinese government established at Fuchow a shipbuilding + yard, placing it in the hands of French engineers. Training schools + both for languages and practical navigation were at the same time + organized, and a training ship was procured and put under the command + of a British naval officer. Some twenty-five or thirty small vessels + were built in the course of as many years, but gradually the whole + organization was allowed to fall into decay. Except for petty repairs + this establishment was in 1909 valueless to the Chinese government. + There were also small dockyards at Kiang-nan (near Shanghai), Whampoa + and Taku. There are well-equipped arsenals at Shanghai and at + Tientsin, but as they are both placed up shallow rivers they are + useless for naval repairs. Both are capable of turning out heavy guns, + and also rifles and ammunition in large quantities. There are also + military arsenals at Nanking, Wuchang, Canton and Chêngtu. + + _Forts._--A great number of forts and batteries have been erected + along the coast and at the entrance to the principal rivers. Chief + among these, now that the Taku forts formerly commanding the entrance + to Tientsin have been demolished, are the Kiangyin forts commanding + the entrance to the Yangtsze, the Min forts at the entrance of the + Fuchow river, and the Bogue forts at the entrance to the Canton river. + These are supplied with heavy armament from the Krupp and Armstrong + factories. + + +_Finance._ + +In fiscal matters, as for many other purposes, the Chinese empire is an +agglomeration of a number of quasi-independent units. Each province has +a complete administrative staff, collects its own revenue, pays its own +civil service, and other charges placed upon it, and out of the surplus +contributes towards the expenses of the imperial government a sum which +varies with the imperiousness of the needs of the latter and with its +own comparative wealth or poverty. The imperial government does not +collect directly any part of the revenues, unless the imperial maritime +customs be excepted, though these, too, pass through the books of the +provincial authorities.[40] + +It has hitherto been extremely difficult to obtain anything like +trustworthy figures for the whole revenue of China, for the reason that +no complete statistics are published by the central government at +Peking.[41] The only available data are, first, the returns published by +the imperial maritime customs for the duties levied on foreign trade; +and, secondly, the memorials sent to Peking by the provincial +authorities on revenue matters, certain of which are published from time +to time in the _Peking Gazette_. These are usually fragmentary, being +merely reports which the governor has received from his subordinates, +detailing, as the case may be, the yield of the land tax or the likin +for his particular district, with a dissertation on the causes which +have made it more or less than for the previous period. Or the return +may be one detailing the expenditure of such and such a department, or +reporting the transmission of a sum in reply to a requisition of the +board of revenue, with a statement of the source from which it has been +met. It is only by collating these returns over a long period that +anything like a complete statement can be made up. And even then these +returns do not represent anything like the total of taxation paid by the +people, but, as far as they go, they may be taken to represent the +volume of taxation on which the Peking government can draw revenue. + +The following table, taken from a memorandum by Sir Robert Hart, dated +the 25th of March 1901, shows the latest official estimate (up to 1910) +of the revenue and expenditure of China:-- + + _Revenue._ + Taels.[42] + Land tax 26,500,000 + Provincial duties 1,600,000 + " receipts (various) 1,000,000 + Grain commutation 3,100,000 + Salt gabelle 13,500,000 + Li-kin 16,000,000 + Native customs 2,700,000 + Maritime customs:-- + General cargo 17,000,000 + Foreign opium 5,000,000 + Native opium 1,800,000 + ---------- + Total 88,200,000 + + _Expenditure._ + Taels. + Provincial 20,000,000 + Military and naval 35,000,000 + Metropolitan 10,000,000 + Bannermen (Manchu "soldiers") 1,380,000 + Palace 1,100,000 + Customs 3,600,000 + Legations 1,000,000 + River works 940,000 + Railways 800,000 + Loans 24,000,000 + Contingent reserve 3,300,000 + ----------- + Total 101,120,000 + +A calculation of revenue from all sources published by the Shanghai +_Shen Pao_ in 1908, apparently derived from official sources, gave a +total revenue of 105,000,000 taels, or about 15 million sterling. This +sum is obviously less than the actual figures. In 1907 Mr H.B. Morse, +commissioner of customs and statistical secretary in the inspectorate +general of customs, drew up the following table based on the amounts +presumed to be paid by the tax payer:-- + + +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+ + | | Imperial | Provincial | Local | + | | Adminis- | Adminis- | Adminis- | + | | tration. | tration. | tration. | + +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+ + | | Taels. | Taels. | Taels. | + | I. Land Tax | 25,887,000 | 67,060,000 | 9,315,000 | + | II. Tribute | 7,420,000 | 15,582,000 | 2,300,000 | + | III. Native Customs | 3,790,000 | 1,290,000 | 249,000 | + | IV. Salt Gabelle | 13,050,000 | 26,000,000 | 25,000,000 | + | V. Miscellaneous | 3,856,000 | 5,998,000 | 985,000 | + | VI. Foreign Customs | 31,169,000 | 3,942,000 | 1,230,000 | + | VII. Li-kin | 13,890,060 | 22,502,000 | 3,639,000 | + +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+ + | Total | 99,062,000 | 142,374,000 | 42,718,000 | + +-----------------------+------------+-------------+------------+ + +Mr Morse adds that the grand total shown, taels 284,150,000[43] "is an +obviously insufficient sum on which to maintain the fabric of government +in an empire like China, but it has been reached by calculations based +on a few known facts and ... is offered as throwing some light on a +subject veiled in obscurity."[44] + +The service of the foreign debt, together with the pressure of other +needs--such as the cost of education and the army--made more manifest +than previously the chaos of the Chinese fiscal system. A scheme to +reform the national finances was promulgated under an edict of the 11th +of January 1909, but it did not appear to be of a practical character. + + _Sources of Revenue_. I. _Land Tax_.--In China, as in most oriental + countries, the land has from time immemorial been the mainstay of the + revenue. In the early years of the present dynasty there was levied + along with the land tax a poll tax on all adult males, but in 1712 the + two were amalgamated, and the whole burden was thrown upon land, + families not possessing land being thereafter exempted from taxation. + At the same time it was decreed that the amount of the land tax as + then fixed should be permanent and settled for all time coming. It + would appear from the records that this promise has been kept as far + as the central government has been concerned. In all its many + financial difficulties it does not seem ever to have tried to increase + the revenue by raising the land tax. The amount of tax leviable on + each plot is entered on the title deed, and, once entered, it cannot + be changed.[45] The tax on almost all lands is thus stated to be so + much in silver and so much in rice, wheat or whatever the principal + crop may be. Except in two provinces, however, the grain tax is now + commuted and paid in silver. The exceptions are Kiang-su and + Cheh-kiang, which still send forward their taxes in grain. The value + of the grain forwarded (generally called tribute rice) is estimated at + taels 6,500,000. The total collection in silver, as reported by the + responsible officials, amounts in round numbers to taels 25,000,000. + The total yield of the land tax, therefore, is taels 31,500,000, or + say £4,725,000. It will readily be granted that for such a large + country as China this is a very insignificant one. In India the land + tax yields about £20,000,000, and China has undoubtedly a larger + cultivated area, a larger population, and soil that is on the whole + more fertile; but it is certain that this sum by no means represents + the amounts actually paid by the cultivators. It is the sum which the + various magistrates and collectors have to account for and remit in + hard cash. But as nothing is allowed them for the costs of collection, + they add on a percentage beforehand to cover the cost. This they + usually do by declaring the taxes leviable not in silver, but in + copper "cash", which indeed is the only currency that circulates in + country places, and by fixing the rate of exchange to suit themselves. + Thus while the market rate is, say, 1500 cash to the tael, they + declare by general proclamation that for tax-paying purposes cash will + be received at the rate of 3500 or 4000 to the tael. Thus while the + nominal land tax in silver remains the same it is in effect doubled or + trebled, and, what is worse, no return is made or account required of + the extra sums thus levied. Each magistrate or collector is in effect + a farmer. The sum standing opposite the name of his district is the + sum which he is bound to return under penalty of dismissal, but all + sums which he can scrape together over and above are the perquisites + of office less his necessary expenses. Custom, no doubt, sets bounds + to his rapacity. If he went too far he would provoke a riot; but one + may safely say there never is any reduction, what change can be + effected being in the upward direction. According to the best + information obtainable a moderate estimate of the sums actually paid + by the cultivators would give two shillings per acre. This on an + estimate of the area under cultivation should give for the eighteen + provinces £19,000,000 as being actually levied, or more than four + times what is returned. + + 2. _The Salt Duty._--The trade in salt is a government monopoly. Only + licensed merchants are allowed to deal in it, and the import of + foreign salt is forbidden by the treaties. For the purpose of salt + administration China is divided into seven or eight main circuits, + each of which has its own sources of production. Each circuit has + carefully defined boundaries, and salt produced in one circuit is not + allowed to be consigned into or sold in another. There are great + differences in price between the several circuits, but the consumer is + not allowed to buy in the cheapest market. He can only buy from the + licensed merchants in his own circuit, who in turn are debarred from + procuring supplies except at the depot to which they belong. + Conveyance from one circuit to another is deemed smuggling, and + subjects the article to confiscation. + + Duty is levied under two heads, the first being a duty proper, payable + on the issue of salt from the depot, and the second being likin levied + on transit or at the place of destination. The two together amount on + an average to about taels 1.50 per picul of 133-1/2 lb or 3s. 9d. per + cwt. The total collection returned by the various salt collectorates + amounts to taels 13,500,000 (£2,025,000) per annum. The total + consumption of salt for all China is estimated at 25 million piculs, + or nearly 1-1/2 million tons, which is at the rate of 9 lb per annum + per head of the population. If the above amount of taels 1.50 were + uniformly levied and returned, the revenue would be 37-1/2 million + taels instead of 13-1/2. In this calculation, however, no allowance is + made for the cost of collection. + + 3. _Likin on General Merchandise_.--By the term likin is meant a tax + on inland trade levied while in transit from one district to another. + It was originally a war tax imposed as a temporary measure to meet the + military expenditure required by the T'aip'ing and Mahommedan + rebellions of 1850-1870. It is now one of the permanent sources of + income, but at the same time it is in form as objectionable as a tax + can be, and is equally obnoxious to the native and to the foreign + merchant. Tolls or barriers are erected at frequent intervals along + all the principal routes of trade, whether by land or water, and a + small levy is made at each on every conceivable article of commerce. + The individual levy is small, but over a long transit it may amount to + 15 or 20%. The objectionable feature is the frequent stoppages with + overhauling of cargo and consequent delays. By treaty, foreign goods + may commute all transit dues for a single payment of one-half the + import tariff duty, but this stipulation is but indifferently + observed. It must also be remembered, per contra, that dishonest + foreign merchants will take out passes to cover _native-owned_ goods. + The difficulty in securing due observance of treaty rights lies in the + fact that the likin revenue is claimed by the provincial authorities, + and the transit dues when commuted belong to the central government, + so that the former are interested in opposing the commutation by every + means in their power. As a further means of neutralizing the + commutation they have devised a new form of impost, viz. a terminal + tax which is levied on the goods after the termination of the transit. + The amount and frequency of likin taxation are fixed by provincial + legislation--that is, by a proclamation of the governor. The levy is + authorized in general terms by an imperial decree, but all details are + left to the local authorities. The yield of this tax is estimated at + taels 13,000,000 (£l,950,000), a sum which probably represents + one-third of what is actually paid by the merchants, the balance being + costs of collection. + + 4. _Imperial Maritime Customs_.--The maritime customs is the one + department of finance in China which is managed with probity and + honesty, and this it owes to the fact that it is worked under foreign + control. It collects all the duties leviable under the treaties on the + foreign trade of China, and also all duties on the coasting trade so + far as carried on by vessels of foreign build, whether Chinese or + foreign owned. It does not control the trade in native craft, the + so-called junk trade, the duties on which are still levied by the + native custom-house officials. By arrangement between the British and + Chinese governments the foreign customs levy at the port of entry a + likin on Indian opium of taels 80 per chest, in addition to the tariff + duty of taels 30. This levy frees the opium from any further duty on + transit into the interior. The revenue of the maritime customs rose + from taels 8,200,000 in 1865 to taels 35,111,000 in 1905. + + 5. _Native Customs_,--The administration of the native customs + continues to be similar to what prevailed in the maritime customs + before the introduction of foreign supervision. Each collector is + constituted a farmer, bound to account for a fixed minimum sum, but + practically at liberty to retain all he may collect over and above. If + he returns more he may claim certain honorary rewards as for extra + diligence, but he generally manages to make out his accounts so as to + show a small surplus, and no more. Only imperfect and fragmentary + returns of the native collectorates have been published, but the total + revenue accruing to the Chinese government from this source did not + appear up to 1900 much to exceed two million taels (£300,000). In + November 1901 native customs offices within 15 m. of a treaty port + were placed under the control of the maritime customs, their revenues + having been hypothecated for the service of the Boxer indemnity. The + result was that the amount of the native customs collected by the + commissioners of customs increased from taels 2,206,000 in 1902 to + taels 3,699,000 in 1906. + + 6. _Duty on Native Opium_.--The collection of the duty on opium is in + the hands of the provincial officials, but they are required to + rendera separate account of duty and likin collected on the drug, and + to hold the sum at the disposal of the board of revenue at Peking. The + annual import into China of Indian opium used to amount to about + 50,000 chests, the exact amount of opium imported in 1904 being 54,750 + piculs, on which the Chinese government received from duty and likin + combined about 5-1/2 million taels (£825,000). The total amount of + native-grown opium was estimated in 1901 at about 400,000 chests + (53,000,000 lb), and if this were taxed at taels 60 per chest, which + in proportion to its price was a similar rate to that levied on Indian + opium, it should give a revenue of 24 million taels. Compared with + this the sums actually levied, or at least returned by the local + officials as levied, were insignificant. The returns gave a total levy + for all the eighteen provinces of only taels 2,200,000 (£330,000). The + anti-opium smoking campaign initiated by the Chinese government in + 1905 affected the revenue both by the decreased importation of the + drug and the decrease in the area under poppy cultivation in China. In + 1908 the opium likin revenue had fallen to taels 3,800,000. + + 7. _Miscellaneous_.--Besides the main and regular sources of income, + the provincial officials levy sums which must in the aggregate amount + to a very large figure, but which hardly find a place in the returns. + The principal are land transfer fees, pawnbrokers' and other licences, + duties on reed flats, commutation of corvée and personal services, &c. + The fee on land transfers is 3%, and it could be shown, from a + calculation based on the extent and value of the arable land and the + probable number of sales, that this item alone ought to yield an + annual return of between one and two millions sterling. Practically + the whole of this is absorbed in office expenses. Under this heading + should also be included certain items which though not deemed part of + the regular revenue, have been so often resorted to that they cannot + be left out of account. These are the sums derived from sale of office + or of brevet rank, and the subscriptions and benevolences which under + one plea or another the government succeeds in levying from the + wealthy. Excluding these, the government is always ready to receive + subscriptions, rewarding the donor with a grant of official rank + entitling him to wear the appropriate "button." The right is much + sought after, and indeed there are very few Chinamen of any standing + that are not thus decorated, for not only does the button confer + social standing, but it gives the wearer certain very substantial + advantages in case he should come into contact with the law courts. + The minimum price for the lowest grade is taels 120 (£18), and more of + course for higher grades. The proceeds of these sales go directly to + the Peking government, and do not as a rule figure in the provincial + returns. The total of the miscellaneous items accruing for the benefit + of the government is estimated at taels 5,500,000. + + _Expenditure._--In regard to expenditure a distinction has to be drawn + between that portion of the revenue which is controlled by the central + government, and that controlled by the several provincial authorities. + As the provinces collect the revenue, and as the authorities there are + held responsible for the peace, order and good government of their + respective territories, it follows that the necessary expenses of the + provinces form a sort of first charge on the revenue. (As the tables + given show, the provinces spend the greater part of the revenue + collected.) The board of revenue at Peking, which is charged with a + general supervision of finance matters all over the empire, makes up + at the end of the year a general estimate of the funds that will be + required for imperial purposes during the ensuing year, and apportions + the amount among the several provinces and the several collectorates + in each province. The estimate is submitted to the emperor, and, when + sanctioned, instructions are sent to all the viceroys and governors in + that sense, who, in turn, pass them on to their subordinate officers. + In ordinary times these demands do not materially vary from year to + year, and long practice has created a sort of equilibrium between + imperial and provincial demands. The remittances to the capital are, + as a rule, forwarded with reasonable regularity, mostly in the form of + hard cash. There is, however, a constant pull going on between Peking + and the provinces--the former always asking for more, the latter + resisting and pleading impecuniosity, yet generally able to find the + amounts required. The expenses which the central government has to + meet are:--(1) Imperial household; (2) pay of the Manchu garrison in + and about Peking; (3) costs of the civil administration in the + capital; (4) cost of the army so far as the expenses are not borne by + the provinces; (5) naval expenses;[46] (6) foreign loans--interest and + sinking fund. To meet all these charges the Peking government for + several years up to 1900 drew on the provinces for about taels + 20,000,000 (£3,000,000), including the value of the tribute rice, + which goes to the support of the Manchu bannermen.[47] No estimates + are furnished of the sums allowed under such heading. The imperial + household appears to receive in silver about taels 1,500,000 + (£225,000) but it draws besides large supplies in kind from the + provinces, e.g. silks and satins from the imperial factories at + Su-chow and Hangchow, porcelain from the Kiang-si potteries, &c., the + cost of which is defrayed by the provinces. The imperial government + has also at its disposal the revenue of the foreign customs. Prior to + the Chino-Japanese war of 1894-95 this revenue, which, after allowing + for the costs of collection, amounted to about 20,000,000 taels + (£3,000,000), was nominally shared with the provinces in the + proportion of four-tenths and six-tenths. The whole of the customs + revenue is now pledged to foreign bondholders and absorbed by the + service of the several loans. Besides supplying its own wants the + imperial government has to provide for outlying portions of the empire + which are unable to maintain themselves--(1) Manchuria, (2) Kan-suh + and the central Asian dominion, (3) the south-western provinces of + Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. Manchuria, or, as it is termed, the + north-east frontier defence, costs about taels 2,000,000 over and + above its own resources. The central Asian territories constitute a + drain on the imperial government of about taels 4,000,000 a year. This + is met by subsidies from Sze-ch'uen, Shan-si, Ho-nan and other wealthy + provinces. Yun-nan, Kwei-chow and Kwang-si require aids aggregating + taels 2,000,000 to keep things going. + + _External Debt._--Prior to the war with Japan in 1894 the foreign debt + of China was almost nil. A few trifling loans had been contracted at 7 + and 8%, but they had been punctually paid off, and only a fraction of + one remained. The expenses of the war, however, and the large + indemnity of taels 230,000,000 (£34,500,000) which Japan exacted, + forced China for the first time into the European market as a serious + borrower. The sum of £6,635,000 was raised in 1894-1895 in four small + loans at 6 or 7% interest. In 1895 a Franco-Russian loan of fr. + 440,000,000 (£15,820,000) was raised in Paris. Two Anglo-German loans, + each of £16,000,000 (one in 1896, the other in 1898) were raised + through the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank. The Franco-Russian loan bears + 4% interest, the first Anglo-German 5%, the second 4½%. The foreign + loans contracted up to 1900 amounted altogether to £54,455,000. The + charges for interest and sinking fund, which amounted to over + £3,000,000, were secured on the revenue of the maritime customs, and + on the likin taxes of certain specified provinces. The net income from + these two sources amounted to over taels 24,000,000, equivalent at + existing rate of exchange to £3,400,000, which was amply sufficient. + + Between 1899 and 1907 (both years inclusive) £12,200,000 was raised on + loan for railway purposes. The charges on the first loan--for + £2,300,000--were secured on the revenue of the Imperial Northern + railway, the interest being 5%. The same interest was secured on the + other loans, save one for £1,000,000 in which the Hong Kong government + was concerned, which bears 4% interest. + + The foreign debt also includes the indemnities exacted in 1901 by the + powers for the Boxer outrages. These indemnities, secured on imperial + revenue, are divided into five series amounting altogether to + £67,500,000, the amount payable on these indemnities (at 4% interest) + in 1907 being £2,824,425. The burden of meeting this amount was + apportioned between the eighteen provinces--the sums allocated ranging + from taels 2,500,000 for Kiang-su to taels 300,000 for Kwei-chow. In + 1909 the grand total of China's indebtedness exceeded £140,000,000 and + the interest called for the payment of £7,427,450 in gold. + + _Banks and Banking._--Native banks for purposes of inland exchange are + to be found in most large cities. They are private banks using their + own capital, and seldom receiving deposits from the public. The best + known are the Shan-si banks, which have branches all over the empire. + They work on a small capital, seldom over £50,000 each, and do a small + but profitable business by selling their drafts on distant places. + None of them issues notes, although they are not debarred from doing + so by law. They lend money on personal security, but do not advance + against shipments of goods. In some places there are small local + banks, usually called cash shops, which issue paper notes for small + sums and lend money out on personal security. The notes never reach + more than a very limited local circulation, and pass current merely on + the credit of the institution. There is no law regulating the + formation of banks or the issue of notes. _Pawnshops_ occupy a + prominent position in the internal economy of China. They lend on + deposit of personality at very high rates, 18 and 24%, and they + receive deposits of money from the public, usually allowing 6 to 10%. + They are the real banks of deposit of the country, and the better + class enjoy good credit. _Foreign Banks_ do a large business at + Shanghai and other treaty ports, and a _Government Bank_ has been + established at Peking. + + _Currency._--In the commercial treaty between Great Britain and China + of 1902 China agreed to provide a uniform national coinage. An + imperial decree of October 1908 commanded the introduction of a + uniform tael currency; but another decree of May 1910 established a + standard currency dollar weighing 72 candareens (a candareen is the + 100th part of the tael ounce) and subsidiary coins of fixed values in + decimal ratio. This decree properly enforced would introduce a much + needed stability into the monetary system of China. + + The actual currency (1910) consists of (l) _Silver_, which may be + either uncoined ingots passing current by weight, or imported coins, + Mexican dollars and British dollars; and (2) _Copper_ "cash," which + has no fixed relation to silver. The standard is silver, the unit + being the Chinese ounce or tael, containing 565 grains. The tael is + not a coin, but a weight. Its value in sterling consequently + fluctuates with the value of silver; in 1870 it was worth about 6s. + 8d., in 1907 it was worth 3s. 3d.[48] The name given in China to + uncoined silver in current use is "sycee." It is cast for convenience + sake into ingots weighing one to 50 taels. Its average fineness is + 916.66 per 1000. When foreign silver is imported, say into Shanghai, + it can be converted into currency by a very simple process. The bars + of silver are sent to a quasi-public office termed the "Kung K'u," or + public valuers, and by them melted down and cast into ingots of the + customary size. The fineness is estimated, and the premium or + betterness, together with the exact weight, is marked in ink on each + ingot. The whole process only occupies a few hours, and the silver is + then ready to be put into use. The Kung K'u is simply a local office + appointed by the bankers of the place, and the weight and fineness are + only good for that locality. The government takes no responsibility in + the matter, but leaves merchants and bankers to adjust the currency as + they please. For purposes of taxation and payment of duties there is a + standard or treasury tael, which is about 10% heavier than the tael of + commerce in use at Shanghai. Every large commercial centre has its own + customary tael, the weight and therefore the value of which differ + from that of every other. Silver dollars coined in Mexico, and British + dollars coined in Bombay, also circulate freely at the open ports of + trade and for some distance inland, passing at a little above their + intrinsic value. Carolus dollars, introduced long ago and no longer + coined, are retained in current use in several parts of the interior, + chiefly the tea-growing districts. Being preferred by the people, and + as the supply cannot be added to, they have reached a considerable + premium above their intrinsic value. Provincial mints in Canton, + Wuchang, and other places have issued silver coins of the same weight + and touch as the Mexican dollar, but very few have gone into use. As + they possess no privilege in debt-paying power over imported Mexican + dollars there is no inducement for the people to take them up unless + they can be had at a cheaper rate than the latter, and these are laid + down at so small a cost above the intrinsic value that no profit is + left to the mint. The coinage has in consequence been almost + discontinued. Subsidiary coins, however, came largely into use, being + issued by the local mints. One coin "the hundredth part of a dollar" + proved very popular (the issue to the end of 1906 being computed at + 12,500,000,000), but at rates corresponding closely to the intrinsic + value of the metal in it. The only coin officially issued by the + government--up to 1910--was the so-called copper _cash_. It is a small + coin which by regulation should weigh 1/16 of a tael, and should + contain 50 parts of copper, 40 of zinc, and 10 of lead or tin, and it + should bear a fixed ratio to silver of 1000 cash to one tael of + silver. In practice none of these conditions was observed. Being + issued from a number of mints, mostly provincial, the standard was + never uniform, and in many cases debased. Excessive issues lowered the + value of the coins, and for many years the average exchange was 1600 + or more per tael. The rise in copper led to the melting down of all + the older and superior coins, and as for the same reason coining was + suspended, the result was an appreciation of the "cash," so that a + tael in 1909 exchanged for about 1220 cash or about 35 to a penny + English. Inasmuch as the "cash" bore no fixed relation to silver, and + was, moreover, of no uniform composition, it formed a sort of mongrel + standard of its own, varying with the volume in circulation. + (G.J.; X.) + + +V. HISTORY + +(A)--_European Knowledge of China up to 1615._ + +_China as known to the Ancients._--The spacious seat of ancient +civilization which we call China has been distinguished by different +appellations, according as it was reached by the southern sea-route or +by the northern land-route traversing the longitude of Asia. In the +former aspect the name has nearly always been some form of the name +_Sin, Chin, Sinoe, China_. In the latter point of view the region in +question was known to the ancients as the land of the _Seres_, to the +middle ages as the empire of _Cathay_. The name of _Chin_ has been +supposed (doubtfully) to be derived from the dynasty of _Ts'in_, which a +little more than two centuries before the Christian era enjoyed a +vigorous existence, uniting all the Chinese provinces under its +authority, and extending its conquests far beyond those limits to the +south and the west. The mention of the _Chinas_ in ancient Sanskrit +literature, both in the laws of Manu and in the Mah[=a]bh[=a]rata, has +often been supposed to prove the application of the name long before the +predominance of the Ts'in dynasty. But the coupling of that name with +the _Daradas_, still surviving as the people of Dardistan, on the Indus, +suggests it as more probable that those _Chinas_ were a kindred race of +mountaineers, whose name as _Shinas_ in fact likewise remains applied to +a branch of the Dard races. Whether the _Sinim_ of the prophet Isaiah +should be interpreted of the Chinese is probably not susceptible of any +decision; by the context it appears certainly to indicate a people of +the extreme east or south. The name probably came to Europe through the +Arabs, who made the _China_ of the farther east into _Sîn_, and perhaps +sometimes into _Thîn_. Hence the _Thîn_ of the author of the _Periplus +of the Erythraean Sea_, who appears to be the first extant writer to +employ the name in this form (_i.e._ assuming Max Müller's view that he +belongs to the 1st century); hence also the _Sinae_ and _Thinae_ of +Ptolemy. + + It has often indeed been denied that the Sinae of Ptolemy really + represented the Chinese. But if we compare the statement of Marcianus + of Heraclea (a mere condenser of Ptolemy), when he tells us that the + "nations of the Sinae lie at the extremity of the habitable world, and + adjoin the eastern Terra Incognita," with that of Cosmas, who says, in + speaking of _Tzinista_, a name of which no one can question the + application to China, that "beyond this there is neither habitation + nor navigation"--we cannot doubt the same region to be meant by both. + The fundamental error of Ptolemy's conception of the Indian Sea as a + closed basin rendered it _impossible_ but that he should misplace the + Chinese coast. But considering that the name of _Sin_ has come down + among the Arabs from time immemorial as applied to the Chinese, + considering that in the work of Ptolemy this name certainly + represented the farthest known East, and considering how inaccurate + are Ptolemy's configurations and longitudes much nearer home, it seems + almost as reasonable to deny the identity of his India with ours as to + deny that his Sinae were Chinese. + + If we now turn to the _Seres_ we find this name mentioned by classic + authors much more frequently and at an earlier date, for the passages + of Eratosthenes (in Strabo), formerly supposed to speak of a parallel + passing through _Thinae_--[Greek: dia Thinôn]--are now known to read + correctly [Greek: di'Athênôn]. The name _Seres_ indeed is familiar to + the Latin poets of the Augustan age, but always in a vague way, and + usually with a general reference to Central Asia and the farther East. + We find, however, that the first endeavours to assign more accurately + the position of this people, which are those of Mela and Pliny, + gravitate distinctly towards China in its northern aspect as the true + ideal involved. Thus Mela describes the remotest east of Asia as + occupied by the three races (proceeding from south to north), Indians, + Seres and Scyths; just as in a general way we might still say that + eastern Asia is occupied by the Indies, China and Tartary. + + Ptolemy first uses the names of _Sera_ and _Serice_, the former for + the chief city, the latter for the country of the Seres, and as usual + defines their position with a precision far beyond what his knowledge + justified--the necessary result of his system. Yet even his definition + of Serice is most consistent with the view that this name indicated + the Chinese empire in its northern aspect, for he carries it eastward + to the 180th degree of longitude, which is also, according to his + calculation, in a lower latitude the eastern boundary of the Sinae. + + Ammianus Marcellinus devotes some paragraphs to a description of the + Seres and their country, one passage of which is startling at first + sight in its seeming allusion to the Great Wall, and in this sense it + has been rashly interpreted by Lassen and by Reinaud. But Ammianus is + merely converting Ptolemy's dry tables into fine writing, and speaks + only of an encircling rampart of mountains within which the spacious + and happy valley of the Seres lies. It is true that Ptolemy makes his + Serice extend westward to Imaus, _i.e._ to Pamir. But the Chinese + empire _did_ so extend at that epoch, and we find Lieut. John Wood in + 1838 speaking of "_China_" as lying immediately beyond Pamir, just as + the Arabs of the 8th century spoke of the country beyond the Jaxartes + as "_Sin_," and as Ptolemy spoke of "_Serice_" as immediately beyond + Imaus. + + If we fuse into one the ancient notices of the Seres and their + country, omitting anomalous statements and manifest fables, the result + will be somewhat as follows: "The region of the Seres is a vast and + populous country, touching on the east the ocean and the limits of the + habitable world, and extending west to Imaus and the confines of + Bactria. The people are civilized, mild, just and frugal, eschewing + collisions with their neighbours, and even shy of close intercourse, + but not averse to dispose of their own products, of which raw silk is + the staple, but which included also silk-stuffs, fine furs, and iron + of remarkable quality." That is manifestly a definition of the + Chinese. + + That Greek and Roman knowledge of the true position of so remote a + nation should at best have been somewhat hazy is nothing wonderful. + And it is worthy of note that the view entertained by the ancient + Chinese of the Roman empire and its inhabitants, under the name of + _Ta-thsin_, had some striking points of analogy to those views of the + Chinese which are indicated in the classical descriptions of the + Seres. There can be no mistaking the fact that in this case also the + great object was within the horizon of vision, yet the details + ascribed to it are often far from being true characteristics, being + only the accidents of its outer borders. + +_The Medieval Cathay._--"Cathay" is the name by which the Chinese empire +was known to medieval Europe, and it is in its original form (_Kitai_) +that China is still known in Russia and to most of the nations of +Central Asia. West of Russia this name has long ceased to be a +geographical expression, but it is associated with a remarkable phase in +the history of geography and commerce. The name first became known to +Europe in the 13th century, when the vast conquests of Jenghiz Khan and +his house drew a new and vivid attention to Asia. For some three +centuries previously the northern provinces of China had been detached +from indigenous rule, and subject to northern conquerors. The first of +these foreign dynasties was of a race called _Khitán_ issuing from the +basin of the Sungari river, and supposed (but doubtfully) to have been +of the blood of the modern Tunguses. The rule of this race endured for +two centuries and originated the application of the name _Khitât_ or +_Khitâï_ to northern China. The dynasty itself, known in Chinese history +as _Liao_, or "Iron," disappeared from China 1123, but the name remained +attached to the territory which they had ruled. + +The Khitán were displaced by the Nüchih (_Nyûché_ or _Chûrché_) race, +akin to the modern Manchus. These reigned, under the title of _Kin_, or +"Golden," till Jenghiz and his Mongols invaded them in turn. In 1234 the +conquest of the Kin empire was completed, and the dynasty extinguished +under Ogdai (Ogotai), the son and successor of Jenghiz Khan. Forty years +later, in the reign of Kublai, grandson and ablest successor of Jenghiz, +the Mongol rule was extended over southern China (1276), which till +then had remained under a native dynasty, the Sung, holding its royal +residence in a vast and splendid city, now known as Hang-chow, but then +as Ling-nan, or more commonly as _King-sze_, i.e. the court. The +southern empire was usually called by the conquerors _Mantzi_ (or as +some of the old travellers write, _Mangi_), a name which western +Asiatics seem to have identified with _Mâchîn_ (from the Sanskrit +_Mahâchîn_), one of the names by which China was known to the traders +from Persian and Arabian ports. + +The conquests of Jenghiz and his successors had spread not only over +China and the adjoining East, but westward also over all northern Asia, +Persia, Armenia, part of Asia Minor and Russia, threatening to deluge +Christendom. Though the Mongol wave retired, as it seemed almost by an +immediate act of Providence, when Europe lay at its feet, it had +levelled or covered all political barriers from the frontier of Poland +to the Yellow Sea, and when western Europe recovered from its alarm, +Asia lay open, as never before or since, to the inspection of +Christendom. Princes, envoys, priests--half-missionary, +half-envoy--visited the court of the great khan in Mongolia; and besides +these, the accidents of war, commerce or opportunity carried a variety +of persons from various classes of human life into the depths of Asia. +"'Tis worthy of the grateful remembrance of all Christian people," says +an able missionary friar of the next age (Ricold of Monte Croce), "that +just at the time when God sent forth into the Eastern parts of the world +the Tatars to slay and to be slain, He also sent into the West his +faithful and blessed servants, Dominic and Francis, to enlighten, +instruct and build up in the faith." Whatever on the whole may be +thought of the world's debt to Dominic, it is to the two mendicant +orders, but especially to the Franciscans, that we owe a vast amount of +information about medieval Asia, and, among other things, the first +mention of _Cathay_. Among the many strangers who reached Mongolia were +(1245-1247) John de Plano Carpini and (1253) William of Rubruk +(Rubruquis) in French Flanders, both Franciscan friars of high +intelligence, who happily have left behind them reports of their +observations. + + Carpini, after mentioning the wars of Jenghiz against the _Kitai_, + goes on to speak of that people as follows: "Now these _Kitai_ are + heathen men, and have a written character of their own... They seem, + indeed, to be kindly and polished folks enough. They have no beard, + and in character of countenance have a considerable resemblance to the + Mongols" [are _Mongoloid_, as our ethnologists would say], "but are + not so broad in the face. They have a peculiar language. Their betters + as craftsmen in every art practised by man are not to be found in the + whole world. Their country is very rich in corn, in wine, in gold and + silver, in silk, and in every kind of produce tending to the support + of mankind." The notice of Rubruk, shrewder and more graphic, runs + thus: "Farther on is Great Cathay, which I take to be the country + which was anciently called the Land of the Seres. For the best silk + stuffs are still got from them... The sea lies between it and India. + Those Cathayans are little fellows, speaking much through the nose, + and, as is general with all those eastern people, their eyes are very + narrow. They are first-rate artists in every kind, and their + physicians have a thorough knowledge of the virtues of herbs, and an + admirable skill in diagnosis by the pulse... The common money of + Cathay consists of pieces of cotton-paper, about a palm in length and + breadth, upon which certain lines are printed, resembling the seal of + Mangu Khan. They do their writing with a pencil, such as painters + paint with, and a single character of theirs comprehends several + letters, so as to form a whole word." + + Here we have not only what is probably the first European notice of + paper-money, but a _partial_ recognition of the peculiarity of Chinese + writing, and a perception that puts to shame the perverse boggling of + later critics over the identity of these Cathayans with the Seres of + classic fame. + +But though these travellers saw Cathayans in the bazaars in the great +khan's camps, the first actual visitors of Cathay itself were the Polo +family, and it is to the book of Marco Polo's recollections mainly that +Cathay owed the growing familiarity of its name in Europe during the +14th and 15th centuries. It is, however, a great mistake to suppose, as +has often been assumed, that the residence of the Polos in that country +remained an isolated fact. They were but the pioneers of a very +considerable intercourse, which endured till the decay of the Mongol +dynasty in Cathay, i.e. for about half a century. + +We have no evidence that either in the 13th or 14th century Cathayans, +i.e. Chinese, ever reached Europe, but it is possible that some did, at +least in the former century. For, during the campaigns of Hulagu in +Persia (1256-1265), and the reigns of his successors, Chinese engineers +were employed on the banks of the Tigris, and Chinese astrologers and +physicians could be consulted at Tabriz. Many diplomatic communications +passed between the Hulaguid Ilkhans and the princes of Christendom. The +former, as the great khan's liegemen, still received from him their +seals of state; and two of their letters which survive in the archives +of France exhibit the vermilion impressions of those seals in Chinese +characters--perhaps affording the earliest specimen of that character +which reached western Europe. + +Just as the Polos were reaching their native city (1295), after an +absence of a quarter of a century, the forerunner of a new series of +travellers was entering southern China by way of the Indian seas. This +was John of Monte Corvino, another Franciscan who, already some fifty +years of age, was plunging single-handed into that great ocean of +paganism to preach the gospel according to his lights. After years of +uphill and solitary toil converts began to multiply; coadjutors joined +him. The Papal See became cognizant of the harvest that was being reaped +in the far East. It made Friar John archbishop in Cambaluc (or Peking), +with patriarchal authority, and sent him batches of suffragan bishops +and preachers of his own order. The Roman Church spread; churches and +Minorite houses were established at Cambaluc, at Zayton or Tsuan-chow in +Fu-kien, at Yang-chow and elsewhere; and the missions flourished under +the smile of the great khan, as the Jesuit missions did for a time under +the Manchu emperors three centuries and a half later. Archbishop John +was followed to the grave, about 1328, by mourning multitudes of pagans +and Christians alike. Several of the bishops and friars who served under +him have left letters or other memoranda of their experience, e.g. +Andrew, bishop of Zayton, John of Cora, afterwards archbishop of +Sultania in Persia, and Odoric of Pordenone, whose fame as a pious +traveller won from the _vox populi_ at his funeral a beatification which +the church was fain to seal. The only ecclesiastical narrative regarding +Cathay, of which we are aware, subsequent to the time of Archbishop +John, is that which has been gathered from the recollections of Giovanni +de' Marignolli, a Florentine Franciscan, who was sent by Pope Benedict +XII. with a mission to the great khan, in return for one from that +potentate which arrived at Avignon from Cathay in 1338, and who spent +four years (1342-1346) at the court of Cambaluc as legate of the Holy +See. These recollections are found dispersed incoherently over a +chronicle of Bohemia which the traveller wrote by order of the emperor +Charles IV., whose chaplain he was after his return. + +But intercourse during the period in question was not confined to +ecclesiastical channels. Commerce also grew up, and flourished for a +time even along the vast line that stretches from Genoa and Florence to +the marts of Cheh-kiang and Fu-kien. The record is very fragmentary and +imperfect, but many circumstances and incidental notices show how +frequently the remote East was reached by European traders in the first +half of the 14th century--a state of things which it is very difficult +to realize when we see how all those regions, when reopened to knowledge +two centuries later, seemed to be discoveries as new as the empires +which, about the same time, Cortes and Pizarro were conquering in the +West. + + This commercial intercourse probably began about 1310-1320. John of + Monte Corvino, writing in 1305, says it was twelve years since he had + heard any news from Europe; the only Western stranger who had arrived + in all that time being a certain Lombard chirurgeon (probably one of + the _Patarini_ who got hard measure at home in those days), who had + spread the most incredible blasphemies, about the Roman Curia and the + order of St Francis. Yet even on his first entrance to Cathay Friar + John had been accompanied by one Master Peter of Lucolongo, whom he + describes as a faithful Christian man and a great merchant, and who + seems to have remained many years at Peking. The letter of Andrew, + bishop of Zayton (1326), quotes the opinion of Genoese merchants at + that port regarding a question of exchanges. Odoric, who was in Cathay + about 1323-1327, refers for confirmation of the wonders which he + related of the great city of Cansay (i.e. King-sze, or Hang-chow) to + the many persons whom he had met at Venice since his return, who had + themselves been witnesses of those marvels. And Marignolli, some + twenty years later, found attached to one of the convents at Zayton, + in Fu-kien, a _fondaco_ or factory for the accommodation of the + Christian merchants. + + But by far the most distinct and notable evidence of the importance + and frequency of European trade with Cathay, of which silk and silk + goods formed the staple, is to be found in the commercial hand-book + (c. 1340) of Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a clerk and factor of the + great Florentine house of the Bardi, which was brought to the ground + about that time by its dealings with Edward III. of England. This + book, called by its author _Libro di divisamenti di Paesi_, is a sort + of trade-guide, devoting successive chapters to the various ports and + markets of his time, detailing the nature of imports and exports at + each, the duties and exactions, the local customs of business, + weights, measures and money. The first two chapters of this work + contain instructions for the merchant proceeding to Cathay; and it is + evident, from the terms used, that the road thither was not + unfrequently travelled by European merchants, from whom Pegolotti had + derived his information. The route which he describes lay by Azov, + Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar (on the Jaxartes), Almálik (Gulja in Ili), + Kan-chow (in Kan-suh), and so to Hang-chow and Peking. Particulars are + given as to the silver ingots which formed the currency of Tatary, and + the paper-money of Cathay. That the ventures on this trade were not + insignificant is plain from the example taken by the author to + illustrate the question of expenses on the journey, which is that of a + merchant investing in goods there to the amount of some £12,000 (i.e. + in actual gold value, not as calculated by any fanciful and fallacious + equation of values). + + Of the same remarkable phase of history that we are here considering + we have also a number of notices by Mahommedan writers. The + establishment of the Mongol dynasty in Persia, by which the great khan + was acknowledged as lord paramount, led (as we have already noticed in + part) to a good deal of intercourse. And some of the Persian + historians, writing at Tabriz, under the patronage of the Mongol + princes, have told us much about Cathay, especially Rashiduddin, the + great minister and historian of the dynasty (died 1318). We have also + in the book of the Moorish traveller Ibn Batuta, who visited China + about 1347-1348, very many curious and in great part true notices, + though it is not possible to give credence to the whole of this + episode in his extensive travels. + + About the time of the traveller first named the throne of the + degenerate descendants of Jenghiz began to totter to its fall, and we + have no knowledge of any Frank visitor to Cathay in that age later + than Marignolli; missions and merchants alike disappear from the + field. We hear, indeed, once and again of ecclesiastics despatched + from Avignon, but they go forth into the darkness, and are heard of no + more. Islam, with all its jealousy and exclusiveness, had recovered + its grasp over Central Asia; the Nestorian Christianity which once had + prevailed so widely was vanishing, and the new rulers of China + reverted to the old national policy, and held the foreigner at arm's + length. Night descended upon the farther East, covering Cathay with + those cities of which the old travellers had told such marvels, + Cambaluc and Cansay, Zayton and Chinkalan. And when the veil rose + before the Portuguese and Spanish explorers of the 16th century, those + names are heard no more. In their stead we have China, Peking, + Hangchow, Chinchew, Canton. Not only were the old names forgotten, but + the fact that those places had ever been known before was forgotten + also. Gradually new missionaries went forth from Rome--Jesuits and + Dominicans now; new converts were made, and new vicariates + constituted; but the old Franciscan churches, and the Nestorianism + with which they had battled, had alike been swallowed up in the ocean + of pagan indifference. In time a wreck or two floated to the + surface--a MS. Latin Bible or a piece of Catholic sculpture; and when + the intelligent missionaries called Marco Polo to mind, and studied + his story, one and another became convinced that Cathay and China were + one. + + But for a long time all but a sagacious few continued to regard Cathay + as a region distinct from any of the new-found Indies; whilst + map-makers, well on into the 17th century, continued to represent it + as a great country lying entirely to the north of China, and + stretching to the Arctic Sea. + + It was Cathay, with its outlying island of Zipangu (Japan), that + Columbus sought to reach by sailing westward, penetrated as he was by + his intense conviction of the smallness of the earth, and of the vast + extension of Asia eastward; and to the day of his death he was full of + the imagination of the proximity of the domain of the great khan to + the islands and coasts which he had discovered. And such imaginations + are curiously embodied in some of the maps of the early 16th century, + which intermingle on the same coast-line the new discoveries from + Labrador to Brazil with the provinces and rivers of Marco Polo's + Cathay. + + Cathay had been the aim of the first voyage of the Cabots in 1496, and + it continued to be the object of many adventurous voyages by English + and Hollanders to the N.W. and N.E. till far on in the 16th century. + At least one memorable land-journey also was made by Englishmen, of + which the exploration of a trade-route to Cathay was a chief + object--that in which Anthony Jenkinson and the two Johnsons reached + Bokhara by way of Russia in 1558-1559. The country of which they + collected notices at that city was still known to them only as + _Cathay_, and its great capital only as _Cambaluc_. + + Cathay as a supposed separate entity may be considered to come to an + end with the journey of Benedict Goës, the lay-Jesuit. This admirable + person was, in 1603, despatched through Central Asia by his superiors + in India with the specific object of determining whether the Cathay of + old European writers and of modern Mahommedans was or was not a + distinct region from that China of which parallel marvels had now for + some time been recounted. Benedict, as one of his brethren pronounced + his epitaph, "seeking Cathay found Heaven." He died at Suchow, the + frontier city of China, but not before he had ascertained that China + and Cathay were the same. After the publication of the narrative of + his journey (in the _Expeditio Christiana apud Sinas_ of Trigault, + 1615) inexcusable ignorance alone could continue to distinguish + between them, but such ignorance lingered many years longer. (H. Y.) + + +(B)--_Chinese Origins._ + +Chinese literature contains no record of any kind which might justify us +in assuming that the nucleus of the nation may have immigrated from some +other part of the world; and the several ingenious theories pointing to +Babylonia, Egypt, India, Khotan, and other seats of ancient civilization +as the starting-points of ethnical wanderings must be dismissed as +untenable. Whether the Chinese were seated in their later homes from +times immemorial, as their own historians assume, or whether they +arrived there from abroad, as some foreign scholars have pretended, +cannot be proved to the satisfaction of historical critics. Indeed, +anthropological arguments seem to contradict the idea of any connexion +with Babylonians, Egyptians, Assyrians, or Indians. The earliest +hieroglyphics of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty +(second millennium B.C.), betray the Mongol character of the nation that +invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye wherever it +appears in an ideograph. In a pair of eyes as shown in the most ancient +pictorial or sculptural representations in the west, the four corners +may be connected by a horizontal straight line; whereas lines drawn +through the eyes of one of the oldest Chinese hieroglyphics cross each +other at a sharp angle, as shown in the accompanying diagrams:-- + +[Illustration: Egyptian.] + +[Illustration: Chinese.] + +This does not seem to speak for racial consanguinity any more than the +well-known curled heads and bearded faces of Assyrian sculptures as +compared to the straight-haired and almost beardless Chinese. +Similarities in the creation of cultural elements may, it is true, be +shown to exist on either side, even at periods when mutual intercourse +was probably out of the question; but this may be due to uniformity in +the construction of the human brain, which leads man in different parts +of the world to arrive at similar ideas under similar conditions, or to +prehistoric connexions which it is as impossible for us to trace now as +is the origin of mankind itself. Our standpoint as regards the origin of +the Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic. All we can do is +to reproduce the tradition as it is found in Chinese literature. This +tradition, as applying to the very earliest periods, may be nothing more +than historical superstition, yet it has its historical importance. +Supposing it were possible to prove that none of the persons mentioned +in the Bible from Adam down to the Apostles ever lived, even the most +sceptical critic would still have to admit that the history of a great +portion of the human race has been materially affected by the belief in +the examples of their alleged lives. Something similar may be said of +the alleged earliest history of the Chinese with its model emperors and +detestable tyrants, the accounts of which, whether based on reality or +not, have exercised much influence on the development of the nation. + +The Chinese have developed their theories of prehistoric life. +Speculation as to the origin and gradual evolution of their civilization +has resulted in the expression of views by authors who may have +reconstructed their systems from remnants of ancestral life revealed by +excavations, or from observation of neighbouring nations living in a +state of barbarism. This may account for a good deal of the repetition +found in the Chinese mythological and legendary narratives, the personal +and chronological part of which may have been invented merely as a +framework for illustrating social and cultural progress. The scene of +action of all the prehistoric figures from P'an-ku, the first human +being, down to the beginning of real history has been laid in a part of +the world which has never been anything but Chinese territory. P'an-ku's +epoch, millions of years ago, was followed by ten distinct periods of +sovereigns, including the "Heavenly emperors," the "Terrestrial +emperors," and the "Human emperors," the _Yu-ch'au_ or "Nest-builders," +and _Sui-jön_, the "Fire Producer," the Prometheus of the Chinese, who +borrowed fire from the stars for the benefit of man. Several of the +characteristic phases of cultural progress and social organization have +been ascribed to this mythological period. Authors of less fertile +imagination refer them to later times, when the heroes of their accounts +appear in shapes somewhat resembling human beings rather than as gods +and demigods. + +The Chinese themselves look upon Fu-hi as their first historical +emperor; and they place his lifetime in the years 2852-2738 B.C. Some +accounts represent him as a supernatural being; and we see him depicted +as a human figure with a fish tail something like a mermaid. He is +credited with having established social order among his people, who, +before him, had lived like animals in the wilds. The social chaos out of +which Chinese society arose is described as being characterized by the +absence of family life; for "children knew only their mothers and not +their fathers." Fu-hi introduced matrimony; and in so doing he placed +man as the husband at the head of the family and abolished the original +matriarchate. This quite corresponds with his views on the dualism in +natural philosophy, of which he is supposed to have laid the germs by +the invention of the so-called _pa-kua_, eight symbols, each consisting +of three parallel lines, broken or continuous. The continuous lines +represented the male element in nature; the broken ones, the female. It +is characteristic that the same ruler who assigned to man his position +as the head of the family is also credited with the invention of that +natural philosophy of the "male and female principles," according to +which all good things and qualities were held to be male, while their +less sympathetic opposites were female, such as heaven and earth, sun +and moon, day and night, south and north. If these traditions really +represent the oldest prehistoric creations of the popular mind, it would +almost seem that the most ancient Chinese shared that naïve sentiment +which caused our own forefathers to invent gender. The difference is +that, with us, the conception survives merely in the language, where the +article or suffixes mark gender, whereas with the Chinese, whose +language does not express gender, it survives in their system of +metaphysics. For all their attempts at fathoming the secrets of nature +are based on the idea that male or female powers are inherent in all +matter. + +To the same Emperor Fu-hi are ascribed many of the elementary inventions +which raise man from the life of a brute to that of a social being. He +taught his people to hunt, to fish, and to keep flocks; he constructed +musical instruments, and replaced a kind of knot-writing previously in +use by a system of hieroglyphics. All this cannot of course be +considered as history; but it shows that the authors of later centuries +who credited Fu-hi with certain inventions were not quite illogical in +starting from the matriarchal chaos, after which he is said to have +organized society with occupations corresponding to those of a period of +hunting, fishing and herding. This period was bound to be followed by a +further step towards the final development of the nation's social +condition; and we find it quite logically succeeded by a period of +agricultural life, personified in the Emperor, Shön-nung, supposed to +have lived in the twenty-eighth century B.C. His name may be freely +translated as "Divine Labourer"; and to him the Chinese ascribe the +invention of agricultural implements, and the discovery of the medicinal +properties of numerous plants. + +The third historical emperor was Huang-ti, the "Yellow emperor," +according to the literal translation. Ssï-ma Ts'ién, the Herodotus of +the Chinese, begins his history with him; but Fu-hi and Shön-nung are +referred to in texts much older than this historian, though many details +relating to their alleged reigns have been added in later times. +Huang-ti extended the boundaries of the empire, described as being +originally confined to a limited territory near the banks of the Yellow +river and the present city of Si-an-fu. Here were the sites of cities +used as capitals of the empire under various names during long periods +since remote antiquity. To Huang-ti, whose reign is said to have +commenced in 2704 according to one source and in 2491 according to +another, are ascribed most of the cultural innovations which historians +were not able otherwise to locate within historical times. Under +Huang-ti we find the first mention of a nation called the Hun-yü, who +occupied the north of his empire and with whom he is represented to have +engaged in warfare. The Chinese identify this name with that of the +Hiung-nu, their old hereditary enemy and the ancestors of Attila's Huns. +Even though the details of these legendary accounts may deserve little +confidence, there must have been an old tradition that a nation called +the Hun-yü, occupying the northern confines of China, were the ancestors +of the Hiung-nu tribes, well known in historical times, a scion of whose +great khans settled in territory belonging to the king of Sogdiana +during the first century B.C., levied tribute from his neighbours, the +Alans, and with his small but warlike horde initiated that era of +migrations which led to the overrunning of Europe with Central-Asiatic +Tatars. + +Fu-hi, Shön-nung and Huang-ti represent a group of rulers comprised by +the Chinese under the name of _San-huang_, i.e. "The Three Emperors." +Although we have no reason to deny their existence, the details recorded +concerning them contain enough in the way of improbabilities to justify +us in considering them as mythical creations. The chronology, too, is +apparently quite fictitious; for the time allotted to their reigns is +much too long as a term of government for a single human life, and, on +the other hand, much too short, if we measure it by the cultural +progress said to have been brought about in it. Fu-hi's period of +hunting life must have lasted many generations before it led to the +agricultural period represented by the name Shön-nung; and this period +in turn could not possibly have led within a little more than one +hundred years to the enormous progress ascribed to Huang-ti. Under the +latter ruler a regular board of historians is said to have been +organized with Ts'ang-kié as president, who is known also as Shi-huang, +i.e. "the Emperor of Historians," the reputed inventor of hieroglyphic +writing placed by some authors into the Fu-hi period and worshipped as +Tz'ï-shön, i.e. "God of writing," to the present day. Huang-ti is +supposed to have been the first builder of temples, houses and cities; +to have regulated the calendar, to which he added the intercalary month; +and to have devised means of traffic by cars drawn by oxen and by boats +to ply on the lakes and rivers of his empire. His wife, known as "the +lady of Si-ling," is credited with the invention of the several +manipulations in the rearing of silkworms and the manufacture of silk. +The invention of certain flutes, combined to form a kind of reed organ, +led to a deeper study of music; and in order to construct these +instruments with the necessary accuracy a system of weights and measures +had to be devised. Huang-ti's successors, Shau-hau, Chuan-hü, and +Ti-k'u, were less prominent, though each of them had their particular +merits. + + _The Model Emperors._--Most of the stories regarding the "Three + Emperors" are told in comparatively late records. The _Shu-king_, + sometimes described as the "Canon of History," our oldest source of + pre-Confucian history, supposed to have been edited by Confucius + himself, knows nothing of Fu-hi, Shön-nung and Huang-ti; but it begins + by extolling the virtues of the emperor _Yau_ and his successor + _Shun_. Yau and Shun are probably the most popular names in Chinese + history as taught in China. Whatever good qualities may be imagined of + the rulers of a great nation have been heaped upon their heads; and + the example of their lives has at all times been held up by + Confucianists as the height of perfection in a sovereign's character. + Yau, whose reign has been placed by the fictitious standard chronology + of the Chinese in the years 2357-2258, and about 200 years later by + the less extravagant "Annals of the Bamboo Books," is represented as + the patron of certain astronomers who had to watch the heavenly + bodies; and much has been written about the reputed astronomical + knowledge of the Chinese in this remote period. Names like Deguignes, + Gaubil, Biot and Schlegel are among those of the investigators. On the + other side are the sceptics, who maintain that later editors + interpolated statements which could have been made only with the + astronomical knowledge possessed by their own contemporaries. + According to an old legend, Shun banished "the four wicked ones" to + distant territories. One of these bore the name _T'au-t'ié_, i.e. + "Glutton"; called also San-miau. _T'au-t'ié_ is also the name of an + ornament, very common on the surface of the most ancient bronze + vessels, showing the distorted face of some ravenous animal. The + San-miau as a tribe are said to have been the forefathers of the + Tangutans, the Tibetans and the Miau-tz'ï in the south-west of China. + This legend may be interpreted as indicating that the non-Chinese + races in the south-west have come to their present seats by migration + from Central China in remote antiquity. During Yau's reign a + catastrophe reminding one of the biblical deluge threatened the + Chinese world. The emperor held his minister of works, Kun, + responsible for this misfortune, probably an inundation of the Yellow + river such as has been witnessed by the present generation. Its + horrors are described with poetical exaggeration in the _Shu-king_. + When the efforts to stop the floods had proved futile for nine years, + Yau wished to abdicate, and he selected a virtuous young man of the + name of Shun as his successor. Among the legends told about this + second model emperor is the story that he had a board before his + palace on which every subject was permitted to note whatever faults he + had to find with his government, and that by means of a drum suspended + at his palace gate attention might be drawn to any complaint that was + to be made to him. Since Kun had not succeeded in stopping the floods, + he was dismissed and his son Yü was appointed in his stead. Probably + the waters began to subside of their own accord, but Yü has been + praised up as the national hero who, by his engineering works, saved + his people from utter destruction. His labours in this direction are + described in a special section of the Confucian account known as + _Yü-kung_, i.e. "Tribute of Yü." Yü's merit has in the sequel been + exaggerated so as to credit him with more than human powers. He is + supposed to have cut canals through the hills, in order to furnish + outlets to the floods, and to have performed feats of engineering + compared to which, according to Von Richthofen, the construction of + the St Gotthard tunnel without blasting materials would be child's + play, and all this within a few years. + +_The Hia Dynasty._--As a reward for his services Yü was selected to +succeed Shun as emperor. He divided the empire into nine provinces, the +description of which in the _Yü-kung_ chapter of the "Canon of History" +bears a suspicious resemblance to later accounts. Yü's reign has been +assigned to the years 2205-2198, and the Hia Dynasty, of which he became +the head, has been made to extend to the overthrow in 1766 B.C. of Kié, +its eighteenth and last emperor, a cruel tyrant of the most vicious and +contemptible character. Among the Hia emperors we find _Chung-k'ang_ +(2159-2147), whose reign has attracted the attention of European +scholars by the mention of an eclipse of the sun, which his court +astronomers had failed to predict. European astronomers and sinologues +have brought much acumen to bear on the problem involved in the +_Shu-king_ account in trying to decide which of the several eclipses +known to have occurred about that time was identical with the one +observed in China under Chung-k'ang. + +_The Shang, or Yin, Dynasty._--This period, which preceded the classical +Chóu dynasty, is made to extend from 1766 to 1122 B.C. We must now be +prepared to see an energetic or virtuous ruler at the head of a dynasty +and either a cruel tyrant or a contemptible weakling at the end of it. +It seems natural that this should be so; but Chinese historians, like +the writers of Roman history, have a tendency to exaggerate both good +and bad qualities. Ch'öng-tang, its first sovereign, is represented as a +model of goodness and of humane feeling towards his subjects. Even the +animal world benefited by his kindness, inasmuch as he abolished all +useless torture in the chase. His great minister I Yin, who had greatly +assisted him in securing the throne, served two of his successors. +P'an-köng (1401) and Wu-ting (1324) are described as good rulers among a +somewhat indifferent set of monarchs. The Shang dynasty, like the Hia, +came to an end through the reckless vice and cruelty of a tyrant +(Chóu-sin with his consort Ta-ki). China had even in those days to +maintain her position as a civilized nation by keeping at bay the +barbarous nations by which she was surrounded. Chief among these were +the ancestors of the Hiung-nu tribes, or Huns, on the northern and +western boundaries. To fight them, to make pacts and compromises with +them, and to befriend them with gifts so as to keep them out of the +Imperial territories, had been the rôle of a palatinate on the western +frontier, the duchy of Chóu, while the court of China with its vicious +emperor gave itself up to effeminate luxury. Chóu-sin's evil practices +had aroused the indignation of the palatine, subsequently known as +Wön-wang, who in vain remonstrated with the emperor's criminal treatment +of his subjects. The strength and integrity of Wön-wang's character had +made him the corner-stone of that important epoch; and his name is one +of the best known both in history and in literature. The courage with +which he spoke his mind in rebuking his unworthy liege lord caused the +emperor to imprison him, his great popularity alone saving his life. +During his incarceration, extending over three years, he compiled the +_I-king_, or "Canon of Changes," supposed to be the oldest book of +Chinese literature, and certainly the one most extensively studied by +the nation. Wön-wang's son, known as Wu-wang, was destined to avenge his +father and the many victims of Chóu-sin's cruelty. Under his leadership +the people rose against the emperor and, with the assistance of his +allies, "men of the west," possibly ancestors of the Huns, overthrew the +Shang dynasty after a decisive battle, whereupon Chóu-sin committed +suicide by setting fire to his palace. + +_Chóu Dynasty._--Wu-wang, the first emperor of the new dynasty, named +after his duchy of Chóu on the western frontier, was greatly assisted in +consolidating the empire by his brother, Chóu-kung, i.e. "Duke of Chóu." +As the loyal prime-minister of Wu-wang and his successor the duke of +Chóu laid the foundation of the government institutions of the dynasty, +which became the prototype of most of the characteristic features in +Chinese public and social life down to recent times. The brothers and +adherents of the new sovereign were rewarded with fiefs which in the +sequel grew into as many states. China thus developed into a +confederation, resembling that of the German empire, inasmuch as a +number of independent states, each having its own sovereign, were united +under one liege lord, the emperor, styled "The Son of Heaven," who as +high priest of the nation reigned in the name of Heaven. The emperor +represented the nation in sacrificing and praying to God. His relations +with his vassals and government officials, and those of the heads of the +vassal states with their subjects as well as of the people among +themselves were regulated by the most rigid ceremonial. The dress to be +worn, the speeches to be made, and the postures to be assumed on all +possible occasions, whether at court or in private life, were subject to +regulations. The duke of Chóu, or whoever may have been the creator of +this system, showed deep wisdom in his speculations, if he based that +immutability of government which in the sequel became a Chinese +characteristic, on the physical and moral immutability of individuals by +depriving them of all spontaneous action in public and private life. +Originally and nominally the emperor's power as the ruler over his +vassals, who again ruled in his name, was unquestionable; and the first +few generations of the dynasty saw no decline of the original strength +of central power. A certain loyalty based on the traditional ancestral +worship counteracted the desire to revolt. The rightful heir to the +throne was responsible to his ancestors as his subjects were to theirs. +"We have to do as our ancestors did," the people argued; "and since they +obeyed the ancestors of our present sovereign, we have to be loyal to +him." Interference with this time-honoured belief would have amounted to +a rupture, as it were, in the nation's religious relations, and as long +as the people looked upon the emperor as the Son of Heaven, his moral +power would outweigh strong armies sent against him in rebellion. The +time came soon enough when central power depended merely on this +spontaneous loyalty. + +Not all the successors of Wu-wang profited by the lessons given them by +past history. Incapacity, excessive severity and undue weakness had +created discontent and loosened the relations between the emperor and +his vassals. Increase in the extent of the empire greatly added to this +decline of central power. For the emperor's own dominion was centrally +situated and surrounded by the several confederate states; its +geographical position prevented it from participating in the general +aggrandisement of China, and increase in territory, population and +prestige had become the privilege of boundary states. Tatar tribes in +the north and west and the aboriginal Man barbarians in the south were +forced by warfare to yield land, or enticed to exchange it for goods, or +induced to mingle with their Chinese neighbours, thus producing a mixed +population combining the superior intelligence of the Chinese race with +the energetic and warlike spirit of barbarians. These may be the main +reasons which gradually undermined the Imperial authority and brought +some of the confederate states to the front, so as to overshadow the +authority of the Son of Heaven himself, whose military and financial +resources were inferior to those of several of his vassals. A few out of +the thirty-five sovereigns of the Chóu dynasty were distinguished by +extraordinary qualities. Mu-wang of the 10th century performed journeys +far beyond the western frontier of his empire, and was successful in +warfare against the Dog Barbarians, described as the ancestors of the +Hiung-nu, or Huns. The reign of Süan-wang (827-782 B.C.) was filled with +warfare against the Tangutans and the Huns, called Hién-yün in a +contemporaneous poem of the "Book of Odes"; but the most noteworthy +reign in this century is that of the lascivious Yu-wang, the +oppressiveness of whose government had caused a bard represented in the +"Book of Odes" to complain about the emperor's evil ways. The writer of +this poem refers to certain signs showing that Heaven itself is +indignant at Yu-wang's crimes. One of these signs was an eclipse of the +sun which had recently occurred, the date and month being clearly +stated. This date corresponds exactly with August 29, 776 B.C.; and +astronomers have calculated that on that precise date an eclipse of the +sun was visible in North China. This, of course, cannot be a mere +accident; and since the date falls into the sixth year of Yu-wang's +reign, the coincidence is bound to increase our confidence in that part +of Chinese history. Our knowledge of it, however, is due to mere chance; +for the record of the eclipse would probably not have been preserved +until our days had it not been interpreted as a kind of _tekel upharsin_ +owing to the peculiarity of the political situation. It does not follow, +therefore, as some foreign critics assume, that the historical period +begins as late as Yu-wang's reign. China has no architectural witnesses +to testify to her antiquity as Egypt has in her pyramids and temple +ruins; but the sacrificial bronze vessels of the Shang and Chóu +dynasties, with their characteristic ornaments and hieroglyphic +inscriptions, seem to support the historical tradition inasmuch as +natural development may be traced by the analysis of their artistic and +paleographic phases. Counterfeiters, say a thousand years later, could +not have resisted the temptation to introduce patterns and hieroglyphic +shapes of later periods; and whatever bronzes have been assigned to the +Shang dynasty, i.e. some time in the second millennium B.C., exhibit the +Shang characteristics. The words occurring in their inscriptions, +carefully collected, may be shown to be confined to ideas peculiar to +primitive states of cultural life, not one of them pointing to an +invention we may suspect to be of later origin. But, apart from this, it +seems a matter of individual judgment how far back beyond that +indisputable year 776 B.C. a student will date the beginning of real +history. + +In the 7th century central authority had declined to such an extent that +the emperor was merely the nominal head of the confederation, the +hegemony in the empire falling in turn to one of the five principal +states, for which reason the Chinese speak of a period of the "Five +Leaders." The state of Ts'i, corresponding to North Shan-tung, had begun +to overshadow the other states by unprecedented success in economic +enterprise, due to the prudent advice of its prime minister, the +philosopher Kuan-tzï. Other states attained leadership by success in +warfare. Among these leaders we see duke Mu of T'sin (659 B.C.), a state +on the western boundary which was so much influenced by amalgamation +with its Hunnic neighbours that the purely Chinese states regarded it as +a barbarian country. The emperor was in those days a mere shadow; +several of his vassals had grown strong enough to claim and be granted +the title "king," and they all tried to annihilate their neighbours by +ruse in diplomacy and by force of arms, without referring to their +common ruler for arbitration, as they were in duty bound. In this +_bellum omnium contra omnes_ the state of Ts'in, in spite of repeated +reverses, remained in possession of the field. + + The period of this general struggle is spoken of by Chinese historians + as that of "The Contending States." Like that of the "Five Leaders" it + is full of romance; and the examples of heroism, cowardice, diplomatic + skill and philosophical equanimity which fill the pages of its history + have become the subject of elegant literature in prose and poetry. The + political development of the Chóu dynasty is the exact counterpart of + that of its spiritual life as shown in the contemporaneous literature. + The orthodox conservative spirit which reflects the ethical views of + the emperor and his royal partisans is represented by the name + Confucius (551-479 B.C.). The great sage had collected old traditions + and formulated the moral principles which had been dormant in the + Chinese nation for centuries. His doctrines tended to support the + maintenance of central power; so did those of other members of his + school, especially Mencius. Filial love showed itself as obedience to + the parents in the family and as loyalty to the emperor and his + government in public life. It was the highest virtue, according to the + Confucian school. The history of the nation as taught in the + _Shu-king_ was in its early part merely an illustration of + Confucianist ideas about good and bad government. The perpetual advice + to rulers was: "Be like Yau, Shun and Yü, and you will be right." + Confucianism was dominant during the earlier centuries of the Chóu + dynasty, whose lucky star began to wane when doctrines opposed to it + got the upper hand. The philosophical schools built up on the + doctrines of Lau-tzï had in the course of generations become + antagonistic, and found favour with those who did not endorse that + loyalty to the emperor demanded by Mencius; so had other thinkers, + some of whom had preached morals which were bound to break up all + social relations, like the philosopher of egotism, Yang Chu, according + to Mencius disloyalty personified and the very reverse of his ideal, + the duke of Chóu. The egotism recommended by Yang Chu to the + individual had begun to be practised on a large scale by the + contending states, their governments and sovereigns, some of whom had + long discarded Confucian rites under the influence of Tatar + neighbours. It appears that the anti-Confucian spirit which paved the + way towards the final extinction of Wu-wang's dynasty received its + chief nourishment from the Tatar element in the population of the + northern and western boundary states. Among these Ts'in was the most + prominent. Having placed itself in the possession of the territories + of nearly all of the remaining states, Ts'in made war against the last + shadow emperor, Nan-wang who had attempted to form an alliance against + the powerful usurper, with the result that the western part of the + Chóu dominion was lost to the aggressor. + + Nan-wang died soon after (256 B.C.), and a relative whom he had + appointed regent was captured in 249 B.C., when the king of Ts'in put + an end to this last remnant of the once glorious Chóu dynasty by + annexing its territory. The king had already secured the possession of + the Nine Tripods, huge bronze vases said to have been cast by the + emperor Yü as representing the nine divisions of his empire and since + preseryed in the treasuries of all the various emperors as a symbol of + Imperial power. With the loss of these tripods Nan-wang had forfeited + the right to call himself "Son of Heaven." Another prerogative was the + offering of sacrifice to Shang-ti, the Supreme Ruler, or God, with + whom only the emperor was supposed to communicate. The king of Ts'in + had performed the ceremony as early as 253 B.C. (F. H.*) + + +(C)--_From the Ts'in Dynasty to 1875._ + + Ts'in dynasty 249-210 B.C. + + Shi Hwang-ti. + + Shi Hwang-ti. + +After the fall of the Chóu dynasty a kind of interregnum followed during +which China was practically without an emperor. This was the time when +the state of Ts'in asserted itself as the leader and finally as the +master of all the contending states. Its king, Chau-siang, who died in +251 B.C., though virtually emperor, abstained from adopting the imperial +title. He was succeeded by his son, Hiao-wên Wang, who died after a +three days' reign. Chwan-siang Wang, his son and successor, was a man of +no mark. He died in 246 B.C. giving place to Shi Hwang-ti, "the first +universal emperor." This sovereign was then only thirteen, but he +speedily made his influence felt everywhere. He chose Hien-yang, the +modern Si-gan Fu, as his capital, and built there a magnificent palace, +which was the wonder and admiration of his contemporaries. He abolished +the feudal system, and divided the country into provinces over whom he +set officers directly responsible to himself. He constructed roads +through the empire, he formed canals, and erected numerous and handsome +public buildings. + + Having settled the internal affairs of his kingdom, he turned his + attention to the enemies beyond his frontier. Chief among these were + the Hiung-nu Tatars, whose attacks had for years disquieted the + Chinese and neighbouring principalities. Against these foes he marched + with an army of 300,000 men, exterminating those in the neighbourhood + of China, and driving the rest into Mongolia. On his return from this + campaign he was called upon to face a formidable rebellion in Ho-nan, + which had been set on foot by the adherents of the feudal princes whom + he had dispossessed. Having crushed the rebellion, he marched + southwards and subdued the tribes on the south of the Nan-shan ranges, + i.e. the inhabitants of the modern provinces of Fu-kien, Kwang-tung + and Kwang-si. The limits of his empire were thus as nearly as possible + those of modern China proper. One monument remains to bear witness to + his energy. Finding that the northern states of Ts'in, Chao and Yen + were building lines of fortification along their northern frontier for + protection against the Hiung-nu, he conceived the idea of building one + gigantic wall, which was to stretch across the whole northern limit of + the huge empire from the sea to the farthest western corner of the + modern province of Kan-suh. This work was begun under his immediate + supervision in 214 B.C. His reforming zeal made him unpopular with the + upper classes. Schoolmen and pedants held up to the admiration of the + people the heroes of the feudal times and the advantages of the system + they administered. Seeing in this propaganda danger to the state Shi + Hwang-ti determined to break once and for all with the past. To this + end he ordered the destruction of all books having reference to the + past history of the empire, and many scholars were put to death for + failing in obedience to it. (See _infra § Chinese Literature, §§ + History._) The measure was unpopular and on his death (210 B.C.) + rebellion broke out. His son and successor Erh-shi, a weak and + debauched youth, was murdered after having offered a feeble resistance + to his enemies. His son Tsze-yung surrendered to Liu Pang, the prince + of Han, one of the two generals who were the leaders of the rebellion. + He afterwards fell into the hands of Hiang Yu, the other chieftain, + who put him and his family and associates to death. Hiang Yu aspiring + to imperial honours, war broke out between him and Liu Pang. After + five years' conflict Hiang Yu was killed in a decisive battle before + Wu-kiang. Liu Pang was then proclaimed emperor (206 B.C.) under the + title of Kao-ti, and the new line was styled the Han dynasty. + + + Han dynasty 206 B.C. + +Kao-ti established his capital at Lo-yang in Ho-nan, and afterwards +removed it to Chang-an in Shen-si. Having founded his right to rebel on +the oppressive nature of the laws promulgated by Shi Hwang-ti, he +abolished the ordinances of Ts'in, except that referring to the +destruction of the books--for, like his great predecessor, he dreaded +the influence exercised by the _literati_--and he exchanged the worship +of the gods of the soil of Ts'in for that of those of Han, his native +state. His successor Hwei-ti (194-179 B.C.), however, gave every +encouragement to literature, and appointed a commission to restore as +far as possible the texts which had been destroyed by Shi Hwang-ti. In +this the commission was very successful. It was discovered that in many +cases the law had been evaded, while in numerous instances scholars were +found to write down from memory the text of books of which all copies +had been destroyed, though in some cases the purity of the text is +doubtful and in other cases there were undoubted forgeries. A period of +repose was now enjoyed by the empire. There was peace within its +borders, and its frontiers remained unchallenged, except by the +Hiung-nu, who suffered many severe defeats. Thwarted in their attacks on +China, these marauders attacked the kingdom of the Yueh-chi, which had +grown up in the western extremity of Kan-suh, and after much fighting +drove their victims along the T'ien-shan-nan-lu to the territory between +Turkestan and the Caspian Sea. This position of affairs suggested to the +emperor the idea of forming an offensive and defensive alliance with the +Yueh-chi against the Hiung-nu. With this object the general Chang K'ien +was sent as an ambassador to western Tatary. After having been twice +imprisoned by the Hiung-nu he returned to China. Chang K'ien had +actually reached the court of the Yueh-chi, or Indo-Scythians as they +were called owing to their having become masters of India later on, and +paid a visit to the kingdom of Bactria, recently conquered by the +Yueh-chi. His report on the several kingdoms of western Asia opened up a +new world to the Chinese, and numerous elements of culture, plants and +animals were then imported for the first time from the west into China. +While in Bactria Chan K'ien's attention was first drawn to the existence +of India, and attempts to send expeditions, though at first fruitless, +finally led to its discovery. Under Wu-ti (140-86 B.C.) the power of the +Hiung-nu was broken and eastern Turkestan changed into a Chinese colony, +through which caravans could safely pass to bring back merchandise and +art treasures from Persia and the Roman market. By the Hans the feudal +system was restored in a modified form; 103 feudal principalities were +created, but they were more or less under the jurisdiction of civil +governors appointed to administer the thirteen _chows_ (provinces) into +which the country was divided. About the beginning of the Christian era +Wang Mang rose in revolt against the infant successor of P'ing-ti (A.D. +1), and in A.D. 9 proclaimed himself emperor. He, however, only gained +the suffrages of a portion of the nation, and before long his oppressive +acts estranged his supporters. In A.D. 23 Liu Siu, one of the princes of +Han, completely defeated him. His head was cut off, and his body was +torn in pieces by his own soldiery. + + + Eastern Han dynasty, A.D. 23. + +Liu Siu, was proclaimed emperor under the title of Kwang-wu-ti, reigned +from A.D. 58 to 76. Having fixed on Lo-yang in Ho-nan as his capital, +the line of which he was the first emperor became known as the Eastern +Han dynasty. It is also known as the Later Han dynasty. During the reign +of his successor Ming-ti, A.D. 65, Buddhism was introduced from India +into China (see ante § _Religion_). About the same time the celebrated +general Pan Ch'ao was sent on an embassy to the king of Shen-shen, a +small state of Turkestan, near the modern Pidjan. Before long he added +the states of Shen-shen, Khotan, Kucha and Kashgar as apanages to the +Chinese crown, and for a considerable period the country enjoyed +prosperity. The Han dynasty (including in the term the Eastern Han +dynasty) has been considered the first national dynasty and is one of +the most famous in China; nor has any ruling family been more popular. +The Chinese, especially the northern Chinese, still call themselves "the +sons of Han." The wealth and trade as well as the culture of the country +was greatly developed, and the competitive examinations for literary +degrees instituted. The homogeneity of the nation was so firmly +established that subsequent dissensions and conquests could not alter +fundamentally the character of the nation. + + + Wei dynasty + + Towards the end of the 2nd century the power of the Eastern Hans + declined. In 173 a virulent pestilence, which continued for eleven + years, broke out. A magical cure for this plague was said to have been + discovered by a Taoist priest named Chang Chio, who in a single month + won a sufficiently large following to enable him to gain possession of + the northern provinces of the empire. He was, however, defeated by + Ts'aou Ts'aou, another aspirant to imperial honours, whose son, Ts'aou + P'ei, on the death of Hien-ti (A.D. 220), proclaimed himself emperor, + adopting the title of Wei as the appellation of his dynasty. There + were then, however, two other claimants to the throne, Liu Pei and Sun + Ch'üan, and the three adventurers agreed to divide the empire between + them. Ts'aou P'ei, under the title of Wên-ti, ruled over the kingdom + of Wei (220), which occupied the whole of the central and northern + portion of China. Liu Pei established the Shuh Han dynasty in the + modern province of Sze-ch'uen (221), and called himself Chao-lieh-ti; + and to Sun Ch'üan fell the southern provinces of the empire, from the + Yangtsze-kiang southwards, including the modern Tongking, which he + formed into the kingdom of Wu with Nan-king for his capital, adopting + for himself the imperial style of Ta-tê (A.D. 222). + + + "Three kingdom" period. + + Western Tsin dynasty. + + China during the period of the "Three Kingdoms" was a house divided + against itself. Liu Pei, as a descendant of the house of Han, looked + upon himself as the rightful sovereign of the whole empire, and he + despatched an army under Chu-ko Liang to support his claims. This army + was met by an Oppossing force under the Wei commander Sze-ma I, of + whom Chinese historians say that "he led armies like a god," and who, + by adopting a Fabian policy, completely discomfited his adversary. But + the close of this campaign brought no peace to the country. Wars + became chronic, and the reins of power slipped out of the hands of + emperors into those of their generals. Foremost among these were the + members of the Sze-ma family of Wei. Sze-ma I left a son, Sze-ma Chao, + scarcely less distinguished than himself, and when Sze-ma Chao died + his honours descended to Sze-ma Yen, who deposed the ruling sovereign + of Wei, and proclaimed himself emperor of China (A.D. 265). His + dynasty he styled the Western Tsin dynasty, and he adopted for himself + the title of Wu-ti. The most noticeable event in this reign was the + advent of the ambassadors of the emperor Diocletian in 284. For some + years the neighbouring states appear to have transferred their + allegiance from the house of Wei to that of Tsin. Wu-ti's successors + proving, however, weak and incapable, the country soon fell again into + disorder. The Hiung-nu renewed incursions into the empire at the + beginning of the 4th century, and in the confusion which followed, an + adventurer named Liu Yuen established himself (in 311) as emperor, + first at P'ing-yang in Shan-si and afterwards in Lo-yang and Chang-an. + The history of this period is very chaotic. Numerous states sprang + into existence, some founded by the Hiung-nu and others by the Sien-pi + tribe, a Tungusic clan, inhabiting a territory to the north of China, + which afterwards established the Liao dynasty in China. In 419 the + Eastern Tsin dynasty came to an end, and with it disappeared for + nearly two hundred years all semblance of united authority. The + country became divided into two parts, the north and the south. In the + north four families reigned successively, two of which were of Sien-pi + origin, viz. the Wei and the How Chow, the other two, the Pih Ts'i and + the How Liang, being Chinese. In the south five different houses + supplied rulers, who were all of Chinese descent. + + + Suy dynasty. + + This period of disorder was brought to a close by the establishment of + the Suy dynasty (590). Among the officials of the ephemeral dynasty of + Chow was one Yang Kien, who on his daughter becoming empress (578) was + created duke of Suy. Two years later Yang Kien proclaimed himself + emperor. The country, weary of contention, was glad to acknowledge his + undivided authority; and during the sixteen years of his reign the + internal affairs of China were comparatively peaceably administered. + The emperor instituted an improved code of laws, and added 5000 + volumes to the 10,000 which composed the imperial library. Abroad, his + policy was equally successful. He defeated the Tatars and chastised + the Koreans, who had for a long period recognized Chinese suzerainty, + but were torn by civil wars and were disposed to reject her authority. + After his death in 604 his second son forced the heir to the throne to + strangle himself, and then seized the throne. This usurper, Yang-ti, + sent expeditions against the Tatars, and himself headed an expedition + against the Uighurs, while one of his generals annexed the Lu-chu + Islands to the imperial crown. During his reign the volumes in the + imperial library were increased to 54,000, and he spent vast sums in + erecting a magnificent palace at Lo-yang, and in constructing + unprofitable canals. These and other extravagances laid so heavy a + burden on the country that discontent began again to prevail, and on + the emperor's return from a successful expedition against the Koreans, + he found the empire divided into rebellious factions. In the troubles + which followed General Li Yuen became prominent. On the death of the + emperor by assassination this man set Kung-ti, the rightful heir, on + the throne (617) until such time as he should have matured his + schemes. + + + Tang dynasty. + +Kung-ti was poisoned in the following year and Li Yuen proclaimed +himself as Kao-tsu, the first emperor of the T'ang dynasty. At this time +the Turks were at the height of their power in Asia (see TURKS: +_History_), and Kao-tsu was glad to purchase their alliance with money. +But divisions weakened the power of the Turks, and T'ai-tsung (reigned +627-650), Kao-tsu's son and successor, regained much of the position in +Central Asia which had formerly been held by China. In 640 Hami, Turfan +and the rest of the Turkish territory were again included within the +Chinese empire, and four military governorships were appointed in +Central Asia, viz. at Kucha, Khotan, Kharastan and Kashgar. At the same +time the frontier was extended as far as eastern Persia and the Caspian +Sea. So great was now the fame of China, that ambassadors from Nepal, +Magadha, Persia and Constantinople (643) came to pay their court to the +emperor. Under T'ai-tsung there was national unity and peace, and in +consequence agriculture and commerce as well as literature flourished. +The emperor gave direct encouragements to the Nestorians, and gave a +favourable reception to an embassy from Mahommed (see ante § +_Religion_). On the accession of Kao-tsung (650) his wife, Wu How, +gained supreme influence, and on the death of her husband in 683 she set +aside his lawful successor, Chung-tsung, and took possession of the +throne. This was the first occasion the country was ruled by a dowager +empress. She governed with discretion, and her armies defeated the +Khitán in the north-east and also the Tibetans, who had latterly gained +possession of Kucha, Khotan and Kashgar. On her death, in 705, +Chung-tsung partially left the obscurity in which he had lived during +his mother's reign. But his wife, desiring to play a similar rôle to +that enjoyed by her mother-in-law, poisoned him and set his son, +Jui-tsung (710), on the throne. This monarch, who was weak and vicious, +was succeeded by Yuen-tsung (713), who introduced reform into the +administration and encouraged literature and learning. The king of +Khokand applied for aid against the Tibetans and Arabs, and Yuen-tsung +sent an army to his succour, but his general was completely defeated. +During the disorder which arose in consequence of the invasion of the +northern provinces by the Khitán, General An Lu-shan, an officer of +Turkish descent, placed himself at the head of a revolt, and having +secured Tung-kwan on the Yellow river, advanced on Chang-an. Thereupon +the emperor fled, and placed his son, Su-tsung (756-762), on the throne. +This sovereign, with the help of the forces of Khotan, Khokand and +Bokhara, of the Uighurs and of some 4000 Arabs sent by the caliph +Mansur, completely defeated An Lu-shan. During the following reigns the +Tibetans made constant incursions into the western provinces of the +empire, and T'ai-tsung (763-780) purchased the assistance of the Turks +against those intruders by giving a Chinese princess as wife to the +khan. + + At this epoch the eunuchs of the palace gained an unwonted degree of + power, and several of the subsequent emperors fell victims to their + plots. The T'ang dynasty, which for over a hundred years had governed + firmly and for the good of the nation, began to decline. The history + of the 8th and 9th centuries is for the most part a monotonous record + of feeble governments, oppressions and rebellions. Almost the only + event worth chronicling is the iconoclastic policy of the emperor + Wu-tsung (841-847). Viewing the increase of monasteries and + ecclesiastical establishments as an evil, he abolished all temples, + closed the monasteries and nunneries, and sent the inmates back to + their families. Foreign priests were subjected to the same repressive + legislation, and Christians, Buddhists and Magi were bidden to return + whence they came. Buddhism again revived during the reign of the + emperor I-tsung (860-874), who, having discovered a bone of Buddha, + brought it to the capital in great state. By internal dissensions the + empire became so weakened that the prince of Liang found no difficulty + in gaining possession of the throne (907). He took the title of + T'ai-tsu, being the first emperor of the Later Liang dynasty. Thus + ended the T'ang dynasty, which is regarded as being the golden age of + Chinese literature. + + Five dynasties, viz. the Later Liang, the Later T'ang, the Later Tsin, + the Later Han and the Later Chow, followed each other between the + years 907 and 960. Though the monarchs of these lines nominally held + sway over the empire, their real power was confined to very narrow + limits. The disorders which were rife during the time when the T'ang + dynasty was tottering to its fall fostered the development of + independent states, and so arose Liang in Ho-nan and Shan-tung, Ki in + Shen-si, Hwai-nan in Kiang-nan, Chow in Sze-ch'uen and parts of + Shen-si and Hu-kwang, Wu-yu[)e] in Cheh-kiang, Tsu and King-nan in + Hu-kwang, Ling-nan in Kwang-tung and the Uighurs in Tangut. + + + Sung dynasty. + +A partial end was made to this recognized disorganization when, in 960, +General Chao Kw'ang-yin was proclaimed by the army emperor in succession +to the youthful Kung-ti, who was compelled to abdicate. The +circumstances of the time justified the change. It required a strong +hand to weld the empire together again, and to resist the attacks of the +Khitán Tatars, whose rule at this period extended over the whole of +Manchuria and Liao-tung. Against these aggressive neighbours T'ai-tsu +(_né_ Chao Kw'ang-yin) directed his efforts with varying success, and he +died in 976, while the war was still being waged. His son T'ai-tsung +(976-997) entered on the campaign with energy, but in the end was +compelled to conclude a peace with the Khitán. His successor, Chên-tsung +(997-1022), paid them tribute to abstain from further incursions. +Probably this tribute was not sent regularly; at all events, under +Jên-tsung (1023-1064), the Khitán again threatened to invade the empire, +and were only bought off by the promise of an annual tribute of taels +200,000 of silver, besides a great quantity of silken piece goods. +Neither was this arrangement long binding, and so formidable were the +advances made by the Tatars in the foilowing reigns, that Hwei-tsung +(1101-1126) invited the Nüchih Tatars to expel the Khitán from +Liao-tung. This they did, but having once possessed themselves of the +country they declined to yield it to the Chinese, and the result was +that a still more aggressive neighbour was established on the +north-eastern frontier of China. The Nüchih or Kin, as they now styled +themselves, overran the provinces of Chih-li, Shen-si, Shan-si and +Ho-nan, and during the reign of Kao-tsung (1127-1163) they advanced +their conquests to the line of the Yangtsze-kiang. From this time the +Sung ruled only over southern China; while the Kin or "Golden" dynasty +reign«d in the north. The Kin made Chung-tu, which occupied in part the +site of the modern Peking, their usual residence. The Sung fixed their +capital at Nanking and afterwards at Hangchow. Between them and the Kin +there was almost constant war. + + + Mongol invasion: 12th century. + +During this period the Mongols began to acquire power in eastern Asia, +and about the beginning of the 12th century the forces of Jenghiz Khan +(q.v.) invaded the north-western frontier of China and the principality +of Hia, which at that time consisted of the modern provinces of Shen-si +and Kan-suh. To purchase the good-will of the Mongols the king of Hia +agreed to pay them a tribute, and gave a princess in marriage to their +ruler. In consequence of a dispute with the Kin emperor Wei-shao Wang, +Jenghiz Khan determined to invade Liao-tung. He was aided by the +followers of the Khitán leader Yeh-lü Ts'u-ts'ai, and in alliance with +this general he captured Liao-yang, the capital city. + + After an unsuccessful invasion of China in 1212, Jenghiz Khan renewed + the attack in 1213. He divided his armies into four divisions, and + made a general advance southwards. His soldiers swept over Ho-nan, + Chih-li and Shan-tung, destroying upwards of ninety cities. It was + their boast that a horseman might ride without stumbling over the + sites where those cities had stood. Panic-stricken, the emperor moved + his court from Chung-tu to K'ai-fêng Fu, much against the advice of + his ministers, who foresaw the disastrous effect this retreat would + have on the fortunes of Kin. The state of Sung, which up to this time + had paid tribute, now declined to recognize Kin as its feudal chief, + and a short time afterwards declared war against its quondam ally. + Meanwhile, in 1215, Yeh-lü Ts'u-ts'ai advanced into China by the + Shan-hai Kwan, and made himself master of Peking, one of the few + cities in Chih-li which remained to Kin. After this victory his nobles + wished him to proclaim himself emperor, but he refused, being mindful + of an oath which he had sworn to Jenghiz Khan. In 1216 Tung-kwan, a + mountain pass on the frontiers of Ho-nan and Shen-si, and the scene of + numerous dynastic battles (as it is the only gateway between + north-eastern and north-western China), was taken by the invaders. As + the war dragged on the resistance offered by the Kin grew weaker and + weaker. In 1220 Chi-nan Fu, the capital of Shan-tung, was taken, and + five years later Jenghiz Khan marched an army westward into Hia and + conquered the forces of the king. Two years later (1227) Jenghiz Khan + died. + + With the view to the complete conquest of China by the Mongols, + Jenghiz declined to nominate either of the eldest two sons who had + been born to his Chinese wives as his heir, but chose his third son + Ogdai, whose mother was a Tatar. On hearing of the death of Jenghiz + Khan the Kin sent an embassy to his successor desiring peace, but + Ogdai told them there would be no peace for them until their dynasty + should be overthrown. Hitherto the Mongols had been without any code + of laws. But the consolidation of the nation by the conquests of + Jenghiz Khan made it necessary to establish a recognized code of laws, + and one of the first acts of Ogdai was to form such a code. With the + help also of Yeh-lü Ts'u-ts'ai, he established custom-houses in + Chih-li, Shan-tung, Shan-si and Liao-tung; and for this purpose + divided these provinces into ten departments. Meanwhile the war with + the Kin was carried on with energy. In 1230 Si-gan Fu was taken, and + sixty important posts were captured. Two years later, Tu-lé, brother + of Ogdai, took Fêng-siang Fu and Han-chung Fu, in the flight from + which last-named place 100,000 persons are said to have perished. + Following the course of the river Han in his victorious career, this + general destroyed 140 towns and fortresses, and defeated the army of + Kin at Mount San-fêng. + + + The Kin dynasty overthrown. + + In 1232 the Mongols made an alliance with the state of Sung, by which, + on condition of Sung helping to destroy Kin, Ho-nan was to be the + property of Sung for ever. The effect of this coalition soon became + apparent. Barely had the Kin emperor retreated from K'ai-fêng Fu to + Ju-ning Fu in Ho-nan when the former place fell into the hands of the + allies. Next fell Loyang, and the victorious generals then marched on + to besiege Ju-ning Fu. The presence of the emperor gave energy to the + defenders, and they held out until every animal in the city had been + killed for food, until every old and useless person had suffered death + to lessen the number of hungry mouths, until so many able-bodied men + had fallen that the women manned the ramparts, and then the allies + stormed the walls. The emperor burned himself to death in his palace, + that his body might not fall into the hands of his enemies. For a few + days the shadow of the imperial crown rested on the head of his heir + Chang-lin, but in a tumult which broke out amongst his followers he + lost his life, and with him ended the "Golden" dynasty. + + Notwithstanding the treaty between Ogdai and Sung, no sooner were the + spoils of Kin to be divided than war broke out again between them, in + prosecuting which the Mongol armies swept over the provinces of + Sze-ch'uen, Hu-kwang, Kiang-nan and Ho-nan, and were checked only when + they reached the walls of Lu-chow Fu in Ngan-hui. Ogdai died in 1241, + and was nominally succeeded by his grandson Cheliemên. But one of his + widows, Tolickona, took possession of the throne, and after exercising + rule for four years, established her son Kwei-yew as great khan. In + 1248 his life was cut short, and the nobles, disregarding the claims + of Cheliemên, proclaimed as emperor Mangu, the eldest son of Tu-lé. + Under this monarch the war against Sung was carried on with energy, + and Kublai, outstripping the bounds of Sung territory, made his way + into the province of Yun-nan, at that time divided into a number of + independent states, and having attached them to his brother's crown he + passed on into Tibet, Tongking and Cochin-China, and thence striking + northwards entered the province of Kwang-si. + + + Kublai Khan emperior. + +On the death of Mangu in 1259 Kublai (q.v.) ascended the throne. Never +in the history of China was the nation more illustrious, nor its power +more widely felt, than under his sovereignty. During the first twenty +years of his reign Sung kept up a resistance against his authority. +Their last emperor Ping-ti, seeing his cause lost, drowned himself in +the sea. The Sung dynasty, which had ruled southern China 320 years, +despite its misfortunes is accounted one of the great dynasties of +China. During its sway arts and literature were cultivated and many +eminent writers flourished. His enemies subdued, Kublai Khan in 1280 +assumed complete jurisdiction as emperor of China. He took the title of +Shit-su and founded what is known as the Yuen dynasty. He built a new +capital close to Chung-tu, which became known as Kaanbaligh (city of the +khan), in medieval European chronicles, Cambaluc, and later as Peking. +At this time his authority was acknowledged "from the Frozen Sea, almost +to the Straits of Malacca. With the exception of Hindustan, Arabia and +the westernmost parts of Asia, all the Mongol princes as far as the +Dnieper declared themselves his vassals, and brought regularly their +tribute." It was during this reign that Marco Polo visited China, and he +describes in glowing colours the virtues and glories of the "great +khan." His rule was characterized by discretion and munificence. He +undertook public works, he patronized literature, and relieved the +distress of the poor, but the Chinese never forgot that he was an alien +and regarded him as a barbarian. He died unregretted in 1294. His son +had died during his lifetime, and after some contention his grandson +Timur ascended the throne under the title of Yuen-chêng. This monarch +died in 1307 after an uneventful reign, and, as he left no son, +Wu-tsung, a Mongol prince, became emperor. To him succeeded Jên-tsung in +1312, who made himself conspicuous by the honour he showed to the memory +of Confucius, and by distributing offices more equally between Mongols +and Chinese than had hitherto been done. This act of justice gave great +satisfaction to the Chinese, and his death ended a peaceful and +prosperous reign in 1320. At this time there appears to have been a +considerable commercial intercourse between Europe and China. But after +Jên-tsung's death the dynasty fell on evil days. The Mongols in adopting +Chinese civilization had lost much of their martial spirit. They were +still regarded as alien by the Chinese and numerous secret societies +were formed to achieve their overthrow. Jên-tsung's successors were weak +and incapable rulers, and in the person of Shun-ti (1333-1368) were +summed up the vices and faults of his predecessors. Revolts broke out, +and finally this descendant of Jenghiz Khan was compelled to fly before +Chu Yüen-chang, the son of a Chinese labouring man. Deserted by his +followers, he sought refuge in Ying-chang Fu, and there the last of the +Yüen dynasty died. These Mongol emperors, whatever their faults, had +shown tolerance to Christian missionaries and Papal legates (see _ante_ +§ _The Medieval Cathay_). + + + Ming dynasty. + +Chu Yüen-chang met with little opposition, more especially as his first +care on becoming possessed of a district was to suppress lawlessness and +to establish a settled government. In 1355 he captured Nanking, and +proclaimed himself duke of Wu, but carefully avoided adopting any of the +insignia of royalty. Even when master of the empire, thirteen years +later, he still professed to dislike the idea of assuming the imperial +title. His scruples were overcome, and he declared himself emperor in +1368. He carried his arms into Tatary, where he subdued the last +semblance of Mongol power in that direction, and then bent his steps +towards Liao-tung. Here the Mongols defended themselves with the bravery +of despair, but unavailingly, and the conquest of this province left +Hung-wu, as the founder of the new or Ming ("Bright") dynasty styled +himself, without a foe in the empire. + + All intercourse with Europe seems now to have ceased until the + Portuguese arrived in the 16th century, but Hung-wu cultivated + friendly relations with the neighbouring states. As a quondam Buddhist + priest he lent his countenance to that religion to the exclusion of + Taoism, whose priests had for centuries earned the contempt of all but + the most ignorant by their pretended magical arts and their search + after the philosopher's stone. Hung-wu died in 1398 and was succeeded + by his grandson Kien-Wên. Aware that the appointment of this + youth--his father was dead--would give offence to the young emperor's + uncles, Hung-wu had dismissed them to their respective governments. + However, the prince of Yen, his eldest surviving son, rose in revolt + as soon as the news reached him of his nephew's accession, and after + gaining several victories over the armies of Kien-wên he presented + himself before the gates of Nanking, the capital. Treachery opened the + gates to him, and the emperor having fled in the disguise of a monk, + the victorious prince became emperor and took the title of Yung-lo + (1403). At home Yung-lo devoted himself to the encouragement of + literature and the fine arts, and, possibly from a knowledge that + Kien-wên was among the Buddhist priests, he renewed the law + prohibiting Buddhism. Abroad he swept Cochin-China and Tongking within + the folds of his empire and carried his arms into Tatary, where he + made new conquests of waste regions, and erected a monument of his + victories. He died in 1425, and was succeeded by his son Hung-hi. + + Hung-hi's reign was short and uneventful. He strove to promote only + such mandarins as had proved themselves to be able and honest, and to + further the welfare of the people. During the reign of his successor, + Süen-tê (1426-1436), the empire suffered the first loss of territory + since the commencement of the dynasty. Cochin-China rebelled and + gained her independence. The next emperor, Chêng-t'ung (1436), was + taken prisoner by a Tatar chieftain, a descendant of the Yüen family + named Yi-sien, who had invaded the northern Erovinces. Having been + completely defeated by a Chinese force from Liao-tung, Yi-sien + liberated his captive, who reoccupied the throne, which during his + imprisonment (1450-1457) had been held by his brother King-ti. The two + following reigns, those of Chêng-hwa (1465-1488) and of Hung-chi + (1488-1506), were quiet and peaceful. + + + Struggle with Japan for Korea. + + The most notable event in the reign of the next monarch, Chêng-te + (1506-1522), was the arrival of the Portuguese at Canton (1517). From + this time dates modern European intercourse with China. Chêng-te + suppressed a formidable insurrection headed by the prince of Ning, but + disorder caused by this civil war encouraged the foreign enemies of + China. From the north came a Tatar army under Yen-ta in 1542, during + the reign of Kia-tsing, which laid waste the province of Shen-si, and + even threatened the capital, and a little later a Japanese fleet + ravaged the littoral provinces. Ill-blood had arisen between the two + peoples before this, and a Japanese colony had been driven out of + Ningpo by force and not without bloodshed a few years previously. + Kia-tsing (d. 1567) was not equal to such emergencies, and his son + Lung-king (1567-1573)sought to placate the Tatar Yen-ta by making him + a prince of the empire and giving him commercial privileges, which + were supplemented by the succeeding emperor Wan-li (1573-1620) by the + grant of land in Shen-si. During the reign of this sovereign, in the + year 1592, the Japanese successfully invaded Korea, and Taikosarna, + the regent of Japan, was on the point of proclaiming himself king of + the peninsula, when a large Chinese force, answering to the invitation + of the king, appeared and completely routed the Japanese army, at the + same time that the Chinese fleet cut off their retreat by sea. In this + extremity the Japanese sued for peace, and sent an embassy to Peking + to arrange terms. But the peace was of short duration. In 1597 the + Japanese again invaded Korea, defeated the Chinese army, destroyed the + Chinese fleet and ravaged the coast. Suddenly, however, when in the + full tide of conquest, they evacuated Korea, which again fell under + the direction of China. Four years later the missionary Matteo Ricci + (q.v.) arrived at the Chinese court; and though at first the emperor + was inclined to send him out of the country, his abilities gradually + won for him the esteem of the sovereign and his ministers, and he + remained the scientific adviser of the court until his death in 1610. + + + Manchu invasion: 17th century. + +About this time the Manchu Tatars, goaded into war by the injustice they +were constantly receiving at the hands of the Chinese, led an army into +China (in 1616) and completely defeated the force which was sent against +them. Three years later they gained possession of the province of +Liao-tung. These disasters overwhelmed the emperor, and he died of a +broken heart in 1620. + +In the same year T'ien-ming, the Manchu sovereign, having declared +himself independent, moved the court to San-ku, to the east of Mukden, +which, five years later, he made his capital. In 1627 Ts'ung-chêng, the +last emperor of the Ming dynasty, ascended the Chinese throne. In his +reign English merchants first made their appearance at Canton. The +empire was now torn by internal dissensions. Rebel bands, enriched by +plunder, and grown bold by success, began to assume the proportion of +armies. Two rebels, Li Tsze-ch'êng and Shang K'o-hi, decided to divide +the empire between them. Li besieged K'ai-fêng Fu, the capital of +Ho-nan, and so long and closely did he beleaguer it that in the +consequent famine human flesh was regularly sold in the markets. At +length an imperial force came to raise the siege, but fearful of meeting +Li's army, they cut through the dykes of the Yellow River, "China's +Sorrow," and flooded the whole country, including the city. The rebels +escaped to the mountains, but upwards of 200,000 inhabitants perished in +the flood, and the city became a heap of ruins (1642). From K'ai-fêng Fu +Li marched against the other strongholds of Ho-nan and Shen-si, and was +so completely successful that he determined to attack Peking. A +treacherous eunuch opened the gates to him, on being informed of which +the emperor committed suicide. When the news of this disaster reached +the general-commanding on the frontier of Manchu Tatary, he, in an +unguarded moment, concluded a peace with the Manchus, and invited them +to dispossess Li Tsze-ch'êng. The Manchus entered China, and after +defeating a rebel army sent against them, they marched towards Peking. +On hearing of the approach of the invaders, Li Tsze-ch'êng, after having +set fire to the imperial palace, evacuated the city, but was overtaken, +and his force was completely routed. + + + Ta-ts'ing dynasty. + +The Chinese now wished the Manchus to retire, but, having taken +possession of Peking, they proclaimed the ninth son of T'ien-ming +emperor of China under the title of Shun-chi, and adopted the name of +Ta-ts'ing, or "Great Pure," for the dynasty (1644). Meanwhile the +mandarins at Nanking had chosen an imperial prince to ascend the throne. +At this most inopportune moment "a claimant" to the throne, in the +person of a pretended son of the last emperor, appeared at court. While +this contention prevailed inside Nanking the Tatar army appeared at the +walls. There was no need for them to use force. The gates were thrown +open, and they took possession of the city without bloodshed. Following +the conciliatory policy they had everywhere pursued, they confirmed the +mandarins in their offices and granted a general amnesty to all who +would lay down their arms. As the Tatars entered the city the emperor +left it, and after wandering about for some days in great misery, he +drowned himself in the Yangtsze-kiang. Thus ended the Ming dynasty, and +the empire passed again under a foreign yoke. By the Mings, who partly +revived the feudal system by making large territorial grants to members +of the reigning house, China was divided into fifteen provinces; the +existing division into eighteen provinces was made by the Manchus. + + All accounts agree in stating that the Manchu conquerors are + descendants of a branch of the family which gave the Kin dynasty to + the north of China; and in lieu of any authentic account of their + early history, native writers have thrown a cloud of fable over their + origin (see MANCHURIA). In the 16th century they were strong enough to + cope with their Chinese neighbours. Doubtless the Mings tried to check + their ambition by cruel reprisals, but against this must be put + numerous Manchu raids into Liao-tung. + + The accession to the throne of the emperor Shun-chi did not restore + peace to the country. In Kiang-si, Fu-kien, Kwang-tung and Kwang-si + the adherents of the Ming dynasty defended themselves vigorously but + unsuccessfully against the invaders, while the pirate Chêng Chi-lung, + the father of the celebrated Coxinga, kept up a predatory warfare + against them on the coast. Eventually he was induced to visit Peking, + where he was thrown into prison and died. Coxinga, warned by his + father's example, determined to leave the mainland and to seek an + empire elsewhere. His choice fell on Formosa, and having driven out + the Dutch, who had established themselves in the island in 1624, he + held possession until the reign of K'ang-hi, when (1682) he resigned + in favour of the imperial government. Meanwhile a prince of the house + of Ming was proclaimed emperor in Kwang-si, under the title of + Yung-li. The Tatars having reduced Fu-kien and Kiang-si, and having + taken Canton after a siege of eight months, completely routed his + followers, and Yung-li was compelled to fly to Pegu. Some years later, + with the help of adherents in Yun-nan and Kwei-chow, he tried to + regain the throne, but his army was scattered, and he was taken + prisoner and strangled. Gradually opposition to the new régime became + weaker and weaker, and the shaved head with the pig-tail--the symbol + of Tatar sovereignty--became more and more adopted. In 1651 died Ama + Wang, the uncle of Shun-chi, who had acted as regent during his + nephew's minority, and the emperor then assumed the government of the + state. He appears to have taken a great interest in science, and to + have patronized Adam Schaal, a German Jesuit, who was at that time + resident at Peking. It was during his reign (1656) that the first + Russian embassy arrived at the capital, but as the envoy declined to + _kowtow_ before the emperor he was sent back without having been + admitted to an audience. + + After an unquiet reign of seventeen years Shun-chi died (1661). and + was succeeded by his son K'ang-hi. He came into collision with the + Russians, who had reached the Amur regions about 1640 and had built a + fort on the upper Amur; but by the Treaty of Nerchinsk, concluded in + 1689 (the first treaty made between China and a European power), the + dispute was settled, the Amur being taken as the frontier. K'ang-hi + was indefatigable in administering the affairs of the empire, and he + devoted much of his time to literary and scientific studies under the + guidance of the Jesuits. The dictionary of the Chinese language, + published under his superintendence, proves him to have been as great + a scholar as his conquests over the Eleuths show him to have been + famous as a general. During one of his hunting expeditions to Mongolia + he caught a fatal cold, and he died in 1721. Under his rule Tibet was + added to the empire, which extended from the Siberian frontier to + Cochin-China, and from the China Sea to Turkestan. During his reign + there was a great earthquake at Peking, in which 400,000 people are + said to have perished. + + K'ien-lung, who began to reign in 1735, was ambitious and warlike. He + marched an army into Hi, which he converted into a Chinese province, + and he afterwards added eastern Turkestan to the empire. Twice he + invaded Burma, and once he penetrated into Cochin-China, but in + neither country were his arms successful. He is accused of great + cruelty towards his subjects, which they repaid by rebelling against + him. During his reign the Mahommedan standard was first raised in + Kan-suh. (Since the Mongol conquest in the 13th century there had been + a considerable immigration of Moslems into western China; and numbers + of Chinese had become converts). But the Mussulmans were unable to + stand against the imperial troops; their armies were dispersed; ten + thousand of them were exiled; and an order was issued that every + Mahommedan in Kan-suh above the age of fifteen should be put to death + (1784). + + K'ien-lung wrote incessantly, both poetry and prose, collected + libraries and republished works of value. His campaigns furnished him + with themes for his verses, and in the Summer Palace was found a + handsome manuscript copy of a laudatory poem he composed on the + occasion of his war against the Gurkhas. This was one of the most + successful of his military undertakings. His generals marched 70,000 + men into Nepal to within 60 miles of the British frontiers, and having + subjugated the Gurkhas they received the submission of the Nepalese, + and acquired an additional hold over Tibet (1792). In other directions + his arms were not so successful. There is no poem commemorating the + campaign against the rebellious Formosans, nor lament over the loss of + 100,000 men in that island, and the last few years of his reign were + disturbed by outbreaks among the Miao-tsze, hill tribes living in the + mountains in the provinces of Kwei-chow and Kwang-si. In 1795, after a + reign of sixty years, K'ien-lung abdicated in favour of his fifteenth + son, who adopted the title of Kia-k'ing as the style of his reign. + K'ien-lung died at the age of eighty-eight in 1798. + + + Trade with Europe. + +During the reign of K'ien-lung commerce between Europe and Canton--the +only Chinese port then open to foreign trade--had attained important +dimensions. It was mainly in the hands of the Portuguese, the British +and the Dutch. The British trade was then a monopoly of the East India +Company. The trade, largely in opium, tea and silk, was subject to many +exactions and restrictions,[49] and many acts of gross injustice were +committed on the persons of Englishmen. To obtain some redress the +British government at length sent an embassy to Peking (1793) and Lord +Macartney was chosen to represent George III. on the occasion. The +mission was treated as showing that Great Britain was a state tributary +to China, and Lord Macartney was received with every courtesy. But the +concessions he sought were not accorded, and in this sense his mission +was a failure. + +Kia-k'ing's reign was disturbed and disastrous. In the northern and +western provinces, rebellion after rebellion broke out, due in a great +measure to the carelessness, incompetency and obstinacy of the emperor, +and the coasts were infested with pirates, whose number and organization +enabled them for a long time to hold the imperial fleet in check. +Meanwhile the condition of the foreign merchants at Canton had not +improved, and to set matters on a better footing the British government +despatched a second ambassador in the person of Lord Amherst to Peking +in 1816. As he declined to _kowtow_ before the emperor, he was not +admitted to the imperial presence and the mission proved abortive. +Destitute of all royal qualities, a slave to his passions, and the +servant of caprice, Kia-k'ing died in 1820. The event fraught with the +greatest consequences to China which occurred in his reign (though at +the time it attracted little attention) was the arrival of the first +Protestant missionary, Dr R. Morrison (q.v.), who reached Canton in +1807. + +Tao-kwang (1820-1850), the new emperor, though possessed in his early +years of considerable energy, had no sooner ascended the throne than he +gave himself up to the pursuit of pleasure. The reforms which his first +manifestoes foreshadowed never seriously occupied his attention. +Insurrection occurred in Formosa, Kwang-si, Ho-nan and other parts of +the empire, and the Triad Society, which had originated during the reign +of K'ang-hi, again became formidable. + + + War with Great Britain, 1840. + +More important to the future of the country than the internal +disturbances was the new attitude taken at this time towards China by +the nations of Europe. Hitherto the European missionaries and traders in +China had been dependent upon the goodwill of the Chinese. The +Portuguese had been allowed to settle at Macao (q.v.) for some +centuries; Roman Catholic missionaries since the time of Ricci had been +alternately patronized and persecuted; Protestant missionaries had +scarcely gained a foothold; the Europeans allowed to trade at Canton +continued to suffer under vexatious regulations--the Chinese in general +regarded Europeans as barbarians, "foreign devils." Of the armed +strength of Europe they were ignorant. They were now to be undeceived, +Great Britain being the first power to take action. The hardships +inflicted on the British merchants at Canton became so unbearable that +when, in 1834, the monopoly of the East India Company ceased, the +British government sent Lord Napier as minister to superintend the +foreign trade at that port. Lord Napier was inadequately supported, and +the anxieties of his position brought on an attack of fever, from which +he died at Macao after a few months' residence in China. The chief cause +of complaint adduced by the mandarins was the introduction of opium by +the merchants, and for years they attempted by every means in their +power to put a stop to its importation. At length Captain (afterwards +Admiral Sir Charles) Elliot, the superintendent of trade, in 1839 agreed +that all the opium in the hands of Englishmen should be given up to the +native authorities, and he exacted a pledge from the merchants that they +would no longer deal in the drug. On the 3rd of April 20,283 chests of +opium were handed over to the mandarins and were by them destroyed. The +surrender of the opium led to further demands by Lin Tze-su, the Chinese +imperial commissioner, demands which were considered by the British +government to amount to a _casus belli_, and in 1840 war was declared. +In the same year the fleet captured Chusan, and in the following year +the Bogue Forts fell, in consequence of which operations the Chinese +agreed to cede Hong-Kong to the victors and to pay them an indemnity of +6,000,000 dollars. As soon as this news reached Peking, Ki Shen, who had +succeeded Commissioner Lin, was dismissed from his post and degraded, +and Yi Shen, another Tatar, was appointed in his room. Before the new +commissioner reached his post Canton had fallen into the hands of Sir +Hugh Gough, and shortly afterwards Amoy, Ning-po, Tinghai in Chusan, +Chapu, Shanghai and Chin-kiang Fu shared the same fate. Nanking would +also have been captured had not the imperial government, dreading the +loss of the "Southern Capital," proposed terms of peace. Sir Henry +Pottinger, who had succeeded Captain Elliot, concluded, in 1842, a +treaty with the imperial commissioners, by which the four additional +ports of Amoy, Fu-chow, Ningpo and Shanghai were declared open to +foreign trade, and an indemnity of 21,000,000 dollars was to be paid to +the British. + + + Hien-fêng emperor. + + T'ai-p'ing rebellion. + + On the accession of Hien-fêng in 1850, a demand was raised for the + reforms which had been hoped for under Tao-kwang, but Hien-fêng + possessed in an exaggerated form the selfish and tyrannical nature of + his father, together with a voluptuary's craving for every kind of + sensual pleasure. For some time Kwang-si had been in a very disturbed + state, and when the people found that there was no hope of relief from + the oppression they endured, they proclaimed a youth, who was said to + be the representative of the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, as + emperor, under the title of T'ien-tê or "Heavenly Virtue." From + Kwang-si the revolt spread into Hu-peh and Hu-nan, and then languished + from want of a leader and a definite political cry. When, however, + there appeared to be a possibility that, by force of arms and the + persuasive influence of money, the imperialists would re-establish + their supremacy, a leader presented himself in Kwang-si, whose energy + of character, combined with great political and religious enthusiasm, + speedily gained for him the suffrages of the discontented. This was + Hung Siu-ts'üan. He proclaimed himself as sent by heaven to drive out + the Tatars, and to restore in his own person the succession to China. + At the same time, having been converted to Christianity and professing + to abhor the vices and sins of the age, he called on all the virtuous + of the land to extirpate rulers who were standing examples of all that + was base and vile in human nature. Crowds soon flocked to his + standard. T'ien-tê was deserted; and putting himself at the head of + his followers (who abandoned the practice of shaving the head), Hung + Siu-ts'üan marched northwards and captured Wu-ch'ang on the + Yangtsze-kiang, the capital of Hu-peh. Then, moving down the river, he + proceeded to the attack of Nanking. Without much difficulty Hung + Siu-ts'üan in 1853 established himself within its walls, and + proclaimed the inauguration of the T'ai-p'ing dynasty, of which he + nominated himself the first emperor under the title of T'ien Wang or + "Heavenly king." During the next few years his armies penetrated + victoriously as far north as Tientsin and as far east as Chin-kiang + and Su-chow, while bands of sympathizers with his cause appeared in + the neighbourhood of Amoy. As if still further to aid him in his + schemes, Great Britain declared war against the Tatar dynasty in 1857, + in consequence of an outrage known as the "Arrow" affair (see PARKES, + SIR HARRY SMITH). In December 1857 Canton was taken by the British, + and a further blow was struck against the prestige of the Manchu + dynasty by the determination of Lord Elgin, who had been sent as + special ambassador, to go to Peking and communicate directly with the + emperor. In May 1858 the Taku Forts were taken, and Lord Elgin went up + the Peiho to Tientsin _en route_ for the capital. At Tientsin, + however, imperial commissioners persuaded him to conclude a treaty + with them on the spot, which treaty it was agreed should be ratified + at Peking in the following year. When, however, Sir Frederick Bruce, + who had been appointed minister to the court of Peking, attempted to + pass Taku to carry out this arrangement, the vessels escorting him + were treacherously fired on from the forts and he was compelled to + return. Thereupon Lord Elgin was again sent out with full powers, + accompanied by a large force under the command of Sir Hope Grant. The + French (to seek reparation for the murder of a missionary in Kwang-si) + took part in the campaign, and on the 1st of August 1860 the allies + landed without meeting with any opposition at Pei-tang, a village 12 + m. north of Taku. A few days later the forts at that place were taken, + and thence the allies marched to Peking. Finding further resistance to + be hopeless, the Chinese opened negotiations, and as a guarantee of + their good faith surrendered the An-ting gate of the capital to the + allies. On the 24th of October 1860 the treaty of 1858 was ratified by + Prince Kung and Lord Elgin, and a convention was signed under the + terms of which the Chinese agreed to pay a war indemnity of 8,000,000 + taels. The right of Europeans to travel in the interior was granted + and freedom guaranteed to the preaching of Christianity. The customs + tariff then agreed upon legalized the import of opium, though the + treaty of 1858, like that of 1842, was silent on the subject. + + Great Britain and France were not the only powers of Europe with whom + Hien-fêng was called to deal. On the northern border of the empire + Russia began to exercise pressure. Russia had begun to colonize the + lower Amur region, and was pressing towards the Pacific. This was a + remote region, only part of the Chinese empire since the Manchu + conquest, and by treaties of 1858 and 1860 China ceded to Russia all + its territory north of the Amur and between the Ussuri and the Pacific + (see AMUR, province). The Russians in their newly acquired land + founded the port of Vladivostok (q.v.). + + + T'ung-chi emperor; dowager empress regent. + + Hien-fêng died in the summer of the year 1861, leaving the throne to + his son T'ung-chi (1861-1875), a child of five years old, whose + mother, Tsz'e Hsi (1834-1908), had been raised from the place of + favourite concubine to that of Imperial Consort. The legitimate + empress, Tsz'e An, was childless, and the two dowagers became joint + regents. The conclusion of peace with the allies was the signal for a + renewal of the campaign against the T'ai-p'ings, and, benefiting by + the friendly feelings of the British authorities engendered by the + return of amicable relations, the Chinese government succeeded in + enlisting Major Charles George Gordon (q.v.) of the Royal Engineers in + their service. In a suprisingly short space of time this officer + formed the troops, which had formerly been under the command of an + American named Ward, into a formidable army, and without delay took + the field against the rebels. From that day the fortunes of the + T'ai-p'ings declined. They lost city after city, and, finally in July + 1864, the imperialists, after an interval of twelve years, once more + gained possession of Nanking. T'ien Wang committed suicide on the + capture of his capital, and with him fell his cause. Those of his + followers who escaped the sword dispersed throughout the country, and + the T'ai-p'ings ceased to be. + + With the measure of peace which was then restored to the country trade + rapidly revived, except in Yun-nan, where the Mahommedan rebels, known + as Panthays, under Suleiman, still kept the imperial forces at bay. + Against these foes the government was careless to take active + measures, until in 1872 Prince Hassan, the adopted son of Suleiman, + was sent to England to gain the recognition of the queen for his + father's government. This step aroused the susceptibilities of the + imperial government, and a large force was despatched to the scene of + the rebellion. Before the year was out the Mahommedan capital Ta-li Fu + fell into the hands of the imperialists, and the followers of Suleiman + were mercilessly exterminated. In February 1873 the two dowager + empresses resigned their powers as regents. This long-expected time + was seized upon by the foreign ministers to urge their right of + audience with the emperor, and on the 29th of June 1873 tne privilege + of gazing on the "sacred countenance" was accorded them. + + + Accession of Kwang-su, 1875. + + The emperor T'ung-chi died without issue, and the succession to the + throne, for the first time in the annals of the Ts'ing dynasty, passed + out of the direct line. As already stated, the first emperor of the + Ts'ing dynasty, Shih-tsu Hwangti, on gaining possession of the throne + on the fall of the Ming, or "Great Bright" dynasty, adopted the title + of Shun-chi for his reign, which began in the year 1644. The legendary + progenitor of these Manchu rulers was Aisin Gioro, whose name is said + to point to the fact of his having been related to the race of + Nü-chih, or Kin, i.e. Golden Tatars, who reigned in northern China + during the 12th and 13th centuries. K'ang-hi (1661-1722) was the third + son of Shun-chi; Yung-chêng (1722-1735) was the fourth son of + K'ang-hi; K'ien-lung (1736-1795) was the fourth son of Yung-chêng; + Kia-k'ing (1796-1820) was the fifteenth son of K'ien-lung; Tao-Kwang + (1821-1850) was the second son of Kia-k'ing; Hien-fêng (1851-1861) was + the fourth of the nine sons who were born to the emperor Tao-kwang; + and T'ung-chi (1862-1875) was the only son of Hien-fêng. The choice + now fell upon Tsai-t'ien (as he was called at birth), the infant son + (born August 2, 1872) of Yi-huan, Prince Chun, the seventh son of the + emperor Tao-kwang and brother of the emperor Hien-fêng; his mother was + a sister of the empress Tsz'e Hsi, who, with the aid of Li Hung-chang, + obtained his adoption and proclamation as emperor, under the title of + Kwang-su, "Succession of Glory." + + + Imperial family nomenclature and rank. + + In order to prevent the confusion which would arise among the princes + of the imperial house were they each to adopt an arbitrary name, the + emperor K'ang-hi decreed that each of his twenty-four sons should have + a _personal_ name consisting of two characters, the first of which + should be _Yung_, and the second should be compounded with the + determinative _shih_, "to manifest," an arrangement which would, as + has been remarked, find an exact parallel in a system by which the + sons in an English family might be called Louis _Edward_, Louis + _Edwin_, Louis _Edwy_, Louis _Edgar_ and so on. This device obtained + also in the next generation, all the princes of which had _Hung_ for + their first name, and the emperor K'ien-lung (1736-1795) extended it + into a system, and directed that the succeeding generations should + take the four characters _Yung_, _Mien_, _Yih_ and _Tsai_ + respectively, as the first part of their names. Eight other + characters, namely, _P'u_, _Yu_, _Hêng_, _K'i_, _Tao_, _K'ai_, + _Tsêng_, _Ki_, were subsequently added, thus providing generic names + for twelve generations. With the generation represented by Kwang-su + the first four characters were exhausted, and any sons of the emperor + Kwang-su would therefore have been called _P'u_. By the ceremonial law + of the "Great Pure" dynasty, twelve degrees of rank are distributed + among the princes of the imperial house, and are as follows: (1) + Ho-shih Tsin Wang, prince of the first order; (2) To-lo Keun Wang, + prince of the second order; (3) To-lo Beileh, prince of the third + order; (4) Ku-shan Beitsze, prince of the fourth order; 5 to 8, Kung, + or duke (with distinctive designations); 9 to 12, Tsiang-keun, general + (with distinctive designations). The sons of emperors usually receive + patents of the first or second order on their reaching manhood, and on + their sons is bestowed the title of _Beileh_. A _Beileh's_ sons become + _Beitsze_; a Beitsze's sons become _Kung_, and so on. (R. K. D.; X.) + + +(D)--_From 1875 to 1901._ + + The two dowager-empresses. + +The accession to the throne of Kwang-su in January 1875 attracted little +notice outside China, as the supreme power continued to be vested in the +two dowager-empresses--the empress Tsz'e An, principal wife of the +emperor Hien-fêng, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi, secondary wife of the same +emperor, and mother of the emperor T'ung-chi. Yet there were +circumstances connected with the emperor Kwang-su's accession which +might well have arrested attention. The emperor T'ung-chi, who had +himself succumbed to an ominously brief and mysterious illness, left a +young widow in an advanced state of pregnancy, and had she given birth +to a male child her son would have been the rightful heir to the throne. +But even before she sickened and died--of grief, it was officially +stated, at the loss of her imperial spouse--the dowager-empresses had +solved the question of the succession by placing Kwang-su on the throne, +a measure which was not only in itself arbitrary, but also in direct +conflict with one of the most sacred of Chinese traditions. The solemn +rites of ancestor-worship, incumbent on every Chinaman, and, above all, +upon the emperor, can only be properly performed by a member of a +younger generation than those whom it is his duty to honour. The emperor +Kwang-su, being a first cousin to the emperor T'ung-chi, was not +therefore qualified to offer up the customary sacrifices before the +ancestral tablets of his predecessor. The accession of an infant in the +place of T'ung-Tchi achieved, however, for the time being what was +doubtless the paramount object of the policy of the two empresses, +namely, their undisturbed tenure of the regency, in which the junior +empress Tsz'e Hsi, a woman of unquestionable ability and boundless +ambition, had gradually become the predominant partner. + + + Murder of Mr Margary. + +The first question that occupied the attention of the government under +the new reign was one of the gravest importance, and nearly led to a war +with Great Britain. The Indian government was desirous of seeing the old +trade relations between Burma and the south-west provinces, which had +been interrupted by the Yun-nan rebellion, re-established, and for that +purpose proposed to send a mission across the frontier into China. The +Peking government assented and issued passports for the party, which was +under the command of Colonel Browne. Mr A.R. Margary, a young and +promising member of the China consular service, who was told off to +accompany the expedition as interpreter, was treacherously murdered by +Chinese at the small town of Manwyne and almost simultaneously an attack +was made on the expedition by armed forces wearing Chinese uniform +(January 1875). Colonel Browne with difficulty made his way back to +Bhamo and the expedition was abandoned. + + + Chifu convention 1876. + +Tedious negotiations followed, and, more than eighteen months after the +outrage, an arrangement was come to on the basis of guarantees for the +future, rather than vengeance for the past. The arrangement was embodied +in the Chifu convention, dated 13th September 1876. The terms of the +settlement comprised (1) a mission of apology from China to the British +court; (2) the promulgation throughout the length and breadth of the +empire of an imperial proclamation, setting out the right of foreigners +to travel under passport, and the obligation of the authorities to +protect them; and (3) the payment of indemnity. Additional articles were +subsequently signed in London relative to the collection of likin on +Indian opium and other matters. + + + Revolt in Central Asia. + + Imperial consolidation. + +Simultaneously with the outbreak of the Mahommedan rebellion in Yun-nan, +a similar disturbance had arisen in the north-west provinces of Shen-si +and Kan-suh. This was followed by a revolt of the whole of the Central +Asian tribes, which for two thousand years had more or less acknowledged +the imperial sway. In Kashgaria a nomad chief named Yakub Beg, otherwise +known as the Atalik Gh[=a]zi, had made himself amir, and seemed likely +to establish a strong rule. The fertile province of Kulja or Ili, lying +to the north of the T'ianshan range, was taken possession of by Russia +in 1871 in order to put a stop to the prevailing anarchy, but with a +promise that when China should have succeeded in re-establishing order +in her Central Asian dominions it should be given back. The interest +which was taken in the rebellion in Central Asia by the European powers, +notably by the sultan of Turkey and the British government, aroused the +Chinese to renewed efforts to recover their lost territories, and, as in +the case of the similar crisis in Yun-nan, they undertook the task with +sturdy deliberation. They borrowed money--£1,600,000--for the expenses +of the expedition, this being the first appearance of China as a +borrower in the foreign markets, and appointed the viceroy, Tso +Tsung-t'ang, commander-in-chief. By degrees the emperor's authority was +established from the confines of Kan-suh to Kashgar and Yarkand, and +Chinese garrisons were stationed in touch with the Russian outpost in +the region of the Pamirs (December 1877). Russia was now called upon to +restore Kulja, China being in a position to maintain order. China +despatched Chung-how, a Manchu of the highest rank, who had been +notoriously concerned in the Tientsin massacre of 1870, to St Petersburg +to negotiate a settlement. After some months of discussion a document +was signed (September 1879), termed the treaty of Livadia, whereby China +recovered, not indeed the whole, but a considerable portion of the +territory, on her paying to Russia five million roubles as the cost of +occupation. The treaty was, however, received with a storm of +indignation in China. Memorials poured in from all sides denouncing the +treaty and its author. Foremost among these was one by Chang Chih-tung, +who afterwards became the most distinguished of the viceroys, and +governor-general of Hu-peh and Hu-nan provinces. Prince Chun, the +emperor's father, came into prominence at this juncture as an advocate +for war, and under these combined influences the unfortunate Chung-how +was tried and condemned to death (3rd of March 1880). For some months +warlike preparations went on, and the outbreak of hostilities was +imminent. In the end, however, calmer counsels prevailed. It was decided +to send the Marquis Tseng, who in the meantime had become minister in +London, to Russia to negotiate. A new treaty which still left Russia in +possession of part of the Ili valley was ratified on the 19th of August +1881. The Chinese government could now contemplate the almost complete +recovery of the whole extensive dominions which had at any time owned +the imperial sway. The regions directly administered by the officers of +the emperor extended from the borders of Siberia on the north to Annam +and Burma on the south, and from the Pacific Ocean on the east to +Kashgar and Yarkand on the west. There was also a fringe of tributary +nations which still kept up the ancient forms of allegiance, and which +more or less acknowledged the dominioi of the central kingdom. The +principal tributary nations then were Korea, Lu-chu, Annam, Burma and +Nepal. + + + Korea and Japan. + +Korea was the first of the dependencies to come into notice. In 1866 +some Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered, and about the same time +an American vessel was burnt in one of the rivers and her crew murdered. +China refused satisfaction; both to France and America, and suffered +reprisals to be made on Korea without protest. America and Japan both +desired to conclude commercial treaties for the opening up of Korea, and +proposed to negotiate with China. China refused and referred them to the +Korean government direct, saying she was not wont to interfere in the +affairs of her vassal states. As a result Japan concluded a treaty in +1876, in which the independence of Korea was expressly recognized. This +was allowed to pass without protest, but as other nations proceeded to +conclude treaties on the same terms China began to perceive her mistake, +and endeavoured to tack on to each a declaration by the king that he was +in fact a tributary--a declaration, however, which was quietly ignored. +Japan, however, was the only power with which controversy immediately +arose. In 1882 a faction fight, which had long been smouldering, broke +out, headed by the king's father, the Tai Won Kun, in the course of +which the Japanese legation was attacked and the whole Japanese colony +had to flee for their lives. China sent troops, and by adroitly +kidnapping the Tai Won Kun, order was for a time restored. The Japanese +legation was replaced, but under the protection of a strong body of +Japanese troops. Further revolutions and riots followed, in which the +troops of the two countries took sides, and there was imminent danger of +war. To obviate this risk, it was agreed in 1885 between Count Ito and +Li Hung-Chang that both sides should withdraw their troops, the king +being advised to engage officers of a third state to put his army on +such a footing as would maintain order, and each undertook to give the +other notice should it be found necessary to send troops again. In this +way a _modus vivendi_ was established which lasted till 1894. + + + Domestic affairs, 1875-1882. + +We can only glance briefly at the domestic affairs of China during the +period 1875-1882. The years 1877-1878 were marked by a famine in +Shan-si and Shan-tung, which for duration and intensity has probably +never been equalled. It was computed that 12 or 13 millions perished. It +was vainly hoped that this loss of life, due mainly to defective +commumcations, would induce the Chinese government to listen to +proposals for railway construction. The Russian scare had, however, +taught the Chinese the value of telegraphs, and in 1881 the first line +was laid from Tientsin to Shanghai. Further construction was continued +without intermission from this date. A beginning also was made in naval +affairs. The arsenal at Fuchow was turning out small composite gunboats, +a training ship was bought and put under the command of a British +officer. Several armoured cruisers were ordered from England, and some +progress was made with the fortifications of Port Arthur and +Wei-hai-wei. Forts were also built and guns mounted at Fuchow, Shanghai, +Canton and other vulnerable points. Money for these purposes was +abundantly supplied by the customs duties on foreign trade, and China +had learnt that at need she could borrow from the foreign banks on the +security of this revenue. + +In 1881 the senior regent, the empress Tsz'e An, was carried off by a +sudden attack of heart disease, and the empress Tsz'e Hsi remained in +undivided possession of the supreme power during the remainder of the +emperor Kwang-su's minority. Li Hung-Chang, firmly established at +Tientsin, within easy reach of the capital, as viceroy of the home +province of Chih-li and superintendent of northern trade, enjoyed a +larger share of his imperial mistress's favour than was often granted by +the ruling Manchus to officials of Chinese birth, and in all the graver +questions of foreign policy his advice was generally decisive. + + + Tongking and Hanoi. + +While the dispute with Japan was still going on regarding Korea, China +found herself involved in a more serious quarrel in respect of another +tributary state which lay on the southern frontier. By a treaty made +between France and Annam in 1874, the Red river or Songkoi, which rising +in-south-western China, flows through Tongking, was opened to trade, +together with the cities of Haiphong and Hanoi situated on the delta. +The object of the French was to find a trade route to Yun-nan and +Sze-ch'uen from a base of their own, and it was hoped the Red river +would furnish such a route. Tongking at this time, however, was infested +with bands of pirates and cut-throats, many of whom were Chinese rebels +or ex-rebels who had been driven across the frontier by the suppression +of the Yun-nan and Taiping rebellions, conspicuous among them being an +organization called the Black Flags. And when in 1882 France sent troops +to Tongking to restore order (the Annamese government having failed to +fulfil its promises in that respect) China began to protest, claiming +that Annam was a vassal state and under her protection. + + + Troubles with France. + + France took no notice of the protest, declaring that the claim had + merely an archaeological interest, and that, in any case, China in + military affairs was a _quantité négligeable_. France found, however, + that she had undertaken a very serious task in trying to put down the + forces of disorder (see TONGKING). The Black Flags were, it was + believed, being aided by money and arms from China, and as time went + on, the French were more and more being confronted with regular + Chinese soldiers. Several forts, well within the Tongking frontier, + were known to be garrisoned by Chinese troops. Operations continued + with more or less success during the winter and spring of 1883-1884. + Both sides, however, were desirous of an arrangement, and in May 1884 + a convention was signed between Li Hung-Chang and a Captain Fournier, + who had been commissioned _ad hoc_, whereby China agreed to withdraw + her garrisons and to open her frontiers to trade, France agreeing, on + her part, to respect the fiction of Chinese suzerainty, and guarantee + the frontier from attack by brigands. No date had been fixed in the + convention for the evacuation of the Chinese garrisons, and Fournier + endeavoured to supplement this by a memorandum to Li Hung-Chang, at + the same time announcing the fact to his government. In pursuance of + this arrangement the French troops proceeded to occupy Langson on the + date fixed (21st June 1884). The Chinese commandant refused to + evacuate, alleging, in a despatch which no one in the French camp was + competent to translate, that he had received no orders, and begged for + a short delay to enable him to communicate with his superiors. The + French commandant ordered an attack, which was repulsed with severe + loss. Mutual recriminations ensued. From Paris there came a demand for + a huge indemnity as reparation for the insult. The Peking government + offered to carry out the convention, and to pay a small indemnity for + the lives lost through the misunderstanding. This was refused, and + hostilities recommenced, or, as the French preferred to call them, + reprisals, for the fiction was still kept up that the two countries + were not at war. Under cover of this fiction the French fleet + peaceably entered the harbour of Fuchow, having passed the forts at + the entrance to the river without hindrance. Once inside, they + attacked and destroyed the much inferior Chinese fleet which was then + quietly at anchor, destroying at the same time a large part of the + arsenal which adjoins the anchorage (23rd August 1884). Retracing its + steps, the French fleet attacked and destroyed with impunity the forts + which were built to guard the entrance to the Min river, and could + offer no resistance to a force coming from the rear. After this + exploit the French fleet left the mainland and continued its reprisals + on the coast of Formosa. Kelung, a treaty port, was bombarded and + taken, October 4th. A similar attempt, however, on the neighbouring + port of Tamsui was unsuccessful, the landing party having been driven + back to their ships with severe loss. The attempt was not renewed, and + the fleet thereafter confined itself to a semi-blockade of the island, + which was prolonged into 1885 but led to no practical results. + Negotiations for peace, however, which had been for some time in + progress through the mediation of Sir Robert Hart, were at this + juncture happily concluded (April 1885). The terms were practically + those of the Fournier convention of the year before, the demand for an + indemnity having been quietly dropped. + + + Increased prestige of China. + +China, on the whole, came out of the struggle with greatly increased +prestige. She had tried conclusions with a first-class European power +and had held her own. Incorrect conclusions as to the military strength +of China were consequently drawn, not merely by the Chinese +themselves--which was excusable--but by European and even British +authorities, who ought to have been better informed. War vessels were +ordered by China both from England and Germany, and Admiral Lang, who +had withdrawn his services while the war was going on, was re-engaged +together with a number of British officers and instructors. The +completion of the works at Port Arthur was taken in hand, and a +beginning was made in the construction of forts at Wei-hai-wei as a +second naval base. A new department was created for the control of naval +affairs, at the head of which was placed Prince Chun, father of the +emperor, who since the downfall of Prince Kung in 1884 had been taking a +more and more prominent part in public affairs. + + + 1885-1894. + +From 1885 to 1894 the political history of China does not call for +extended notice. Two incidents, however, must be recorded, (1) the +conclusion in 1886 of a convention with Great Britain, in which the +Chinese government undertook to recognize British sovereignty in Burma, +and (2) the temporary occupation of Port Hamilton by the British fleet +(May 1885-February 1887). In 1890 Admiral Lang resigned his command of +the Chinese fleet. During a temporary absence of Lang's colleague, +Admiral Ting, the Chinese second in command, claimed the right to take +charge--a claim which Admiral Lang naturally resented. The question was +referred to Li Hung-Chang, who decided against Lang, whereupon the +latter threw up his commission. From this point the fleet on which so +much depended began to deteriorate. Superior officers again began to +steal the men's pays, the ships were starved, shells filled with +charcoal instead of powder were supplied, accounts were cooked, and all +the corruption and malfeasance that were rampant in the army crept back +into the navy. + + + War with Japan, 1894. + + European intervention. + +The year 1894 witnessed the outbreak of the war with Japan. In the +spring, complications again arose with Japan over Korea, and hostilities +began in July. The story of the war is told elsewhere (see +CHINO-JAPANESE WAR), and it is unnecessary here to recount the details +of the decisive victory of Japan. A new power had arisen in the Far +East, and when peace was signed by Li Hung-Chang at Shimonoseki on the +17th of April 1895 it meant the beginning of a new epoch. The terms +included the cession of Liao-tung peninsula, then in actual occupation +by the Japanese troops, the cession of Formosa, an indemnity of H. taels +200,000,000 (about £30,000,000) and various commercial privileges. + +The signature of this treaty brought the European powers on the scene. +It had been for some time the avowed ambition of Russia to obtain an +ice-free port as an outlet to her Siberian possessions--an ambition +which was considered by British statesmen as not unreasonable. It did +not, therefore, at all suit her purposes to see the rising power of +Japan commanding the whole of the coast-line of Korea. Accordingly in +the interval between the signature and the ratification of the treaty, +invitations were addressed by Russia to the great powers to intervene +with a view to its modification on the ground of the disturbance of the +balance of power, and the menace to China which the occupation of Port +Arthur by the Japanese would involve. France and Germany accepted the +invitation, Great Britain declined. In the end the three powers brought +such pressure to bear on Japan that she gave up the whole of her +continental acquisitions, retaining only the island of Formosa. The +indemnity was on the other hand increased by H. taels 30,000,000. For +the time the integrity of China seemed to be preserved, and Russia, +France and Germany could pose as her friends. Evidence was, however, +soon forthcoming that Russia and France had not been disinterested in +rescuing Chinese territory from the Japanese grasp. Russia now obtained +the right to carry the Siberian railway across Chinese territory from +Stryetensk to Vladivostok, thus avoiding a long détour, besides giving a +grasp on northern Manchuria. France obtained, by a convention dated the +20th of June 1895, a rectification of frontier in the Mekong valley and +certain railway and mining rights in Kiang-si and Yun-nan. Both powers +obtained concessions of land at Hankow for the purposes of a settlement. +Russia was also said to have negotiated a secret treaty, frequently +described as the "Cassini Convention," but more probably signed by Li +Hung-Chang at Moscow, giving her the right in certain contingencies to +Port Arthur, which was to be refortified with Russian assistance. And by +way of further securing her hold, Russia guaranteed a 4% loan of +£15,000,000 issued in Paris to enable China to pay off the first +instalment of the Japanese indemnity. + + + Mekong valley dispute, 1895. + +The convention between France and China of the 20th of June 1895 brought +China into sharp conflict with Great Britain. China, having by the Burma +convention of 1886 agreed to recognize British sovereignty over Burma, +her quondam feudatory, also agreed to a delimitation of boundaries at +the proper time. Effect was given to this last stipulation by a +subsequent convention concluded in London (1st of March 1894), which +traced the boundary line from the Shan states on the west as far as the +Mekong river on the east. In the Mekong valley there were two +semi-independent native territories over which suzerainty had been +claimed in times gone by both by the kings of Ava and by the Chinese +emperors. These territories were named Meng Lun and Kiang Hung--the +latter lying partly on one side and partly on the other of the Mekong +river, south of the point where it issues from Chinese territory. The +boundary line was so drawn as to leave both these territories to China, +but it was stipulated that China should not alienate any portion of +these territories to any other power without the previous consent of +Great Britain. Yielding to French pressure, and regardless of the +undertaking she had entered into with Great Britain, China, in the +convention with France in June 1895, so drew the boundary line as to +cede to France that portion of the territory of Kiang Hung which lay on +the left bank of the Mekong. Compensation was demanded by Great Britain +from China for this breach of faith, and at the same time negotiations +were entered into with France. These resulted in a joint declaration by +the governments of France and Great Britain, dated the 15th of January +1896, by which it was agreed as regards boundary that the Mekong from +the point of its confluence with the Nam Huk northwards as far as the +Chinese frontier should be the dividing line between the possessions or +spheres of influence of the two powers. It was also agreed that any +commercial privileges obtained by either power in Yun-nan or Sze-ch'uen +should be open to the subjects of the other. The negotiations with China +resulted in a further agreement, dated the 4th of February 1897, whereby +considerable modifications in favour of Great Britain were made in the +Burma boundary drawn by the 1894 convention. + + + Kiaochow, Port Arthur, Wei-hai-wei. + +While Russia and France were profiting by what they were pleased to call +the generosity of China, Germany alone had so far received no reward for +her share in compelling the retrocession of Liao-tung; but, in November +1897, she proceeded to help herself by seizing the Bay of Kiaochow in +the province of Shan-tung. The act was done ostensibly in order to +compel satisfaction for the murder of two German missionaries. A cession +was ultimately made by way of a lease for a term of ninety-nine +years--Germany to have full territorial jurisdiction during the +continuance of the lease, with liberty to erect fortifications, build +docks, and exercise all the rights of sovereignty. In December the +Russian fleet was sent to winter in Port Arthur, and though this was at +first described as a temporary measure, its object was speedily +disclosed by a request made, in January 1898, by the Russian ambassador +in London that two British cruisers, then also anchored at Port Arthur, +should be withdrawn "in order to avoid friction in the Russian sphere of +influence." They left shortly afterwards, and their departure in the +circumstances was regarded as a blow to Great Britain's prestige in the +Far East. In March the Russian government peremptorily demanded a lease +of Port Arthur and the adjoining anchorage of Talienwan--a demand which +China could not resist without foreign support. After an acrimonious +correspondence with the Russian government Great Britain acquiesced in +the _fait accompli_. The Russian occupation of Port Arthur was +immediately followed by a concession to build a line of railway from +that point northwards to connect with the Siberian trunk line in north +Manchuria. As a counterpoise to the growth of Russian influence in the +north, Great Britain obtained a lease of Wei-hai-wei, and formally took +possession of it on its evacuation by the Japanese troops in May 1898. + + + "Open door," and "spheres of influence." + +After much hesitation the Chinese government had at last resolved to +permit the construction of railways with foreign capital. An influential +official named Sheng Hsuan-hwai was appointed director-general of +railways, and empowered to enter into negotiations with foreign +capitalists for that purpose. A keen competition thereupon ensued +between syndicates of different nationalities, and their claims being +espoused by their various governments, an equally keen international +rivalry was set up. Great Britain, though intimating her preference for +the "open door" policy, meaning equal opportunity for all, yet found +herself compelled to fall in with the general movement towards what +became known as the "spheres of influence" policy, and claimed the +Yangtsze valley as her particular sphere. This she did by the somewhat +negative method of obtaining from the Chinese government a declaration +that no part of the Yangtsze valley should be alienated to any foreign +power. A more formal recognition of the claim, as far as railway +enterprise was concerned, was embodied in an agreement (28th of April +1899) between Great Britain and Russia, and communicated to the Chinese +government, whereby the Russian government agreed not to seek for any +concessions within the Yangtsze valley, including all the provinces +bordering on the great river, together with Cheh-kiang and Ho-nan, the +British government entering into a similar undertaking in regard to the +Chinese dominions north of the Great Wall.[50] + + In 1899 Talienwan and Kiaochow were respectively thrown open by Russia + and Germany to foreign trade, and, encouraged by these measures, the + United States government initiated in September of the same year a + correspondence with the great European powers and Japan, with a view + to securing their definite adhesion to the "open door" policy. The + British government gave an unqualified approval to the American + proposal, and the replies of the other powers, though more guarded, + were accepted at Washington as satisfactory. A further and more + definite step towards securing the maintenance of the "open door" in + China was the agreement concluded in October 1900 between the British + and German governments. The signatories, by the first two articles, + agreed to endeavour to keep the ports on the rivers and littoral free + and open to international trade and economic activity, and to uphold + this rule for all Chinese territory as far as (_wo_ in the German + counterpart) they could exercise influence; not to use the existing + complications to obtain territorial advantages in Chinese dominions, + and to seek to maintain undiminished the territorial condition of the + Chinese empire. By a third article they reserved their right to come + to a preliminary understanding for the protection of their interests + in China, should any other power use those complications to obtain + such territorial advantages under any form whatever. On the submission + of the agreement to the powers interested, Austria, France, Italy and + Japan accepted its principles without express reservation--Japan first + obtaining assurances that she signed on the same footing as an + original signatory. The United States accepted the first two articles, + but expressed no opinion on the third. Russia construed the first as + limited to ports actually open in regions where the two signatories + exercise "their" influence, and favourably entertained it in that + sense, ignoring the reference to other forms of economic activity. She + fully accepted the second, and observed that in the contingency + contemplated by the third, she would modify her attitude according to + circumstances. + + Meanwhile, negotiations carried on by the British minister at Peking + during 1898 resulted in the grant of very important privileges to + foreign commerce. The payment of the second instalment of the Japanese + indemnity was becoming due, and it was much discussed how and on what + terms China would be able to raise the amount. The Russian government, + as has been stated, had made China a loan of the sum required for the + first portion of the indemnity, viz. £15,000,000, taking a charge on + the customs revenue as security. The British government was urged to + make a like loan of £16,000,000 both as a matter of friendship to + China and as a counterpoise to the Russian influence. An arrangement + was come to accordingly, on very favourable terms financially to the + Chinese, but at the last moment they drew back, being overawed, as + they said, by the threatening attitude of Russia. Taking advantage of + the position which this refusal gave him, the British minister + obtained from the Tsung-Li-Yamen, besides the declaration as to the + non-alienation of the Yangtsze valley above mentioned, an undertaking + to throw the whole of the inland waterways open to steam traffic. The + Chinese government at the same time undertook that the post of + inspector-general of customs (then held by Sir Robert Hart) should + always be held by an Englishman so long as the trade of Great Britain + was greater than that of any other nation. Minor concessions were also + made, but the opening of the waterways was by far the greatest advance + that had been made since 1860. + + Of still greater importance were the railway and mining concessions + granted during the same year (1898). The Chinese government had been + generally disposed to railway construction since the conclusion of the + Japanese War, but hoped to be able to retain the control in their own + hands. The masterful methods of Russia and Germany had obliged them to + surrender this control so far as concerned Manchuria and Shan-tung. In + the Yangtsze valley, Sheng, the director-general of railways, had been + negotiating with several competing syndicates. One of these was a + Franco-Belgian syndicate, which was endeavouring to obtain the trunk + line from Hankow to Peking. A British company was tendering for the + same work, and as the line lay mainly within the British sphere it was + considered not unreasonable to expect it should be given to the + latter. At a critical moment, however, the French and Russian + ministers intervened, and practically forced the Yamen to grant a + contract in favour of the Franco-Belgian company. The Yamen had a few + days before explicitly promised the British minister that the contract + should not be ratified without his having an opportunity of seeing it. + As a penalty for this breach of faith, and as a set-off to the + Franco-Belgian line, the British minister required the immediate grant + of all the railway concessions for which British syndicates were then + negotiating, and on terms not inferior to those granted to the Belgian + line. In this way all the lines in the lower Yangtsze, as also the + Shan-si Mining Companies' lines, were secured. A contract for a trunk + line from Canton to Hankow was negotiated in the latter part of 1898 + by an American company. + + + The reform movement, 1898 + +There can be little doubt that the powers, engrossed in the diplomatic +conflicts of which Peking was the centre, had entirely underrated the +reactionary forces gradually mustering for a struggle against the +aggressive spirit of Western civilization. The lamentable consequences +of administrative corruption and incompetence, and the superiority of +foreign methods which had been amply illustrated by the Japanese War, +had at first produced a considerable impression, not only upon the more +enlightened commercial classes, but even upon many of the younger +members of the official classes in China. The dowager-empress, who, in +spite of the emperor Kwang-su having nominally attained his majority, +had retained practical control of the supreme power until the conflict +with Japan, had been held, not unjustly, to blame for the disasters of +the war, and even before its conclusion the young emperor was adjured by +some of the most responsible among his own subjects to shake himself +free from the baneful restraint of "petticoat government," and himself +take the helm. In the following years a reform movement, undoubtedly +genuine, though opinions differ as to the value of the popular support +which it claimed, spread throughout the central and southern provinces +of the empire. One of the most significant symptoms was the relatively +large demand which suddenly arose for the translations of foreign works +and similar publications in the Chinese language which philanthropic +societies, such as that "for the Diffusion of Christian and General +Knowledge amongst the Chinese," had been trying for some time past to +popularize, though hitherto with scant success. Chinese newspapers +published in the treaty ports spread the ferment of new ideas far into +the interior. Fifteen hundred young men of good family applied to enter +the foreign university at Peking, and in some of the provincial towns +the Chinese themselves subscribed towards the opening of foreign +schools. Reform societies, which not infrequently enjoyed official +countenance, sprang up in many of the large towns, and found numerous +adherents amongst the younger _literati_. Early in 1898 the emperor, who +had gradually emancipated himself from the dowager-empress's control, +summoned several of the reform leaders to Peking, and requested their +advice with regard to the progressive measures which should be +introduced into the government of the empire. Chief amongst these +reformers was Kang Yu-wei, a Cantonese, whose scholarly attainments, +combined with novel teachings, earned for him from his followers the +title of the "Modern Sage." Of his more or less active sympathizers who +had subsequently to suffer with him in the cause of reform, the most +prominent were Chang Yin-huan, a member of the grand council and of the +Tsung-Li-Yamen, who had represented his sovereign at Queen Victoria's +jubilee in 1897; Chin Pao-chen, governor of Hu-nan; Liang Chichao, the +editor of the reformers' organ, _Chinese Progress_; Su Chiching, a +reader of the Hanlin College, the educational stronghold of Chinese +conservatism; and his son Su In-chi, also a Hanlin man, and provincial +chancellor of public instruction in Hu-nan. + +It soon became evident, that there was no more enthusiastic advocate of +the new ideas than the emperor himself. Within a few months the +vermilion pencil gave the imperial sanction to a succession of edicts +which, had they been carried into effect, would have amounted to a +revolution as far-reaching as that which had transformed Japan thirty +years previously. The fossilized system of examinations for the public +service was to be altogether superseded by a new schedule based on +foreign learning, for the better promotion of which a number of temples +were to be converted into schools for Western education; a state +department was to be created for the translation and dissemination of +the standard works of Western literature and science; even the scions of +the ruling Manchu race were to be compelled to study foreign languages +and travel abroad; and last, but not least, all useless offices both in +Peking and in the provinces were to be abolished. A further edict was +even reported to be in contemplation, doing away with the _queue_ or +pigtail, which, originally imposed upon the Chinese by their Manchu +conquerors as a badge of subjection, had gradually become the most +characteristic and most cherished feature of the national dress. But the +bureaucracy of China, which had battened for centuries on corruption and +ignorance, had no taste for self-sacrifice. Other vested interests felt +themselves equally threatened, and behind them stood the whole latent +force of popular superstition and unreasoning conservatism. + + + The Empress's coup d'état. + +The dowager-empress saw her opportunity. The Summer Palace, to which she +had retired, had been for some time the centre of resistance to the new +movement, and in the middle of September 1898 a report became current +that, in order to put an end to the obstruction which hampered his +reform policy, the emperor intended to seize the person of the +dowager-empress and have her deported into the interior. Some colour was +given to this report by an official announcement that the emperor would +hold a review of the foreign-drilled troops at Tientsin, and had +summoned Yuan Shihkai, their general, to Peking in order to confer with +him on the necessary arrangements. But the reformers had neglected to +secure the goodwill of the army, which was still entirely in the hands +of the reactionaries. During the night of the 20th of September the +palace of the emperor was occupied by the soldiers, and on the following +day Kwang-su, who was henceforth virtually a prisoner in the hands of +the empress, was made to issue an edict restoring her regency. Kang +Yu-wei, warned at the last moment by an urgent message from the emperor, +succeeded in escaping, but many of the most prominent reformers were +arrested, and six of them were promptly executed. The _Peking Gazette_ +announced a few days later that the emperor himself was dangerously ill, +and his life might well have been despaired of had not the British +minister represented in very emphatic terms the serious consequences +which might ensue if anything happened to him. Drastic measures were, +however, adopted to stamp out the reform movement in the provinces as +well as in the capital. The reform edicts were cancelled, the reformers' +associations were dissolved, their newspapers suppressed, and those who +did not care to save themselves by a hasty recantation of their errors +were imprisoned, proscribed or exiled. In October the reaction had +already been accompanied by such a recrudescence of anti-foreign feeling +that the foreign ministers at Peking had to bring up guards from the +fleet for the protection of the legations, and to demand the removal +from the capital of the disorderly Kan-suh soldiery which subsequently +played so sinister a part in the troubles of June 1900. But the +unpleasant impression produced by these incidents was in a great measure +removed by the demonstrative reception which the empress Tsz'e Hsi gave +on the 15th of October to the wives of the foreign representatives--an +act of courtesy unprecedented in the annals of the Chinese court. + + + The Boxer movement, 1900. + +The reactionary tide continued to rise throughout the year 1899, but it +did not appear materially to affect the foreign relations of China. +Towards the end of the year the brutal murder of Mr Brooks, an English +missionary, in Shan-tung, had compelled attention to a popular movement +which had been spreading rapidly throughout that province and the +adjoining one of Chih-li with the connivance of certain high officials, +if not under their direct patronage. The origin of the "Boxer" movement +is obscure. Its name is derived from a literal translation of the +Chinese designation, "the fist of righteous harmony." Like the kindred +"Big Sword" Society, it appears to have been in the first instance +merely a secret association of malcontents chiefly drawn from the lower +classes. Whether the empress Tsz'e Hsi and her Manchu advisers had +deliberately set themselves from the beginning to avert the danger by +deflecting what might have been a revolutionary movement into +anti-foreign channels, or whether with Oriental heedlessness they had +allowed it to grow until they were powerless to control it, they had +unquestionably resolved to take it under their protection before the +foreign representatives at Peking had realized its gravity. The outrages +upon native Christians and the threats against foreigners generally went +on increasing. The Boxers openly displayed on their banners the device: +"Exterminate the foreigners and save the dynasty," yet the +representatives of the powers were unable to obtain any effective +measures against the so-called "rebels," or even a definite condemnation +of their methods.[51] + +Four months (January-April 1900) were spent in futile interviews with +the Tsung-Li-Yamen. In May a number of Christian villages were destroyed +and native converts massacred near the capital. On the 2nd of June two +English missionaries, Mr Robinson and Mr Norman, were murdered at Yung +Ching, 40 m. from Peking. The whole country was overrun with bands of +Boxers, who tore up the railway and set fire to the stations at +different points on the Peking-Tientsin line. Fortunately a mixed body +of marines and bluejackets of various nationalities, numbering 18 +officers and 389 men, had reached Peking on the 1st of June for the +protection of the legations. The whole city was in a state of turmoil. +Murder and pillage were of daily occurrence. The reactionary Prince Tuan +(grandson of the emperor Tao-kwang) and the Manchus generally, together +with the Kan-suh soldiery under the notorious Tung-fu-hsiang, openly +sided with the Boxers. The European residents and a large number of +native converts took refuge in the British legation, where preparations +were hastily made in view of a threatened attack. On the 11th the +chancellor of the Japanese legation, Mr Sugiyama, was murdered by +Chinese soldiers. On the night of the 13th most of the foreign +buildings, churches and mission houses in the eastern part of the Tatar +city were pillaged and burnt, and hundreds of native Christians +massacred. On the 20th of June the German minister, Baron von Ketteler, +was murdered whilst on his way to the Tsung-Li-Yamen. At 4 P.M. on the +afternoon of the 20th the Chinese troops opened fire upon the legations. +The general direction of the defence was undertaken by Sir Claude +Macdonald, the British minister. + + + International expedition. + +Meanwhile Peking had been completely cut off since the 14th from all +communication with the outside world, and in view of the gravity of the +situation, naval and military forces were being hurried up by all the +powers to the Gulf of Chih-li. On the 10th of June Admiral Sir E. +Seymour had already left Tientsin with a mixed force of 2000 British, +Russian, French, Germans, Austrians, Italians, Americans and Japanese, +to repair the railway and restore communications with Peking. But his +expedition met with unexpectedly severe resistance, and it had great +difficulty in making good its retreat after suffering heavy losses. When +it reached Tientsin again on the 26th of June, the British contingent of +915 men had alone lost 124 killed and wounded out of a total casualty +list of 62 killed and 218 wounded. The Chinese had in the meantime made +a determined attack upon the foreign settlements at Tientsin, and +communication between the city and the sea being also threatened, the +Taku forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho were captured by the allied +admirals on the 17th. The situation at Tientsin nevertheless continued +precarious, and it was not till the arrival of considerable +reinforcements that the troops of the allied powers were able to assume +the offensive, taking the native city by storm on July 14th, at a cost, +however, of over 700 killed and wounded. Even in this emergency +international jealousy had grievously delayed the necessary +concentration of forces. No power was so favourably situated to take +immediate action as Japan, and the British government, who had strongly +urged her to act speedily and energetically, undertook at her request to +sound the other powers with regard to her intervention. No definite +objection was raised, but the replies of Germany and Russia barely +disguised their ill-humour. Great Britain herself went so far as to +offer Japan the assistance of the British treasury, in case financial +difficulties stood in the way, but on the same day on which this +proposal was telegraphed to Tokyo (6th of July), the Japanese government +had decided to embark forthwith the two divisions which it had already +mobilized. By the beginning of August one of the Indian brigades had +also reached Tientsin together with smaller reinforcements sent by the +other powers, and thanks chiefly to the energetic counsels of the +British commander, General Sir Alfred Gaselee, a relief column, +numbering 20,000 men, at last set out for Peking on the 4th of August, a +British naval brigade having started up river the previous afternoon. +After a series of small engagements and very trying marches it arrived +within striking distance of Peking on the evening of the 13th. The +Russians tried to steal a march upon the allies during the night, but +were checked at the walls and suffered heavy losses. The Japanese +attacked another point of the walls the next morning, but met with +fierce opposition, whilst the Americans were delayed by getting +entangled in the Russian line of advance. The British contingent was +more fortunate, and skilfully guided to an unguarded water-gate, General +Gaselee and a party of Sikhs were the first to force their way through +to the British legation. About 2 p.m. on the afternoon of the 14th of +August, the long siege was raised. + + + Siege of the Peking legations. + +For nearly six weeks after the first interruption of communications, no +news reached the outside world from Peking except a few belated +messages, smuggled through the Chinese lines by native runners, urging +the imperative necessity of prompt relief. During the greater part of +that period the foreign quarter was subjected to heavy rifle and +artillery fire, and the continuous fighting at close quarters with the +hordes of Chinese regulars, as well as Boxers, decimated the scanty +ranks of the defenders. The supply of both ammunition and food was +slender. But the heroism displayed by civilians and professional +combatants alike was inexhaustible. In their anxiety to burn out the +British legation, the Chinese did not hesitate to set fire to the +adjoining buildings of the Hanlin, the ancient seat of Chinese classical +learning, and the storehouse of priceless literary treasures and state +archives. The _Fu_, or palace, of Prince Su, separated only by a canal +from the British legation, formed the centre of the international +position, and was held with indomitable valour by a small Japanese force +under Colonel Sheba, assisted by a few Italian marines and volunteers of +other nationalities and a number of Christian Chinese. The French +legation on the extreme right, and the section of the city wall held +chiefly by Germans and Americans, were also points of vital importance +which had to bear the brunt of the Chinese attack. + + Little is known as to what passed in the councils of the Chinese court + during the siege.[52] But there is reason to believe that throughout + that period grave divergences of opinion existed amongst the highest + officials. The attack upon the legations appears to have received the + sanction of the dowager-empress, acting upon the advice of Prince Tuan + and the extreme Manchu party, at a grand council held during the night + of the 18th/19th June, upon receipt of the news of the capture of the + Taku forts by the international forces. The emperor himself, as well + as Prince Ching and a few other influential mandarins, strongly + protested against the empress's decision, but it was acclaimed by the + vast majority of those present. Three members of the Tsung-Li-Yamen + were publicly executed for attempting to modify the terms of an + imperial edict ordering the massacre of all foreigners throughout the + provinces, and most of the Manchu nobles and high officials, and the + eunuchs of the palace, who played an important part in Chinese + politics throughout the dowager-empress's tenure of power, were heart + and soul with the Boxers. But it was noted by the defenders of the + legations that Prince Ching's troops seldom took part, or only in a + half-hearted way, in the fighting, which was chiefly conducted by + Tung-fu-hsiang's soldiery and the Boxer levies. The modern artillery + which the Chinese possessed was only spasmodically brought into play. + Nor did any of the attacking parties ever show the fearlessness and + determination which the Chinese had somewhat unexpectedly displayed on + several occasions during the fighting at and around Tientsin. + Nevertheless, the position of the defenders at the end of the first + four weeks of the siege had grown well-nigh desperate. Mining and + incendiarism proved far greater dangers than shot and shell. Suddenly, + just when things were looking blackest, on the 17th of July the + Chinese ceased firing, and a sort of informal armistice secured a + period of respite for the beleaguered Europeans. The capture of the + native city of Tientsin by the allied forces had shaken the + self-confidence of the Chinese authorities, who had hitherto not only + countenanced, but themselves directed the hostilities.[53] Desultory + fighting, nevertheless, continued, and grave fears were entertained + that the approach of the relief column would prove the signal for a + desperate attempt to rush the legations. The attempt was made, but + failed. The relief, however, came not a day too soon. Of the small + band of defenders which, including civilian volunteers, had never + mustered 500, 65 had been killed and 131 wounded. Ammunition and + provisions were almost at an end. Even more desperate was the + situation at the Pei-tang, the Roman Catholic northern cathedral and + mission house, where, with the help of a small body of French and + Italian marines, Mgr Favier had organized an independent centre of + resistance for his community of over 3000 souls. Their rations were + absolutely exhausted when, on the 15th of August, a relief party was + despatched to their assistance from the legations. + + + Looting of Peking. + +The ruin wrought in Peking during the two months' fighting was +appalling. Apart from the wholesale destruction of foreign property in +the Tatar city, and of Chinese as well as European buildings in the +vicinity of the legations, the wealthiest part of the Chinese city had +been laid in ashes. The flames from a foreign drug store fired by the +Boxers had spread to the adjoining buildings, and finally consumed the +whole of the business quarter with all its invaluable stores of silks, +curiosities, furs, &c. The retribution which overtook Peking after its +capture by the international forces was scarcely less terrible. Looting +was for some days almost universal. Order was, however, gradually +restored, first in the Japanese and then in the British and American +quarters, though several months elapsed before there was any real +revival of native confidence. + + + Flight of the Chinese court. + +So unexpected had been the rapid and victorious advance of the allies, +that the dowager-empress with the emperor and the rest of the court did +not actually leave Peking until the day after the legations had been +relieved. But the northern and western portions of the Tatar city had +not yet been occupied, and the fugitives made good their escape on the +15th. When the allies some days later marched through the Forbidden +City, they only found a few eunuchs and subordinate officials in charge +of the imperial apartments. At the end of September, Field Marshal Count +von Waldersee, with a German expeditionary force of over 20,000 men, +arrived to assume the supreme command conferred upon him with the more +or less willing assent of the other powers. + + + Restoration of order. + +The political task which confronted the powers after the occupation of +Peking was far more arduous than the military one. The action of the +Russians in Manchuria, even in a treaty port like Niu-chwang, the +seizure of the railway line not only to the north of the Great Wall, but +also from Shan-hai-kwan to Peking, by the Russian military authorities, +and the appropriation of an extensive line of river frontage at Tientsin +as a Russian "settlement," were difficult to reconcile with the pacific +assurances of disinterestedness which Russia, like the rest of the +powers, had officially given. Great anxiety prevailed as to the effect +of the flight of the Chinese court in other parts of the empire. The +anti-foreign movement had not spread much beyond the northern provinces, +in which it had had the open support of the throne and of the highest +provincial officials. But among British and Americans alone, over 200 +defenceless foreigners, men, women and children, chiefly missionaries, +had fallen victims to the treachery of high-placed mandarins like Yü +Hsien, and hundreds of others had had to fly for their lives, many of +them owing their escape to the courageous protection of petty officials +and of the local gentry and peasantry. In the Yangtsze valley order had +been maintained by the energy of the viceroys of Nanking and Wu-chang, +who had acted throughout the critical period in loyal co-operation with +the British consuls and naval commanders, and had courageously +disregarded the imperial edicts issued during the ascendancy of the +Boxers. After some hesitation, an Indian brigade, followed by French, +German and Japanese contingents, had been landed at Shanghai for the +protection of the settlements, and though the viceroy, Liu Kun-yi, had +welcomed British support, and even invited the joint occupation of the +Yangtsze forts by British and Chinese troops, the appearance of other +European forces in the Yangtsze valley was viewed with great suspicion. +In the south there were serious symptoms of unrest, especially after Li +Hung-Chang had left Canton for the north, in obedience, as he alleged at +the time, to an imperial edict which, there is reason to believe, he +invented for the occasion. The Chinese court, after one or two +intermediate halts, had retired to Si-gan-fu, one of the ancient +capitals of the empire, situated in the inaccessible province of +Shen-si, over 600 m. S.W. of Peking. The influence of the +ultra-reactionaries, headed by Prince Tuan and General Tung-fu-hsiang, +still dominated its councils, although credentials were sent to Prince +Ching and to Li Hung-Chang, who, after waiting upon events at Shanghai, +had proceeded to Peking, authorizing them to treat with the powers for +the re-establishment of friendly relations. + + + Measures of reparation. + +The harmony of the powers, which had been maintained with some +difficulty up to the relief of the legations, was subjected to a severe +strain as soon as the basis of negotiations with the Chinese government +came to be discussed. While for various reasons Russia, Japan and the +United States were inclined to treat China with great indulgence, +Germany insisted upon the signal punishment of the guilty officials as a +_conditio sine qua non_, and in this she had the support not only of the +other members of the Triple Alliance, but also of Great Britain, and to +some extent even of France, who, as protector of the Roman Catholic +Church in Eastern countries, could not allow the authors of the +atrocities committed upon its followers to escape effectual punishment. +It was not until after months of laborious negotiations that the demands +to be formally made upon the Chinese government were embodied in a joint +note signed by all the foreign ministers on the 20th and 21st of +December 1900. The demands were substantially as follows: + + Honourable reparation for the murder of von Ketteler and of Mr + Sugiyama, to be made in a specified form, and expiatory monuments to + be erected in cemeteries where foreign tombs had been desecrated. "The + most severe punishment befitting their crimes" was to be inflicted on + the personages designated by the decree of the 21st of September, and + also upon others to be designated later by the foreign ministers, and + the official examinations were to be suspended in the cities where + foreigners had been murdered or ill-treated. An equitable indemnity, + guaranteed by financial measures acceptable to the powers, was to be + paid to states, societies and individuals, including Chinese who had + suffered because of their employment by foreigners, but not including + Chinese Christians who had suffered only on account of their faith. + The importation or manufacture of arms or _matériel_ was to be + forbidden; permanent legation guards were to be maintained at Peking, + and the diplomatic quarter was to be fortified, while communication + with the sea was to be secured by a foreign military occupation of the + strategic points and by the demolition of the Chinese forts, including + the Taku forts, between the capital and the coast. Proclamations were + to be posted throughout China for two years, threatening death to the + members of anti-foreign societies, and recording the punishment of the + ringleaders in the late outrages: and the viceroys, governors and + provincial officials were to be declared by imperial edict + responsible, on pain of immediate dismissal and perpetual disability + to hold office, for anti-foreign outbreaks or violations of treaty + within their jurisdictions. China was to facilitate commercial + relations by negotiating a revision of the commercial treaties. The + Tsung-Li-Yamen was to be reformed and the ceremonial for the reception + of foreign ministers modified as the powers should demand. Compliance + with these terms was declared to be a condition precedent to the + arrangement of a time limit to the occupation of Peking and of the + provinces by foreign troops. + +Under instructions from the court, the Chinese plenipotentiaries affixed +their signatures on the 14th of January 1901 to a protocol, by which +China pledged herself to accept these terms in principle, and the +conference of ministers then proceeded to discuss the definite form in +which compliance with them was to be exacted. This further stage of the +negotiations proved even more laborious and protracted than the +preliminary proceedings. No attempt was made to raise the question of +the dowager-empress's responsibility for the anti-foreign movement, as +Russia had from the first set her face against the introduction of what +she euphemistically termed "the dynastic question." But even with regard +to the punishment of officials whose guilt was beyond dispute, grave +divergences arose between the powers. The death penalty was ultimately +waived in the case even of such conspicuous offenders as Prince Tuan and +Tung-fu-hsiang, but the notorious Yü Hsien and two others were +decapitated by the Chinese, and three other metropolitan officials were +ordered to commit suicide, whilst upon others sentences of banishment, +imprisonment and degradation were passed, in accordance with a list +drawn up by the foreign representatives. The question of the punishment +of provincial officials responsible for the massacre of scores of +defenceless men, women and children was unfortunately reserved for +separate treatment, and when it came up for discussion it became +impossible to preserve even the semblance of unanimity, the Russian +minister at once taking issue with his colleagues, although he had +originally pledged himself as formally as the others to the principle. +Count Lamsdorff frankly told the British ambassador at St Petersburg +that Russia took no interest in missionaries, and as the foreigners +massacred in the provinces belonged mostly to that class, she declined +to join in the action of the other powers. + + + Russia and Manchuria. + +The real explanation of Russia's cynical secession from the concert of +powers on this important issue must be sought in her anxiety to +conciliate the Chinese in view of the separate negotiations in which she +was at the same time engaged with China in respect of Manchuria. When +the Boxer movement was at its height at the end of June 1900, the +Chinese authorities in Manchuria had wantonly "declared war" against +Russia, and for a moment a great wave of panic seems to have swept over +the Russian administration, civil and military, in the adjoining +provinces. The reprisals exercised by the Russians were proportionately +fierce. The massacre at Blagovyeshchensk, where 5000 Chinese--men, women +and children--were flung into the Amur by the Cossacks, was only one +incident in the reign of terror by which the Russians sought to restore +their power and their prestige. The resistance of the Chinese troops was +soon overcome, and Russian forces overran the whole province, occupying +even the treaty port of Niu-chwang. The Russian government officially +repudiated all responsibility for the proclamations issued by General +Gribsky and others, foreshadowing, if not actually proclaiming, the +annexation of Chinese territory to the Russian empire. But Russia was +clearly bent on seizing the opportunity for securing a permanent hold +upon Manchuria. In December 1900 a preliminary agreement was made +between M. Korostovetz, the Russian administrator-general, and Tseng, +the Tatar general at Mukden, by which the civil and military +administration of the whole province was virtually placed under Russian +control. In February 1901 negotiations were opened between the Russian +government and the Chinese minister at St Petersburg for the conclusion +of a formal convention of a still more comprehensive character. In +return for the restoration to China of a certain measure of civil +authority in Manchuria, Russia was to be confirmed in the possession of +exclusive military, civil and commercial rights, constituting in all but +name a protectorate, and she was also to acquire preferential rights +over all the outlying provinces of the Chinese empire bordering on the +Russian dominions in Asia. The clauses relating to Chinese Turkestan, +Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Mongolia were subsequently stated to have +been dropped, but the convention nevertheless provoked considerable +opposition both in foreign countries and amongst the Chinese themselves. +Most of the powers, including Germany, who, however, denied that the +Anglo-German agreement of the 16th of October 1900 applied to +Manchuria,[54] advised the Chinese government not to pursue separate +negotiations with one power whilst collective negotiations were in +progress at Peking, and both Japan and Great Britain pressed for +definite information at St Petersburg with regard to the precise tenor +of the proposed convention. At the same time the two viceroys of the +lower Yangtsze memorialized the throne in the strongest terms against +the convention, and these protests were endorsed not only by the great +majority of Chinese officials of high rank throughout the provinces, but +by popular meetings and influential guilds and associations. Ultimately +the two viceroys, Chang Chih-tung and Liu Kun-yi,[55] took the extreme +step of warning the throne that they would be unable to recognize the +convention, even if it were ratified, and notwithstanding the pressure +exercised in favour of Russia by Li Hung-Chang, the court finally +instructed the Chinese minister at St Petersburg to decline his +signature. The attitude of Japan, where public feeling ran high, was +equally significant, and on the 3rd of April the Russian government +issued a circular note to the powers, stating that, as the generous +intentions of Russia had been misconstrued, she withdrew the proposed +convention. + + + The peace protocol, 1901. + +The work of the conference at Peking, which had been temporarily +disturbed by these complications, was then resumed. Friction between +European troops of different nationalities and an Anglo-Russian dispute +over the construction of certain roads and railway sidings at Tientsin +showed that an international occupation was fraught with manifold +dangers. The question of indemnities, however, gave rise to renewed +friction. Each power drew up its own claim, and whilst Great Britain, +the United States and Japan displayed great moderation, other powers, +especially Germany and Italy, put in claims which were strangely out of +proportion to the services rendered by their military and naval forces. +It was at last settled that China should pay altogether an indemnity of +450 million taels, to be secured (1) on the unhypothecated balance of +the customs revenue administered by the imperial maritime customs, the +import duties being raised forthwith to an effective 5% basis; (2) on +the revenues of the "native" customs in the treaty ports; (3) on the +total revenues of the salt gabelle. Finally the peace protocol was drawn +up in a form which satisfied all the powers as well as the Chinese +court. The formal signature was, however, delayed at the last moment by +a fresh difficulty concerning Prince Chun's penitential mission to +Berlin. This prince, an amiable and enlightened youth,[56] son of the +Prince Chun who was the emperor Hien-fêng's brother, and thus himself +half-brother to the emperor Kwang-su, had reached Basel towards the end +of August on his way to Germany, when he was suddenly informed that he +and his suite would be expected to perform _kowtow_ before the German +emperor. The prince resented this unexpected demand, and referred home +for instructions. The Chinese court appear to have remained obdurate, +and the German government perceived the mistake that had been made in +exacting from the Chinese prince a form of homage which Western +diplomacy had for more than a century refused to yield to the Son of +Heaven, on the ground that it was barbarous and degrading. The point was +waived, and Prince Chun was received in solemn audience by the emperor +William at Potsdam on the 4th of September. Three days later, on the 7th +of September, the peace protocol was signed at Peking. + +The articles recorded the steps to be taken to satisfy the demands of +the powers as to commerce. Article 11 provided for the amendment of +existing treaties of commerce and navigation, and for river conservancy +measures at Tientsin and Shanghai. The British government appointed a +special commission, with Sir J. Mackay, member of the council of India, +as chief commissioner, to proceed to Shanghai to carry on the +negotiations, and a commercial treaty was signed at Shanghai on the 6th +of September 1902, by which existing obstacles to foreign trade, such as +_likin_, &c., were removed, regulations were made for facilitating +steamer navigation on inland waters, and several new ports were opened +to foreign commerce. + +In accordance with the terms of the protocol, all the foreign troops, +except the legation guards, were withdrawn from Peking on the 17th of +September, and from the rest of Chih-li, except the garrisons at the +different points specified along the line of communications, by the 22nd +of September. On the 7th of October it was announced that the Chinese +court had left Si-gan-fu on its way back to the northern capital. A +month later (7th of November) the death of Li Hung-Chang at Peking +removed, if not the greatest of Chinese statesmen, at any rate the one +who had enjoyed the largest share of the empress-dowager's confidence. + (V. C.) + + +(E)--_From 1901 to 1910._ + + "Awakening of China." + +The events connected with the Boxer rising and its suppression +demonstrated even more forcibly than had the war with Japan in 1894-1895 +the necessity for the adoption of Western methods in many departments +of life and administration if China was to maintain the position of a +great power. The necessity for a thorough reform of the administration +was widely recognized in 1901, and among the progressive classes of the +community much disappointment was manifested because the powers had +failed to insist, in the conditions of peace, on a reorganization of the +machinery of government. The Yangtsze viceroys, the viceroy at Canton, +Yuan Shih-kai and other high mandarins repeatedly memorialized the +throne to grant effective reforms. While at Si-gan-fu the court did in +fact issue several reform decrees, but at the same time all authority +remained in the hands of reactionaries. There had been an awakening in +China, but another lesson--afforded a few years later by the +Russo-Japanese War--was needed before the reform party was able to gain +real power. + +For three or four years following the signing of the peace protocol of +1901 it seemed indeed that there would be little change in the system of +government, though in some directions a return to the old state of +affairs was neither possible nor desired. On the 7th of January 1902 the +court returned to Peking--a step which marked the restoration, more or +less, of normal conditions. The failure of the Boxer movement, in which, +as has been shown, she was deeply implicated, had impressed upon the +dowager empress the need for living on better terms with foreign powers, +but the reform edicts issued from Si-gan-fu remained largely +inoperative, though some steps were taken to promote education on +Western lines, to readjust the land tax, and especially to reorganize +the military forces (though on provincial rather than on a national +basis). The building of railways was also pushed on, but the dowager +empress was probably at heart as reactionary as she had proved in 1898. +The emperor himself from his return to Peking until the day of his death +appeared to have little influence on public affairs. The most +disquieting feature of the situation in the years immediately following +the return of the court to Peking was the continued efforts of Russia to +obtain full control of Manchuria and a predominant influence in north +China. The Chinese government was powerless to stem the advance of +Russia, and the dowager empress herself was credited with indifference +to the fate of Manchuria. It was the menace to other powers, notably +Japan, involved in Russia's action which precipitated an issue in which +the destinies of China were involved. Before considering the results of +that struggle (the Russo-Japanese War) the chief events of the years +1902-1905 may be outlined. + + + Relations with Europeans. + +The dowager empress from the day of her return from Si-gan-fu set +herself to conciliate the foreign residents in Peking. Many foreign +onlookers were gathered on the wall of the Tatar city to witness the +return of the court, and to these the dowager empress made a deep bow +twice, an apparently trivial incident which made a lasting impression. +On the 1st of February following the dowager empress received the ladies +of the various embassies, when she bewailed the attack on the legations, +entertained her guests to tea and presented each with articles of +jewelry, and from that time onward, as occasion offered, Tsz'e Hsi +exchanged compliments and civilities with the foreign ladies in Peking. +Moreover, Sir Robert Hart--after having been nearly forty years in +China--was now presented at court, as well as Bishop Favier and others. +Henceforth attacks on foreigners received no direct encouragement at +court. Tung Fu-hsiang,[57] who had been banished to the remote province +of Kan-suh, had at his command there his old Boxer troops, and his +attitude caused anxiety at the end of 1902. He was said to have received +support from Prince Tuan--who had been obliged to retire to +Mongolia--but events proved that the power or the intention of these +reactionaries to create trouble had been miscalculated. There were +indeed serious Boxer disturbances in Sze-ch'uen in 1902, but they were +put down by a new viceroy sent from Peking. Notwithstanding the murder +of fifteen missionaries during 1902-1905, there was in general a marked +improvement in the relations between the missionaries, the official +classes and the bulk of the people, and an eagerness was shown in +several provinces to take advantage of their educational work. This was +specially marked in Hu-nan, a province which had been for long hostile +to missionary endeavours. Illustrative of the attitude of numbers of +high officials was the attendance of the viceroy of Sze-ch'uen, with the +whole of his staff, at the opening in 1905 at Cheng-tu of new buildings +of the Canadian Methodist Mission. This friendly attitude towards the +missions was due in part to the influence of Chinese educated abroad and +also, to a large extent, to the desire to take advantage of Western +culture. The spread of this new spirit was coincident with an agitation +for independence of foreign control and the determination of the Chinese +to use modern methods to attain their ends. Thus in 1905 there was an +extensive boycott of American goods throughout China, as a retaliatory +measure for the exclusion of Chinese from the United States. Regarding +China as a whole the attitude of the people towards Europeans was held +to indicate that the general view was, not that the Boxer teaching was +false, but that the spirits behind Western religion were more powerful +than those behind Boxer-dom. The spiritual prestige of Christianity and +respect for the power of the foreigner were direct outcomes of the +failure of the Boxers.[58] The British expedition to Tibet in 1904, the +occupation of Lhassa in August of that year, the flight of the Dalai +Lama to Mongolia, gave grave concern to the Chinese government--which +showed much persistence in enforcing its suzerain rights in Tibet--but +did not, apparently, cause any ill-feeling towards Great Britain among +the Chinese people--who viewed with seeming equanimity the flight of the +head of the Buddhist religion from the headquarters of that faith. The +country generally was peaceful, a rebellion in Kwang-si--where a +terrible famine occurred in 1903--being suppressed in 1904 by the forces +of the viceroy at Canton. + + + Commercial and railway progress. + +The expiatory measures required of China in connexion with the Boxer +rising were carried through. China during 1902 recovered possession of +the Peking-Tientsin railway and of the city of Tientsin, which was +evacuated by the foreign troops in August of that year. The foreign +troops were also all withdrawn from Shanghai by January 1903. The +conclusion of a new commercial treaty between Great Britain and China in +September 1902 has already been recorded. The payment of the indemnity +instalments occasioned some dispute owing to the fall in silver in 1902, +but the rise in the value of the tael in subsequent years led China to +agree to the payment of the indemnity on a gold basis. The increase in +revenue was a notable feature of the maritime customs in 1903-1905. This +result was in part due to the new arrangements under the commercial +treaty of 1902, and in part to the opening up of the country by +railways. In especial the great trunk line from Peking to Hankow was +pushed on. The line, including a bridge nearly 2 m. long over the Yellow +river was completed and opened for traffic in 1905. The first section of +the Shanghai-Nanking railway was opened in the same year. At this time +the Chinese showed a strong desire to obtain the control of the various +lines. During 1905, for instance, the Canton-Hankow railway concession +was repurchased by the Chinese government from an American company, +while the Pekin Syndicate, a British concern, also sold their railway in +Ho-nan to the Chinese government. + + + Manchuria. + +Russia's action regarding Manchuria overshadowed, however, all other +concerns during this period. The withdrawal of the proposed +Russo-Chinese agreement of 1901 has been chronicled. The Russian +government had, however, no intention of abandoning its hold on +Manchuria. It aimed not only at effective military control but the +reservation to Russian subjects of mining, railway and commercial +rights. Both the sovereignty of China and the commercial interests of +other nations were menaced. This led to action by various powers. The +preamble of the Anglo-Japanese treaty of the 30th of January 1902 +declared the main motives of the contracting parties to be the +maintenance of the independence and territorial integrity of China and +Korea, and the securing of equal opportunities in those countries for +the commerce and industry of all nations, i.e. the policy of the "open +door." Protests were lodged by Great Britain, Japan and the United +States against the grant of exclusive rights to Russian subjects in +Manchuria. Russia asserted her intention to respect the commercial +rights of other nations, and on the 8th of April 1902 an agreement was +signed at Peking which appeared to show the good faith of the Russian +government, as it provided for the withdrawal of the Russian troops in +Manchuria within eighteen months from that date. In accordance with this +agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang railway was transferred to China +in October 1902 and the district between Shan-hai-kwan and the Liao +river evacuated by Russia. But it soon appeared that Russia's hold on +the country had not relaxed. Advantage was taken of the terms of +concession granted in August 1896 to the Russo-Chinese Bank[59] to erect +towns for Russian colonists and to plant garrisons along the line of +railway, and to exclude Chinese jurisdiction altogether from the railway +zone. The so-called evacuation became in fact the concentration of the +Russian forces along the line of railway. Moreover, the maritime customs +at Niu-chwang were retained by the Russo-Chinese Bank despite protests +from the Chinese imperial authorities, and a Russian civil +administration was established at that port. The evacuation of southern +Manchuria should have taken place in April 1903, but in that month, +instead of fulfilling the conditions of the 1902 agreement, the Russian +chargé d'affaires in Peking made a series of further demands upon China, +including the virtual reservation of the commerce of Manchuria for +Russian subjects. Though Russia officially denied to the British and +American governments that she had made these demands, it was +demonstrated that they had been made. The United States and Japan +thereupon insisted that China should conclude with them commercial +treaties throwing open Mukden and two ports on the Yalu river to foreign +trade. The American treaty was signed on the 8th of October 1903--the +day fixed for the complete evacuation of Manchuria by Russia--and the +Japanese treaty on the day following. Both treaties provided that the +ports should be opened after ratifications had been exchanged. From fear +of Russia China, however, delayed the ratification of the treaties. +Meantime, in August 1903, a regular through railway service between +Moscow and Port Arthur was established. In the same month a Russian +Viceroyalty of the Far East was created which in effect claimed +Manchuria as a Russian province. In September Russia withdrew some of +the demands she had made in April, but her concessions proved illusory. +When the 8th of October passed and it was seen that the Russians had not +withdrawn their troops[60] there issued for a time threats of war from +Peking. Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, who had at his command +some 65,000 troops trained by Japanese officers, pressed on the +government the necessity of action. At this point Japan intervened. Her +interests were vitally affected by Russia's action not only in +Manchuria, but in Korea, and seeing that China was powerless the +Japanese government negotiated directly with St Petersburg. In these +negotiations Russia showed that she would not yield her position in +either country except to force. Japan chose the issue of war and proved +successful. + + + Lessons of the Russo-Japanese War. + +The Russo-Japanese War did not very greatly alter China's position in +Manchuria. In the southern part of that country Japan succeeded to the +special privileges Russia had wrung from China (including the lease of +Port Arthur); in the north Russia remained in possession of the railway +zone. For Japan's position as at once the legatee of special privileges +and the champion of China's territorial integrity and "the open door" +see JAPAN, § _History_. However, the attitude of Japan was more +conciliatory than that of Russia had been; Mukden and other places were +thrown open to foreign trade and Chinese civil administration was +re-established. The important results of the war, so far as China was +concerned, were not to be looked for in Manchuria, but in the new spirit +generated in the Chinese. They had been deeply humiliated by the fact +that in the struggle between Russia and Japan China had been treated as +a negligible quantity, and that the war had been fought on Chinese +territory. The lesson which the loot of Peking and the fall of the +Boxers in 1900 had half taught was now thoroughly mastered; the +awakening of China was complete. The war had shown that when an Eastern +race adopted Western methods it was capable of defeating a European +nation. + + + Army reform. + +It was fortunate that among the influential advisers of the throne at +this time (1905-1908) were Prince Chun (the prince who had visited +Germany in 1901), Yuan Shih-kai, the viceroy of Chih-li, and Chang +Chih-tung, the viceroy of Hu-kwang (i.e. the provinces of Hu-peh and +Hu-nan), all men of enlightened and strong character. In 1907 both the +viceroys named were summoned to Peking and made members of the grand +council, of which Prince Ching, a man of moderate views, was president. +Yuan Shih-kai was an open advocate of a reform of the civil service, of +the abolition of Manchu privileges, of education and other matters. He +had specially advocated the reconstitution of the military forces of the +empire, and in Chih-li in 1905 he demonstrated before a number of +foreign military attachés the high efficiency attained by the forces of +the metropolitan province. The success achieved by Yuan Shih-kai in this +direction incited Chang Chih-tung to follow his example, while a decree +from the throne called upon the princes and nobles of China to give +their sons a military education. The formerly despised military +profession was thus made honourable, and with salutary effects. The +imperial princes sought high commands, officers were awarded ranks and +dignities comparable with those of civil servants, and the pay of the +troops was increased. The new foreign drilled northern army was called +upon to furnish a large proportion of a force sent under Prince Su into +Mongolia--a country which had been on the point of falling into the +hands of Russia, but over which, as one result of the Russo-Japanese +War, China recovered control. In 1906 a step was taken towards the +formation of a national army by withdrawing portions of the troops from +provincial control and placing them under officers responsible to the +central government, which also took over the charge of the provincial +arsenals. In the years which followed further evidence was given of the +earnestness and success with which the military forces were being +reorganized. Less attention was given to naval affairs, but in the +autumn of 1909 a naval commission under Tsai Hsün, a brother of the +emperor Kwang-su, was sent to Europe to report on the steps necessary +for the re-establishment of a fleet. Previously (in 1907) societies had +been started in several provinces to collect funds for naval purposes. + + + A parliamentary constitution promised. + +The most striking evidence of the change which had occurred was, +however, the appointment (in 1905) of an Imperial Commission, headed by +Prince Tsai Tse, to study the administrative systems of foreign +countries with a view to the possible establishment of a representative +government in China. The revolutionary nature of this proposal excited +indignation among the adherents to the old order, and a bomb was thrown +among the commissioners as they were preparing to leave Peking.[61] +After visiting Japan, America and Europe the commission returned to +Peking in July 1906.[62] A committee over which Prince Ching presided +was appointed to study the commission's report, and on the 1st of +September following an edict was issued in which the establishment of a +parliamentary form of government was announced, at a date not fixed. To +fit the country for this new form of government (the edict went on to +declare) the administration must be reformed, the laws revised, +education promoted and the finances regulated. This edict, moreover, was +but one of many edicts issued in 1906 and following years which showed +how great a break with the past was contemplated. In November 1906 two +edicts were issued with the object of reorganizing the central +administrative offices. Their effect was to simplify the conduct of +business, many useless posts being abolished, while an audit board was +created to examine the national accounts. In November 1907 another edict +was promulgated stating that for the present the formation of Houses of +Lords and of Commons to determine all public questions was not +practicable, but that it was proposed, as a preliminary measure, to +create an Imperial Assembly. At the same time a scheme of provincial +councils was ordered to be prepared. A more definite step followed in +1908 when a decree (dated the 27th of August) announced the convocation +of a parliament in the ninth year from that date. + + + The control of the Maritime Customs. + +One of the changes made in the public offices brought China into +conflict with Great Britain. On the 9th of May 1906 a decree appointed +Chinese commissioners to control the Imperial Maritime Customs.[63] This +was the only department of the government under European (British) +control, and the only department also against which no charge of +inefficiency or corruption could be brought. The change decreed by China +was in accord with the new national sentiment, but by all the foreign +powers interested it was felt that it would be a retrograde step if the +customs were taken out of the control of Sir Robert Hart (q.v.), who had +been since 1863 inspector-general of the customs. The British secretary +of state for foreign affairs (Sir Edward Grey) at once protested against +the decree of the 6th of May, pointing out that the continuation of the +established system had been stipulated for in the loan agreements of +1896 and 1898. As a result of this and other representations the Board +of Control of the Customs was late in 1906 made a department of the +Board of Finance. The Chinese controllers-general continued in office, +and despite the assurances given to Great Britain by China (in a note of +the 6th of June 1906) that the appointment of the controllers-general +was not intended to interfere with the established system of +administration, the absolute authority of Sir Robert Hart was +weakened.[64] Sir Robert Hart returned to England in 1908 "on leave of +absence," Sir Robert Bredon, the deputy inspector-general, being placed +in charge of the service under the authority of the Board of Control, of +which on the 5th of April 1910 it was announced that he had been +appointed a member. This step was viewed with disfavour by the British +government, for, unless Sir Robert Bredon's post was to be merely a +sinecure, it imposed two masters on the maritime customs. On the 20th of +April Sir Robert Bredon severed his connexion with the Board of Control. +At the same time Mr F.A. Aglen (the Commissioner of Customs at Hankow) +became acting Inspector General (Sir Robert Hart being still nominally +head of the service). The attempt on the part of the Chinese to control +the customs was evidence of the strength of the "young China" or +Recovery of Rights party--the party which aspired to break all the +chains, such as extra-territoriality, which stamped the country as not +the equal of the other great nations.[65] + + + The anti-opium agitation. + +In the steps taken to suppress opium smoking evidence was forthcoming of +the earnestness with which the governing body in China sought to better +the condition of the people. Opium smoking followed, in China, the +introduction of tobacco smoking, and is stated to have been introduced +from Java and Formosa in the early part of the 17th century. The first +edict against the habit was issued in 1729. At that time the only +foreign opium introduced was by the Portuguese from Goa, who exported +about 200 chests[66] a year. In 1773 English merchants in India entered +into the trade, which in 1781 was taken over by the East India +Company--the import in 1790 being over 4000 chests. In 1796 the +importation of foreign opium was declared contraband, and between 1839 +and 1860 the central government attempted, without success, to suppress +the trade. It was legalized in 1858 after the second "opium war" with +Great Britain. At that time the poppy was extensively grown in China, +and the bulk of the opium smoked was, and continued to be, of home +manufacture. But after 1860 the importation of opium from India greatly +increased. Opium was also imported from Persia (chiefly to Formosa, +which in 1895 passed into the possession of Japan). The total foreign +import in 1863 was some 70,000 piculs,[67] in 1879 it was 102,000 +piculs, but in 1905 had fallen to 56,000 piculs. The number of opium +smokers in China in the early years of the 20th century was estimated at +from 25 to 30 millions. The evil effects of opium smoking were fully +recognized, and Chang Chih-tung, one of the most powerful of the +opponents of the habit, was high in the councils of the dowager-empress. +On the 20th of September 1906 an edict was issued directing that the +growth, sale and consumption of opium should cease in China within ten +years, and ordering the officials to take measures to execute the +imperial will. The measures promulgated, in November following, made the +following provisions:-- + + (1) The cultivation of the poppy to be restricted annually by + one-tenth of its existing area; (2) all persons using opium to be + registered; (3) all shops selling opium to be gradually closed, and + all places where opium is smoked to discontinue the practice within + six months; (4) anti-opium societies to be officially encouraged, and + medicines distributed to cure the opium-smoking habit; (5) all + officials were requested to set an example to the people, and all + officials under sixty were required to abandon opium smoking within + six months or to withdraw from the service of the state. + +It was estimated that the suppression of opium smoking would entail a +yearly loss of revenue of over £1,600,000, a loss about equally divided +between the central and provincial governments. The first step taken to +enforce the edict was the closing of the opium dens in Peking on the +last day of 1906. + + During 1907 the opium dens in Shanghai, Canton, Fu-chow and many other + large cities were closed, and restrictions on the issue of licences + were introduced in the foreign settlements; even the eunuchs of the + palace were prohibited from smoking opium under severe penalties. The + central government continued during 1908 and 1909 to display + considerable energy in the suppression of the use of opium, but the + provincial authorities were not all equally energetic. It was noted in + 1908 that while in some provinces--even in Yun-nan, where its + importance tc trade and commerce and its use as currency seemed to + render it very difficult to do anything effective--the governor and + officials were whole-hearted in carrying out the imperial regulations, + in other provinces--notably in Kwei-chow and in the provinces of the + lower Yangtsze valley--great supineness was exhibited in dealing with + the subject. Lord William Cecil, however, stated that travelling in + 1909 between Peking and Hankow, through country which in 1907 he had + seen covered with the poppy, he could not then see a single poppy + flower, and that going up the Yangtsze he found only one small patch + of poppy cultivation.[68] The Peking correspondent of _The Times_, in + a journey to Turkestan in the early part of 1910, found that in + Shen-si province the people's desire to suppress the opium trade was + in advance of the views of the government. Every day trains of opium + carts were passed travelling under official protection. But in the + adjoining province of Shan-si there had been complete suppression of + poppy cultivation and in Kan-suh the officials were conducting a very + vigorous campaign against the growth of the poppy.[69] + + In their endeavours to suppress opium smoking the Chinese government + appealed to the Indian government for help, and in 1907 received a + promise that India would decrease the production of opium annually by + one-tenth for four years and subsequently if China did likewise. The + Indian government also assented to Indian opium being taxed equally + with Chinese opium, but China did not raise the duty on foreign opium. + In 1908 the Indian government undertook to reduce the amount of opium + exported by 5100 chests yearly. In the same year the opium dens in + Hong-Kong were closed. In February 1909, on the initiative of the + United States, an international conference was held at Shanghai to + consider the opium trade and habit. At this conference the Chinese + representative claimed that the consumption of opium had already been + reduced by one-half--a claim not borne out by the ascertained facts. + The conference was unable to suggest any heroic measures, but a number + of proposals were agreed to (including the closing of opium dens in + the foreign settlements), tending to the restriction of the opium + trade. The conference also dealt with another and growing habit in + China--the use of morphia.[70] Japan agreed to prohibit the export of + morphia to China, a prohibition to which the other powers had + previously agreed. + + + Education. + +The attempts to reform the educational system of China on a +comprehensive scale date from the year of the return of the court to +Peking after the Boxer troubles. In 1902 regulations were sanctioned by +the emperor which aimed at remodelling the methods of public +instruction. These regulations provided among other things for the +establishment at Peking of a university giving instruction in Western +learning, a technical college, and a special department for training +officials and teachers. A much more revolutionary step was taken in +September 1905 when a decree appeared announcing as from the beginning +of 1906 the abolition of the existing method of examinations. The new +system was to include the study of modern sciences, history, geography +and foreign languages, and in the higher grades political economy and +civil and international law. Thousands of temples were converted to +educational purposes. In Canton, in 1907, the old examination hall was +demolished to make way for a college with every appliance on Western +lines. Equal zeal was noticeable in such conservative cities as +Si-gan-fu, and in remote provinces like Kan-suh. By May 1906 fifteen +so-called universities had been founded. Moreover, many young Chinese +went abroad to acquire education--in Japan alone in 1906 there were +13,000 students. In the same year primary schools for girls were +established.[71] Perhaps the most striking evidence of the new spirit +regarding education was the tenour of a communication to the throne from +the head of the Confucian family. On the 31st of December 1906 an +imperial edict had appeared raising Confucius to the same rank as Heaven +and Earth--an action taken to indicate the desire of the government to +emphasize the value of ethical training. In thanking the throne for the +honour conferred on his ancestor the head of the family urged that at +the new college founded at the birth-place of Confucius the teaching +should include foreign languages, physical culture, political science +and military drill.[72] + +While China, with the consent of the emperor and the empress-dowager, +and under the guidance of Prince Ching, Yuan Shih-kai and Chang +Chih-tung, was endeavouring to bring about internal reforms, her +attitude to foreign powers was one of reserve and distrust. This was +especially marked in the negotiations with Japan and with Russia +concerning Manchuria, and was seen also in the negotiations with Great +Britain concerning Tibet. It was not until April 1908, after four +years' negotiations, that a convention with Great Britain respecting +Tibet was signed, Chinese suzerain rights being respected. In September +the Dalai Lama arrived in Peking from Mongolia and was received by the +emperor, who also gave audience to a Nepalese mission.[73] + + + Death of the emperor and of the dowager empress. + +The emperor Kwang-su had witnessed, without being able to guide, the new +reform movement. In August 1908 an edict was issued in his name +announcing the convocation of a parliament in nine years' time. In +November he died. His death occasioned no surprise, as disquieting +reports about his health had been current since July, but the +announcement that the dowager empress died on the 15th of November (the +day after that on which the emperor was officially stated to have died) +was totally unexpected. She had celebrated her birthday on the 3rd of +November and appeared then to be in good health. The empress dowager had +taken part in the choice of a successor to the throne, Kwang-su's +valedictory edict had been drawn up under her supervision, and it is +believed that the emperor died some days previous to the date officially +given for his death. Kwang-su died childless and was succeeded by his +infant nephew Pu-Yi (born on the 8th of February 1906), a son of Prince +Chun, who was appointed regent. Prince Chun--himself then only +twenty-six years old--had exercised considerable influence at court +since his mission to Germany in 1901, and was one of the most +enlightened of the Manchu princes. The death of the dowager empress +removed a powerful obstacle to a reformed regime, and with her passed +away the last prominent representative of the old era in China. + + + Accession of Hsuan Tung. + +The accession to the throne of Pu-Yi, who was given as reigning title +Hsuan Tung ("promulgating universally"), was unaccompanied by +disturbances, save for an outbreak at Ngan-king, easily suppressed. +Prince Chun had the support of Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung,[74] +the two most prominent Chinese members of the government at Peking--and +thus a division between the Manchus and Chinese was avoided. On the 2nd +of December 1908 the young emperor was enthroned with the usual rites. +On the day following another edict, which, it was stated, had had the +approval of the late dowager empress, was issued, reaffirming that of +the 27th of August regarding the grant of a parliamentary constitution +in nine years' time, and urging the people to prepare themselves for the +change. Other edicts sought to strengthen the position of the regent as +_de facto_ emperor. Yuan Shih-kai and Chang Chih-tung received the title +of Grand Guardians of the Heir, and the year 1908 closed with the chief +Chinese members of the government working, apparently, in complete +harmony with the regent. + + + Dismissal of Yuan Shih-kai. + + Agreement with Japan. + +On the 1st of January 1909, however, the political situation was rudely +disturbed by the dismissal from office of Yuan Shih-kai. This step led +to representations by the British and American ministers to Prince +Ching, the head of the foreign office, by whom assurances were given +that no change of policy was contemplated by China, while the regent in +a letter to President Taft reiterated the determination of his +government to carry through its reform policy. The dismissal of Yuan +Shih-kai was believed by the Chinese to be due to his "betrayal" of the +emperor Kwang-su in the 1898 reform movement. He had nevertheless +refused to go to extremes on the reactionary side, and in 1900, as +governor of Shan-tung, he preserved a neutrality which greatly +facilitated the relief of the Peking legations. During the last years +of the life of the dowager empress it was his influence which largely +reconciled her to the new reform movement. Yet Kwang-su had not +forgotten the _coup d'état_ of 1898, and it is alleged that he left a +testament calling upon his brother the prince regent to avenge the +wrongs he had suffered.[75] During the greater part of the year there +was serious estrangement between China and Japan, but on the 4th of +September a convention was signed which settled most of the points in +dispute respecting Manchuria and Korea. In Korea the boundary was +adjusted so that Chientao, a mountainous district in eastern Manchuria +regarded as the ancestral home of the reigning families of China and +Korea, was definitely assigned to China; while in Manchuria, both as to +railways and mines, a policy of co-operation was substituted for one of +opposition.[76] Although Japan had made substantial concessions, those +made by China in return provoked loud complaints from the southern +provinces--the self-government society calling for the dismissal of +Prince Ching. In northern Manchuria the Russian authorities had assumed +territorial jurisdiction at Harbin, but on the 4th of May an agreement +was signed recognizing Chinese jurisdiction.[77] + + + The control of railways. + +The spirit typified by the cry of "China for the Chinese" was seen +actively at work in the determined efforts made to exclude foreign +capital from railway affairs. The completion in October 1909 of the +Peking-Kalgan railway was the cause of much patriotic rejoicing. The +railway, a purely Chinese undertaking, is 122 m. long and took four +years to build. It traversed difficult country, piercing the Nan K'ow +Pass by four tunnels, one under the Great Wall being 3580 ft. long. +There was much controversy between foreign financiers, generally backed +by their respective governments, as to the construction of other lines. +In March 1909 the Deutschasiatische Bank secured a loan of £3,000,000 +for the construction of the Canton-Hankow railway. This concession was +contrary to an undertaking given in 1905 to British firms and was +withdrawn, but only in return for the admittance of German capital in +the Sze-ch'uen railway. After prolonged negotiations an agreement was +signed in Paris on the 24th of May 1910 for a loan of £6,000,000 for the +construction of the railway from Hankow to Sze-ch'uen, in which British, +French, German and American interests were equally represented. In +January 1910 the French line from Hanoi to Yunnan-fu was opened;[78] the +railway from Shanghai to Nanking was opened for through traffic in 1909. + + + Provincial Assemblies constituted. A senate formed. + +The progress of the anti-opium movement and the dispute over the control +of the Imperial Maritime Customs have already been chronicled. A notable +step was taken in 1909 by the institution of elected assemblies in each +of the provinces. The franchise on which the members were elected was +very limited, and the assemblies were given consultative powers only. +They were opened on the 14th of October (the 1st day of the 9th moon). +The businesslike manner in which these assemblies conducted their work +was a matter of general comment among foreign observers in China.[79] In +February 1910 decrees appeared approving schemes drawn up by the +Commission for Constitutional Reforms, providing for local government in +prefectures and departments and for the reform of the judiciary. This +was followed on the 9th of May by another decree summoning the senate to +meet for the first time on the 1st day of the 9th moon (the 3rd of +October 1910). All the members of the senate were nominated, and the +majority were Manchus. Neither to the provincial assemblies nor to the +senate was any power of the purse given, and the drawing up of a budget +was postponed until 1915.[80] + + + Anti-dynastic movements. Riots in Hu-nan. + +The efforts of the central government to increase the efficiency of the +army and to re-create a navy were continued in 1910. China was credited +with the intention of spending £40,000,000 on the rehabilitation of its +naval and military forces. It was estimated in March 1910 that there +were about 200,000 foreign-trained men, but their independent spirit and +disaffection constituted a danger to internal peace. The danger was +accentuated by the mutual jealousy of the central and provincial +governments. The anti-dynastic agitation, moreover, again seemed to be +growing in strength. In April 1910 there was serious rioting at +Changsha, Hu-nan, a town whence a few years previously had issued a +quantity of anti-foreign literature of a vile kind. The immediate causes +of the riots seem to have been many: rumours of the intention of the +foreign powers to dismember China, the establishment of foreign firms at +Changsha competing with native firms and exporting rice and salt at a +time when the province was suffering from famine, and the approach of +Halley's comet. Probably famine precipitated the outbreak, which was +easily crushed, as was also a rising in May at Yung chow, a town in the +south of Hu-nan. Much mission and mercantile property was wrecked at +Changsha, but the only loss of life was the accidental drowning of three +Roman Catholic priests. + + + The regent's policy. + +An edict of the 17th of August 1910 effected considerable and unexpected +changes in the personnel of the central government. Tang Shao-yi, a +former lieutenant of Yuan Shih-kai, was appointed president of the Board +of Communications, and to him fell the difficult task of reconciling +Chinese and foreign interests in the development of the railway system. +Sheng Kung-pao regarded as the chief Chinese authority on currency +questions, and an advocate of the adoption of a gold standard, was +attached to the Board of Finance to help in the reforms decreed by an +edict of May of the same year (see ante, _Currency_). The issue of the +edict was attributed to the influence with the regent of Prince +Tsai-tao, who had recently returned from a tour in Europe, where he had +specially studied questions of national defence. The changes made among +the high officials tended greatly to strengthen the central +administration. The government had viewed with some disquiet the +Russo-Japanese agreement of the 4th of July concerning Manchuria (which +was generally interpreted as in fact lessening the authority of China in +that country); it had become involved in another dispute with Great +Britain, which regarded some of the measures taken to suppress opium +smoking as a violation of the terms of the Chifu convention, and its +action in Tibet had caused alarm in India. Thus the appointment to high +office of men of enlightenment, pledged to a reform policy, was +calculated to restore confidence in the policy of the Peking +authorities. This confidence would have been greater had not the changes +indicated a struggle for supreme power between the regent and the +dowager empress Lung Yu, widow of Kwang-su. + +The strength of the various movements at work throughout China was at +this time extremely difficult to gauge; the intensity of the desire for +the acquisition of Western knowledge was equalled by the desire to +secure the independence of the country from foreign control. The second +of these desires gave the force it possessed to the anti-dynastic +movement. At the same time some of the firmest supporters of reform were +found among the Manchus, nor did there seem to be any reason to doubt +the intention of the regent--if he retained power--to guide the nation +through the troubled period of transition into an era of constitutional +government and the full development of the resources of the empire. + (X.) + + +PLATE I. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--KU K'AI-CHIH. TOILET SCENE. (British Museum. 4th +Cent. A.D.).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ATTRIBUTED TO WU TAOTZÜ. SAKYAMUNI. (8th Cent.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--CHAO MÊNG-FU, AFTER WANG WEI (8th CENT.). SCENE +ON THE WANG CH'UAN. (Dated 1309. British Museum.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--HSÜ HSI. BIRD ON APPLE-BOUGH. (10th Cent.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--CHIEN SHUN-CHU. THE EMPEROR HUAN-YEH. (15th +Cent.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--KIU YING. COURT LADIES. (British Museum. 15th +Cent.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.--EAGLE. By LIN LIANG. (15th Cent. British +Museum.)] + +Figs. 2, 4, and 5 are reproduced by permission of the Kokka Company, +Tokyo. + + +PLATE II + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.--TEMPLE VASE (c. 1200 B.C.).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.--WINE VASE (c. 1000 B.C.).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11--WINE VASE (c. 600 B.C.).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.--INLAID VESSEL (C. 500 B.C.).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.--WINE VESSEL (c. 100 B.C.).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--INLAID VASE (c. 200 A.D.). In possession of +C.J. Holmes.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.--VASE (c. 1450 A.D.).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--WINE VESSEL (c. 1450 A.D.).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--TEMPLE VASE (c. 1700 A.D.).] + + + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE.--Knowledge of the ancient history of China is + necessarily derived from the native writers on the subject. + Fortunately, the Chinese have always regarded the preservation of the + national records as a matter of supreme importance. Confucius set an + example in this respect, and has preserved for us in the _Spring and + Autumn Annals_ and the _Shu-king_, or _Book of History_, records of + his country's progress during the past and then present centuries. The + celebrated emperor Shih Hwang-ti, in establishing the empire, + attempted to strengthen his cause by destroying all works on the + national history. But so strongly was the historical sense inculcated + in the people that immediately on the death of the tyrant the + nation's records were again brought to light, and have been carefully + preserved and edited since that time. Prof. Legge's translation of the + _Spring and Autumn Annals_ and the _Shu-king, or Book of History_, in + the "Sacred Books of the East" series, have opened for students the + stores of historical knowledge which were at the command of Confucius, + and European writers on Chinese history have found in the dynastic + annals a never-failing source of valuable information. It was from + these works and epitomes of these that de Maillac gathered the facts + for his celebrated _Histoire générale de la Chine_, and it is from + similar sources that all other writers on Chinese history have drawn + their inspiration. + + The following works on ancient and modern Chinese history may be + specially mentioned: J.A. de Moyria de Maillac, _Histoire générale de + la Chine_ (1777), &c.; J B. du Halde, _General History of China_ (4 + vols., 1736); M. de Guignes, _Voyages à Péking ..._ (3 vols., 1808); + D. Boulger, _A History of China_ (3 vols., 1881); Valentine Chirol, + _The Far Eastern Question_ (1896); E.R. Huc, _The Chinese Empire_ (2 + vols., 1855); T.T. Meadows, _The Chinese and their Rebellions_ (1856); + G. Pauthier, _Histoire des relations politiques de la Chine avec les + puissances occidentales depuis les temps les plus anciens jusqu'à nos + jours ..._ (1859); Sir George Staunton, _Notes of Proceedings and + Occurrences during the British Embassy to Peking in 1816_ (1824); + _Chinese Expansion historically reviewed_, a paper read before the + Central Asian Society by Baron Suyematsu on January 11, 1905; F. + Hirth, _Ancient History of China_ (New York, 1908); Prof. Herbert A. + Giles's _Chinese Biographical Dictionary_ (1897) is a storehouse of + biographical detail and anecdote. + + For Chinese relations with foreign powers see H. Cordier, _Histoire + des relations de la Chine avec les puissances occidentales, 1860-1902_ + (3 vols., Paris, 1901-1902); _Hertslet's China Treaties. Treaties, + &c., between Great Britain and China, and between China and Foreign + Powers, and Orders in Council, &c., affecting British Interests in + China_ (3rd ed., revised by G.G.P. Hertslet and E. Parkes, London, + 1908); J.O. Bland and E. Backhouse, _China under the Empress Dowager_ + (London, 1910). More general works are Sir R.K. Douglas, _China_, + history since the time of Marco Polo (London, 1899); E.H. Parker, + _China; Her History, Diplomacy and Commerce_ (London, 1901); _China, + Past and Present_ (London, 1903); A.J. Sargent, _Anglo-Chinese + Commerce and Diplomacy_--mainly in the 19th century (Oxford, 1907). + For current affairs see the authorities cited in the footnotes. + + +VI. CHINESE ART + +1. _Painting._--Painting is the pre-eminent art of China, which can +boast of a succession of great painters for at least twelve centuries. +Though the Chinese have an instinctive gift for harmonious colour, their +painting is above all an art of _line_. It is intimately connected with +writing, itself a fine art demanding the same skill and supple power in +the wielding of the brush. The most typical expression of the Chinese +genius in painting is the ink sketch, such as the masters of the Sung +dynasty most preferred and the Japanese from the 15th century adopted +for an abiding model. Utmost vigour of stroke was here combined with +utmost delicacy of modulation. Rich colour and the use of gold are an +integral part of the Buddhist pictures, though in the masterpieces of +the religious painters a grand rhythm of linear design gives the +fundamental character. Exquisite subdued colour is also found in the +"flower and bird pieces" and still-life subjects of the Sung artists, +and becomes more emphatic and variegated in the decorative artists of +the Ming period. + +Not to represent facts, but to suggest a poetic idea (often perfumed, so +to speak, with reminiscence of some actual poem), has ever been the +Chinese artist's aim. "A picture is a voiceless poem" is an old saying +in China, where very frequently the artist was a literary man by +profession. Oriental critics lay more stress on loftiness of sentiment +and tone than on technical qualities. This idealist temper helps to +explain the deliberate avoidance of all emphasis on appearances of +material solidity by means of chiaroscuro, &c., and the exclusive use of +the light medium of water-colour. The Chinese express actual dislike for +the representation of relief. Whoever compares the painting of Europe +with that of Asia (and Chinese painting is the central type for the one +continent, as Italian may claim to be for the other) must first +understand this contrast of aim. The limitations of the Chinese are +great, but these limitations save them from mistaking advances in +science for advances in art, and from petty imitation of fact. Their +religious painting has great affinity with the early religious art of +Italy (e.g. that of Siena). But the ideas of the Renaissance, its +scientific curiosity, its materialism, its glorification of human +personality, are wholly missing in China. For Europe, Man is ever the +hero and the foreground--hence the dominant study of the nude, and the +tendency to thronged compositions, with dramatic motives of effort and +conflict. The Chinese artists, weak in the plastic, weak in the +architectural sense, paint mostly in a lyric mood, with a contemplative +ideal. Hence the value given to space in their designs, the +semi-religious passion for nature, and the supremacy of landscape. +Beauty is found not only in pleasant prospects, but in wild solitudes, +rain, snow and storm. The life of things is contemplated and portrayed +for its own sake, not for its uses in the life of men. From this point +of view the body of Chinese painting is much more modern in conception +than that of Western art. Landscape was a mature and free art in China +more than a thousand years ago, and her school of landscape is the +loftiest yet known to the world. Nor was man ever dissociated from +nature. As early as the 4th century Ku K'ai-chih says that in painting a +certain noble character he must give him a fit background of great peaks +and deep ravines. Chinese painting, in sum, finely complements rather +than poorly supplements that of Europe; where the latter is strong, it +is weak; but in certain chosen provinces it long ago found consummate +expression for thoughts and feelings scarcely yet expressed with us. + + + History: Early periods (to A.D. 618). + +The origin of Chinese painting is lost in legend, though there is no +reason to doubt its great antiquity. References in literature prove that +by the 3rd century B.C. it was a developed art. To this period is +ascribed the invention of the hair-brush, in the use of which as an +instrument both for writing and drawing the Chinese have attained +marvellous skill; the usual material for the picture being woven silk, +or, less often and since the 1st century A.D., paper. In early times +wood panels were employed; and large compositions were painted on walls +prepared with white lime. These mural decorations have all disappeared. +History and portraiture seem to have been the prevailing subjects; a +secular art corresponding to the social ideals of Confucianism. Yet long +before the introduction of Buddhism (A.D. 67) with its images and +pictures, we find that the two great symbolic figures of the Chinese +imagination, the Tiger and the Dragon--typifying the forces of Nature +and the power of the Spirit--had been evolved in art; and to imaginative +minds the mystic ideas of Lao Tzü and the legends of his hermit +followers proved a fruitful field for artistic motives of a kind which +Buddhism was still more to enrich and multiply. Early classifications +rank Buddhist and Taoist subjects together as one class. + +With the 2nd century A.D. we come to individual names of artists and to +the beginnings of landscape. Ku K'ai-chih (4th century) ranks as one of +the greatest names of Chinese art. A painting by him now in the British +Museum (Plate I. fig. 1) shows a maturity which has nothing tentative +about it. The dignified and elegant types are rendered with a mastery of +sensitive brush-line which is not surpassed in later art. Ku K'ai-chih +painted all kinds of subjects, but excelled in portraiture. During the +next century the criticism of painting was formulated in six canons by +Hsieh Ho. Rhythm, organic or structural beauty, is the supreme quality +insisted on. + + + T'ang dynasty (A.D. 618-907). + +During the T'ang dynasty the empire expanded to its utmost limits, +stretching as far as the Persian Gulf. India was invaded; Buddhism, +taught by numbers of Indian missionaries, became firmly established, and +controlled the ideals and imaginations of the time. The vigorous style +of a great era was impressed upon the T'ang art, which culminated in Wu +Taotzü, universally acknowledged as the greatest of all Chinese +painters. It is doubtful if any of his work remains. The picture +reproduced (Plate I. fig. 2) was long attributed to him, but is now +thought to be of later date, like the two landscapes well known under +his name in Japan. Wu Taotzü seems to have given supreme expression to +the central subject of Buddhist art, the Nirvana of Buddha, who lies +serenely asleep, with all creation, from saints and kings to birds and +beasts, passionately bewailing him. The composition is known from +Japanese copies; and it is in fact from the early religious schools of +Japan that we can best conjecture the grandeur of the T'ang style. Wu +Taotzü excelled in all subjects: other masters are best known for some +particular one. Han Kan was famous for his horses, the models for +succeeding generations of painters, both Chinese and Japanese. A +specimen of his brush is in the British Museum; and in the same +collection is a long roll which gives a glimpse of the landscape of this +age. It is a copy by a great master of the Yuen dynasty, Chao Mêng-fu, +from a famous painting by Wang Wei, representing scenes on the Wang +Ch'uan, the latter's home (Plate I. fig. 3 shows a fragment). With the +T'ang age landscape matured, and two schools arose, one headed by Wang +Wei, the other by Li Ssü-hsün. The style of Wang Wei, who was equally +famous as a poet, had a romantic idealist character--disdainful of mere +fact--which in later developments created the "literary man's picture" +of the Southern school, as opposed to the vigorous naturalism of the +North. + + + Five dynasties (A.D. 907-960). + +Next come five brief dynasties, memorable less for any corporate style +or tradition, than for some fine painters like Hsü Hsi, famous for his +flowers, and Huang Ch'uan, a great master in a delicate style. Two +pictures by him, fowls and peonies, of extraordinary beauty, are in the +British Museum. + + + Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280). + +The empire, which had been broken up, was reunited, though shorn of its +outer dependencies, under the house of Sung. This was an age of culture +in which the freedom of the individual was proclaimed anew; glorious in +art as in poetry and philosophy; the period which for Asia stands in +history as the Periclean age for Europe. + + The religious paintings of Li Lung-mien, the grandest of Sung masters, + if less forcible than those of T'ang, were unsurpassed in harmonious + rhythm of design and colour. But the most characteristic painting of + this period is in landscape and nature-subjects. With a passion + unmatched in Europe till Wordsworth's day, the Sung artists portrayed + their delight in mountains, mists, plunging torrents, the flight of + the wild geese from the reed-beds, the moonlit reveries of sages in + forest solitudes, the fisherman in his boat on lake or stream. To them + also, steeped in the Zen philosophy of contemplation, a flowering + branch was no mere subject for a decorative study, but a symbol of the + infinite life of nature. A mere hint to the spectator's imagination is + often all that they rely on; proof of the singular fulness and reality + of the culture of the time. The art of suggestion has never been + carried farther. Such traditional subjects as "Curfew from a Distant + Temple" and "The Moon over Raging Waves" indicate the poetic + atmosphere of this art. Ma Yuan, Hsia Kuei and the emperor Hwei-tsung + are among the greatest landscape artists of this period. They belong + to the South Sung school, which loved to paint the gorges and towering + rock-pinnacles of the Yangtsze. The sterner, less romantic scenery of + the Hwang-Ho inspired the Northern school, of which Kuo Hsi and Li + Ch'eng were famous among many others. Muh Ki was one of the greatest + masters of the ink sketch; Chao Tan Lin was famed for his tigers; Li + Ti for his flowers as for his landscapes; Mao I for still-life: to + name a few among a host. + + + Yuen dynasty (A.D. 1280-1368). + +The Mongol dynasty continues in art the Sung tradition. Chao Mêng-fu, +the greatest master of his time, belongs to both periods, and ranks with +the highest names in Chinese painting. A landscape by him, copied from +Wang Wei, has been already mentioned as in the British Museum, which +also has two specimens of Yen Hui, a painter less known in his own +country than in Japan. He painted especially figures of Taoist legend. +The portrait by Ch'ien Shun-chü (Plate I. fig. 5) is a fine example of +purity of line and lovely colour, reminding us of Greek art. + + + Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1644). + +The simplicity of motive and directness of execution which had been the +strength of the Sung art gradually gave way during the Ming era to +complicated conceptions and elaborate effects. The high glow of life +faded; the lyrical temper and impassioned work of the Sung time were +replaced by love of ornament and elegance. In this respect Kiu Ying is +typical of the period, with his richly coloured scenes from court life +(Plate I. fig. 6). None the less, there were a number of painters who +still upheld the grander style of earlier ages. The greatest of these +was Lin Liang (Plate I. fig. 7), whose brush work, if somewhat coarser, +is as powerful as that of the Sung masters. But though individual +painters of the first rank preserved the Ming age from absolute decline, +it cannot be said that any new development of importance took place in a +vitalizing direction. + + + Tsing dynasty (from A.D. 1644). + +The present dynasty prolongs the history of Ming art. The literary +school of the South became more prominent, sending out offshoots in +Japan. There has been no movement of national life to be reflected in +art, though a great body of admirable painting has been produced, down +to the present day. The four landscape masters known as the "four +Wangs," Yün Shou-p'ing and Wu Li are pre-eminent names. + + SOURCES AND AUTHORITIES.--While the designs on porcelain, screens, + &c., have long been admired in the West, the paintings of which these + are merely reproductions have been utterly ignored. Ignorance has + gained authority with time, till the very existence of a great school + of Chinese painting has been denied. Materials for study are scanty. + Fires, wars and the recent armed ravages of Western civilization have + left but little. The profound indifference of the Chinese to European + admiration has prevented their collections from being known. The + Japanese, always enthusiastic students and collectors of the + continental art, claim (whether justly or not, is hard to ascertain) + that the finest specimens are now in their country. Many of these are + reproduced in the invaluable Tokyo publications, the _Kokka_, Mr + Tajima's _Select Relics_, &c., with Japanese criticisms in English. Of + actual paintings the British Museum possesses a fair number, and the + Louvre a few, of real importance. Copies and forgeries abound. + + See H.A. Giles, _Introduction to the History of Chinese Pictorial Art_ + (1905); F. Hirth, _Scraps from a Collector's Note-Book_ (1905), + (supplements Giles's work and especially valuable for the art of the + Ch'ing dynasty); S.W. Bushell, _Chinese Art_, vol. ii. (1906); K. + Okakura, _Ideals of the East_ (1903); M. Paléologue, _L'Art chinois_ + (1887); W. Anderson, _Catalogue of Japanese and Chinese Paintings_ + (1886); Sei-ichi Taki, "Chinese Landscape Painting," _The Kokka_, Nos. + 191, &c. (1906); _Chinesische Malereien aus der Sammlung Hirth_ + (Catalogue of an exhibition held at Dresden) (1897); W. von Seidlitz, + article in _Kunstchronik_ (1896-1897), No. 16. + +2. _Engraving_.--According to native historians, the art of printing +from wooden blocks was invented in China in the 6th century A.D., when +it was employed for the publication of texts. The earliest evidence we +have for the existence of woodcuts made to reproduce pictures or +drawings is a passage in a work by Chang Yen-yüan, from which it appears +that these were not made before the beginning of the T'ang dynasty, +under which that author lived. The method employed was to cut the design +with a knife on the plank of the wood, in the manner followed by +European artists till the end of the 18th century, when engraving with a +burin on boxwood ousted the older process. The Japanese borrowed the art +from China; and in Japan a whole school of artists arose who worked +specially for the woodcutters and adapted their designs to the +limitations of the material employed. In China the art has remained +merely reproductive, and its history is therefore of less interest. +_Printing in colours_ was known to the Chinese in the 17th century, and +probably earlier. In the British Museum is a set of prints brought from +the East by Kaempfer in 1693, in which eight colours and elaborate +_gauffrage_ are used. Some fine albums of colour prints have been issued +in China, but nothing equal in beauty to the prints produced in Japan by +the co-operation of woodcutter and designer. _Engraving on copper_ was +introduced to China by the Jesuits, and some well-known sets of prints +illustrating campaigns in Mongolia were made in the 18th century. But +the method has never proved congenial to the artists of the Far East. + + See Sir R.K. Douglas, _Guide to the Chinese and Japanese Illustrated + Books_ (British Museum, 1887); W. Anderson, _Japanese Wood Engraving_ + (1895). + +3. _Architecture_.--In architecture the Chinese genius has found but +limited and uncongenial expression. A nation of painters has built +picturesquely, but this picturesqueness has fought against the +attainment of the finest architectural qualities. There has been little +development; the arch, for instance, though known to the Chinese from +very early times, has been scarcely used as a principle of design, and +the cupola has been undiscovered or ignored; and though foreign +architectural ideas were introduced under the influence of the Buddhist +and Mahommedan religions, these were more or less assimilated and +subdued to the dominant Chinese design. Ruins scarcely exist and no +building earlier than the 11th century A.D. is known; but we know from +records that the forms of architecture still prevalent imitate in +essentials those of the 4th and 5th centuries B.C. and doubtless +represent an immemorial tradition. + +The grand characteristic of Chinese architecture is the pre-eminent +importance of the roof. The _t'ing_ is the commonest model of building. +The roof is the main feature; in fact the _t'ing_ consists of this roof, +massive and immense, with recurved edges, and the numerous short columns +on which the roof rests. The columns are of wood, the straight stems of +the _nanmu_ being specially used for this purpose. The walls are not +supports, but merely fill in, with stone or brickwork, the spaces +between the columns. The scheme of construction is thus curiously like +that of the modern American steel-framed building, though the external +form may be derived from the tent of primitive nomads. The roof, being +the preponderant feature, is that on which the art of the architect has +been concentrated. A double or a triple roof may be devised; the ridges +and eaves may be decorated with dragons and other fantastic animals, and +the eaves underlaid with carved and lacquered woodwork; the roof itself +is often covered with glazed tiles of brilliant hue. In spite of +efforts, sometimes desperate, to give variety and individual character +by ornament and detail, the general impression is one of poverty of +design. "Chinese buildings are usually one-storeyed and are developed +horizontally as they are increased in size or number. The principle +which determines the plan of projection is that of symmetry" (Bushell). +All important buildings must face the south, and this uniform +orientation increases the general architectural monotony produced by a +preponderance of horizontal lines. + +A special characteristic of Chinese architecture is the _pai-lou_, an +archway erected only by special authority, usually to commemorate famous +persons. The _pai-lou_ is commonly made of wood with a tiled roof, but +sometimes is built entirely of stone, as is the gateway at the avenue of +the Ming tombs. A magnificent example of the _pai-lou_ is that on the +avenue leading to Wo Fo Ssü, the temple of the Sleeping Buddha, near +Peking. This is built of marble and glazed terra-cotta. The _pai-lou_, +like the Japanese _torii_, derives its origin from the _toran_ of Indian +_stupas_. Lofty towers called _t'ai_, usually square and of stone, seem +to have been a common type of important building in early times. They +are described in old books as erected by the ancient kings and used for +various purposes. The towers of the Great Wall are of the same +character, and are made of stone, with arched doors and windows. Stone, +though plentiful in most provinces of the empire, has been singularly +little used by the Chinese, who prefer wood or brick. M. Paléologue +attributes this preference of light and destructible materials to the +national indifference of the Chinese to posterity and the future, their +enthusiasm being wholly devoted to their ancestors and the past. + +Temples are designed on the general _t'ing_ model. The Temple of Heaven +is the most imposing of the Confucian temples, conspicuous with its +covering of deep-blue tiles and its triple roof. Near this is the great +Altar of Heaven, consisting of three circular terraces with marble +balustrades. Buddhist temples are built on the general plan of secular +residences, and consist of a series of rectangular courts with the +principal building in the centre, the lesser at the sides. Lama temples +differ little from these except in the interior decorations and +symbolism. Mahommedan mosques are far simpler and severer in internal +arrangement, but outwardly these also are in the Chinese style. + +The _pagoda_ (Chinese _taa_), the type of Chinese architecture most +familiar to the West, probably owes its peculiar form to Buddhist +influence. In the pagoda alone may be found some trace of a religious +imagination such as in Europe made Gothic architecture so full and +splendid an expression of the aspiring spirit. The most famous pagoda +was the Porcelain Tower of Nanking, destroyed by the T'aip'ing rebels in +1854. This was covered with slabs of faience coated with coloured +glazes. The ordinary pagoda is built of brick on a stone foundation; it +is octagonal with thirteen storeys. + +No Chinese buildings show more beauty than some of the graceful stone +bridges for which the neighbourhood of Peking has been famous for +centuries. + + See M. Paléologue, _L'Art chinois_ (1887): S.W. Bushell, _Chinese + Art_, vol. i. (1904); J. Fergusson, _History of Architecture_; + Professor Chûta Itô, articles in _The Kokka_, Nos. 197, 198. + (L. B.) + +4. _Sculpture_.--Except in the casting and decoration of bronze vessels +the Chinese have not obtained distinction as sculptors. They have +practised sculpture in stone from an early period, but the incised +reliefs of the 2nd century B.C., a number of which are figured in +Professor E. Chavannes's standard work,[81] while they display a certain +spirit, lack the true plastic sense, and though the power of the Chinese +draughtsmen increased rapidly under the T'ang and Sung dynasties, their +work in stone showed no parallel progress. The feeling for solidity, +which in Japan was a natural growth, was always somewhat exotic in +China. With the impulse given to the arts by Buddhism a school of +sculpture arose. The pilgrim Fa Hsien records sculpture of distinctive +Chinese type in the 5th century. But Indian models dominated the art. +Colossal Buddhas of stone were typical of the T'ang era. Little, +however, remains of these earlier times, and such true sculpture in +stone, wood or ivory as we know dates from the 14th and succeeding +centuries. The well-known sculptures on the arch at Chu Yung Kuan (A.D. +1345) are Hindu in style, though not without elements of breadth and +strength, which seem to promise a greater development than actually took +place. The colossal figures guarding the approach to the Ming tombs +(15th century) show that the national taste rapidly became conventional +and petrified so far as monumental sculpture was concerned, though +occasional examples of devotional or portrait sculpture on a smaller +scale in wood and ivory are found, which in power, grace, sincerity and +restraint can rank with the work of more gifted nations. Such pieces, +however, are extremely rare, and at South Kensington the ivory "Kwanyin +and Child" (274. 1898) is a solitary example. As a rule the Chinese +sculptor valued his art in proportion to the technical difficulties it +conquered. He thus either preferred intractable materials like jade or +rock-crystal, or, if he wrought in wood, horn or ivory, sought to make +his work curious or intricate rather than beautiful. There is, +nevertheless, beauty of a kind in Chinese bowls of jade, and there is +dignity in some of the pieces of rock-crystal, but the bulk of the +carving done in wood, horn and ivory does not deserve a moment's serious +thought from the aesthetic point of view. The few fine specimens may be +referred to the earlier part of the Ming dynasty when Chinese art in +general was sincere and simple. After the middle of the 15th century +there set in the taste for profuse ornament which injured all subsequent +Chinese work, and wholly ruined Chinese sculpture. + +_Bronzes._--In Chinese bronzes we have a more consistent and exceptional +form of plastic art, which can be traced continuously for some three +thousand years. These bronzes take the form of ritual or honorific +vessels, and the archaic shapes used in the service of the prehistoric +religion of the country are repeated and copied with slight changes in +decoration or detail to the present day. + +The oldest extant specimens, chiefly derived from the sack of the Summer +Palace at Peking, may be referred to the Shang and Chow dynasties +(1766-255 B.C.). These ancient pieces have a certain savage monumental +grandeur of design, are usually covered with a rich and thick patina of +red, green and brown, and are decorated with simple patterns--scrolls, +zigzag lines and a form of what is known as the Greek key-pattern +symbolizing respectively waves, mountains and storm clouds. The animal +forms used are those of the _tao-tieh_ (glutton), a fabulous monster +(possibly a conventionalized tiger) representing the powers of the +earth, the serpent and the bull. These two last in later pieces combine +to form the dragon, representing the power of the air. In the Chow +dynasty libation vessels were also made in the form of a deer, a ram or +a rhinoceros. These characteristics are shown in figures 9-17, Plate II. +Fig. 9 is a temple vessel of a shape still in use, but which must date +from before 1000 B.C. With this massive piece may be contrasted the +flower-like wine vase shown in fig. 10, a favourite shape which is the +prototype of some of the most graceful forms of Chinese porcelain and +Japanese bronze. Its date is about 1000 B.C. The large wine vase shown +in fig. 11 is some 400 years later. On the body appears the head of the +tao-tieh, on the handles are superbly modelled serpents. The technique, +which in the previous pieces was somewhat rude, has now become perfect, +yet the menacing majestic feeling remains. We see it no less clearly in +fig. 12, a marvellous vessel richly inlaid with gold and silver and +covered with an emerald-green patina. It may date from about 500 B.C., +and indicates that even in this remote epoch the Chinese were not only +daring and powerful artists but also master-craftsmen in metal. + +It is indeed at this period that the art reaches its climax. The +monumental grandeur of the Shang specimens is often allied to +clumsiness; the later work, if more elaborate, is always less powerful. +Nevertheless, it is to a later period that ninety-nine out of a hundred +Chinese bronzes must be referred, and the great majority belong either +to the Han and succeeding dynasties (220 B.C.-A.D. 400), or to the +Renaissance of the arts which culminated under the Ming dynasty a +thousand years later. + +The characteristics of the first of these periods is the free use of +small solid figures of animals as decoration--the phoenix, the elephant, +the frog, the ox, the tortoise, and occasionally men; shapes grow less +austere and less significant, as a comparison between figures 11 and 13 +will indicate; then towards the end of the 2nd century A.D. the +influence of Buddhism is felt in the general tendency towards suavity of +form (fig. 14). This vase is most delicately though sparingly inlaid +with silver and a few touches of gold. Some small pieces, very richly +and delicately inlaid and covered with a magnificent emerald-green +patina, belonging to this period, form a connecting link between the +inlaid work of the Chow dynasty and that of the Sung and Ming dynasties. +The mirrors with Graeco-Bactrian designs, a conclusive proof of the +external influences brought to bear upon Chinese art, are also +attributed to the Han epoch. + + The troubled period between A.D. 400 and A.D. 960, in spite of the + interval of activity under the T'ang dynasty, produced, it would seem, + but few bronzes, and those few were of no distinct or noteworthy + style. Under the Sung dynasty the arts revived, and to this time some + of the most splendid specimens of inlaid work belong--pieces of + workmanship and taste no less perfect than that of the Japanese, in + which the gold and silver of the earlier work are occasionally + reinforced with malachite and lapis-lazuli. The coming of Kublai Khan + and the Yuen dynasty (1280-1367) once more brought the East into + contact with the West, and to this time we may assign certain fine + pieces of Persian form such as pilgrim bottles. The vessels bearing + Arabic inscriptions belong to the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), with which + the modern history of Chinese art begins. + + The work done while the Ming dynasty was still young provides the + student of Chinese art with many problems, and in one or two cases + even the South Kensington authorities assign to pre-Christian times + pieces that are clearly of Ming workmanship. The tendency of the + period was eclectic and archaistic. The products of earlier days were + reproduced with perfect technical command of materials, and with + admirable taste; it is indeed by an excess of these qualities that + archaistic Ming work may be distinguished from the true archaic. In + fig. 15 we see how the Ming bronze worker took an earlier Buddhistic + form of vase and gave it a new grace that amounted almost to artifice. + A parallel might be found among the products of the so-called _art + nouveau_ of to-day, in which old designs are revived with just that + added suavity or profusion of curvature that robs them of character. + Fig. 16 again might be mistaken almost for a piece of the Chow + dynasty, were not the grandeur of its form modified by just so much + harmony in the curvature of the body and neck, and by just so much + finish in the details as to rob the design of the old majestic vigour + and to mark it as the splendid effort of an age of culture, and not + the natural product of a period of strength. + + It is, however, in the inlaid pieces that the difference tells most + clearly. Here we find the monstrous forms of the Shang and Chow + dynasties revived by men who appreciated their spirit but could not + help making the revival an excuse for the display of their own + superior skill. The monstrous vases and incense-burners of the past + thus appear once more, but are now decorated with a delicate + embroidery of inlay, are polished and finished to perfection, but lose + therewith just the rudeness of edge and outline which made the older + work so gravely significant. At times even some grandly planned vessel + will appear with such a festoon of pretty tracery wreathed about it + that the incongruity is little short of ridiculous, and we recognize + we have passed the turning-point to decline. + + Decline indeed came rapidly, and to the latter part of the Ming epoch + we must assign those countless bronzes where dragons and flowers and + the stock symbols of happiness, good luck and longevity sprawl + together in interminable convolutions. When once we reach this stage + of contortion, of elaborate pierced and relief work, we come to the + place in history of Chinese bronzes where serious study may cease, + except in so far as the study of the symbols themselves throws light + upon the history of Chinese procelain (see CERAMICS). One class of + bronze alone needs a word of notice, namely, the profusely decorated + pieces which have a Tibetan origin, and are obviously no older than + the end of the Ming period. Of these fig. 17 will serve as a specimen, + and a comparison with fig. 9 will show how the softer rounded forms + and jewelled festoons of Hindu-Greek taste enervated the grand + primitive force of the earlier age, and that neither the added + delicacy of texture and substance nor the vastly increased dexterity + of workmanship can compensate for the vanished majesty. (C. J. H.) + + +VII. THE CHINESE LANGUAGE + +_Colloquial._--In treating of Chinese, it will be found convenient to +distinguish, broadly, the spoken from the written language and to deal +with each separately. This is a distinction which would be out of place +if we had to do with any European, or indeed most Oriental languages. +Writing, in its origin, is merely a symbolic representation of speech. +But in Chinese, as we shall see, for reasons connected with the peculiar +nature ot the script, the two soon began to move along independent and +largely divergent lines. This division, moreover, will enable us to +employ different methods of inquiry more suited to each. With regard to +the colloquial, it is hardly possible to do more than consider it in the +form or forms in which it exists at the present day throughout the +empire of China. Although Chinese, like other living languages, must +have undergone gradual changes in the past, so little can be stated with +certainty about these changes that an accurate survey of its evolution +is quite out of the question. Obviously a different method is required +when we come to the written characters. The familiar line, "Litera +scripta manet, volat irrevocabile verbum," is truer perhaps of Chinese +than of any other tongue. We have hardly any clue as to how Chinese was +spoken or pronounced in any given district 2000 years ago, although +there are written remains dating from long before that time; and in +order to gain an insight into the structure of the characters now +existing, it is necessary to trace their origin and development. + + + The dialects. + +Beginning with the colloquial, then, and taking a linguistic survey of +China, we find not one spoken language but a number of dialects, all +clearly of a common stock, yet differing from one another as widely as +the various Romance languages in southern Europe--say, French, Italian +and Spanish. Most of these dialects are found fringing the coast-line of +China, and penetrating but a comparatively short way into the interior. +Starting from the province of Kwang-tung in the south, where the +Cantonese and farther inland the Hakka dialects are spoken, and +proceeding northwards, we pass in succession the following dialects: +Swatow, Amoy--these two may almost be regarded as one--Foochow, Wenchow +and Ningpo. Farther north we come into the range of the great dialect +popularly known as Mandarin (_Kuan hua_ or "official language"), which +sweeps round behind the narrow strip of coast occupied by the various +dialects above-mentioned, and dominates a hinterland constituting nearly +four-fifths of China proper. Mandarin, of which the dialect of Peking, +the capital since 1421, is now the standard form, comprises a +considerable number of sub-dialects, some of them so closely allied that +the speakers of one are wholly intelligible to the speakers of another, +while others (e.g. the vernaculars of Yangchow, Hankow or Mid-China and +Ss[)u]-ch'uan) may almost be considered as separate dialects. Among all +these, Cantonese is supposed to approximate most nearly to the primitive +language of antiquity, whereas Pekingese perhaps has receded farthest +from it. But although philologically and historically speaking Cantonese +and certain other dialects may be of greater interest, for all practical +purposes Mandarin, in the widest sense of the term, is by far the most +important. Not only can it claim to be the native speech of the majority +of Chinamen, but it is the recognized vehicle of oral communication +between all Chinese officials, even in cases where they come from the +same part of the country and speak the same _patois_. For these +reasons, all examples of phraseology in this article will be given in +Pekingese. + +So far, stress has been laid chiefly on the dissimilarity of the +dialects. On the other hand, it must be remembered that they proceed +from the same parent stem, are spoken by members of the same race, and +are united by the bond of writing which is the common possession of all, +and cannot be regarded as derived from one more than from another. They +also share alike in the two most salient features of Chinese as a whole: +(1) they are all monosyllabic, that is, each individual word consists of +only one syllable; and (2) they are strikingly poor in vocables, or +separate sounds for the conveyance of speech. The number of these +vocables varies from between 800 and 900 in Cantonese to no more than +420 in the vernacular of Peking. This scanty number, however, is eked +out by interposing an aspirate between certain initial consonants and +the vowel, so that for instance _p'u_ is distinguished from _pu_. The +latter is pronounced with little or no emission of breath, the "p" +approximating the farther north one goes (e.g. at Niuchwang) more +closely to a "b." The aspirated _p'u_ is pronounced more like our +interjection "Pooh!" To the Chinese ear, the difference between the two +is very marked. It will be found, as a rule, that an Englishman imparts +a slight aspirate to his p's, t's, k's and ch's, and therefore has +greater difficulty with the unaspirated words in Chinese. The aspirates +are better learned by the ear than by the eye, but in one way or another +it is essential that they be mastered by any one who wishes to make +himself intelligible to the native. + +The influence of the Mongolian population, assisted by the progress of +time, has slowly but surely diminished the number of vocables in +Pekingese. Thus the initials _ts_ and _k_, when followed by the vowel +_i_ (with its continental value) have gradually become softer and more +assimilated to each other, and are now all pronounced _ch_. Again, all +consonantal endings in _t_ and _k_, such as survive in Cantonese and +other dialects, have entirely disappeared from Pekingese, and _n_ and +_ng_ are the only final consonants remaining. Vowel sounds, on the other +hand, have been proportionately developed, such compounds as _ao, ia, +iao, iu, ie, ua_ occurring with especial frequency. (It must be +understood, of course, that the above are only equivalents, not in all +cases very exact, for the sounds of a non-alphabetic language.) + +An immediate consequence of this paucity of vocables is that one and the +same sound has to do duty for different words. Reckoning the number of +words that an educated man would want to use in conversation at +something over four thousand, it is obvious that there will be an +average of ten meanings to each sound employed. Some sounds may have +fewer meanings attached to them, but others will have many more. Thus +the following represent only a fraction of the total number of words +pronounced _shih_ (something like the "shi" in shirt): [Ch] "history," +[Ch] "to employ," [Ch] "a corpse," [Ch] "a market," [Ch] "an army," [Ch] +"a lion," [Ch] "to rely on," [Ch] "to wait on," [Ch] "poetry," [Ch] +"time," [Ch] "to know," [Ch] "to bestow," [Ch] "to be," [Ch] "solid," +[Ch] "to lose," [Ch] "to proclaim," [Ch] "to look at," [Ch] "ten," [Ch] +"to pick up," [Ch] "stone," [Ch] "generation," [Ch] "to eat," [Ch] "a +house," [Ch] "a clan," [Ch] "beginning," [Ch] "to let go," [Ch] "to +test," [Ch] "affair," [Ch] "power," [Ch] "officer," [Ch] "to swear," +[Ch] "to pass away," [Ch] "to happen." It would be manifestly impossible +to speak without ambiguity, or indeed to make oneself intelligible at +all, unless there were some means of supplementing this deficiency of +sounds. As a matter of fact, several devices are employed through the +combination of which confusion is avoided. One of these devices is the +coupling of words in pairs in order to express a single idea. There is a +word [Ch] _ko_ which means "elder brother." But in speaking, the sound +_ko_ alone would not always be easily understood in this sense. One must +either reduplicate it and say _ko-ko_, or prefix [Ch] (_ta_, "great") +and say _ta-ko_. Simple reduplication is mostly confined to family +appellations and such adverbial phrases as [Ch][Ch] _man-man_, "slowly." +But there is a much larger class of pairs, in which each of the two +components has the same meaning. Examples are: [Ch][Ch] _k'ung-p'a_, +"to be afraid," [Ch][Ch] _kao-su_, "to tell," [Ch][Ch] _shu-mu_, "tree," +[Ch][Ch] _p'i-fu_, "skin," [Ch][Ch] _man-ying_, "full," [Ch][Ch] +_ku-tu_, "solitary." Sometimes the two parts are not exactly synonymous, +but together make up the sense required. Thus in [Ch][Ch] _i-shang_, +"clothes," _i_ denotes more particularly clothes worn on the upper part +of the body, and _shang_ those on the lower part. [Ch][Ch] _fêng-huang_ +is the name of a fabulous bird, _fêng_ being the male, and _kuang_ the +female. In another very large class of expressions, the first word +serves to limit and determine the special meaning of the second: +[Ch][Ch] "milk-skin," "cream"; [Ch][Ch] "fire-leg," "ham"; [Ch][Ch] +"lamp-cage," "lantern"; [Ch][Ch] "sea-waist," "strait." There are, +besides, a number of phrases which are harder to classify. Thus, [Ch] +_hu_ means "tiger." But in any case where ambiguity might arise, +_lao-hu_, "old tiger," is used instead of the monosyllable. [Ch] +(another _hu_) is "fox," and [Ch] _li_, an animal belonging to the +smaller cat tribe. Together, _hu-li_, they form the usual term for fox. +[Ch][Ch] _chih tao_ is literally "to know the way," but has come to be +used simply for the verb "to know." These pairs or two-word phrases are +of such frequent occurrence, that the Chinese spoken language might +almost be described as bi-syllabic. Something similar is seen in the +extensive use of suffixes or enclitics, attached to many of the +commonest nouns. [Ch] _nü_ is the word for "girl," but in speech +[Ch][Ch] _nü-tz[)u]_ or [Ch][Ch] _nü-'rh_ is the form used. [Ch] and +[Ch] both mean child, and must originally have been diminutives. A +fairly close parallel is afforded by the German suffix _chen_, as in +_Mädchen_. The suffix [Ch], it may be remarked, belongs especially to +the Peking vernacular. Then, the use of so-called numeratives will often +give some sort of clue as to the class of objects in which a substantive +may be found. When in pidgin English we speak of "one piecee man" or +"three piecee dollar," the word _piecee_ is simply a Chinese numerative +in English dress. Even in ordinary English, people do not say "four +cattle" but "four _head_ of cattle." But in Chinese the use of +numeratives is quite a distinctive feature of the language. The +commonest of them, [Ch] _ko_, can be used indifferently in connexion +with almost any class of things, animal, vegetable or mineral. But there +are other numeratives--at least 20 or 30 in everyday use--which are +strictly reserved for limited classes of things with specific +attributes. [Ch] _mei_, for instance, is the numerative of circular +objects such as coins and rings; [Ch] _k'o_ of small globular +objects--pearls, grains of rice, &c.; [Ch] _k'ou_ classifies things +which have a mouth--bags, boxes and so forth; [Ch] _chien_ is used of +all kinds of affairs; [Ch] _chang_ of chairs and sheets of paper; [Ch] +_chih_ (literally half a pair) is the numerative for various animals, +parts of the body, articles of clothing and ships; [Ch] _pa_ for things +which are grasped by a handle, such as fans and knives. + +This by no means exhausts the list of devices by which the difficulties +of a monosyllabic language are successfully overcome. Mention need only +be made, however, of the system of "tones," which, as the most curious +and important of all, has been kept for the last. + + + The tones. + +The tones may be defined as regular modulations of the voice by means of +which different inflections can be imparted to the same sound. They may +be compared with the half-involuntary modulations which express +emotional feeling in our words. To the foreign ear, a Chinese sentence +spoken slowly with the tones clearly brought out has a certain sing-song +effect. If we speak of the tones as a "device" adopted in order to +increase the number of vocables, this must be understood rather as a +convenient way of explaining their practical function than as a +scientific account of their origin. It is absurd to suppose the tones +were deliberately invented in order to fit each written character with a +separate sound. A tone may be said to be as much an integral part of the +word to which it belongs as the sound itself; like the sound, too, it is +not fixed once and for all, but is in a constant, though very gradual, +state of evolution. This fact is proved by the great differences of +intonation in the dialects. Theoretically, four tones have been +distinguished--the even, the rising, the sinking and the entering--each +of which falls again into an upper and a lower series. But only the +Cantonese dialect possesses all these eight varieties of tone (to which +a ninth has been added), while Pekingese, with which we are especially +concerned here, has no more than four: the even upper, the even lower, +the rising and the sinking. The history of the tones has yet to be +written, but it appears that down to the 3rd century B.C. the only tones +distinguished were the [Ch] "even," [Ch] "rising" and [Ch] "entering." +Between that date and the 4th century A.D. the [Ch] sinking tone was +developed. In the 11th century the even tone was divided into upper and +lower, and a little later the entering tone finally disappeared from +Pekingese. The following monosyllabic dialogue gives a very fair idea of +the quality of the four Pekingese tones--_1st tone_: Dead (spoken in a +raised monotone, with slightly plaintive inflection); _2nd tone_: Dead? +(simple query); _3rd tone_: Dead? (an incredulous query long drawn out); +_4th tone_: Dead! (a sharp and decisive answer). The native learns the +tones unconsciously and by ear alone. For centuries their existence was +unsuspected, the first systematic classification of them being +associated with the name of Shên Yo, a scholar who lived A.D. 441-513. +The Emperor Wu Ti was inclined to be sceptical, and one day said to him: +"Come, tell me, what are these famous four tones?" "They are +[Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] whatever your Majesty pleases to make them," replied +Shên Yo, skilfully selecting for his answer four words which +illustrated, and in the usual order, the four tones in question. +Although no native is ever taught the tones separately, they are none +the less present in the words he utters, and must be acquired +consciously or unconsciously by any European who wishes to be +understood. It is a mistake, however, to imagine that every single word +in a sentence must necessarily be given its full tonic force. Quite a +number of words, such as the enclitics mentioned above, are not +intonated at all. In others the degree of emphasis depends partly on the +tone itself, partly on its position in the sentence. In Pekingese the +3rd tone (which is really the second in the ordinary series, the 1st +being subdivided into upper and lower) is particularly important, and +next to it in this respect comes the 2nd (that is, the lower even, or +2nd division of the 1st). It may be said, roughly, that any speaker +whose second and third tones are correct will at any rate be understood, +even if the 1st and 4th are slurred over. + + + The characters. + + Pictorial characters. + +It is chiefly, however, on its marvellous script and the rich treasures +of its literature that the Chinese language depends for its unique +fascination and charm. If we take a page of printed Chinese or carefully +written manuscript and compare it with a page, say, of Arabic or +Sanskrit, the Chinese is seen at once to possess a marked characteristic +of its own. It consists of a number of wholly independent units, each of +which would fit into a small square, and is called a character. These +characters are arranged in columns, beginning on the right-hand side of +the page and running from top to bottom. They are _words_, inasmuch as +they stand for articulate sounds expressing root-ideas, but they are +unlike our words in that they are not composed of alphabetical elements +or letters. Clearly, if each character were a distinct and arbitrarily +constructed symbol, only those gifted with exceptional powers of memory +could ever hope to read or write with fluency. This, however, is far +from being the case. If we go to work synthetically and first see how +the language is built up, it will soon appear that most Chinese +characters are susceptible of some kind of analysis. We may accept as +substantially true the account of native writers who tell us that means +of communication other than oral began with the use of knotted cords, +similar to the _quippus_ of ancient Mexico and Peru, and that these were +displaced later on by the practice of notching or scoring rude marks on +wood, bamboo and stone. It is beyond question that the first four +numerals, as written with simple horizontal strokes, date from this +early period. Notching, however, carries us but a little way on the road +to a system of writing, which in China, as elsewhere, must have sprung +originally from pictures. In Chinese writing, especially, the +indications of such an origin are unmistakable, a few characters, +indeed, even in their present form, being perfectly recognizable as +pictures of objects pure and simple. Thus, for "sun" the ancient Chinese +drew a circle with a dot in it: [Ch], now modified into [Ch]; for "moon" +[Ch], now [Ch]; for "God" they drew the anthropomorphic figure [Ch], +which in its modern form appears as [Ch]; for "mountains" [Ch], now [Ch]; +for "child" [Ch], now [Ch]; for "fish" [Ch], now [Ch]; for "mouth" a +round hole, now [Ch]; for "hand" [Ch], now [Ch]; for "well" [Ch], now +written without the dot. Hence we see that while the origin of all +writing is pictographic, in Chinese alone of living languages certain +pictures have survived, and still denote what they had denoted in the +beginning. In the script of other countries they were gradually +transformed into hieroglyphic symbols, after which they either +disappeared altogether or became further conventionalized into the +letters of an alphabet. These picture-characters, then, accumulated +little by little, until they comprised all the common objects which +could be easily and rapidly delineated--sun, moon, stars, various +animals, certain parts of the body, tree, grass and so forth, to the +number of two or three hundred. The next step was to a few compound +pictograms which would naturally suggest themselves to primitive man: +[Ch] the sun just above the horizon = "dawn"; [Ch] trees side by side = +"a forest"; [Ch] a mouth with something solid coming out of it = "the +tongue"; [Ch] a mouth with vapor or breath coming out of it = "words." + + + Suggestive compounds. + + Phonetic characters. + +But a purely pictographic script has its limitations. The more complex +natural objects hardly come within its scope; still less the whole body +of abstract ideas. While writing was still in its infancy, it must have +occurred to the Chinese to join together two or more pictorial +characters in order that their association might suggest to the mind +some third thing or idea. "Sun" and "moon" combined in this way make the +character [Ch], which means "bright"; woman and child make [Ch] "good"; +"fields" and "strength" (that is, labour in the fields) produce the +character [Ch] "male"; two "men" on "earth" [Ch] signifies "to +sit"--before chairs were known; the "sun" seen through "trees" [Ch] +designates the east; [Ch] has been explained as (1) a "pig" under a +"roof," the Chinese idea, common to the Irish peasant, of home, and also +(2) as "several persons" under "a roof," in the same sense; a "woman" +under a "roof" makes the character [Ch] "peace"; "words" and "tongue" +[Ch] naturally suggest "speech"; two hands ([Ch], in the old form [Ch]) +indicate friendship; "woman" and "birth" [Ch] = "born of a woman," means +"clan-name," showing that the ancient Chinese traced through the mother +and not through the father. Interesting and ingenious as many of these +combinations are, it is clear that their number, too, must in any +practical system of writing be severely limited. Hence it is not +surprising that this class of characters, correctly called ideograms, as +representing ideas and not objects, should be a comparatively small one. +Up to this point there seemed to be but little chance of the written +language reaching a free field for expansion. It had run so far on lines +sharply distinct from those of ordinary speech. There was nothing in the +character _per se_ which gave the slightest clue to the sound of the +word it represented. Each character, therefore, had to be learned and +recognized by a separate effort of memory. The first step in a new, and, +as it ultimately proved, the right direction, was the borrowing of a +character already in use to represent another word identical in sound, +though different in meaning. Owing to the scarcity of vocables noted +above, there might be as many as ten different words in common use, each +pronounced _fang_. Out of those ten only one, we will suppose, had a +character assigned to it--namely [Ch] "square" (originally said to be a +picture of two boats joined together). But among the other nine was +_fang_, meaning "street" or "locality," in such common use that it +became necessary to have some means of writing it. Instead of inventing +an altogether new character, as they might have done, the Chinese took +[Ch] "square" and used it also in the sense of "locality." This was a +simple expedient, no doubt, but one that, applied on a large scale, +could not but lead to confusion. The corresponding difficulty which +presented itself in speech was overcome, as we saw, by many devices, one +of which consisted in prefixing to the word in question another which +served to determine its special meaning. A native does not say _fang_ +simply when he wishes to speak of a place, but _li-fang_ "earth-place." +Exactly the same device was now adopted in writing the character. To +_fang_ "square" was added another part meaning "earth," in order to show +that the _fang_ in question had to do with location on the earth's +surface. The whole character thus appeared as [Ch]. Once this phonetic +principle had been introduced, all was smooth sailing, and writing +progressed by leaps and bounds. Nothing was easier now than to provide +signs for the other words pronounced _fang_. "A room" was [Ch] +door-_fang_; "to spin" was [Ch] silk-_fang_; "fragrant" was [Ch] +herbs-_fang_; "to inquire" was [Ch] words-_fang_; "an embankment," and +hence "to guard against," was [Ch] mound-_fang_; "to hinder" was [Ch] +woman-_fang_. This last example may seem a little strange until we +remember that man must have played the principal part in the development +of writing, and that from the masculine point of view there is something +essentially obstructive and unmanageable in woman's nature. It may be +remarked, by the way, that the element "woman" is often the +determinative in characters that stand for unamiable qualities, e.g. +[Ch][Ch] "jealous," [Ch][Ch] "treacherous," [Ch] "false" and [Ch] +"uncanny." This class of characters, which constitutes at least +nine-tenths of the language, has received the convenient name of +_phonograms_. It must be added that the formation of the phonogram or +phonetic compound did not always proceed along such simple lines as in +the examples given above, where both parts are pictorial characters, one +the "phonetic," representing the sound, and the other, commonly known as +the "radical," giving a clue to the sense. In the first place, most of +the phonetics now existing are not simple pictograms, but themselves +more or less complex characters made up in a variety of ways. On +analysing, for instance, the word [Ch] _hsün_, "to withdraw," we find it +is composed of the phonetic [Ch] combined with the radical [Ch], an +abbreviated form of [Ch] "to walk." But [Ch] _sun_ means "grandson," and +is itself a suggestive compound made up of the two characters [Ch] "a +son" and [Ch] "connect." The former character is a simple pictogram, but +the latter is again resolvable into the two elements [Ch] "a down stroke +to the left" and [Ch] "a strand of silk," which is here understood to be +the radical and appears in its ancient form as [Ch], a picture of +cocoons spun by the silkworm. Again, the sound is in most cases given by +no means exactly by the so-called phonetic, a fact chiefly due to the +pronunciation having undergone changes which the written character was +incapable of recording. Thus, we have just seen that the phonetic of +[Ch] is not _hsün_ but _sun_. There are extreme cases in which a +phonetic provides hardly any clue at all as to the sound of its +derivatives. The character [Ch], for example, which by itself is +pronounced _ch'ien_, appears in combination as the modern phonetic of +[Ch] _k'an_, [Ch] _juan_, [Ch] _yin_ and [Ch] _ch'ui_; though in the +last instance it was not originally the phonetic but the radical of a +character which was analysed as [Ch] _ch'ien_, "to emit breath" from +[Ch] "the mouth," the whole character being a suggestive compound rather +than an illustration of radical and phonetic combined. In general, +however, it may be said that the "final" or rhyme is pretty accurately +indicated, while in not a few cases the phonetic does give the exact +sound for all its derivatives. Thus, the characters in which the element +[Ch] enters are pronounced _chien, ch'ien, hsien_ and _lien_; but [Ch] +and its derivatives are all _i_. A considerable number of phonetics are +nearly or entirely obsolete as separate characters, although their +family of derivatives may be a very large one. [Ch], for instance, is +never seen by itself, yet [Ch], [Ch], and [Ch] are among the most +important characters in the language. Objections have been raised in +some quarters to this account of the phonetic development of Chinese. It +is argued that the primitives and sub-primitives, whereby is meant any +character which is capable of entering into combination with another, +have really had some influence on the meaning, and do not merely possess +a phonetic value. But insufficient evidence has hitherto been advanced +in support of this view. + +The whole body of Chinese characters, then, may conveniently be divided +up, for philological purposes, into pictograms, ideograms and +phonograms. The first are pictures of objects, the second are composite +symbols standing for abstract ideas, the third are compound characters +of which the more important element simply represents a spoken sound. Of +course, in a strict sense, even the first two classes do not directly +represent either objects or ideas, but rather stand for sounds by which +these objects and ideas have previously been expressed. It may, in fact, +be said that Chinese characters are "nothing but a number of more or +less ingenious devices for suggesting spoken words to a reader." This +definition exposes the inaccuracy of the popular notion that Chinese is +a language of ideographs, a mistake which even the compilers of the +_Oxford English Dictionary_ have not avoided. Considering that all the +earliest characters are pictorial, and that the vast majority of the +remainder are constructed on phonetic principles, it is absurd to speak +of Chinese characters as "symbolizing the idea of a thing, without +expressing the name of it." + + + The "Six Scripts." + +The Chinese themselves have always been diligent students of their +written language, and at a very early date (probably many centuries +B.C.) evolved a sixfold classification of characters, the so-called +[Ch][Ch] _liu shu_, very inaccurately translated by the Six Scripts, +which may be briefly noticed:-- + +1. [Ch][Ch] _chih shih_, indicative or self-explanatory characters. This +is a very small class, including only the simplest numerals and a few +others such as [Ch] "above" and [Ch] "below." + +2. [Ch][Ch] _hsiang hsing_, pictographic characters. + +3. [Ch][Ch] _hsing shêng_ or [Ch][Ch] _hsieh shêng_, phonetic compounds. + +4. [Ch][Ch] _hui i_, suggestive compounds based on a natural association +of ideas. To this class alone can the term "ideographs" be properly +applied. + +5. [Ch][Ch] _chuan chu_. The meaning of the name has been much disputed, +some saying that it means "turned round"; e.g. [Ch] _mu_ "eye" is now +written [Ch]. Others understand it as comprising a few groups of +characters nearly related in sense, each character consisting of an +element common to the group, together with a specific and detachable +part; e.g. [Ch], [Ch], and [Ch], all of which have the meaning "old." +This class may be ignored altogether, seeing that it is concerned not +with the origin of characters but only with peculiarities in their use. + +6. [Ch][Ch] _chia chieh_, borrowed characters, as explained above, that +is, characters adopted for different words simply because of the +identity of sound. + +The order of this native classification is not to be taken as in any +sense chronological. Roughly, it may be said that the development of +writing followed the course previously traced--that is, beginning with +indicative signs, and going on with pictograms and ideograms, until +finally the discovery of the phonetic principle did away with all +necessity for other devices in enlarging the written language. But we +have no direct evidence that this was so. There can be little doubt that +phonetic compounds made their appearance at a very early date, probably +prior to the invention of a large number of suggestive compounds, and +perhaps even before the whole existing stock of pictograms had been +fashioned. It is significant that numerous words of daily occurrence, +which must have had a place in the earliest stages of human thought, +are expressed by phonetic characters. We can be fairly certain, at any +rate, that the period of "borrowed characters" did not last very long, +though it is thought that traces of it are to be seen in the habit of +writing several characters, especially those for certain plants and +animals, indifferently with or without their radicals. Thus [Ch][Ch] "a +tadpole" is frequently written [Ch][Ch], without the part meaning +"insect" or "reptile." + + + Styles of writing. + + [Illustration] + + In the very earliest inscriptions that have come down to us, the + so-called [Ch][Ch] _ku-wên_ or "ancient figures," all the + above-mentioned forms occur. None are wholly pictorial, with one or + two unimportant exceptions. These early inscriptions are found on + bronzes dating from the half-legendary period extending from the + beginning of the Shang dynasty in the 18th century B.C., or possibly + earlier, down to a point in the reign of King Hsüan of the Chou + dynasty, generally fixed at 827 B.C. They have been carefully + reproduced and for the most part deciphered by painstaking Chinese + archaeologists, and form the subject of many voluminous works. The + following may be taken as a specimen, in which it will be noticed that + only the last character is unmistakably pictorial: This is read: + [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch]--"Shên made [this] precious _ting_." These ancient + bronzes, which mainly take the shape of bells, cauldrons and + sacrificial utensils, were until within the last decade our sole + source of information concerning the origin and early history of + Chinese writing. But recently a large number of inscribed bone + fragments have been excavated in the north of China, providing new and + unexpected matter for investigation. The inscriptions on these bones + have already furnished a list of nearly 2500 separate characters, of + which not more than about 600 have been so far identified. They appear + to be responses given by professional soothsayers to private + individuals who came to them seeking the aid of divination in the + affairs of their daily life. It is difficult to fix their date with + much exactitude. The script, though less archaic than that of the + earlier bronzes, is nevertheless of an exceedingly free and irregular + type. Judging by the style of the inscriptions alone, one would be + inclined to assign them to the early years of the Chou dynasty, say + 1100 B.C. But Mr L.C. Hopkins thinks that they represent a mode of + writing already obsolete at the time of their production, and retained + of set purpose by the diviners from obscurantist motives, much as the + ancient hieroglyphics were employed by the Egyptian priesthood. He + would therefore date them about 500 years later, or only half a + century before the birth of Confucius. If that is so, they are merely + late specimens of the "ancient figures" appearing long after the + latter had made way for a new and more conventionalized form of + writing. This new writing is called in Chinese [Ch] _chuan_, which is + commonly rendered by the word Seal, for the somewhat unscientific + reason that many ages afterwards it was generally adopted for use on + seals. Under the Chou dynasty, however, as well as the two succeeding + it, the meaning of the word was not "seal," but "sinuous curves," as + made in writing. It has accordingly been suggested that this epoch + marks the first introduction into China of the brush in place of the + bamboo or wooden pencil with frayed end which was used with some kind + of colouring matter or varnish. There are many arguments both for and + against this view; but it is unquestionable, at any rate, that the + introduction of a supple implement like the brush at the very time + when the forms of characters were fast becoming crystallized and + fixed, would be sufficient to account for a great revolution in the + style of writing. Authentic specimens of the [Ch][Ch] _ta chuan_, + older or Greater Seal writing, are exceedingly rare. But it is + generally believed that the inscriptions on the famous stone drums, + now at Peking, date from the reign of King Hsüan, and they may + therefore with practical certainty be cited as examples of the Greater + Seal in its original form. These "drums" are really ten roughly + chiselled mountain boulders, which were discovered in the early part + of the 7th century, lying half buried in the ground near Fêng-hsiang + Fu in the province of Shensi. On them are engraved ten odes, a + complete ode being cut on each drum, celebrating an Imperial hunting + and fishing expedition in that part of the country. A facsimile of one + of these, taken from an old rubbing and reproduced in Dr Bushell's + _Handbook of Chinese Art_, shows that great strides had been made in + this writing towards symmetry, compactness and conventionalism. The + vogue of the Greater Seal appears to have lasted until the reign of + the First Emperor, 221-210 B.C. (see _History_), when a further + modification took place. For many centuries China had been split up + into a number of practically independent states, and this circumstance + seems to have led to considerable variations in the styles of writing. + Having succeeded in unifying the empire, the First Emperor proceeded, + on the advice of his minister Li Ss[)u], to standardize its script by + ordaining that only the style in use in his own state of Ch'in should + henceforward be employed throughout China. It is clear, then, that + this new style of writing was nothing more than the Greater Seal + characters in the form they had assumed after several centuries of + evolution, with numerous abbreviations and modifications. It was + afterwards known as the [Ch][Ch] _hsiao chuan_, or Lesser Seal, and is + familiar to us from the _Shuo Wen_ dictionary (see _Literature_). + Though a decided improvement on what had gone before, the Lesser Seal + was destined to have but a short career of undisputed supremacy. + Reform was in the air; and something less cumbrous was soon felt to be + necessary by the clerks who had to supply the immense quantity of + written reports demanded by the First Emperor. Thus it came about that + a yet simpler and certainly more artistic form of writing was already + in use, though not universally so, not long after the decree + abolishing the Greater Seal. This [Ch][Ch] _li shu_, or "official + script," as it is called, shows a great advance on the Seal character; + so much so that one cannot help suspecting the traditional account of + its invention. It is perhaps more likely to have been directly evolved + from the Greater Seal. If the Lesser Seal was the script of the + semi-barbarous state of Ch'in, we should certainly expect to find a + more highly developed system of writing in some of the other states. + Unlike the Seal, the _li shu_ is perfectly legible to one acquainted + only with the modern character, from which indeed it differs but in + minor details. How long the Lesser Seal continued to exist side by + side with the _li shu_ is a question which cannot be answered with + certainty. It was evidently quite obsolete, however, at the time of + the compilation of the _Shuo Wên_, about a hundred years after the + Christian era. As for the Greater Seal and still earlier forms of + writing, they were not merely obsolete but had fallen into utter + oblivion before the Han Dynasty was fifty years old. When a number of + classical texts were discovered bricked up in old houses about 150 + B.C., the style of writing was considered so singular by the literati + of the period that they refused to believe it was the ordinary ancient + character at all, and nicknamed it _k'o-t'ou shu_, "tadpole + character," from some fancied resemblance in shape. The theory that + these tadpole characters were not Chinese but a species of cuneiform + script, in which the wedges might possibly suggest tadpoles, must be + dismissed as too wildly improbable for serious consideration; but we + may advert for a moment to a famous inscription in which the real + tadpole characters of antiquity are said to appear. This is on a stone + tablet alleged to have been erected on Mount Hêng in the modern Hupeh + by the legendary Emperor Yü, as a record of his labours in draining + away the great flood which submerged part of China in the 23rd century + B.C. After more than one fruitless search, the actual monument is said + to have been discovered on a peak of the mountain in A.D. 1212, and a + transcription was made, which may be seen reproduced as a curiosity in + Legge's _Classics_, vol. iii. For several reasons, however, the whole + affair must be regarded as a gross imposture. + + Out of the "official script" two other forms were soon developed, + namely the [Ch][Ch] _ts'ao shu_, or "grass character," which so + curtails the usual strokes as to be comparable to a species of + shorthand, requiring special study, and the [Ch][Ch] _hsing shu_ or + running hand, used in ordinary correspondence. Some form of grass + character is mentioned as in use as early as 200 B.C. or thereabouts, + though how nearly it approximated to the modern grass hand it is hard + to say; the running hand seems to have come several centuries later. + The final standardization of Chinese writing was due to the great + calligraphist Wang Hsi-chih of the 4th century, who gave currency to + the graceful style of character known as [Ch][Ch] _k'ai shu_, + sometimes referred to as the "clerkly hand." When block-printing was + invented some centuries later, the characters were cut on this model, + which still survives at the present day. It is no doubt owing to the + early introduction of printing that the script of China has remained + practically unchanged ever since. The manuscript rolls of the T'ang + and preceding dynasties, recently discovered by Dr Stein in Turkestan, + furnish direct evidence of this fact, showing as they do a style of + writing not only clear and legible but remarkably modern in + appearance. + + The whole history of Chinese writing, then, is characterized by a slow + progressive development which precludes the idea of sharply-marked + divisions between one period and another. The Chinese themselves, + however, have canonized quite a series of alleged inventors, starting + from Fu Hsi, a mythical emperor of the third millennium B.C., who is + said to have developed a complete system of written characters from + the markings on the back of a dragon-horse; hence, by the way, the + origin of the dragon as an Imperial emblem. As a rule, the credit of + the invention of the art of writing is given to Ts'ang Chieh, a being + with fabulous attributes, who conceived the idea of a written language + from the markings of birds' claws upon the sand. The diffusion of the + Greater Seal script is traced to a work in fifteen chapters published + by Shih Chou, historiographer in the reign of King Hsüan. The Lesser + Seal, again, is often ascribed to Li Ss[)u] himself, whereas the + utmost he can have done in the matter was to urge its introduction + into common use. Likewise, Ch'êng Mo, of the 3rd century B.C., is + supposed to have invented the _li shu_ while in prison, and one + account attributes the Lesser Seal to him as well; but the fact is + that the whole history of writing, as it stands in Chinese authors, is + in hopeless confusion. + +_Grammar._--When about to embark on the study of a foreign language, the +student's first thought is to provide himself with two indispensable +aids--a dictionary and a grammar. The Chinese have found no difficulty +in producing the former (see _Literature_). Now what as to the grammar? +He might reasonably expect a people so industrious in the cultivation of +their language to have evolved some system of grammar which to a certain +degree would help to smooth his path. And yet the contrary is the case. +No set of rules governing the mutual relations of words has ever been +formulated by the Chinese, apparently because the need of such rules has +never been felt. The most that native writers have done is to draw a +distinction between [Ch][Ch] and [Ch][Ch] "full" and "empty words," +respectively, the former being subdivided into [Ch][Ch] "living words" +or verbs, and [Ch][Ch] "dead words" or noun-substantives. By "empty +words" particles are meant, though sometimes the expression is loosely +applied to abstract terms, including verbs. The above meagre +classification is their nearest approach to a conception of grammar in +our sense. This in itself does not prove that a Chinese grammar is +impossible, nor that, if constructed, it might not be helpful to the +student. As a matter of fact, several attempts have been made by +foreigners to deduce a grammatical system which should prove as rigid +and binding as those of Western languages, though it cannot be said that +any as yet has stood the test of time or criticism. Other writers have +gone to the other extreme, and maintained that Chinese has no grammar at +all. In this dictum, exaggerated as it sounds, there is a very +substantial amount of truth. Every Chinese character is an indivisible +unit, representing a sound and standing for a root-idea. Being free from +inflection or agglutination of any kind, it is incapable of indicating +in itself either gender, number or case, voice, mood, tense or person. +Of European languages, English stands nearest to Chinese in this +respect, whence it follows that the construction of a hybrid jargon like +pidgin English presents fewer difficulties than would be the case, for +instance, with pidgin German. For pidgin English simply consists in +taking English words and treating them like Chinese characters, that is, +divesting them of all troublesome inflections and reducing them to a set +of root-ideas arranged in logical sequence. "You wantchee my no +wantchee" is nothing more nor less than literally rendered Chinese: +[Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] "Do you want me or not?" But we may go further, and +say that no Chinese character can be definitely regarded as being any +particular part of speech or possessing any particular function +absolutely, apart from the general tenor of its context. Thus, taken +singly, the character [Ch] conveys only the general idea "above" as +opposed to "below." According to its place in the sentence and the +requirements of common sense, it may be a noun meaning "upper person" +(that is, a ruler); an adjective meaning "upper," "topmost" or "best"; +an adverb meaning "above"; a preposition meaning "upon"; and finally a +verb meaning "to mount upon," or "to go to." [Ch] is a character that +may usually be translated "to enter" as in [Ch][Ch] "to enter a door"; +yet in the locution [Ch][Ch] "enter wood," the verb becomes causative, +and the meaning is "to put into a coffin." It would puzzle grammarians +to determine the precise grammatical function of any of the words in the +following sentence, with the exception of [Ch] (an interrogative, by the +way, which here happens to mean "why" but in other contexts is +equivalent to "how," "which" or "what"): [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] "Affair why +must ancient," or in more idiomatic English, "Why necessarily stick to +the ways of the ancients in such matters?" Or take a proverbial saying +like [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch], which may be correctly rendered "The less +a man has seen, the more he has to wonder at." It is one thing, however, +to translate it correctly, and another to explain how this translation +can be inferred from the individual words, of which the bald equivalents +might be given as: "Few what see, many what Strange." To say that +"strange" is the literal equivalent of [Ch] does not mean that [Ch] can +be definitely classed as an adjective. On the other hand, it would be +dangerous even to assert that the word here plays the part of an active +verb, because it would be equally permissible to translate the above +"Many things are strange to one who has seen but little." + + Chinese grammar, then, so far as it deals with the classification of + separate words, may well be given up as a bad job. But there still + remains the art of syntax, the due arrangement of words to form + sentences according to certain established rules. Here, at any rate, + we are on somewhat firmer ground; and for many years the dictum that + "the whole of Chinese grammar depends upon position" was regarded as a + golden key to the written language of China. It is perfectly true that + there are certain positions and collocations of words which tend to + recur, but when one sits down to formulate a set of hard-and-fast + rules governing these positions, it is soon found to be a thankless + task, for the number of qualifications and exceptions which will have + to be added is so great as to render the rule itself valueless. + [Ch][Ch] means "on a horse," [Ch][Ch] "to get on a horse." But it will + not do to say that a preposition becomes a verb when placed before the + substantive, as many other prepositions come before and not after the + words they govern. If we meet such a phrase as [Ch][Ch], literally + "warn rebels," we must not mentally label [Ch] as a verb and [Ch] as a + substantive, and say to ourselves that in Chinese the verb is followed + immediately by its object. Otherwise, we might be tempted to + translate, "to warn the rebels," whereas a little reflection would + show us that the conjunction of "warning" and "rebels" naturally leads + to the meaning "to warn (the populace or whoever it may be) _against_ + the rebels." After all our adventurous incursions into the domain of + syntax, we are soon brought back to the starting-point and are obliged + to confess that each particular passage is best interpreted on its own + merits, by the logic of the context and the application of common + sense. There is no reason why Chinese sentences should not be + dissected, by those who take pleasure in such operations, into + subject, copula and predicate, but it should be early impressed upon + the beginner that the profit likely to accrue to him therefrom is + infinitesimal. As for fixed rules of grammatical construction, so far + from being a help, he will find them a positive hindrance. It should + rather be his aim to free his mind from such trammels, and to accustom + himself to look upon each character as a root-idea, not a definite + part of speech. + +_The Book Language._--Turning now to some of the more salient +characteristics of the book language, with the object of explaining how +it came to be so widely separated from common speech, we might +reasonably suppose that in primitive times the two stood in much closer +relation to each other than now. But it is certainly a striking fact +that the earliest literary remains of any magnitude that have come down +to us should exhibit a style very far removed from any possible +colloquial idiom. The speeches of the Book of History (see _Literature_) +are more manifestly fictitious, by many degrees, than the elaborate +orations in Thucydides and Livy. If we cannot believe that Socrates +actually spoke the words attributed to him in the dialogues of Plato, +much less can we expect to find the _ipsissima verba_ of Confucius in +any of his recorded sayings. In the beginning, all characters doubtless +represented spoken words, but it must very soon have dawned on the +practical Chinese mind that there was no need to reproduce in writing +the bisyllabic compounds of common speech. _Chien_ "to see," in its +written form [Ch], could not possibly be confused with any other +_chien_, and it was therefore unnecessary to go to the trouble of +writing [Ch][Ch] _k'an-chien_ "look-see," as in colloquial. There was a +wonderful outburst of literary activity in the Confucian era, when it +would seem that the older and more cumbrous form of Seal character was +still in vogue. If the mere manual labour of writing was so great, we +cannot wonder that all superfluous particles or other words that could +be dispensed with were ruthlessly cut away. So it came about that all +the old classical works were composed in the tersest of language, as +remote as can be imagined from the speech of the people. The passion for +brevity and conciseness was pushed to an extreme, and resulted more +often than not in such obscurity that detailed commentaries on the +classics were found to be necessary, and have always constituted an +important branch of Chinese literature. After the introduction of the +improved style of script, and when the mechanical means of writing had +been simplified, it may be supposed that literary diction also became +freer and more expansive. This did happen to some extent, but the +classics were held in such veneration as to exercise the profoundest +influence over all succeeding schools of writers, and the divorce +between literature and pooular speech became permanent and +irreconcilable. The book language absorbed all the interest and energy +of scholars, and it was inevitable that this elevation of the written +should be accompanied by a corresponding degradation of the spoken word. +This must largely account for the somewhat remarkable fact that the art +of oratory and public speaking has never been deemed worthy of +cultivation in China, while the comparatively low position occupied by +the drama may also be referred to the same cause. At the same time, the +term "book language," in its widest sense, covers a multitude of styles, +some of which differ from each other nearly as much as from ordinary +speech. The department of fiction (see _Literature_), which the lettered +Chinaman affects to despise and will not readily admit within the +charmed circle of "literature," really constitutes a bridge spanning the +gulf between the severer classical style and the colloquial; while an +elegant terseness characterises the higher-class novel, there are others +in which the style is loose and shambling. Still, it remains true that +no book of any first-rate literary pretensions would be easily +intelligible to any class of Chinamen, educated or otherwise, if read +aloud exactly as printed. The public reader of stories is obliged to +translate, so to speak, into the colloquial of his audience as he goes +along. There is no inherent reason why the conversation of everyday life +should not be rendered into characters, as is done in foreign handbooks +for teaching elementary Chinese; one can only say that the Chinese do +not think it worth while. There are a few words, indeed, which, though +common enough in the mouths of genteel and vulgar alike, have positively +no characters to represent them. On the other hand, there is a vast +store of purely book words which would never be used or understood in +conversation. + +The book language is not only nice in its choice of words, it also has +to obey special rules of construction. Of these, perhaps the most +apparent is the carefully marked antithesis between characters in +different clauses of a sentence, which results in a kind of parallelism +or rhythmic balance. This parallelism is a noticeable feature in +ordinary poetical composition, and may be well illustrated by the +following four-line stanza: + +"[Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] The bright sun completes its course behind the +mountains; [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] The yellow river flows away into the +sea. [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] Would you command a prospect of a thousand +_li_? [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] Climb yet one storey higher." In the first +line of this piece, every single character is balanced by a +corresponding one in the second: [Ch] white by [Ch] yellow, [Ch] sun by +[Ch] river, and so on. In the 3rd and 4th lines, where more laxity is +generally allowed, every word again has its counterpart, with the sole +exception of [Ch] "wish" and [Ch] "further." + +The question is often asked: What sort of instrument is Chinese for the +expression of thought? As a medium for the conveyance of historical +facts, subtle emotions or abstruse philosophical conceptions, can it +compare with the languages of the Western world? The answers given to +this question have varied considerably. But it is noteworthy that those +who most depreciate the qualities of Chinese are, generally speaking, +theorists rather than persons possessing a profound first-hand knowledge +of the language itself. Such writers argue that want of inflection in +the characters must tend to make Chinese hard and inelastic, and +therefore incapable of bringing out the finer shades of thought and +emotion. Answering one a priori argument with another, one might fairly +retort that, if anything, flexibility is the precise quality to be +predicated of a language in which any character may, according to the +requirements of the context, be interpreted either as noun, verb or +adjective. But all such reasoning is somewhat futile. It will scarcely +be contended that German, being highly inflected, is therefore superior +in range and power to English, from which inflections have largely +disappeared. Some of the early Jesuit missionaries, men of great natural +ability who steeped themselves in Oriental learning, have left very +different opinions on record. Chinese appeared to them as admirable for +the superabundant richness of its vocabulary as for the conciseness of +its literary style. And among modern scholars there is a decided +tendency to accept this view as embodying a great deal more truth than +the other. + +Another question, much debated years ago, which time itself is now +satisfactorily answering, was whether the Chinese language would be able +to assimilate the vast stock of new terminology which closer contact +with the West would necessarily carry with it. Two possible courses, it +seemed, were open: either fresh characters would be formed on the +radical-phonetic principle, or the new idea might be expressed by the +conjunction of two or more characters already existing. The former +expedient had been tried on a limited scale in Japan, where in the +course of time new characters were formed on the same principle as of +old, which were yet purely Japanese and find no place in a Chinese +dictionary. But although the field for such additions was boundless, the +Chinese have all along been chary of extending the language in this way, +probably because these modern terms had no Chinese sound which might +have suggested some particular phonetic. They have preferred to adopt +the other method, of which [Ch][Ch][Ch] (rise-descend-machine) for +"lift," and [Ch][Ch][Ch][Ch] (discuss-govern-country-assembly) for +"parliament" are examples. Even a metaphysical abstraction like The +Absolute has been tentatively expressed by [Ch][Ch] (exclude-opposite); +but in this case an equivalent was already existing in the Chinese +language. + +A very drastic measure, strongly advocated in some quarters, is the +entire abolition of all characters, to be replaced by their equivalent +sounds in letters of the alphabet. Under this scheme [Ch] would figure +as _jên_ or _ren_, [Ch] as _ma_, and so on. But the proposal has fallen +extremely flat. The vocables, as we have seen, are so few in number that +only the colloquial, if even that, could possibly be transcribed in this +manner. Any attempt to transliterate classical Chinese would result in a +mere jumble of sounds, utterly unintelligible, even with the addition of +tone-marks. There is another aspect of the case. The characters are a +potent bond of union between the different parts of the Empire with +their various dialects. If they should ever fall into disuse, China will +have taken a first and most fatal step towards internal disruption. Even +the Japanese, whose language is not only free from dialects, but +polysyllabic and therefore more suitable for romanization, have utterly +refused to abandon the Chinese script, which in spite of certain +disadvantages has hitherto triumphantly adapted itself to the needs of +civilized intercourse. + + See P. Premare, _Notitiae Linguae Sinicae_ (1831); Ma Kien-chung, _Ma + shih wên t'ung_ (1899); L.C. Hopkins, _The Six Scripts_ (1881) and + _The Development of Chinese Writing_ (1910); H.A. Giles, _A + Chinese-English Dictionary_ (2nd ed., 1910). (H. A. GI.; L. GI.) + + +VIII. CHINESE LITERATURE + +The literature of China is remarkable (1) for its antiquity, coupled +with an unbroken continuity down to the present day; (2) for the variety +of subjects presented, and for the exhaustive treatment which, not only +each subject, but also each subdivision, each separate item, has +received, as well as for the colossal scale on which so many literary +monuments have been conceived and carried out; (3) for the accuracy of +its historical statements, so far as it has been possible to test them; +and further (4) for its ennobling standards and lofty ideals, as well as +for its wholesome purity and an almost total absence of coarseness and +obscenity. + +No history of Chinese literature in the Chinese language has yet been +produced; native scholars, however, have adopted, for bibliographical +purposes, a rough division into four great classes. Under the first of +these, we find the Confucian Canon, together with lexicographical, +philological, and other works dealing with the elucidation of words. +Under the second, histories of various kinds, officially compiled, +privately written, constitutional, &c.; also biography, geography and +bibliography. Under the third, philosophy, religion, e.g. Buddhism; the +arts and sciences, e.g. war, law, agriculture, medicine, astronomy, +painting, music and archery; also a host of general works, monographs, +and treatises on a number of topics, as well as encyclopaedias. The +fourth class is confined to poetry of all descriptions, poetical +critiques, and works dealing with the all-important rhymes. + +_Poetry._--Proceeding chronologically, without reference to Chinese +classification, we have to begin, as would naturally be expected, with +the last of the above four classes. Man's first literary utterances in +China, as elsewhere, took the form of verse; and the earliest Chinese +records in our possession are the national lyrics, the songs and +ballads, chiefly of the feudal age, which reaches back to over a +thousand years before Christ. Some pieces are indeed attributed to the +18th century B.C.; the latest bring us down to the 6th century B.C. Such +is the collection entitled _Shih Ching_ (or _She King_), popularly known +as the Odes, which was brought together and edited by Confucius, 551-479 +B.C., and is now included among the Sacred Books, forming as it does an +important portion of the Confucian Canon. These Odes, once over three +thousand in number, were reduced by Confucius to three hundred and +eleven; hence they are frequently spoken of as "the Three Hundred." They +treat of war and love, of eating and drinking and dancing, of the +virtues and vices of rulers, and of the misery and happiness of the +people. They are in rhyme. Rhyme is essential to Chinese poetry; there +is no such thing as blank verse. Further, the rhymes of the Odes have +always been, and are still, the only recognized rhymes which can be used +by a Chinese poet, anything else being regarded as mere jingle. Poetical +licence, however, is tolerated; and great masters have availed +themselves freely of its aid. One curious result of this is that whereas +in many instances two given words may have rhymed, as no doubt they did, +in the speech of three thousand years ago, they no longer rhyme to the +ear in the colloquial of to-day, although still accepted as true and +proper rhymes in the composition of verse. + + It is noticeable at once that the Odes are mostly written in lines of + four words, examples of lines consisting of any length from a single + word to eight, though such do exist, being comparatively rare. These + lines of four words, generally recognized as the oldest measure in + Chinese poetry, are frequently grouped as quatrains, in which the + first, second and fourth lines rhyme; but very often only the second + and fourth lines rhyme, and sometimes there are groups of a larger + number of lines in which occasional lines are found without any rhyme + at all. A few stray pieces, as old as many of those found among the + Odes, have been handed down and preserved, in which the metre consists + of two lines of three words followed by one line of seven words. These + three lines all rhyme, but the rhyme changes with each succeeding + triplet. It would be difficult to persuade the English reader that + this is a very effective measure, and one in which many a gloomy or + pathetic tale has been told. In order to realise how a few Chinese + monosyllables in juxtaposition can stir the human heart to its lowest + depths, it is necessary to devote some years to the study of the + language. + + At the close of the 4th century B.C., a dithyrambic measure, irregular + and wild, was introduced and enjoyed considerable vogue. It has indeed + been freely adopted by numerous poets from that early date down to the + present day; but since the 2nd century B.C. it has been displaced from + pre-eminence by the seven-word and five-word measures which are now, + after much refinement, the accepted standards for Chinese poetry. The + origin of the seven-word metre is lost in remote antiquity; the + five-word metre was elaborated under the master-hand of Mei Shêng, who + died 140 B.C. Passing over seven centuries of growth, we reach the + T'ang dynasty, A.D. 618-905, the most brilliant epoch in the history + of Chinese poetry. These three hundred years produced an + extraordinarily large number of great poets, and an output of verse of + almost incredible extent. In 1707 an anthology of the T'ang poets was + published by Imperial order; it ran to nine hundred books or sections, + and contained over forty-eight thousand nine hundred separate poems. A + copy of this work is in the Chinese department of the University + Library at Cambridge. + + It was under the T'ang dynasty that a certain finality was reached in + regard to the strict application of the tones to Chinese verse. For + the purposes of poetry, all words in the language were ranged under + one or the other of two tones, the _even_ and the _oblique_, the + former now including the two even tones, of which prior to the 11th + century there was only one, and the latter including the rising, + sinking and entering tones of ordinary speech. The incidence of these + tones, which may be roughly described as sharps and flats, finally + became fixed, just as the incidence of certain feet in Latin metres + came to be governed by fixed rules. Thus, reading downward from right + to left, as in Chinese, a five-word stanza may run: + + Sharp Flat Flat Sharp + sharp flat flat sharp + flat sharp flat sharp + o o o o + flat sharp sharp flat + sharp flat sharp flat + + A seven-word stanza may run: + + Flat Sharp Sharp + flat sharp sharp flat + sharp flat flat sharp + sharp flat flat sharp + o o o o + flat sharp flat flat + flat sharp sharp flat + sharp flat sharp sharp + + The above are only two metres out of many, but enough perhaps to give + to any one who will read them with a pause or quasi-caesura, as marked + by o in each specimen, a fair idea of the rhythmic lilt of Chinese + poetry. To the trained ear, the effect is most pleasing; and when this + scansion, so to speak, is united with rhyme and choice diction, the + result is a vehicle for verse, artificial no doubt, and elaborate, but + admirably adapted to the genius of the Chinese language. Moreover, in + the hands of the great poets this artificiality disappears altogether. + Each word seems to slip naturally into its place; and so far from + having been introduced by violence for the ends of prosody, it appears + to be the very best word that could have been chosen, even had there + been no trammels of any kind, so effectually is the art of the poet + concealed by art. From the long string of names which have shed lustre + upon this glorious age of Chinese poetry, it may suffice for the + present purpose to mention the following, all of the very first rank. + + Mêng Hao-jan, A.D. 689-740, failed to succeed at the public + competitive examinations, and retired to the mountains where he led + the life of a recluse. Later on, he obtained an official post; but he + was of a timid disposition, and once when the emperor, attracted by + his fame, came to visit him, he hid himself under the bed. His + hiding-place was revealed by Wang Wei, a brother poet who was present. + The latter, A.D. 699-759, in addition to being a first-rank poet, was + also a landscape-painter of great distinction. He was further a firm + believer in Buddhism; and after losing his wife and mother, he turned + his mountain home into a Buddhist monastery. Of all poets, not one has + made his name more widely known than Li Po, or Li T'ai-po, A.D. + 705-762, popularly known as the Banished Angel, so heavenly were the + poems he dashed off, always under the influence of wine. He is said to + have met his death, after a tipsy frolic, by leaning out of a boat to + embrace the reflection of the moon. Tu Fu, A.D. 712-770, is generally + ranked with Li Po, the two being jointly spoken of as the chief poets + of their age. The former had indeed such a high opinion of his own + poetry that he prescribed it for malarial fever. He led a chequered + and wandering life, and died from the effects of eating roast beef and + drinking white wine to excess, immediately after a long fast. Po + Chü-i, A.D. 772-846, was a very prolific poet. He held several high + official posts, but found time for a considerable output of some of + the finest poetry in the language. His poems were collected by + Imperial command, and engraved upon tablets of stone. In one of them + he anticipates by eight centuries the famous ode by Malherbe, _À Du + Perrier, sur la mort de sa fille_. + + The T'ang dynasty with all its glories had not long passed away before + another imperial house arose, under which poetry flourished again in + full vigour. The poets of the Sung dynasty, A.D. 960-1260, were many + and varied in style; but their work, much of it of the very highest + order, was becoming perhaps a trifle more formal and precise. Life + seemed to be taken more seriously than under the gay and + pleasure-loving T'angs. The long list of Sung poets includes such + names as Ss[)u]-ma Kuang, Ou-yang Hsiu and Wang An-shih, to be + mentioned by and by, the first two as historians and the last as + political reformer. A still more familiar name in popular estimation + is that of Su Tung-p'o, A.D. 103-1101, partly known for his romantic + career, now in court favour, now banished to the wilds, but still more + renowned as a brilliant poet and writer of fascinating essays. + + The Mongols, A.D. 1260-1368, who succeeded the Sungs, and the Mings + who followed the Sungs and bring us down to the year 1644, helped + indeed, especially the Mings, to swell the volume of Chinese verse, + but without reaching the high level of the two great poetical periods + above-mentioned. Then came the present dynasty of Manchu Tatars, of + whom the same tale must be told, in spite of two highly-cultured + emperors, K'ang Hsi and Ch'ien Lung, both of them poets and one of + them author of a collection containing no fewer than 33,950 pieces, + most of which, it must be said, are but four-line stanzas, of no + literary value whatever. It may be stated in this connexion that + whereas China has never produced an epic in verse, it is not true that + all Chinese poems are quite short, running only to ten or a dozen + lines at the most. Many pieces run to several hundred lines, though + the Chinese poet does not usually affect length, one of his highest + efforts being the four-line stanza, known as the "stop-short," in + which "the words stop while the sense goes on," expanding in the mind + of the reader by the suggestive art of the poet. The "stop-short" is + the converse of the epigram, which ends in a satisfying turn of + thought to which the rest of the composition is intended to lead up; + it aims at producing an impression which, so far from being final, is + merely the prelude to a long series of visions and of feelings. The + last of the four lines is called the "surprise line"; but the + revelation it gives is never a complete one: the words stop, but the + sense goes on. Just as in the pictorial art of China, so in her + poetic art is suggestiveness the great end and aim of the artist. + Beginners are taught that the three canons of verse composition are + lucidity, simplicity and correctness of diction. Yet some critics have + boldly declared for obscurity of expression, alleging that the + piquancy of a thought is enhanced by its skilful concealment. For the + foreign student, it is not necessary to accentuate the obscurity and + difficulty even of poems in which the motive is simple enough. The + constant introduction of classical allusions, often in the vaguest + terms, and the almost unlimited licence as to the order of words, + offer quite sufficient obstacles to easy and rapid comprehension. + Poetry has been defined by one Chinese writer as "clothing with words + the emotions which surge through the heart." The chief moods of the + Chinese poet are a pure delight in the varying phenomena of nature, + and a boundless sympathy with the woes and sufferings of humanity. + Erotic poetry is not absent, but it is not a feature proportionate in + extent to the great body of Chinese verse; it is always restrained, + and never lapses from a high level of purity and decorum. In his love + for hill and stream which he peoples with genii, and for tree and + flower which he endows with sentient souls, the Chinese poet is + perhaps seen at his very best; his views of life are somewhat too + deeply tinged with melancholy, and often loaded with an overwhelming + sadness "at the doubtful doom of human kind." In his lighter moods he + draws inspiration, and in his darker moods consolation from the + wine-cup. Hard-drinking, not to say drunkenness, seems to have been + universal among Chinese poets, and a considerable amount of talent has + been expended upon the glorification of wine. From Taoist, and + especially from Buddhist sources, many poets have obtained glimpses to + make them less forlorn; but it cannot be said that there is any + definitely religious poetry in the Chinese language. + +_History._--One of the labours undertaken by Confucius was connected +with a series of ancient documents--that is, ancient in his day--now +passing under a collective title as _Shu Ching_ (or _Shoo King_), and +popularly known as the Canon, or Book, of History. Mere fragments as +some of these documents are, it is from their pages of unknown date that +we can supplement the pictures drawn for us in the Odes, of the early +civilization of China. The work opens with an account of the legendary +emperor Yao, who reigned 2357-2255 B.C., and was able by virtue of an +elevated personality to give peace and happiness to his "black-haired" +subjects. With the aid of capable astronomers, he determined the summer +and winter solstices, and calculated approximately the length of the +year, availing himself, as required, of the aid of an intercalary month. +Finally, after a glorious reign, he ceded the throne to a man of the +people, whose only claim to distinction was his unwavering practice of +filial piety. Chapter ii. deals with the reign, 2255-2205 B.C., of this +said man, known in history as the emperor Shun. In accordance with the +monotheism of the day, he worshipped God in heaven with prayer and burnt +offerings; he travelled on tours of inspection all over his then +comparatively narrow empire; he established punishments, to be tempered +with mercy; he appointed officials to superintend forestry, care of +animals, religious observances, and music; and he organized a system of +periodical examinations for public servants. Chapter iii. is devoted to +details about the Great Yü, who reigned 2205-2197 B.C., having been +called to the throne for his engineering success in draining the empire +of a mighty inundation which early western writers sought to identify +with Noah's Flood. Another interesting chapter gives various +geographical details, and enumerates the articles, gold, silver, copper, +iron, steel, silken fabrics, feathers, ivory, hides, &c., &c., brought +in under the reign of the Great Yü, as tribute from neighbouring +countries. Other chapters include royal proclamations, speeches to +troops, announcements of campaigns victoriously concluded, and similar +subjects. One peculiarly interesting document is the Announcement +against Drunkenness, which seems to have been for so many centuries a +national vice, and then to have practically disappeared as such. For the +past two or three hundred years, drunkenness has always been the +exception rather than the rule. The Announcement, delivered in the 12th +century B.C., points out that King Wên, the founder of the Chou dynasty, +had wished for wine to be used only in connexion with sacrifices, and +that divine favours had always been liberally showered upon the people +when such a restriction had been observed. On the other hand, indulgence +in strong drink had invariably attracted divine vengeance, and the fall +and disruption of states had often been traceable to that cause. Even +on sacrificial occasions, drunkenness is to be condemned. "When, +however, you high officials and others have done your duty in +ministering to the aged and to your sovereign, you may then eat to +satiety and drink to elevation." The Announcement winds up with an +ancient maxim, "Do not seek to see yourself reflected in water, but in +others,"--whose base actions should warn you not to commit the same; +adding that those who after a due interval should be unable to give up +intemperate habits would be put to death. It is worth noting, in +concluding this brief notice of China's earliest records, that from +first to last there is no mention whatever of any distant country from +which the "black-haired people" may have originally come; no vestige of +any allusion to any other form of civilization, such as that of +Babylonia, with its cuneiform script and baked-clay tablets, from which +an attempt has been made to derive the native-born civilization of +China. A few odd coincidences sum up the chief argument in favour of +this now discredited theory. + + Annals of the Lu state. + + The next step lands us on the confines, though scarcely in the domain, + of history properly so called. Among his other literary labours, + Confucius undertook to produce the annals of Lu, his native state; and + beginning with the year 722 B.C., he carried the record down to his + death in 479, after which it was continued for a few years, presumably + by Tso-ch'iu Ming, the shadowy author of the famous Commentary, to + which the text is so deeply indebted for vitality and illumination. + The work of Confucius is known as the _Ch'un Ch'iu_, the Springs and + Autumns, q.d. Annals. It consists of a varying number of brief entries + under each year of the reign of each successive ruler of Lu. The + feudal system, initiated more than four centuries previously, and + consisting of a number of vassal states owning allegiance to a central + suzerain state, had already broken hopelessly down, so far as + allegiance was concerned. For some time, the object of each vassal + ruler had been the aggrandizement of his own state, with a view either + to independence or to the hegemony, and the result was a state of + almost constant warfare. Accordingly, the entries in the _Ch'un Ch'iu_ + refer largely to covenants entered into between contracting rulers, + official visits from one to another of these rulers, their births and + deaths, marriages, invasions of territory, battles, religious + ceremonies, &c., interspersed with notices of striking natural + phenomena such as eclipses, comets and earthquakes, and of important + national calamities, such as floods, drought and famine. For instance, + Duke Wên became ruler of Lu in 625 B.C., and under his 14th year, 612 + B.C., we find twelve entries, of which the following are specimens:-- + + 2. In spring, in the first month, the men of the Chu State invaded our + southern border. + + 3. In summer, on the I-hai day of the fifth month, P'an, Marquis of + the Ch'i State, died. + + 5. In autumn, in the seventh month, there was a comet, which entered + Pei-ton ([Greek: abgd] in Ursa Major). + + 9. In the ninth month, a son of the Duke of Ch'i murdered his ruler. + + Entry 5 affords the earliest trustworthy instance of a comet in China. + A still earlier comet is recorded in what is known as The Bamboo + Annals, but the genuineness of that work is disputed. + + It will be readily admitted that the _Ch'un Ch'iu_, written throughout + in the same style as the quotations given, would scarcely enable one + to reconstruct in any detail the age it professes to record. Happily + we are in possession of the _Tso Chuan_, a so-called commentary, + presumably by some one named Tso, in which the bald entries in the + work of Confucius are separately enlarged upon to such an extent and + with such dramatic brilliancy that our commentary reads more like a + prose epic than "a treatise consisting of a systematic series of + comments or annotations on the text of a literary work." Under its + guidance we can follow the intrigues, the alliances, the treacheries, + the ruptures of the jealous states which constituted feudal China; in + its picture pages we can see, as it were with our own eyes, + assassinations, battles, heroic deeds, flights, pursuits and the + sufferings of the vanquished from the retribution exacted by the + victors. Numerous wise and witty sayings are scattered throughout the + work, many of which are in current use at the present day. + + + The Historical Record. + + History as understood in Europe and the west began in China with the + appearance of a remarkable man. Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, who flourished + 145-87 B.C., was the son of an hereditary grand astrologer, also an + eager student of history and the actual planner of the great work so + successfully carried out after his death. By the time he was ten years + of age, Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien was already well advanced with his studies; + and at twenty he set forth on a round of travel which carried him to + all parts of the empire. Entering the public service, he was employed + upon a mission of inspection to the newly-conquered regions of + Ss[)u]ch'uan and Yünnan; in 110 B.C. his father died, and he stepped + into the post of grand astrologer. After devoting some time and energy + to the reformation of the calendar, he took up the work which had + been begun by his father and which was ultimately given to the world + as the _Shih Chi_, or Historical Record. This was arranged under five + great headings, namely, (l) Annals of Imperial Reigns, (2) + Chronological Tables, (3) Monographs, (4) Annals of Vassal Princes, + and (5) Biographies. + + + Burning of the Books. + + The Historical Record begins with the so-called Yellow Emperor, who is + said to have come to the throne 2698 B.C. and to have reigned a + hundred years. Four other emperors are given, as belonging to this + period, among whom we find Yao and Shun, already mentioned. It was + China's Golden Age, when rulers and ruled were virtuous alike, and all + was peace and prosperity. It is discreetly handled in a few pages by + Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, who passes on to the somewhat firmer but still + doubtful ground of the early dynasties. Not, however, until the Chou + dynasty, 1122-255 B.C., had held sway for some three hundred years can + we be said to have reached a point at which history begins to separate + itself definitely from legend. In fact, it is only from the 8th + century before Christ that any trustworthy record can be safely dated. + With the 3rd century before Christ, we are introduced to one of the + feudal princes whose military genius enabled him to destroy beyond + hope of revival the feudal system which had endured for eight hundred + years, and to make himself master of the whole of the China of those + days. In 221 B.C. he proclaimed himself the "First Emperor," a title + by which he has ever since been known. Everything, including + literature, was to begin with his reign; and acting on the advice of + his prime minister, he issued an order for the burning of all books, + with the exception only of works relating to medicine, divination and + agriculture. Those who wished to study law were referred for oral + teaching to such as had already qualified in that profession. To carry + out the scheme effectively, the First Emperor made a point of + examining every day about 120 lb weight of books, in order to get rid + of such as he considered to be useless; and he further appointed a + number of inspectors to see that his orders were carried out. The + result was that about four hundred and sixty scholars were put to + death for having disobeyed the imperial command, while many others + were banished for life. This incident is known as the Burning of the + Books; and there is little doubt that, but for the devotion of the + literati, Chinese literature would have had to make a fresh start in + 212 B.C. As it was, books were bricked up in walls and otherwise + widely concealed in the hope that the storm would blow over; and this + was actually the case when the Ch'in (Ts'in) dynasty collapsed and the + House of Han took its place in 206 B.C. The Confucian books were + subsequently recovered from their hiding-places, together with many + other works, the loss of which it is difficult now to contemplate. + Unfortunately, however, a stimulus was provided, not for the recovery, + but for the manufacture of writings, the previous existence of which + could be gathered either from tradition or from notices in the various + works which had survived. Forgery became the order of the day; and the + modern student is confronted with a considerable volume of literature + which has to be classified as genuine, doubtful, or spurious, + according to the merits of each case. To the first class belongs the + bulk, but not all, of the Confucian Canon; to the third must be + relegated such books as the _Tao Tê Ching_, to be mentioned later on. + + Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien, dying in 87 B.C., deals of course only with the + opening reigns of the Han dynasty, with which he brings to a close the + first great division of his history. The second division consists of + chronological tables; the third, of eight monographs on the following + topics: (1) Rites and Ceremonies, (2) Music, (3) Natural Philosophy, + (4) The Calendar, (5) Astronomy, (6) Religion, (7) Water-ways, and (8) + Commerce. On these eight a few remarks may not be out of place, (1) + The Chinese seem to have been in possession, from very early ages, of + a systematic code of ceremonial observances, so that it is no surprise + to find the subject included, and taking an important place, in + Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien's work. The _Li Chi_, or Book of Rites, which now + forms part of the Confucian Canon, is however a comparatively modern + compilation, dating only from the 1st century B.C. (2) The + extraordinary similarities between the Chinese and Pythagorean systems + of music force the conclusion that one of these must necessarily have + been derived from the other. The Jesuit Fathers jumped to the + conclusion that the Greeks borrowed their art from the Chinese; but it + is now common knowledge that the Chinese scale did not exist in China + until two centuries after its appearance in Greece. The fact is that + the ancient Chinese works on music perished at the Burning of the + Books; and we are told that by the middle of the 2nd century B.C. the + hereditary Court music-master was altogether ignorant of his art. What + we may call modern Chinese music reached China through Bactria, a + Greek kingdom, founded by Diodotus in 256 B.C., with which intercourse + had been established by the Chinese at an early date. (3) The term + Natural Philosophy can only be applied by courtesy to this essay, + which deals with twelve bamboo tubes of varying lengths, by means of + which, coupled with the twenty-eight zodiacal constellations and with + certain calendaric accords, divine communication is established with + the influences of the five elements and the points of the compass + corresponding with the eight winds. (4) In this connexion, it is worth + noting that in 104 B.C. the Chinese first adopted a cycle of nineteen + years, a period which exactly brings together the solar and the lunar + years; and further that this very cycle is said to have been + introduced by Meton, 5th century B.C., and was adopted at Athens about + 330 B.C., probably reaching China, via Bactria, some two centuries + afterwards. (5) This chapter deals specially with the sun, moon and + five planets, which are supposed to aid in the divine government of + mankind. (6) Refers to the solemn sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, as + performed by the emperor upon the summit of Mt. T'ai in Shan-tung. (7) + Refers to the management of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow river, so often + spoken of as "China's Sorrow," and also of the numerous canals with + which the empire is intersected. (8) This chapter, which treats of the + circulation of money, and its function in the Chinese theory of + political economy, is based upon the establishment in 110 B.C. of + certain officials whose business it was to regularize commerce. It was + their duty to buy up the chief necessaries of life when abundant and + when prices were in consequence low, and to offer these for sale when + there was a shortage and when prices would otherwise have risen + unduly. Thus it was hoped that a stability in commercial transactions + would be attained, to the great advantage of the people. The fourth + division of the _Shih Chi_ is devoted to the annals of the reigns of + vassal princes, to be read in connexion with the imperial annals of + the first division. The final division, which is in many ways the most + interesting of all, gives biographical notices of eminent or notorious + men and women, from the earliest ages downwards, and enables us to + draw conclusions at which otherwise it would have been impossible to + arrive. Confucius and Mencius, for instance, stand out as real + personages who actually played a part in China's history; while all we + can gather from the short life of Lao Tz[)u], a part of which reads + like an interpolation by another hand, is that he was a more or less + legendary individual, whose very existence at the date usually + assigned to him, 7th and 6th centuries B.C., is altogether doubtful. + Scattered among these biographies are a few notices of frontier + nations; e.g. of the terrible nomads known as the Hsiung-nu, whose + identity with the Huns has now been placed beyond a doubt. + + Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien's great work, on which he laboured for so many vears + and which ran to five hundred and twenty-six thousand five hundred + words, has been described somewhat at length for the following reason. + It has been accepted as the model for all subsequent dynastic + histories, of which twenty-four have now been published, the whole + being produced in 1747 in a uniform edition, bound up (in the + Cambridge Library) in two hundred and nineteen large volumes. Each + dynasty has found its historian in the dynasty which supplanted it; + and each dynastic history is notable for the extreme fairness with + which the conquerors have dealt with the vanquished, accepting without + demur such records of their predecessors as were available from + official sources. The T'ang dynasty, A.D. 618-906, offers in one sense + a curious exception to the general rule. It possesses two histories, + both included in the above series. The first of these, now known as + the Old T'ang History, was ultimately set aside as inaccurate and + inadequate, and a New T'ang History was compiled by Ou-yang Hsiu, a + distinguished scholar, poet and statesman of the 11th century. + Nevertheless, in all cases, the scheme of the dynastic history has, + with certain modifications, been that which was initiated in the 1st + century B.C. by Ss[)u]-ma Ch'ien. + + + The Mirror of History. + + The output of history, however, does not begin and end with the + voluminous records above referred to, one of which, it should be + mentioned, was in great part the work of a woman. History has always + been a favourite study with the Chinese, and innumerable histories of + a non-official character, long and short, complete and partial, + political and constitutional, have been showered from age to age upon + the Chinese reading world. Space would fail for the mere mention of a + tithe of such works; but there is one which stands out among the rest + and is especially enshrined in the hearts of the Chinese people. This + is the _T'ung Chien_, or Mirror of History, so called because "to view + antiquity as though in a mirror is an aid in the administration of + government." It was the work of a statesman of the 11th century, whose + name, by a coincidence, was Ss[)u]-ma Kuang. He had been forced to + retire from office, and spent nearly all the last sixteen years of his + life in historical research. The Mirror of History embraces a period + from the 5th century B.C. down to A.D. 960. It is written in a + picturesque style; but the arrangement was found to be unsuited to the + systematic study of history. Accordingly, it was subjected to + revision, and was to a great extent reconstructed by Chu Hsi, the + famous commentator, who flourished A.D. 1130-1200, and whose work is + now regarded as the standard history of China. + +_Biography._--In regard to biography, the student is by no means limited +to the dynastic histories. Many huge biographical collections have been +compiled and published by private individuals, and many lives of the +same personages have often been written from different points of view. +There is nothing very much by which a Chinese biography can be +distinguished from biographies produced in other parts of the world. The +Chinese writer always begins with the place of birth, but he is not so +particular about the year, sometimes leaving that to be gathered from +the date of death taken in connexion with the age which the person may +have attained. Some allusion is usually made to ancestry, and the steps +of an official career, upward by promotion or downward by disgrace, are +also carefully noted. + +_Geography and Travel._--There is a considerable volume of Chinese +literature which comes under this head; but if we exclude certain brief +notices of foreign countries, there remains nothing in the way of +general geography which had been produced prior to the arrival of the +Jesuit Fathers at the close of the 16th century. Up to that period +geography meant the topography of the Chinese empire; and of +topographical records there is a very large and valuable collection. +Every prefecture and department, some eighteen hundred in all, has each +its own particular topography, compiled from records and from tradition +with a fullness that leaves nothing to be desired. The buildings, +bridges, monuments of archaeological interest, &c., in each district, +are all carefully inserted, side by side with biographical and other +local details, always of interest to residents and often to the outside +public. An extensive general geography of the empire was last published +in 1745; and this was followed by a chronological geography in 1794. + + + Fa Hsien. + +The Chinese have always been fond of travel, and hosts of travellers +have published notices, more or less extensive, of the different parts +of the empire, and even of adjacent nations, which they visited either +as private individuals or, in the former case, as officials proceeding +to distant posts. With Buddhism came the desire to see the country which +was the home of the Buddha; and several important pilgrimages were +undertaken with a view to bring back images and sacred writings to +China. On such a journey the Buddhist priest, Fa Hsien, started in A.D. +399; and after practically walking the whole way from central China, +across the desert of Gobi, on to Khoten, and across the Hindu Kush into +India, he visited many of the chief cities of India, until at length +reaching Calcutta he took ship, and after a most adventurous voyage, in +the course of which he remained two years in Ceylon, he finally arrived +safely, in A.D. 414, with all his books, pictures, and images, at a spot +on the coast of Shan-tung, near the modern German port of Kiao-chow. + + + Hsüan Tsang. + +Another of these adventurous priests was Hsüan Tsang (wrongly, Yüan +Chwang), who left China on a similar mission in 629, and returned in +645, bringing with him six hundred and fifty-seven Buddhist books, +besides many images and pictures, and one hundred and fifty relics. He +spent the rest of his life in translating, with the help of other +learned priests, these books into Chinese, and completed in 648 the +important record of his own travels, known as the Record of Western +Countries. + + + Lao Tz[)u]. + +_Philosophy._--Even the briefest _résumé_ of Chinese philosophical +literature must necessarily include the name of Lao Tz[)u], although his +era, as seen above, and his personality are both matters of the vaguest +conjecture. A number of his sayings, scattered over the works of early +writers, have been pieced together, with the addition of much +incomprehensible jargon, and the whole has been given to the world as +the work of Lao Tz[)u] himself, said to be of the 6th century B.C., +under the title of the _Tao Tê Ching_. The internal evidence against +this book is overwhelming; e.g. one quotation had been detached from the +writer who preserved it, with part of that writer's text clinging to +it--of course by an oversight. Further, such a treatise is never +mentioned in Chinese literature until some time after the Burning of the +Books, that is, about four centuries after its alleged first appearance. +Still, after due expurgation, it forms an almost complete collection of +such apophthegms of Lao Tz[)u] as have come down to us, from which the +reader can learn that the author taught the great doctrine of +Inaction--Do nothing, and all things will be done. Also, that Lao Tz[)u] +anticipated the Christian doctrine of returning good for evil, a +sentiment which was highly reprobated by the practical mind of +Confucius, who declared that evil should be met by justice. Among the +more picturesque of his utterances are such paradoxes as, "He who knows +how to shut, uses no bolts; yet you cannot open. He who knows how to +bind uses no ropes; yet you cannot untie"; "The weak overcomes the +strong; the soft overcomes the hard," &c. + + + Chuang Tz[)u]. + + These, and many similar subtleties of speech, seem to have fired the + imagination of Chuang Tz[)u], 4th and 3rd centuries B.C., with the + result that he put much time and energy into the glorification of Lao + Tz[)u] and his doctrines. Possessed of a brilliant style and a master + of irony, Chuang Tz[)u] attacked the schools of Confucius and Mo Ti + (see below) with so much dialectic skill that the ablest scholars of + the age were unable to refute his destructive criticisms. His pages + abound in quaint anecdotes and allegorical instances, arising as it + were spontaneously out of the questions handled, and imparting a + lively interest to points which might otherwise have seemed dusty and + dull. He was an idealist with all the idealist's hatred of a + utilitarian system, and a mystic with all the mystic's contempt for a + life of mere external activity. Only thirty-three chapters of his work + now remain, though so many as fifty-three are known to have been still + extant in the 3rd century; and even of these, several complete + chapters are spurious, while in others it is comparatively easy to + detect here and there the hand of the interpolator. What remains, + however, after all reductions, has been enough to secure a lasting + place for Chuang Tz[)u] as the most original of China's philosophical + writers. His book is of course under the ban of heterodoxy, in common + with all thought opposed to the Confucian teachings. His views as + mystic, idealist, moralist and social reformer have no weight with the + aspirant who has his way to make in official life; but they are a + delight, and even a consolation, to many of the older men, who have no + longer anything to gain or to lose. + + + Confucius. + + Confucius, 551-479 B.C., who imagined that his Annals of the Lu State + would give him immortality, has always been much more widely + appreciated as a moralist than as an historian. His talks with his + disciples and with others have been preserved for us, together with + some details of his personal and private life; and the volume in which + these are collected forms one of the Four Books of the Confucian + Canon. Starting from the axiomatic declaration that man is born good + and only becomes evil by his environment, he takes filial piety and + duty to one's neighbour as his chief themes, often illustrating his + arguments with almost Johnsonian emphasis. He cherished a shadowy + belief in a God, but not in a future state of reward or punishment for + good or evil actions in this world. He rather taught men to be + virtuous for virtue's sake. + + + Mencius. + + Mo Ti. + + Yang Chu. + + Hsün Tz[)u]. + + Yang Hsiung. + + The discourses of Mencius, who followed Confucius after an interval of + a hundred years, 372-289 B.C., form another of the Four Books, the + remaining two of which are short philosophical treatises, usually + ascribed to a grandson of Confucius. Mencius devoted his life to + elucidating and expanding the teachings of the Master; and it is no + doubt due to him that the Confucian doctrines obtained so wide a + vogue. But he himself was more a politician and an economist (see + below) than a simple preacher of morality; and hence it is that the + Chinese people have accorded to him the title of The Second Sage. He + is considered to have effectually "snuffed out" the heterodox school + of Mo Ti, a philosopher of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. who + propounded a doctrine of "universal love" as the proper foundation for + organized society, arguing that under such a system all the calamities + that men bring upon one another would altogether disappear, and the + Golden Age would be renewed. At the same time Mencius exposed the + fallacies of the speculations of Yang Chu, 4th century B.C., who + founded a school of ethical egoism as opposed to the exaggerated + altruism of Mo Ti. According to Mencius, Yang Chu would not have + parted with one hair of his body to save the whole world, whereas Mo + Ti would have sacrificed all. Another early philosopher is Hsün + Tz[)u], 3rd century B.C. He maintained, in opposition to Mencius, who + upheld the Confucian dogma, and in conformity with Christian doctrine, + that the nature of man at his birth is evil, and that this condition + can only be changed by efficient moral training. Then came Yang + Hsiung, 53-18 B.C., who propounded an ethical criterion midway between + the rival positions insisted on by Mencius and Hsün Tz[)u], teaching + that the nature of man at birth is neither good nor evil, but a + mixture of both, and that development in either direction depends + wholly upon circumstances. + + + Huai-nan Tz[)u]. + + There is a voluminous and interesting work, of doubtful age, which + passes under the title of _Huai-nan Tz[)u]_, or the Philosopher of + Huai-nan. It is attributed to Liu An, prince of Huai-nan, who died 122 + B.C., and who is further said to have written on alchemy; but alchemy + was scarcely known in China at the date of his death, being introduced + about that time from Greece. The author, whoever he may have been, + poses as a disciple of Lao Tz[)u]; but the speculations of Lao Tz[)u], + as glorified by Chuang Tz[)u], were then rapidly sinking into vulgar + efforts to discover the elixir of life. It is very difficult in many + cases of this kind to decide what books are, and what books are not, + partial or complete forgeries. In the present instance, the aid of the + _Shuo Wên_, a dictionary of the 1st century A.D. (see below), may be + invoked, but not in quite so satisfactory a sense as that in which it + will be seen lower down to have been applied to the _Tao Tê Ching_. + The _Shuo Wên_ contains a quotation said to be taken from _Huai-nan + Tz[)u]_; but that quotation cannot be found in the work under + consideration. It may be argued that the words in question may have + been taken from another work by the same author; but if so, it becomes + difficult to believe that a book, more than two hundred years old, + from which the author of the _Shuo Wên_ quoted, should have been + allowed to perish without leaving any trace behind. China has produced + its Bentleys in considerable numbers; but almost all of them have + given their attention to textual criticism of the Confucian Canon, and + few have condescended to examine critically the works of heterodox + writers. The foreign student therefore finds himself faced with many + knotty points he is entirely unable to solve. + + + Wang Ch'ung. + + Of Wang Ch'ung, a speculative and materialistic philosopher, A.D. + 27-97, banned by the orthodox for his attacks on Confucius and + Mencius, only one work has survived. it consists of eighty-four essays + on such topics as the nature of things, destiny, divination, death, + ghosts, poisons, miracles, criticisms of Confucius and Mencius, + exaggeration, sacrifice and exorcism. According to Wang Ch'ung, man, + endowed at birth sometimes with a good and sometimes with an evil + nature, is informed with a vital fluid, which resides in the blood and + is nourished by eating and drinking, its two functions being to + animate the body and keep in order the mind. It is the source of all + sensation, passing through the blood like a wave. When it reaches the + eyes, ears and mouth, the result is sight, hearing and speech + respectively. Disturbance of the vital fluid leads to insanity. + Without the fluid, the body cannot be maintained; without the body, + the fluid loses its vitality. Therefore, argues Wang Ch'ung, when the + body perishes and the fluid loses its vitality, each being dependent + on the other, there remains nothing for immortality in a life beyond + the grave. Ghosts he held to be the hallucinations of disordered + minds, and miracles to be natural phenomena capable of simple + explanations. His indictments of Confucius and Mencius are not of a + serious character; though, as regards the former, it must be borne in + mind that the Chinese people will not suffer the faintest aspersion on + the fair fame of their great Sage. It is related in the _Lun Yü_ that + Confucius paid a visit to the notoriously immoral wife of one of the + feudal nobles, and that a certain disciple was "displeased" in + consequence, whereupon the Master swore, saying, "If I have done any + wrong, may the sky fall and crush me!" Wang Ch'ung points out that the + form of oath adopted by Confucius is unsatisfactory and fails to carry + conviction. Had he said, "May I be struck dead by lightning!" his + sincerity would have been more powerfully attested, because people are + often struck dead by lightning; whereas the fall of the sky is too + remote a contingency, such a thing never having been known to happen + within the memory of man. As to Mencius, there is a passage in his + works which states that a thread of predestination runs through all + human life, and that those who accommodate themselves will come off + better in the end than those who try to oppose; it is in fact a + statement of the [Greek: ouk uper moron] principle. On this Wang + Ch'ung remarks that the will of God is consequently made to depend on + human actions; and he further strengthens his objection by showing + that the best men have often fared worst. For instance, Confucius + never became emperor; Pi Kan, the patriot, was disembowelled; the bold + and faithful disciple, Tz[)u] Lu, was chopped into small pieces. + + + Book of Changes. + + But the tale of Chinese philosophers is a long one. It is a department + of literature in which the leading scholars of all ages have mostly + had something to say. The great Chu Hsi, A.D. 1130-1200, whose fame is + chiefly perhaps that of a commentator and whose monument is his + uniform exegesis of the Confucian Canon, was also a voluminous writer + on philosophy. He took a hand in the mystery which surrounds the _I + Ching_ (or _Yih King_), generally known as the Book of Changes, which + is held by some to be the oldest Chinese work and which forms part of + the Confucian Canon. It is ascribed to King Wên, the virtual founder + of the Chou dynasty, 1122-249 B.C., whose son became the first + sovereign and posthumously raised his father to kingly rank. It + contains a fanciful system of divination, deduced originally from + eight diagrams consisting of triplet combinations of a line and a + broken line, either one of which is necessarily repeated twice, and in + two cases three times, in the same combination. Thus there may be + three lines [Illustration], or three broken lines [Illustration], and + other such combinations as [Illustration] and [Illustration]. + Confucius declared that he would like to give another fifty years to + the elucidation of this puzzling text. Shao Yung, A.D. 1011-1077, + sought the key in numbers: Ch'êng I., A.D. 1033-1107, in the eternal + fitness of things. "But Chu Hsi alone," says a writer of the 17th + century, "was able to pierce through the meaning and appropriate the + thoughts of the inspired man who composed it." No foreigner, however, + has been able quite to understand what Chu Hsi did make of it, and + several have gone so far as to set all native interpretations aside in + favour of their own. Thus, the _I Ching_ has been discovered by one to + be a calendar of the lunar year; by another, to contain a system of + phallic worship; and by a third, to be a vocabulary of the language of + a tribe, whose very existence had to be postulated for the purpose. + + + Kuan Chung. + + _Political Economy._--This department of literature has been by no + means neglected by Chinese writers. So early as the 7th century B.C. + we find Kuan Chung, the prime minister of the Ch'i state, devoting his + attention to economic problems, and thereby making that state the + wealthiest and the strongest of all the feudal kingdoms. Beginning + life as a merchant, he passed into the public service, and left behind + him at death a large work, parts of which, as we now possess it, may + possibly have come direct from his own hand, the remainder being + written up at a later date in accordance with the principles he + inculcated. His ideal State was divided into twenty-one parts, fifteen + of which were allotted to officials and agriculturists, and six to + manufacturers and traders. His great idea was to make his own state + self-contained; and accordingly he fostered agriculture in order to be + independent in time of war, and manufactures in order to increase his + country's wealth in time of peace. He held that a purely agricultural + population would always remain poor; while a purely manufacturing + population would risk having its supplies of raw material cut off in + time of war. He warmly encouraged free imports as a means of enriching + his countrymen, trusting to their ability, under these conditions, to + hold their own against foreign competition. He protected capital, in + the sense that he considered capitalists to be necessary for the + development of commerce in time of peace, and for the protection of + the state in time of war. + + Mencius (see above) was in favour of heavily taxing merchants who + tried to engross for the purpose of regrating, that is, to buy up + wholesale for the purpose of retailing at monopoly prices; he was in + fact opposed to all trusts and corners in trade. He was in favour of a + tax to be imposed upon such persons as were mere consumers, living + upon property which had been amassed by others and doing no work + themselves. No tax, however, was to be exacted from property-owners + who contributed by their personal efforts to the general welfare of + the community. The object of the tax was not revenue, but the + prevention of idleness with its attendant evil consequences to the + state. + + + Wang An-shih. + + Wang An-shih, the Reformer, or Innovator, as he has been called, + flourished A.D. 1021-1086. In 1069 he was appointed state councillor, + and forthwith entered upon a series of startling reforms which have + given him a unique position in the annals of China. He established a + state monopoly in commerce, under which the produce of a district was + to be used first for the payment of taxes, then for the direct use of + the district itself, and the remainder was to be purchased by the + government at a cheap rate, either to be held until there was a rise + in price, or to be transported to some other district in need of it. + The people were to profit by fixity of prices and escape from further + taxation; and the government, by the revenue accruing in the process + of administration. There was also to be a system of state advances to + cultivators of land; not merely to the needy, but to all alike. The + loan was to be compulsory, and interest was to be paid on it at the + rate of 2% per month. The soil was to be divided into equal areas and + taxed according to its fertility in each case, without reference to + the number of inhabitants contained in each area. All these, and other + important reforms, failed to find favour with a rigidly conservative + people, and Wang An-shih lived long enough to see the whole of his + policy reversed. + + + Sun-Tz[)u]. + + _Military Writers._--Not much, relatively speaking, has been written + by the Chinese on war in general, strategy or tactics. There is, + however, one very remarkable work which has come down to us from the + 6th century B.C., as to the genuineness of which there now seems to be + no reasonable doubt. A biographical notice of the author, Sun Wu, is + given in the _Shih Chi_ (see above), from which we learn that "he knew + how to handle an army, and was finally appointed General." His work, + entitled the _Art of War_, is a short treatise in thirteen chapters, + under the following headings: "Laying Plans," "Waging War," "Attack by + Stratagem," "Tactical Dispositions," "Energy," "Weak Points and + Strong," "Manoeuvring," "Variation of Tactics," "The Army on the + March," "Terrain," "The Nine Situations," "The Attack by Fire," and + "The Use of Spies." Although the warfare of Sun Wu's day was the + warfare of bow and arrow, of armoured chariots and push of pike, + certain principles inseparably associated with successful issue will + be found enunciated in his work. Professor Mackail, in his _Latin + Literature_ (p. 86), declares that Varro's _Imagines_ was "the first + instance in history of the publication of an illustrated book." But + reference to the Art Section of the history of the Western Han + dynasty, 206 B.C.-A.D. 25, will disclose the title of fifteen or + sixteen illustrated books, one of which is Sun Wu's _Art of War_. + + + Hsü Kuang-ch'i. + + _Agriculture._--In spite of the high place accorded to agriculturists, + who rank second only to officials and before artisans and traders, and + in spite of the assiduity with which agriculture has been practised in + all ages, securing immunity from slaughter for the ploughing ox--what + agricultural literature the Chinese possess may be said to belong + entirely to modern times. Ch'ên Fu of the 12th century A.D. was the + author of a small work in three parts, dealing with agriculture, + cattle-breeding and silkworms respectively. There is also a well-known + work by an artist of the early 13th century, with forty-six woodcuts + illustrating the various operations of agriculture and weaving. This + book was reprinted under the emperor K'ang Hsi, 1662-1723, and new + illustrations with excellent perspective were provided by Chiao + Ping-chên, an artist who had adopted foreign methods as introduced by + the famous Jesuit, Matteo Ricci. The standard work on agriculture, + entitled _Nung Chêng Ch'üan Shu_, was compiled by Hsü Kuang-ch'i, + 1562-1634, generally regarded as the only influential member of the + mandarinate who has ever become a convert to Christianity. It is in + sixty sections, the first three of which are devoted to classical + references. Then follow two sections on the division of land, six on + the processes of husbandry, none on hydraulics, four on agricultural + implements, six on planting, six on rearing silkworms, four on trees, + one on breeding animals, one on food and eighteen on provision against + a time of scarcity. + + + Pên Ts'no. + + _Medicine and Therapeutics._--The oldest of the innumerable medical + works of all descriptions with which China has been flooded from time + immemorial is a treatise which has been credited to the Yellow Emperor + (see above), 2698-2598 B.C. It is entitled _Plain Questions of the + Yellow Emperor_, or _Su Wên_ for short, and takes the form of + questions put by the emperor and answered by Earl Ch'i, a minister, + who was himself author of the _Nei Ching_, a medical work no longer in + existence. Without accepting the popular attribution of the _Su Wên_, + it is most probable that it is a very old book, dating back to several + centuries before Christ, and containing traditional lore of a still + more remote period. The same may be said of certain works on cautery + and acupuncture, both of which are still practised by Chinese doctors; + and also of works on the pulse, the variations of which have been + classified and allocated with a minuteness hardly credible. Special + treatises on fevers, skin-diseases, diseases of the feet, eyes, heart, + &c., are to be found in great quantities, as well as veterinary + treatises on the treatment of diseases of the horse and the domestic + buffalo. But in the whole range of Chinese medical literature there is + nothing which can approach the _Pên Ts'ao_, or _Materia Medica_, + sometimes called the Herbal, a title (i.e. _Pên Ts'ao_) which seems to + have belonged to some book of the kind in pre-historic ages. The work + under consideration was compiled by Li Shih-chên, who completed his + task in 1578 after twenty-six years' labour. No fewer than eighteen + hundred and ninety-two species of drugs, animal, vegetable and + mineral, are dealt with, arranged under sixty-two classes in sixteen + divisions; and eight thousand one hundred and sixty prescriptions are + given in connexion with the various entries. The author professes to + quote from the original _Pên Ts'ao_, above mentioned; and we obtain + from his extracts an insight into some curious details. It appears + that formerly the number of recognized drugs was three hundred and + sixty-five in all, corresponding with the days of the year. One + hundred and twenty of these were called _sovereigns_ (cf. a sovereign + prescription); and were regarded as entirely beneficial to health, + taken in any quantity or for any time. Another similar number were + called _ministers_; some of these were poisonous, and all had to be + used with discretion. The remaining one hundred and twenty-five were + _agents_; all very poisonous, but able to cure diseases if not taken + in over-doses. The modern _Pên Ts'ao_, in its sixteen divisions, deals + with drugs classed under water, fire, earth, minerals, herbs, grain, + vegetables, fruit, trees, clothes and utensils, insects, fishes, + crustacea, birds, beasts and man. In each case the proper name of the + drug is first given, followed by its explanation, solution of doubtful + points, correction of errors, means of identification by taste, use in + prescriptions, &c. The work is fully illustrated, and there is an + index to the various medicines, classed according to the complaints + for which they are used. + + _Divination, &c._--The practice of divination is of very ancient date + in China, traceable, it has been suggested, back to the Canon of + Changes (see above), which is commonly used by the lettered classes + for that purpose. A variety of other methods, the chief of which is + astrology, have also been adopted, and have yielded a considerable + bulk of literature. Even the officially-published almanacs still mark + certain days as suitable for certain undertakings, while other days + are marked in the opposite sense. The spirit of Zadkiel pervades the + Chinese empire. In like manner, geomancy is a subject on which many + volumes have been written; and the same applies to the pseudo sciences + of palmistry, physiognomy, alchemy (introduced from Greek sources) and + others. + + _Painting._--Calligraphy, in the eyes of the Chinese, is just as much + a fine art as painting; the two are, in fact, considered to have come + into existence together, but as might be expected the latter occupies + the larger space in Chinese literature, and forms the subject of + numerous extensive works. One of the most important of these is the + _Hsüan Ho Hua P'u_, the author of which is unknown. It contains + information concerning two hundred and thirty-one painters and the + titles of six thousand one hundred and ninety-two of their pictures, + all in the imperial collection during the dynastic period _Hsüan Ho_, + A.D. 1119-1126, from which the title is derived. The artists are + classified under one of the following ten headings, supposed to + represent the line in which each particularly excelled: Religion, + Human Figures, Buildings, Barbarians (including their Animals), + Dragons and Fishes, Landscape, Animals, Flowers and Birds, The Bamboo, + Vegetables and Fruits. + + _Music._--The literature of music does not go back to a remote period. + The Canon of Music, which was formerly included in the Confucian + Canon, has been lost for many centuries; and the works now available, + exclusive of entries in the dynastic histories, are not older than the + 9th century A.D., to which date may be assigned the _Chieh Ku Lu_, a + treatise on the deerskin drum, said to have been introduced into China + from central Asia, and evidently of Scythian origin. There are several + important works of the 16th and 17th centuries, in which the history + and theory of music are fully discussed, and illustrations of + instruments are given, with measurements in each case, and the special + notation required. + + _Miscellaneous._--Under this head may be grouped a vast number of + works, many of them exhaustive, on such topics as archaeology, seals + (engraved), numismatics, pottery, ink (the miscalled "Indian"), + mirrors, precious stones, tea, wine, chess, wit and humour, even + cookery, &c. There is, indeed, hardly any subject, within reasonable + limits, which does not find some corner in Chinese literature. + + + Lung Wei Pi Shu. + + _Collections_.--Reprints of miscellaneous books and pamphlets in a + uniform edition, the whole forming a "library," has long been a + favourite means of disseminating useful (and other) information. Of + these, the _Lung Wei Pi Shu_ may be taken as a specimen. In bulk it + would be about the equivalent of twenty volumes, 8vo, of four hundred + pages to each. Among its contents we find the following. A handbook of + phraseology, with explanations; a short account of fabulous regions to + the N., S., E. and W.; notes on the plants and trees of southern + countries; biographical sketches of ninety-two wonderful personages; + an account of the choice of an empress, with standard measurements of + the height, length of limb, &c., of the ideal woman; "Pillow Notes" (a + term borrowed by the Japanese), or jottings on various subjects, + ranging from the Creation to an account of Fusang, a country where the + trees are thousands of feet high and of vast girth, thus supporting + the California, as opposed to the Mexico, identification of Fusang; + critiques on the style of various poets, and on the indebtedness of + each to earlier writers; a list of the most famous bronze vessels cast + by early emperors, with their dimensions, inscriptions, &c.; a + treatise on the bamboo; a list of famous swords, with dates of forging + and inscriptions; an account of the old Mongol palace, previous to its + destruction by the first Ming emperor; notes on the wild tribes of + China; historical episodes; biographical notices of one hundred and + four poets of the present dynasty; notes on archaeological, + supernatural and other topics, first published in the 9th century; + notes for bibliophiles on the care of books, and on paper, ink, + pictures and bric-à-brac; a collection of famous criminal cases; night + thoughts suggested by a meteor. Add to the above, numerous short + stories relating to magic, dreams, bilocation, and to almost every + possible phase of supernatural manifestation, and the reader will have + some idea of what he may expect in an ordinary "library" of a popular + character. It must always be remembered that with the Chinese, style + is of paramount importance. Documents, the subject-matter of which + would be recognized to be of no educative value, would still be + included, if written in a pleasing style, such as might be serviceable + as a model. + + _Individual Authors_.--In a similar manner it has always been + customary for relatives or friends, sometimes for the trade, to + publish the "complete works" of important and often unimportant + writers; usually, soon after death. And as literary distinction has + hitherto almost invariably led to high office under the state, the + collected works of the great majority of authors open with selected + Memorials to the Throne and other documents of an official character. + The public interest in these may have long since passed away; but they + are valued by the Chinese as models of a style to be imitated, and the + foreign student occasionally comes across papers on once burning + questions arising out of commercial or diplomatic intercourse with + western nations. Then may follow--the order is not always the + same--the prefaces which the author contributed from time to time to + the literary undertakings of his friends. Preface-writing is almost a + department of Chinese literature. No one ever thinks of publishing a + book without getting one or more of his capable associates to provide + prefaces, which are naturally of a laudatory character, and always + couched in highly-polished and obscure terms, the difficulty of the + text being often aggravated by a fanciful and almost illegible script. + Prefaces written by emperors, many examples of which may be seen, are + of course highly esteemed, and are generally printed in coloured ink. + The next section may comprise biographical notices of eminent men and + women, or of mere local celebrities, who happened to die in the + author's day. Then will follow Records, a title which covers + inscriptions carved on the walls of new buildings, or on memorial + tablets, and also notes on pictures which the author may have seen, + places which he may have visited, or allegorical incidents which he + may have imagined. Then come disquisitions, or essays on various + subjects; researches, being short articles of archaeological interest; + studies or monographs; birthday congratulations to friends or to + official colleagues; announcements, as to deities, a cessation of + whose worship is threatened if the necessary rain or fair weather be + not forthcoming; funeral orations, letters of condolence, &c. The + above items will perhaps fill half a dozen volumes; the remaining + volumes, running to twenty or thirty in all, as the case may be, will + contain the author's poetry, together with his longer and more serious + works. The essential of such a collection is, in Chinese eyes, its + completeness. + + + San Kuo Chih. + + Hung Lou Mêng. + + Liao Chai. + +_Fiction_.--Although novels are not regarded as an integral part of +literature proper, it is generally conceded that some novels may be +profitably studied, if for no other reason, from the point of view of +style. With the novel, however, we are no longer on perfectly safe +ground in regard to that decency which characterizes, as has been above +stated, the vast mass of Chinese literature. Chinese novels range, in +this sense, from the simplest and most unaffected tale of daily life, +down to low--not the lowest--depths of objectionable pornography. The +_San Kuo Chih_, an historical romance based upon a period of disruption +at the close of the 2nd century A.D., is a delightful book, packed with +episodes of battle, heroism, self-sacrifice, skilful strategy, and all +that goes to make up a stirring picture of strenuous times. Its author, +who might almost have been Walter Scott, cannot be named for certain; +but the work itself probably belongs to the 13th century, a date at +which the novel begins to make its appearance in China. Previous to that +time, there had been current an immense quantity of stories of various +kinds, but nothing like a novel, as we understand the term. From the +13th century onwards, the growth of the novel was continuous; and +finally, in the 17th century, a point was reached which is not likely to +be surpassed. The _Hung Lou Mêng_, the author of which took pains, for +political reasons, to conceal his identity, is a creation of a very high +order. Its plot is intricate and original, and the _dénouement_ +startlingly tragic. In the course of the story, the chief clue of which +is love, woven in with intrigue, ambition, wealth, poverty, and other +threads of human life, there occur no fewer than over four hundred +characters, each one possessed of a distinctive personality drawn with +marvellous skill. It contains incidents which recall the licence +tolerated in Fielding; but the coarseness, like that of Fielding, is +always on the surface, and devoid of the ulterior suggestiveness of the +modern psychological novel. But perhaps no work of fiction has ever +enjoyed such vogue among literary men as a collection of stories, some +graceful, some weird, written in 1679 by P'u Sungling, a disappointed +candidate at the public examinations. This collection, known as the +_Liao Chai_, is exceedingly interesting to the foreign student for its +sidelights on folklore and family life; to the native scholar, who +professes to smile at the subject-matter as beyond the pale of genuine +literature, it is simply invaluable as an expression of the most +masterly style of which his language is capable. + + + Hsi Hsiang Chi. + +_Drama._--Simultaneously with the appearance of the novel, stage-plays +seem to have come into existence in China. In the earliest ages there +were set dances by trained performers, to the accompaniment of music and +singing; and something of the kind, more or less ornate as regards the +setting, has always been associated with solemn and festive occasions. +But not until the days of the Mongol rule, A.D. 1260-1368, can the drama +proper be said to have taken root and flourished in Chinese soil. The +probability is that both the drama and the novel were introduced from +Central Asia in the wake of the Mongol conquerors; the former is now +specially essential to the everyday happiness of the Chinese people, who +are perhaps the most confirmed playgoers in the world. There is an +excellent collection of one hundred plays of the Mongol dynasty, with an +illustration to each, first published in 1615; there is also a further +large collection, issued in 1845, which contains a great number of plays +arranged under sixty headings, according to the style and purport of +each, besides many others. There is one famous play of the Mongol period +which deals largely in plot and passion, and is a great favourite with +the educated classes. It is entitled _Hsi Hsiang Chi_, or the Story of +the Western Pavilion; and as if there was a doubt as to the reception +which would be accorded to the work, a minatory sentence was inserted in +the prolegomena: "If any one ventures to call this book indecent, he +will certainly have his tongue torn out in hell." So far as the written +play is concerned, its language is altogether unobjectionable; on the +stage, by means of gag and gesture, its presentation is often unseemly +and coarse. What the Chinese playgoer delights in, as an evening's +amusement, is a succession of plays which are more of the nature of +sketches, slight in construction and generally weak in plot, some of +them based upon striking historical episodes, and others dealing with a +single humorous incident. + + _Dictionaries._--The _Erh Ya_, or Nearing the Standard, is commonly + classed as a dictionary, and is referred by native scholars generally + to the 12th century B.C. The entries are arranged under nineteen + heads, to facilitate reference, and explain a large number of words + and phrases, including names of beasts, birds, plants and fishes. The + work is well illustrated in the large modern edition; but the actual + date of composition is an entirely open question, and the insertion of + woodcuts must necessarily belong to a comparatively late age (see + _Military Writers_). + + + Shuo Wên. + + With the _Shuo Wên_, or Explanation of Written Words, we begin the + long list of lexicographical works which constitute such a notable + feature in Chinese literature. A scholar, named Hsü Shên, who died + about A.D. 120, made an effort to bring together and analyse all the + characters it was possible to gather from the written language as it + existed in his own day. He then proceeded to arrange these + characters--about ten thousand in all--on a system which would enable + a student to find a given word without having possibly to search + through the whole book. To do this, he simply grouped together all + such as had a common part, more or less indicative of the meaning of + each, much as though an English dictionary were to consist of such + groups as + + Dog-days + Dog-kennel + Dog-collar + Dog-meat + Dog-nap + + and so on. + + Horse-collar + Horse-flesh + Horse-back + Horse-fly + Horse-chestnut + + and so on. + + Hsü Shên selected five hundred and forty of these common parts, or + Radicals (see _Language_), a number which, as will be seen later on, + was found to be cumbrously large; and under each Radical he inserted + all the characters belonging to it, but with no particular order or + arrangement, so that search was still, in many cases, quite a + laborious task. The explanations given were chiefly intended to + establish the pictorial origin of the language; but whereas no one now + disputes this as a general conclusion, the steps by which Hsü Shên + attempted to prove his theory must in a large number of instances be + dismissed as often inadequate and sometimes ridiculous. Nevertheless, + it was a great achievement; and the _Shuo Wên_ is still indispensable + to the student of the particular script in vogue a century or two + before Christ. It is also of value in another sense. It may be used, + with discretion, in testing the genuineness of an alleged ancient + document, which, if an important or well-known document before the age + of Hsü Shên, would not be likely to contain characters not given in + his work. Under this test the _Tao Tê Ching_, for instance, breaks + down (see _Huai-nan Tz[)u]_). + + Passing over a long series of dictionaries and vocabularies which + appeared at various dates, some constructed on Hsü Shên's plan, with + modifications and improvements, and others, known as phonetic + dictionaries, arranged under the finals according to the Tones, we + come to the great standard lexicon produced under the auspices, and + now bearing the name of the emperor K'ang Hsi, A.D. 1662-1723. + + + Phonetic dictionaries. + + But before proceeding, a rough attempt may be made to exhibit in + English terms the principle of the phonetic as compared with the + radical dictionary described above. In the spoken language there would + occur the word _light_, the opposite of dark, and this would be + expressed in writing by a certain symbol. Then, when it became + necessary to write down _light_, the opposite of heavy, the result + would be precisely what we see in English. But as written words + increased, always with a limited number of vocables (see _Language_), + this system was found to be impracticable, and Radicals were inserted + as a means of distinguishing one kind of _light_ from another, but + without altering the original sound. Now, in the phonetic dictionary + the words are no longer arranged in such groups as + + Sun-light + Sun-beam + Sun-stroke + Sun-god, &c. + + according to the Radicals, but in such groups as + + Sun-light + Moon-light + Foot-light + Gas-light, &c. + + according to the phonetics, all the above four being pronounced simply + _light_, without reference to the radical portion which guides towards + the limited sense of the term. So, in a phonetic dictionary, we should + have such a group as + + Brass-bound + Morocco-bound + Half-bound + Spell-bound + Homeward-bound + Wind-bound + + and so on, all the above six being pronounced simply _bound_. To + return to "K'ang Hsi," as the lexicon in question is familiarly + styled, the total number of characters given therein amounts to over + forty-four thousand, grouped no longer under the five hundred and + forty Radicals of Hsü Shên, but under the much more manageable number + of two hundred and fourteen, as already used in earlier dictionaries. + Further, as the groups of characters would now be more than four times + as large as in the _Shuo Wên_, they were subdivided under each Radical + according to the number of strokes in the other, or phonetic part of + the character. Thus, adopting letters as strokes, for the purpose of + illustration, we should have "dog-nap" in the group of Radical "dog" + and three strokes, while "dog-days" and "dog-meat" would both be found + under Radical "dog" with four strokes, and so on. The two hundred and + fourteen Radicals are themselves arranged in groups according to the + number of strokes; so that it is not a very arduous task to turn up + ordinary characters in a Chinese dictionary. Finally, although Chinese + is a monosyllabic and non-alphabetic language, a method has been + devised, and has been in use since the 3rd century A.D., by which the + sound of any word can be indicated in a dictionary otherwise than by + simply quoting a word of similar sound, which of course may be equally + unknown to the searcher. Thus, the sound of a word pronounced _ching_ + can be exhibited by selecting two words, one having the initial _ch_, + and the other a final _ing_. E.g. the sound _ching_ is given as _chien + ling_; that is _ch[ien l]ing = ching_. + + _The Concordance._--Considering the long unbroken series of years + during which Chinese literature has always, in spite of many losses, + been steadily gaining in bulk, it is not astonishing to find that + classical, historical, mythological and other allusions to personages + or events of past times have also grown out of all proportion to the + brain capacity even of the most brilliant student. Designed especially + to meet this difficulty, there are several well-known handbooks, + elementary and advanced, which trace such allusions to their source + and provide full and lucid explanations; but even the most extensive + of these is on a scale incommensurate with the requirements of the + scholar. Again, it is due to the emperor K'ang Hsi that we possess one + of the most elaborate compilations of the kind ever planned and + carried to completion. The _P'ei Wên Yün Fu_, or Concordance to + Literature, is a key, not only to allusions in general, but to all + phraseology, including allusions, idiomatic expressions and other + obscure combinations of words, to be found in the classics, in the + dynastic histories, and in all poets, historians, essayists, and + writers of recognized eminence in their own lines. No attempt at + explanation is given; but enough of the passage, or passages, in which + the phrase occurs, is cited to enable the reader to gather the meaning + required. The trouble, of course, lies with the arrangement of these + phrases in a non-alphabetic language. Recourse has been had to the + Rhymes and the five Tones (see _Language_); and all phrases which end + with the same word form one of a number of groups which appear under + the same Rhyme, the Rhymes themselves being distributed over five + Tones. Thus, to find any phrase, the first point is to discover what + is its normal Rhyme; the next is to ascertain the Tone of that Rhyme. + Then, under this Tone-group the Rhyme-word will be found, and under + the Rhyme-word group will be found the final word of the phrase in + question. It will now only remain to run through this last group of + phrases, all of which have this same final word, and the search--so + vast is the collection--will usually yield a satisfactory result. The + _P'ei Wên Yün Fu_ runs of course to many volumes; a rough estimate + shows it to contain over fifteen million words. + + + Yuan Lo Ta Tien. + + _Encyclopaedias._--In their desire to bring together condensed, yet + precise, information on a large variety of subjects, the Chinese may + be said to have invented the encyclopaedia. Though not the earliest + work of this kind, the _T'ai P'ing Yü Lan_ is the first of any great + importance. It was produced towards the close of the 10th century + A.D., under the direct supervision of the emperor, who is said to have + examined three sections every day for about a year, the total number + of sections being one thousand in all, arranged under fifty-five + headings. Another similar work, dealing with topics drawn from the + lighter literature of China, is the _T'ai P'ing Kuang Chi_, which was + issued at about the same date as the last-mentioned. Both of these, + and especially the former, have passed through several editions. They + help to inaugurate the great Sung dynasty, which for three centuries + to follow effected so much in the cause of literature. Other + encyclopaedias, differing in scope and in plan, appeared from time to + time, but it will be necessary to concentrate attention upon two only. + The third emperor of the Ming dynasty, known as Yung Lo, A.D. + 1403-1425, issued a commission for the production of a work on a scale + which was colossal even for China. His idea was to collect together + all that had ever been written in the four departments of (1) the + Confucian Canon, (2) History, (3) Philosophy and (4) General + Literature, including astronomy, geography, cosmogony, medicine, + divination, Buddhism, Taoism, arts and handicrafts; and in 1408 such + an encyclopaedia was laid before the Throne, received the imperial + approval and was named _Yung Lo Ta Tien_, or The Great Standard of + Yung Lo. To achieve this, 3 commissioners, with 5 directors, 20 + sub-directors and a staff of 2141 assistants, had laboured for the + space of five years. Its contents ran to no fewer than 22,877 separate + sections, to which must be added an index filling 60 sections. Each + section contained about 20 leaves, making a total of 917,480 pages for + the whole work. Each page consisted of sixteen columns of characters + averaging twenty-five to each column, or a total of 366,992,000 + characters, to which, in order to bring the amount into terms of + English words, about another third would have to be added. This + extraordinary work was never printed, as the expense would have been + too great, although it was actually transcribed for that purpose; and + later on, two more copies were made, one of which was finally stored + in Peking and the other, with the original, in Nanking. Both the + Nanking copies perished at the fall of the Ming dynasty; and a similar + fate overtook the Peking copy, with the exception of a few odd + volumes, at the siege of the legations in 1900. The latter was bound + up in 11,100 volumes, covered with yellow silk, each volume being 1 + ft. 8 in. in length by 1 ft. in breadth, and averaging over ½ in. in + thickness. This would perhaps be a fitting point to conclude any + notice of Chinese encyclopaedias, but for the fact that the work of + Yung Lo is gone while another encyclopaedia, also on a huge scale, + designed and carried out sonic centuries later, is still an important + work of reference. + + + T'u Shu. + + The _T'u Shu Chi Ch'êng_ was planned, and to a great extent made + ready, under instructions from the emperor K'ang Hsi (see above), and + was finally brought out by his successor, Yung Chêng, 1723-1736. + Intended to embrace all departments of knowledge, its contents were + distributed over six leading categories, which for want of better + equivalents may be roughly rendered by (l) Heaven, (2) Earth, (3) Man, + (4) Arts and Sciences, (5) Philosophy and (6) Political Science. These + were subdivided into thirty-two classes; and in the voluminous index + which accompanies the work a further attempt was made to bring the + searcher into still closer touch with the individual items treated. + Thus, the category Heaven is subdivided into four classes, + namely--again, for want of better terms--(_a_) The Sky and its + Manifestations, (_b_) The Seasons, (_c_) Astronomy and Mathematics and + (_d_) Natural Phenomena. Under these classes come the individual + items; and here it is that the foreign student is often at a loss. For + instance, class _a_ includes Earth, in its cosmogonic sense, as the + mother of mankind; Heaven, in its original sense of God; the Dual + Principle in nature; the Sun, Moon and Stars; Wind; Clouds; Rainbow; + Thunder and Lightning; Rain; Fire, &c. But Earth is itself a + geographical category; and all strange phenomena relating to many of + the items under class _a_ are recorded under class _d_. Category No. + 6, marked as Political Science, contains such classes as Ceremonial, + Music and Administration of Justice, alongside of Handicrafts, making + it essential to study the arrangement carefully before it is possible + to consult the work with ease. Such preliminary trouble is, however, + well repaid, the amount of information given on any particular subject + being practically coextensive with what is known about that subject. + The method of presenting such information, with variations to suit the + nature of the topics handled, is to begin with historical excerpts, + chronologically arranged. These are usually followed by sometimes + lengthy essays dealing with the subject as a theme, taken from the + writings of qualified authors, and like all the other entries, also + chronologically arranged. Then come elegant extracts in prose and + verse, in all of which the subject may be simply mentioned and not + treated as in the essays. After these follow minor notices of + incidents, historical and otherwise, and all kinds of anecdotes, + derived from a great variety of sources. Occasionally, single poetical + lines are brought together, each contributing, some thought or + statement germane to the subject, expressed in elegant or forcible + terms; and also, wherever practicable, biographies of men and women + are inserted. + + Chronological and other tables are supplied where necessary, as well + as a very large number of illustrations, many of these being + reproductions of woodcuts from earlier works. It is said that the _T'u + Shu Chi Ch'êng_ was printed from movable copper type cast by the + Jesuit Fathers employed by the emperor K'ang Hsi at Peking; also that + only a hundred copies were struck off, the type being then destroyed. + An 8vo edition of the whole encyclopaedia was issued at Shanghai in + 1889; this is bound up in sixteen hundred and twenty-eight handy + volumes of about two hundred pages each. A copy of the original + edition stands on the shelves of the British Museum, and a translation + of the Index has recently been completed. + +_Manuscripts and Printing._--At the conclusion of this brief survey of +Chinese literature it may well be asked how such an enormous and +ever-increasing mass has been handed down from generation to generation. +According to the views put forth by early Chinese antiquarians, the +first written records were engraved with a special knife upon bamboo +slips and wooden tablets. The impracticability of such a process, as +applied to books, never seems to have dawned upon those writers; and +this snowball of error, started in the 7th century, long after the knife +and the tablet had disappeared as implements of writing, continued to +gather strength as time went on. Recent researches, however, have placed +it beyond doubt that when the Chinese began to write in a literary +sense, as opposed to mere scratchings on bones, they traced their +characters on slips of bamboo and tablets of wood with a bamboo pencil, +frayed at one end to carry the coloured liquid which stood in the place +of ink. The knife was used only to erase. So things went on until about +200 B.C., when it would appear that a brush of hair was substituted for +the bamboo pencil; after which, silk was called into requisition as an +appropriate vehicle in connexion with the more delicate brush. But silk +was expensive and difficult to handle, so that the invention of paper in +A.D. 105 by a eunuch, named Ts'ai Lun, came as a great boon, although it +seems clear that a certain kind of paper, made from silk floss, was in +use before his date. However that may be, from the 1st century onwards +the Chinese have been in possession of the same writing materials that +are in use at the present day. + +In A.D. 170, Ts'ai Yung, who rose subsequently to the highest offices of +state, wrote out on stone in red ink the authorized text of the Five +Classics, to be engraved by workmen, and thus handed down to posterity. +The work covered forty-six huge tablets, of which a few fragments are +said to be still in existence. A similar undertaking was carried out in +837, and the later tablets are still standing at a temple in the city of +Hsi-an Fu, Shensi. With the T'ang dynasty, rubbings of famous +inscriptions, wherein the germ of printing may be detected, whether for +the style of the composition or for the calligraphic excellence of the +script, came very much into vogue with scholars and collectors. It is +also from about the same date that the idea of multiplying on paper +impressions taken from wooden blocks seems to have arisen, chiefly in +connexion with religious pictures and prayers. The process was not +widely applied to the production of books until the 10th century, when +in A.D. 932 the Confucian Canon was printed for the first time. In 981 +orders were issued for the _T'ai P'ing Kuang Chi_, an encyclopaedia +extending to many volumes (see above) to be cut on blocks for printing. +Movable types of baked clay are said to have been invented by an +alchemist, named Pi Shêng, about A.D. 1043; and under the Ming dynasty, +1368-1644, these were made first of wood, and later of copper or lead, +but movable types have never gained the favour accorded to +block-printing, by means of which most of China's great typographical +triumphs have been achieved. The process is, and always has been, the +same all over China. Two consecutive pages of a book, separated by a +column containing the title, number of section, and number of leaf, are +written out and pasted face downwards on a block of wood (_Lindera +tz[)u]-mu_, Hemsl.). This paper, where not written upon, is cut away +with sharp tools, leaving the characters in relief, and of course +backwards, as in the case of European type. The block is then inked, and +an impression is taken off, on one side of the paper only. This sheet is +then folded down the middle of the separating column above mentioned, so +that the blank halves come together, leaving two pages of printed matter +outside; and when enough sheets have been brought together, they are +stabbed at the open ends and form a volume, to be further wrapped in +paper or pasteboard, and labelled with title, &c. It is almost +superfluous to say that the pages of a Chinese book must not be cut. +There is nothing inside, and, moreover, the column bearing the title and +leaf-number would be cut through. The Chinese newspapers of modern times +are all printed from movable types, an ordinary fount consisting of +about six to seven thousand characters. + + See J. Legge, _The Chinese Classics_ (1861-1872); A. Wylie, _Notes on + Chinese Literature_ (1867); E. Chavannes, _Mémoires historiques_ + (1895-1905); H.A. Giles, _Chuang Tz[)u]_ (1889), _A Chinese + Biographical Dictionary_ (1898), and _A History of Chinese Literature_ + (1901); A. Forke, _Lun-Hêng_ (1907); F. Hirth, _The Ancient History of + China_ (1908); L. Giles, _Sun Tz[)u]_ (1910). (H. A. GI.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] As to the origin of the names China and Cathay (the medieval + name) see below § _History_. According to one theory the name China + is of Malay origin, designating originally the region now called + Indo-China, but transferred in early times to China proper. By the + Chinese the country is often called _Shih-pa-shêng_, "the Eighteen + Provinces," from the number of its great territorial divisions. It + is also called _Chung-kwo_, "the Middle Kingdom," properly used of + the central part of China, and _Hwa-kwo_, "the Flowery Kingdom." + + [2] A Chinese mile, _li_, or _le_ = 0.36 English mile. + + [2] For the Grand Canal the chief authority is Dominique Gandar, S.J., + "Le Canal Impérial. Étude historique et descriptive," _Variétés + sinologiques_ No. 4 (Shanghai, 1903); see also Stenz, "Der + Kaiserkanal," in _Beiträgen zur Kolonialpolitik_, Band v. (Berlin, + 1903-1904), and the works of Ney Elias, Sir J.F. Davis, A. + Williamson, E.H. Parker and W.R. Carles. + + [4] Nevertheless there is considerable local traffic. The transit + trade with Shan-tung, passing the Chin-kiang customs and using some + 250 m. of the worst part of the canal, was valued in 1905 at + 3,331,000 taels. + + [5] The portion of the wall which abutted on to the sea has been + destroyed. + + [6] See the _Geog. Jnl._ (Feb. and March 1907). For a popular + account of the wall, with numerous photographs, see _The Great Wall + of China_ (London, 1909), by W.E. Giel, who in 1908 followed its + course from east to west. Consult also A. Williamson, _Journey in + North China_ (London, 1870); Martin, "La Grande Muraille de la + Chine," _Revue scientifique_ (1891). + + [7] For Shanghai the figures are compiled from twenty-six years' + observations. See _China Sea Directory_, vol. iii. (4th ed., 1904) + p. 660. + + [8] The thermometer registered 23° F. in January 1893, on the river + 28 m. below Canton. This is the lowest reading known. Ibid, pp. + 104-105. + + [9] See W.W. Rockhill, _Inquiry into the Population of China_ + (Washington, 1904). + + [10] For a bibliography of works relating to the aboriginal races of + China see Richard's _Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire_ + (1908 ed.), pp. 371-373. + + [11] Evidences of the social changes taking place in China are to be + found in the strong movement for the education of girls, and in the + formation of societies, under official patronage, to prevent the + binding of women's feet. + + [12] It must be remembered that there is great variety in the + costumes worn in the various provinces. The particulars here given + are of the most general styles of dress. + + [13] Richard's _Comprehensive Geography_, &c. (1908 edition), pp. + 340-341. + + [14] Otherwise Ab[=u] Ja'far Ibn Mahommed al-Mans[=u]r (see CALIPHATE, + C. § 2). + + [15] For a summary of Chang Chih-tung's treatise, see _Changing + China_ (1910 edition), chap. xxii. + + [16] It was announced in June 1910 that the throne had approved a + recommendation of the Board of Education that English should be the + official language for scientific and technical education, and that + the study of English should be compulsory in all provincial + scientific and technical schools. + + [17] See _The Times_ of the 19th of February and the 3rd of May 1910. + + [18] Another peculiarity of loess in China is that it lends itself + readily to the excavation of dwellings for the people. In many + places whole villages live in cave dwellings dug out in the vertical + wall of loess. They construct spiral staircases, selecting places + where the ground is firm, and excavate endless chambers and recesses + which are said to be very comfortable and salubrious. + + [19] See J. Edkins, _The Poppy in China_, and H.B. Morse, _The Trade + and Administration of the Chinese Empire_, chap. xi. + + [20] Richard's _Comprehensive Geography, &c._ (1908 edition), p. 144. + + [21] In the 18th century foreign trade was restricted to Canton. In + the 17th century, however, the Dutch traded to Formosa and Amoy, and + the English to Amoy also. The Portuguese traded with Canton as early + as 1517. For the early intercourse between Portugal and China see + the introductory chapter in Donald Ferguson's _Letters from + Portuguese Captives in Canton_ (Bombay, 1902). + + [22] From _The Statesman's Year Book_, 1910 edition. + + [23] See _The Times_ of the 28th of March 1910. + + [24] See Morse, _op. cit._ chap. x. + + [25] The maritime customs had established a postal service for its + own convenience in 1861, and it first gave facilities to the general + public in 1876. An organized service for the conveyance of + government despatches has existed in China for many centuries, and + the commercial classes maintain at their own expense a system + ("letter hongs") for the transmission of correspondence. + + [26] For the causes leading to this movement and the progress of + reform see § _History_. + + [27] For recent authoritative accounts of the government of China + see H.B. Morse, _The Trade and Administration of the Chinese + Empire_, chap. iii.; Richard's _Comprehensive Geography_, &c., Bk. + I. § v., and _The Statesman's Year Book_. + + [28] The empress-consort is chosen by the emperor from a number of + girls selected by his ministers from the families of Manchu nobles. + From the same candidates the emperor also selects + secondary-empresses (usually not more than four). Concubines, not + limited in number, are chosen from the daughters of Manchu nobles + and free-men. All the children are equally legitimate. + + [29] Recent emperors have been children at accession and have been + kept in seclusion. + + [30] See "Democratic China" in H.A. Giles, _China and the Chinese_. + + [31] W.F. Mayers, _The Chinese Government_ (1878). + + [32] This body is superseded by the Imperial Senate summoned to meet + for the first time on the 3rd of October 1910. + + [33] Yamên is the name given to the residences of all high + officials. Tsung-li Yamên = the bureau for managing each (foreign) + kingdom's affairs. + + [34] An edict of the 15th of July 1909 created a naval and military + advisory board. Up to that time the navy was controlled by the + viceroys at Canton, Nanking, Fu-chow and Tientsin; the viceroys at + Canton and Tientsin being ministers superintendent of the southern + and northern ports respectively. + + [35] Thus in 1910 Prince Ching, president of the grand council, was, + for the third time, impeached by censors, being denounced as an "old + treacherous minister," who filled the public service with a crowd of + men as unworthy as himself. The censor who made the charge was + stripped of his office (see _The Times_ of the 30th of March 1910). + + [36] For details of local government see Richard's _Comprehensive + Geography_, 1908 edition, pp. 301 et seq. + + [37] Morse, op. cit., 1908 edition, p. 76 + + [38] See _The Times_ of the 28th of February 1910. + + [39] See _The Statesman's Year-Book_ (1910 edition). + + [40] A few of the old native customs stations, which are deemed + perquisites of the imperial court, may also be excepted, as, for + instance, the native custom-house at Canton, Hwei Kwan on the Grand + Canal, and various stations in the neighbourhood of Peking. + + [41] The production of a budget in 1915 was promised in one of the + reform edicts of 1908. + + [42] In this article the tael used as a standard is the Haikwan (i.e. + customs) tael, worth about 3s. It fluctuates with the value of + silver. + + [43] Roughly £43,000,000. + + [44] _Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire_ (1910), p. 118. + + [45] Temporary reductions are granted in provinces affected by + rebellion, drought or flood. + + [46] Information as to what extent the expenses of the new army and + navy are met by the central government is lacking. + + [47] To meet the expenditure on interest and redemption of the + indemnities for the Boxer outrages the Peking government required + the provincial authorities to increase their annual remittances by + taels 18,700,000 during the years 1902-1910. + + [48] It must be remembered that the Haikwan tael is here indicated. + + [49] See Morse's _Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire_, + chap. ix. + + [50] A supplementary exchange of notes of the same date excepted + from the scope of this agreement the Shan-hai-kwan-Niu-chwang + extension which had already been conceded to the Hongkong & Shanghai + Bank. + + [51] The religious aspect of the Boxer movement gave it strength. + Its disciples believed that the spirits which defended China were + incensed by the introduction of Western methods and ideals. Many of + them believed themselves to be invulnerable to any Western weapon. + (See Lord W. Cecil, _Changing China_, 1910, ch. i.) + + [52] The diary of a Manchu noble printed in _China under the Empress + Dowager_ (1910) by J.O. Bland and E. Backhouse throws light on the + subject. It was to Jung-Lu, father-in-law of Prince Chin, that the + legations owed their escape from extermination. + + [53] It was at this time (July 17th) that the intense anxiety of the + civilized world with regard to the fate of the besieged reached its + culminating point. Circumstantial accounts of the fall of the + legations and the massacre of their inmates were circulated in + Shanghai and found general credence. It was not till near the end of + the month that an authentic message from the American minister + proved these fears to be premature. + + [54] In negotiating this agreement Lord Salisbury appears to have + been largely influenced by the aggressive features of Russia's + action in North China, while Germany appears to have been actuated + by a desire to forestall isolated action by Great Britain in the + Yangtsze basin. In Germany the agreement was known as the Yangtsze + Agreement. Great Britain held, however, that it applied equally to + Manchuria. + + [55] Liu Kun-yi died in 1902. In the same year died Tao-mu, the + viceroy of Canton. In these men China lost two of her most capable + and enlightened officials. + + [56] Prince Chun was born in 1882. He was the first member of the + imperial family to be sent on a foreign mission. + + [57] Tung Fu-hsiang died in 1908. A sum of some £80,000 belonging to + him, and left in the provincial treasury, was appropriated for works + of public utility (see _The Times_, April 9th, 1910). + + [58] Lord W. Cecil, op. cit. p. 9. + + [59] This institution was nominally a private concern which financed + the Manchurian railway, but it acted as part of the Russian + government machinery. The existence of the contract of the 27th of + August 1896 was frequently denied until expressly admitted by the + Russo-Chinese agreement of the 8th of April 1902. + + [60] On the 8th of October the Russian troops had been withdrawn + from Mukden, but they reoccupied the town on the 28th of the same + month, Admiral Alexeiev, the viceroy of the Far East, alleging that + the inertia of the Chinese officials seriously hindered the work of + extending civilization in Manchuria. + + [61] The form of outrage, probably the first of its kind in China, + was itself a symptom of the changed times. The bomb injured Prince + Tsai Tse and another commissioner, and the departure of the + commission was consequently delayed some months. + + [62] In 1907 further commissions were appointed, on the initiative + of Yuan Shih-kai, to study specifically the constitutions of Great + Britain, Germany and Japan. + + [63] This department was organized at Shanghai in 1854. The Taiping + rebels being in possession of the native city, the collection of + customs dues, especially on foreign ships, was placed in the hands + of foreigners. This developed into a permanent institution, the + European staff being mainly British. + + [64] The British official view, as stated in parliament on the 27th + of April 1910, was that the changes resulting from the creation of + the Board of Control had, so far, been purely departmental changes + of form, and that the position of the inspector-general remained + unaltered. + + [65] See _The Times_ of the 21st of April and 11th of May 1910. + + [66] A chest contained from 135 lb to 160 lb. + + [67] A picul = 133-1/2 lb. + + [68] _Changing China_, p. 118. + + [69] See _The Times_ of 7th and 8th of March and 8th of April 1910. + + [70] The first recorded importation of morphia into China was in + 1892, and it is suggested that it was first used as an anti-opium + medicine. Morphia-taking, however, speedily became a vice, and in + 1902 over 195,000 oz. of morphia were imported (enough for some + 300,000,000 injections). To check the evil the Chinese government + during 1903 imposed a tax of about 200% _ad valorem_, with the + result that the imports declared to the customs fell in 1905 to 54 + oz. only. The falling off was explained "not by a diminished demand, + but by smuggling" (Morse's _Trade and Administration of the Chinese + Empire_, p. 351). + + [71] A regulation by the ministry of education, dated the 14th of + January 1910, ordered that no girl should be admitted to school + dressed in foreign clothes or with unnatural (i.e. bound) feet. + + [72] For the growth of the education movement see _The Times_, 4th + of September 1909. + + [73] The Dalai Lama left Peking in December 1908 on his return to + Lhassa, which he reached in November 1909. Differences had arisen + between him and the Chinese government, which sought to make the + spiritual as well as the temporal power of the Dalai Lama dependent + on his recognition by the emperor of China. Early in 1910 the Dalai + Lama, in consequence of the action of the Chinese amban in Lhassa, + fled from that city and sought refuge in India. + + [74] Chang Chih-tung died in October 1909. He was a man of considerable + ability, and one whose honesty and loyalty had never been doubted. He + was noted as an opponent of opium smoking, and for over thirty years + had addressed memorials to the throne against the use of the drug. + + [75] See _The Times_ of the 7th of September 1909. + + [76] Proposals made early in 1910 by the American secretary of state + for the neutralization of the Manchurian railway received no + support. + + [77] By a convention signed on July 4th, 1910, Russia and Japan agreed + to "maintain and respect" the _status quo_ in Manchuria. + + [78] See the _Quinzaine coloniale_ of the 10th of December 1909. + + [79] See _The Times_ of the 20th of January 1910. + + [80] See for the prospects of reform _The Times_ of 30th May 1910. + + [81] _La Sculpture sur pierre en Chine ait temps des deux dynasties + Han_ (Paris, 1893). + + + + +CHINA, the common name for ware made of porcelain, given because it came +from China, where the first vitrified, translucent, white ware was +produced. The Portuguese or Italians gave it the name of "porcelain" +(q.v.). English usage was influenced by India and the East, where the +Persian _ch[=i]n[=i]_ was widely prevalent as the name of the ware. This +is seen also in some of the earlier forms and pronunciations, e.g. +_chiney_, _cheney_, and later _chaney_ (see CERAMICS; and for +"china-clay" KAOLIN). + + + + +CHINANDEGA, or CHINENDEGA, the capital of the department of Chinandega +in western Nicaragua, 10 m. N.N.E. of the seaport of Corinto by the +Corinto-Managua railway. Pop. (1900) about 12,000. Chinandega is the +centre of a fertile corn-producing district, and has a large transit +trade owing to its excellent situation on the chief Nicaraguan railway. +Its manufactures include coarse cloth, pottery and Indian feather +ornaments. Cotton, sugar-cane and bananas are cultivated in the +neighbourhood. + + + + +CHI-NAN FU, the capital of Shan-tung, China, in 36° 40' N., 117° 1' E. +Pop. about 100,000. It is situated in one of the earliest settled +districts of the Chinese empire. The city, which lies in the valley of +the present channel of the Yellow river (Hwang-Ho), and about 4 m. south +of the river, is surrounded by a triple line of defence. First is the +city wall, strongly built and carefully guarded, outside this a granite +wall, and beyond this again a mud rampart. Three springs outside the +west gate throw up streams of tepid water to a height of about 2 ft. +This water, which is highly prized for its healing qualities, fills the +moat and forms a fine lake in the northern quarter of the city. + +Chi-nan Fu was formerly famous for its manufacture of silks and of +imitation precious stones. It is now the chief commercial entrepôt of +Western Shan-tung but no longer a manufacturing centre. A highway +connects it with the Yellow river, and it is joined by a railway 280 m. +long to Kiaochow. The city has a university for instruction on Western +lines, and an efficient military school. American Presbyterians began +mission work in the city in 1873; it is also the see of a Roman Catholic +bishop. + + + + +CHINCHA ISLANDS, three small islands in the Pacific Ocean, about 12 m. +from the coast of Peru (to which country they belong), opposite the town +of Pisco, and 106 m. distant from Callao, in 13° 38' S., 76° 28' W. The +largest of the group, known as the North Island or Isla del Norte, is +only four-fifths of a mile in length, and about a third in breadth. They +are of granitic formation, and rise from the sea in precipitous cliffs, +worn into countless caves and hollows, which furnish convenient +resting-places for the sea-fowl. Their highest points attain an +elevation of 113 ft. The islands have yielded a few remains of the +Chincha Indian race. They were formerly noted for vast deposits of +guano, and its export was begun by the Peruvian government in 1840. The +supply, however, was exhausted in 1874. In 1853-1854 the Chincha Islands +were the chief object in a contest known as the Guano War between +President Echenique and General Castilla; and in April 1864 they were +seized by the Spanish rear-admiral Pinzon in order to bring the Peruvian +government to apologize for its treatment of Spanish immigrants. + + + + +CHINCHEW, or CHINCHU, the name usually given in English charts to an +ancient and famous port of China in the province of Fu-kien, of which +the Chinese name is _Ch'üanchow-fu_ or _Ts'üanchow-fu_. It stands in 24° +57' N., 118° 35' E. The walls have a circuit of 7 or 8 m., but embrace +much vacant ground. The chief exports are tea and sugar, tobacco, +china-ware, nankeens, &c. There are remains of a fine mosque, founded by +the Arab traders who resorted thither. The English Presbyterian Mission +has had a chapel in the city since about 1862. Beyond the northern +branch of the Min (several miles from the city) there is a suburb called +Loyang, approached by the most celebrated bridge in China. + +Ch'üanchow, owing to the obstruction of its harbour by sand banks, has +been supplanted as a port by Amoy, and its trade is carried on through +the port of Nganhai. It is still, however, a large and populous city. It +was in the middle ages the great port of Western trade with China, and +was known to the Arabs and to Europeans as _Zait[=u]n_ or _Zayton_, the +name under which it appears in Abulfeda's geography and in the Mongol +history of Rash[=i]ddud[=i]n, as well as in Ibn Batuta, Marco Polo and +other medieval travellers. Some argument has been alleged against the +identity of Zayton with Ch'üanchow, and in favour of its being rather +Changchow (a great city 60 m. W.S.W. of Ch'üanchow), or a port on the +river of Changchow near Amoy. "Port of Zayton" may have embraced the +great basin called Amoy Harbour, the chief part of which lies within the +_Fu_ or department of Ch'üanchow; but there is hardly room for doubt +that the Zayton of Marco Polo and Abulfeda was the Ch'üanchow of the +Chinese. Ibn Batuta informs us that a rich silk texture made here was +called _Zait[=u]niya_; and there can be little doubt that this is the +real origin of the word "Satin," _Zettani_ in medieval Italian, +_Aceytuni_ in Spanish. + + + + +CHINCHILLA, a small grey hopping rodent mammal (_Chinchilla lanigera_), +of the approximate size of a squirrel, inhabiting the eastern slopes of +the Andes in Chile and Bolivia, at altitudes between 8000 and 12,000 ft. +It typifies not only the genus _Chinchilla_, but the family +_Chinchillidae_, for the distinctive features of which see RODENTIA. The +ordinary chinchilla is about 10 in. in length, exclusive of the long +tail, and in the form of its head somewhat resembles a rabbit. It is +covered with a dense soft fur ¾ in. long on the back and upwards of an +inch in length on the sides, of a delicate French grey colour, darkly +mottled on the upper surf ace and dusky white beneath; the ears being +long, broad and thinly covered with hair. Chinchillas live in burrows, +and these subterranean dwellings undermine the ground in some parts of +the Chilean Andes to such an extent as to cause danger to travellers on +horseback. They associate in communities, forming their burrows among +loose rocks, and coming out to feed in the early morning and towards +sunset. They feed chiefly on roots and grasses, in search of which they +often travel considerable distances; and when eating they sit on their +haunches, holding their food in their fore-paws. The Indians in hunting +them employ the grison (_Galictis vittata_), a member of the weasel +family, which is trained to enter the crevices of the rocks where the +chinchillas lie concealed during the day. The fur (q.v.) of this rodent +was prized by the ancient Peruvians, who made coverlets and other +articles with the skin, and at the present day the skins are exported in +large numbers to Europe, where they are made into muffs, tippets and +trimmings. That chinchillas have not under such circumstances become +rare, if not extinct, is owing to their extraordinary fecundity, the +female usually producing five or six young twice a year. They are docile +in disposition, and thus well fitted for domestication. The Peruvian +chinchilla (_C. brevicaudata_) is larger, with relatively shorter ears +and tail; while still larger species constitute the genus _Lagidium_, +ranging from the Andes to Patagonia, and distinguished by having four in +place of five front-toes, more pointed ears, and a somewhat differently +formed skull. (See also VISCACHA). (R. L.*) + + + + +CHINDE, a town of Portuguese East Africa, chief port for the Zambezi +valley and British Central Africa, at the mouth of the Chinde branch of +the Zambezi, in 18° 40´ S., 36° 30´ E. Pop. (1907) 2790, of whom 218 +were Europeans. Large steamers are unable to cross the bar, over which +the depth of water varies from 10 to 18 ft. Chinde owes its existence to +the discovery in 1889 that the branch of the river on the banks of which +it is built is navigable from the ocean (see ZAMBEZI). The Portuguese in +1891 granted on lease for 99 years an area of 5 acres--subsequently +increased to 25--to the British government, on which goods in transit to +British possessions could be stored duty free. This block of land is +known as the British Concession, or British Chinde. The prosperity of +the town largely depends on the transit trade with Nyasaland and North +East Rhodesia. There is also a considerable export from Portuguese +districts, sugar, cotton and ground nuts being largely cultivated in the +Zambezi valley, and gold and copper mines worked. + + + + +CHINDWIN, a river of Burma, the largest tributary of the Irrawaddy, its +entire course being in Burmese territory. It is called Ningthi by the +Manipuris. The Chindwin is formed by the junction of the Tanai, the +Tawan and the Tarôn or Turông, but it is still uncertain which is the +main stream. The Tanai has hitherto been looked on as the chief source. +It rises in about 25° 30´ N. and 97° E., on the Shwedaung-gyi peak of +the Kumôn range, 12 m. N. of Mogaung, and flows due N. for the first +part of its course until it reaches the Hukawng valley, when it turns to +the W. and flows through the middle of the plain to the end of the +valley proper. There it curves round to the S., passes through the Tarôn +or Turông valley, takes the name of the Chindwin, and maintains a +general southerly course until it enters the Irrawaddy, after flowing +through the entire length of the Upper and Lower Chindwin districts, in +about 21° 30´ N. and 95° 15´ E. Its extreme outlets are 22 m. apart, the +interval forming a succession of long, low, partially populated islands. +The most southerly mouth of the Chindwin is, according to tradition, an +artificial channel, cut by one of the kings of Pag[=a]n. It was choked +up for many centuries until in 1824 it was opened out by an exceptional +flood. The Tanai (it is frequently called Tanaikha, but _kha_ is merely +the Kachin word for river), as long as it retains that name, is a swift, +clear river, from 50 to 300 yds. wide and from 3 to 15 ft. deep. The +river is navigated by native boats in the Hukawng valley, but launches +cannot come up from the Chindwin proper because of the reefs below Taro. + + The Tarôn, Turông or Towang river seems to be the real main source of + the Chindwin. It flows into the Hukawng valley from the north, and has + a swift current with a succession of rapids. Its sources are in the + hills to the south of Sadiya, rising from 10,000 to 11,000 ft. above + sea-level. It flows through a deep valley, with a general E. and W. + direction, as far as its junction with the Loglai. It then turns S., + and after draining an intricate system of hills, breaks into the + Hukawng valley a few miles N. of Saraw, and joins or receives the + Tanai about 10 m. above Kintaw village. Except the Tanai, the chief + branches of the Upper Chindwin rise in mountains that are covered at + least with winter snows. Below the Hukawng valley the Chindwin is + interrupted at several places by fails or transverse reefs. At the + village of Haksa there is a fall, which necessitates transhipment from + large boats to canoes. Not far below this the Uyu river comes in on + the left bank at Homalin, and from this point downwards the steamers + of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company ply for the greater part of the + year. The Uyu flows through a fertile and well-cultivated valley, and + during the rainy season it is navigable for a distance of 150 m. from + its mouth by steamers of light draught. Ordinarily regular steam + communication with Homalin ceases in the dry weather, but from Kindat, + nearly 150 m. below it, there are weekly steamers all the year round. + Below Kindat the only considerable affluent of the Chindwin is the + Myit-tha, which receives the Chin hills drainage. The Chindwin rises + considerably during the rains, but in March and April it is here and + there so shallow as to make navigation difficult even for small steam + launches. Whirlpools and narrows and shifting sandbanks also give some + trouble, but much has been done to improve navigation since the + British annexation. Kindat, the headquarters of the Upper Chindwin + district, and Mônywa of the Lower, are on the banks of the river. + (J. G. SC.) + + + + +CHINDWIN, UPPER and LOWER, two districts in the Sagaing division of +Upper Burma. Upper Chindwin has an area of 19,062 sq. m., and a +population, according to the census of 1901, of 154,551. Lower Chindwin +has an area of 3480 sq. m., and a population of 276,383. Upper Chindwin +lies to the north of the lower district, and is bounded on the N. by the +Chin, N[=a]ga and Kachin hills; on the E. they are bounded by the +Myitkyina, Katha and Shwebo districts; Lower Chindwin is bounded on the +S. by the Pakôkku and Sagaing districts; and both districts are bounded +on the W. by the Chin hills, and by Pakôkku on the southern stretch. The +western portion of both districts is hilly, and the greater part of +Upper Chindwin is of the same character. Both have valuable teak +forests. The total rainfall averages in Lower Chindwin 27 and in Upper +Chindwin 60 in. Coal exists in extensive fields, but these are not very +accessible. Rice forms the great crop, but a certain amount of til-seed +and of indigo is also cultivated. Kindat, a mere village, is the +headquarters of the upper district, and Mônywa, with a population of +7869, of the lower. Both are on the Chindwin river, and are served by +the steamers of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company. Alôn, close to Mônywa, +and formerly the headquarters, is the terminus of the railway from +Sagaing westwards, which was opened in 1900. + + + + +CHINESE PAVILLON, TURKISH CRESCENT, TURKISH JINGLE, or JINGLING JOHNNY +(Fr. _chapeau chinois_; Ger. _türkischer Halbmond, Schellenbaum_; Ital. +_cappello chinese_), an instrument of percussion of indefinite +sonorousness, i.e. not producing definite musical tones. The _chapeau +chinois_ was formerly an adjunct in military bands, but never in the +orchestra, where an instrument of somewhat similar shape, often confused +with it and known as the _Glockenspiel_ (q.v.), is occasionally called +into requisition. The Chinese pavilion consists of a pole about 6 ft. +high terminating in a conical metal cap or pavilion, hung with small +jingling bells and surmounted by a crescent and a star. Below this +pavilion are two or more metal bands forming a fanciful double crescent +or squat lyre, likewise furnished with tiny bells. The two points of the +crescent are curved over, ending in fanciful animal heads from whose +mouths hang low streaming tails of horse-hair. The Chinese pavilion is +played by shaking or waving the pole up and down and jingling the bells, +a movement which can at best be but a slow one repeated once or at most +twice in a bar to punctuate the phrases and add brilliancy to the +military music. The Turkish crescent or "jingling Johnny," as it was +familiarly called in the British army bands, was introduced by the +Janissaries into western Europe. It has fallen into disuse now, having +been replaced by the glockenspiel or steel harmonica. Edinburgh +University possesses two specimens.[1] In the 18th century at +Bartholomew Fair one of the chief bands hired was one well known as +playing in London on winter evenings in front of the Spring-Garden +coffee house and opposite Wigley's. This band consisted of a double +drum, a Dutch organ (see BARREL-ORGAN), a tambourine, a violin, pipes +and the Turkish jingle.[2] (K.S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Captain C.R. Day, _Descriptive Catalogue of Musical + Instruments_ (London, 1891), p. 233. + + [2] See Hone's _Everyday Book_, i. 1248. + + + + +CHINGFORD, an urban district in the Epping parliamentary division of +Essex, England, 10½ m. N. of London (Liverpool Street station) by the +Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 4373. It lies between the river Lea +and the western outskirts of Epping Forest. The church of All Saints has +Early English and Perpendicular remains. Queen Elizabeth's or Fair Mead +hunting lodge, a picturesque half-timbered building, is preserved under +the Epping Forest Preservation Act. A majestic oak, one of the finest +trees in the Forest, stands near it. Buckhurst Hill (an urban district; +pop. 4786) lies to the N.E. + + + + +CHINGLEPUT, or CHENGALPAT, a town and district of British India, in the +Madras presidency. The town, situated 36 m. by rail from Madras, had a +population in 1901 of 10,551. With Chandragiri in North Arcot, +Chingleput was once the capital of the Vijayanagar kings, after their +overthrow by the Mussulmans at Talikota in 1565. In 1639 a chief, +subject to these kings, granted to the East India Company the land on +which Fort St George now stands. The fort built by the Vijayanagar kings +in the 16th century was of strategic importance, owing to its swampy +surroundings and the lake that flanked its side. It was taken by the +French in 1751, and was retaken in 1752 by Clive, after which it proved +invaluable to the British, especially when Lally in his advance on +Madras left it unreduced in his rear. During the wars of the British +with Hyder Ali it withstood his power, and afforded a refuge to the +natives; and in 1780, after the defeat of Colonel W. Baillie, the army +of Sir Hector Munro here found refuge. The town is noted for its +manufacture of pottery, and carries on a trade in rice. + +The DISTRICT OF CHINGLEPUT surrounds the city of Madras, stretching +along the coast for about 115 m. The administrative headquarters are at +Saidapet. Area, 3079 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 1,312,122, showing an increase +of 9% in the decade. Salt is extensively manufactured all along the +coast. Cotton and silk weaving is also largely carried on, and there are +numerous indigo vats, tanneries and an English cigar factory. + +CHIN HILLS, a mountainous district of Upper Burma. It lies on the border +between the Lushai districts of Eastern Bengal and Assam and the plains +of Burma, and has an area of 8000 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Assam and +Manipur, S. by Arakan, E. by Burma, and W. by Tippera and the Chittagong +hill tracts. The Chins, Lushais and Kukis are to the north-east border +of India what the Pathan tribes are to the north-west frontier. In 1895 +the Chin Hills were declared a part of the province of Burma, and +constituted a scheduled district which is now administered by a +political officer with headquarters at Falam. The tract forms a +parallelogram 250 m. from N. to S. by 100 to 150 m. wide. The country +consists of a much broken and contorted mass of mountains, intersected +by deep valleys. The main ranges run generally N. to S., and vary in +height from 5000 to 9000 ft., among the most important being the Letha +or Tang, which is the watershed between the Chindwin and Manipur rivers; +the Imbukklang, which divides the Sokte tribe from the Whenchs and sheds +the water from its eastern slopes into Upper Burma and that from its +western slopes into Arakan; and the Rong-klang, which with its +prolongations is the main watershed of the southern hills, its eastern +slopes draining into the Myittha and thus into the Chindwin, while the +western fall drains into the Boinu river, which winding through the +hills discharges itself eventually in the Bay of Bengal. The highest +peak yet discovered is the Liklang, between Rawywa and Lungno, some 70 +m. S. of Haka (nearly 10,000 ft.). + + It is supposed that the Kukis of Manipur, the Lushais of Bengal and + Assam, and the Chins originally lived in Tibet and are of the same + stock; their form of government, method of cultivation, manners and + customs, beliefs and traditions all point to one origin. The slow + speech, the serious manner, the respect for birth and the knowledge of + pedigrees, the duty of revenge, the taste for and the treacherous + method of warfare, the curse of drink, the virtue of hospitality, the + clannish feeling, the vice of avarice, the filthy state of the body, + mutual distrust, impatience under control, the want of power of + combination and of continued effort, arrogance in victory, speedy + discouragement and panic in defeat, are common traits. The Chins, + Lushais and Kukis were noted for the secrecy of their plans, the + suddenness of their raids, and their extraordinary speed in retreating + to their fastnesses. After committing a raid they have been known to + march two days and two nights consecutively without cooking a meal or + sleeping, so as to escape from any parties which might follow them. + The British, since the occupation of Upper Burma, have been able to + penetrate the Chin-Lushai country from both sides at once. The + pacification of the Chin Hills is a triumph for British + administration. Roads, on which Chin coolies now readily work, have + been constructed in all directions. The rivers have been bridged; the + people have taken up the cultivation of English vegetables, and the + indigenous districts have been largely developed. The Chin Hills had a + population (1901 census) of 87,189, while the Chins in Burma totalled + 179,292. The Pakôkku Chin Hills, which form a separate tract, have an + area of 2260 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 13,116. (J. G. SC.) + + + + +CHINKIANG, or CHEN-KIANG-FU, a treaty port of China, in the province of +Kiang-su, on the Yangtsze-kiang above Shanghai, from which it is distant +160 m. It is in railway communication both with Shanghai and Nanking (40 +m. distant), and being at the point where the Grand Canal running N. and +S. intersects the Yangtsze, which runs E. and W., is peculiarly well +situated to be a commercial entrepôt. The total value of exports and +imports for 1904 was £4,632,992; estimated pop. 168,000. In the war of +1842 it yielded to the British only after a desperate resistance. It was +laid waste by the T'aip'ing rebels in 1853, and was recaptured by the +imperial forces in 1858. + + + + +CHINO-JAPANESE WAR (1894-95). The causes of this conflict arose out of +the immemorial rivalry of China and Japan for influence in Korea. In the +16th century a prolonged war in the peninsula had ended with the failure +of Japan to make good her footing on the mainland--a failure brought +about largely by lack of naval resources. In more modern times (1875, +1882, 1884) Japan had repeatedly sent expeditions to Korea, and had +fostered the growth of a progressive party in Seoul. The difficulties of +1884 were settled between China and Japan by the convention of Tientsin, +wherein it was agreed that in the event of future intervention each +should inform the other if it were decided to despatch troops to the +peninsula. Nine years later the occasion arose. A serious rebellion +induced the Korean government to apply for military assistance from +China. Early in June 1894 a small force of Chinese troops were sent to +Asan, and Japan, duly informed of this action, replied by furnishing her +minister at Seoul with an escort, rapidly following up this step by the +despatch of about 5000 troops under Major-General Oshima. A complicated +situation thus arose. Chinese troops were present in Korea by the +request of the government to put down rebellion. The Japanese controlled +the capital, and declined to recognize Korea as a tributary of China. +But she proposed that the two powers should unite to suppress the +disturbance and to inaugurate certain specified reforms. China +considered that the measures of reform must be left to Korea herself. +The reply was that Japan considered the government of Korea "lacking in +some of the elements which are essential to responsible independence." +By the middle of July war had become inevitable unless the Peking +government were willing to abandon all claims over Korea, and as Chinese +troops were already in the country by invitation, it was not to be +expected that the shadowy suzerainty would be abandoned. + +At Seoul the issue was forced by the Japanese minister, who delivered an +ultimatum to the Korean government on the 20th of July. On the 23rd the +palace was forcibly occupied. Meanwhile China had despatched about 8000 +troops to the Yalu river. The outbreak of war thus found the Japanese +in possession of Seoul and ready to send large forces to Korea, while +the Chinese occupied Asan (about 40 m. south of the capital), and had a +considerable body of troops in Manchuria in addition to those despatched +to the Yalu river. To Japan the command of the sea was essential for the +secure transport and supply of her troops. Without it the experience of +the war of the 16th century would be repeated. China, too, could only +utilize overland routes to Korea by submitting to the difficulties and +delays entailed. To both powers the naval question was thus important. + + By the time war was finally declared (August 1) hostilities had + already begun. On the 25th of July Oshima set out from Seoul to attack + the Chinese at Asan. On the 29th he won a victory at Söng-hwan, but + the Chinese commander escaped with a considerable part of his forces + by a detour to Ping-Yang (Phyong-Yang). Meanwhile a portion of the + Japanese fleet had encountered some Chinese warships and transports + off Phung-Tao, and scored an important success, sinking, amongst other + vessels, the transport "Kowshing" (July 25). The loss of more than + 1000 Chinese soldiers in this vessel materially lightened Oshima's + task. The intention of the Chinese to crush their enemies between + their forces at Asan and Ping-Yang was completely frustrated, and the + Japanese obtained control of all southern Korea. + + Reinforcements from Japan were now pouring into Korea, in spite of the + fact that the rival navies had not yet tried conclusions, and General + Nozu, the senior Japanese officer present, soon found himself in a + position to move on Ping-Yang. Three columns converged upon the place + on the 15th of September, and in spite of its strong walls carried it, + though only after severe fighting. + + Nearly all the troops on either side had been conveyed to the scene of + war by sea, though the decisive contest for sea supremacy was still to + be fought. The Chinese admiral Ting with the Northern Squadron (which + alone took part in the war) had hitherto remained inactive in + Wei-hai-wei, and on the other side Vice-Admiral Ito's fleet had not + directly interfered with the hostile transports which were reinforcing + the troops on the Yalu. But two days after the battle of Ping-Yang, + Ting, who had conveyed a large body of troops to the mouth of the + Yalu, encountered the Japanese fleet on his return journey off + Hai-Yang-Tao on the 17th of September. The heavy battleships + "Chen-Yuen" and "Ting-Yuen" constituted the strongest element of the + Chinese squadron, for the Japanese, superior as they were in every + other factor of success, had no vessels which could compare with these + in the matter of protection. Ting advanced in a long irregular line + abreast; the battleships in the centre, the lighter vessels on the + wings. Ito's fast cruisers steamed in line ahead against the Chinese + right wing, crushing their weaker opponents with their fire. In the + end the Chinese fleet was defeated and scattered, but the two heavy + battleships drew off without serious injury. This battle of the Yalu + gave Japan command of the sea, but Ito continued to act with great + caution. The remnants of the vanquished fleet took refuge in Port + Arthur, whence after repairs Ting proceeded to Wei-hai-wei. + + The victory of Ping-Yang had cleared Korea of the Chinese troops, but + on the lower Yalu--their own frontier--large forces threatened a + second advance. Marshal Yamagata therefore took the offensive with his + 1st army, and on the 24th and 25th of October, under great + difficulties--though without serious opposition from the enemy--forced + the passage of the river and occupied Chiulien-cheng. Part of the + Chinese force retired to the north-east, part to Feng-hwang-cheng and + Hsiu-yuen (Siu-Yen). The Japanese 1st army advanced several columns + towards the mountains of Manchuria to secure its conquests and prepare + for a future advance. General Tachimi's brigade occupied + Feng-hwang-cheng on the 29th of October. On the 7th of November a + column from the Yalu took Takushan, and a few days later a converging + attack from these two places was made upon Hsiu-yuen, which was + abandoned by the Chinese. Meanwhile Tachimi, skirmishing with the + enemy on the Mukden and Liao-Yang roads, found the Chinese in force. A + simultaneous forward move by both sides led to the action of + Tsao-ho-ku (November 30), after which both sides withdrew--the Chinese + to the line of the mountains covering Hai-cheng, Liao-Yang and Mukden, + with the Tatar general Ikotenga's force, 14,000 strong, on the + Japanese right north-east of Feng-hwang-cheng; and the Japanese to + Chiulien-cheng, Takushan and Hsiu-yuen. The difficulties of supply in + the hills were almost insurmountable, and no serious advance was + intended by the Japanese until January 1895, when it was to be made in + co-operation with the 2nd army. This army, under Marshal Oyama, had + been formed in September and at first sent to Chemulpo as a support to + the forces under Yamagata; but its chief task was the siege and + capture of the Chinese fortress, dockyard and arsenal of Port Arthur. + + The Liao-Tong peninsula was guarded by the walled city of Kinchow and + the forts of Ta-lien-wan (Dalny under the Russian régime, and Tairen + under the Japanese) as well as the fortifications around Port Arthur + itself. On the 24th of October the disembarkation of the 2nd army + began near Pi-tsze-wo, and the successive columns of the Japanese + gradually moved towards Kinchow, which was carried without difficulty + on the 6th of November. Even less resistance was offered by the modern + forts of Ta-lien-wan. The Japanese now held a good harbour within a + few miles of the main fortress. Here they landed siege artillery, and + on the 17th of November the advance was resumed. The attack was made + on the 19th at dawn. Yamaji's division (Nogi's and Nishi's brigades) + after a trying night march assaulted and carried the western defences + and moved upon the town. Hasegawa in the centre, as soon as Yamaji + began to appear in rear of his opponents in the northern forts, pushed + home his attack with equal success, and by 3 P.M. practically all + resistance was at an end. The Japanese paid for this important success + with but 423 casualties. Meanwhile the Chinese general Sung, who had + marched from Hai-cheng to engage the 2nd army, appeared before + Kinchow, where he received on the 22nd a severe repulse at the hands + of the Japanese garrison. Marshal Oyama subsequently stationed his + advanced guard towards Hai-cheng, the main body at Kinchow, and a + brigade of infantry at Port Arthur. Soon after this overtures of peace + were made by China; but her envoy, a foreigner unfurnished with + credentials, was not received by the Tokyo government. + + The Japanese 1st army (now under General Nozu) at Antung and + Feng-hwang-cheng prepared, in spite of the season, to move across the + mountains, and on the 3rd of December General Katsura left Antung for + Hai-cheng. His line of march was by Hsi-mu-cheng, and strong flank + guards followed parallel routes on either side. The march was + accomplished safely and Hai-cheng occupied on the 13th of December. In + the meantime Tachimi had moved northward from Feng-hwang-cheng, in + order to distract the attention of the Chinese from Hai-cheng, and + there were some small engagements between this force and that of + Ikotenga, who ultimately retired beyond the mountains to Liao-Yang. + Sung had already left Kai-ping to secure Hai-cheng when he heard of + the fall of that place; his communications with Ikotenga being now + severed, he swerved to the north-west and established a new base at + Niu-chwang. Once on his new line Sung moved upon Hai-cheng. As it was + essential that he should be prevented from joining forces with + Ikotenga, General Katsura marched out of Hai-cheng to fight him. At + Kang-wang-tsai (December 19th) the Chinese displayed unusual + steadiness, and it cost the Japanese some 343 casualties to dislodge + the enemy. The victors returned to Hai-cheng exhausted with their + efforts, but secure from attack for some time to come. The advanced + troops of the 2nd army (Nogi's brigade) were now ready to advance, and + only the Kai-ping garrison (left behind by Sung) barred their junction + with Katsura. At Kai-ping (January 10th) the resistance of the Chinese + was almost as steady as at Kang-wang-tsai, and the Japanese lost 300 + killed and wounded in their successful attack. In neither of these + actions was the defeated force routed, nor did it retire very far. On + the 17th of January and again on the 22nd Ikotenga attacked Hai-cheng + from the north, but was repulsed. + + Meanwhile the 2nd army, still under Oyama, had undertaken operations + against Wei-hai-wei, the second great fortress and dockyard of + northern China, where Admiral Ting's squadron had been refitting since + the battle of the Yalu; and it was hoped that both armies would + accomplish their present tasks in time to advance in the summer + against Peking itself. On the 18th of January a naval demonstration + was made at Teng-chow-fu, 70 m. west of Wei-hai-wei, and on the 19th + the Japanese began their disembarkation at Yung-cheng Bay, about 12 m. + from Wei-hai-wei. The landing was scarcely opposed, and on the 26th + the Japanese advance was begun. The south-eastern defences of + Wei-hai-wei harbour were carried by the 6th division, whilst the 2nd + division reached the inner waters of the bay, driving the Chinese + before them. The fleet under Ito co-operated effectively. On the night + of the 4th-5th of February the Chinese squadron in harbour was + attacked by ten torpedo boats. Two boats were lost, but the + armour-clad "Ting-Yuen" was sunk. On the following night a second + attack was made, and three more vessels were sunk. On the 9th the + "Ching-Yuen" was sunk by the guns in one of the captured forts. On the + 12th Admiral Ting wrote to Admiral Ito offering to surrender, and then + took poison, other officers following his example. Wei-hai-wei was + then dismantled by the Japanese, who recovered the remnant of the + Chinese squadron, including the "Chen Yuen," and the 2nd army + concentrated at Port Arthur for the advance on Peking. + + While this campaign was in progress the Chinese despatched a second + peace mission, also with defective credentials. The Japanese declined + to treat, and the mission returned to China. In February the Chinese + made further unsuccessful attacks on Hai-cheng. Yamaji near Kai-ping + fought a severe action on the 21st, 22nd and 23rd of February at + Taping-shan against a part of Sung's army under General Ma-yu-kun. + This action was fought with 2 ft. of snow on the ground, the + thermometer registering zero F., and no less than 1500 cases of + frost-bite were reported. It was the intention of General Nozu, after + freeing the Hai-cheng garrison from Ikotenga, to seize Niu-chwang + port. Two divisions converged on An-shan-chan, and the Chinese, + threatened in front and flank, retired to Liao-Yang. Meanwhile two + more attacks on Hai-cheng had been repulsed. The 3rd and 5th divisions + then moved on Niu-chwang, and Yamaji's 1st division at Kai-ping joined + in the advance. The column from An-shan-chan stormed Niu-chwang, which + was obstinately defended, and cost the stormers nearly 400 men. All + three divisions converged on Niu-chwang port (Ying-kow), and the + final engagement took place at Tien-chwang-tai, which was captured on + the 9th of March. The Chinese forces in Manchuria being thoroughly + broken and dispersed, there was nothing to prevent the Japanese from + proceeding to the occupation of Peking, since they could, after the + break-up of the ice, land and supply large forces at Shan-hai-kwan, + within 170 m. of the capital. Two more Japanese divisions were sent + out, with Prince Komatsu as supreme commander. Seven divisions were at + Port Arthur ready to embark, when negotiations were reopened. Li + Hung-Chang proceeded to Shimonoseki, where the treaty was signed on + the 17th of April 1895. An expedition was sent towards the end of + March to the Pescadores, and later the Imperial Guard division was + sent to Formosa. + + It is impossible to estimate the Chinese losses in the war. The + Japanese lost 4177 men by death in action or by sickness, and 56,862 + were wounded or disabled by sickness, exclusive of the losses in the + Formosa and Pescadores expeditions. Nearly two-thirds of these losses + were incurred by the 1st army in the trying winter campaign in + Manchuria. + + The most important works dealing with the war are: Vladimir, + _China-Japan War_ (London, 1896); Jukichi Inouye, _The Japan-China + War_ (Yokohama, &c., 1896); du Boulay, _Epitome of the China-Japanese + War_ (London, 1896), the official publication of the British War + Office; Atteridge, _Wars of the Nineties_, pp. 535-636 (London, 1899); + von Kunowski and Fretzdorff, _Der japanisch-chinesische Krieg_ + (Leipzig, 1895); von Müller, _Der Krieg zwischen China und Japan_ + (Berlin, 1895); Bujac, _Précis de quelques campagnes contemporaines: + II. La Guerre sino-japonaise_ (Paris and Limoges). + + + + +CHINON, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Vienne, 32m. S.W. +of Tours on the State railway. Pop. (1906) 4071. Chinon lies at the foot +of the rocky eminence which is crowned by the ruins of the famous +castle. Its narrow, winding streets contain many houses of the 15th and +16th centuries. The oldest of its churches, St Mexme, is in the +Romanesque style, but only the façade and nave are left. The church of +St Etienne dates from the 15th century, that of St Maurice from the +12th, 15th and 16th centuries. The castle, which has undergone +considerable modern restoration, consists of three portions. That to the +east, the Château de St Georges, built by Henry II. of England, has +almost vanished, only the foundation of the outer wall remaining. The +Château du Milieu (11th to 15th centuries) comprises the keep, the +Pavilion de l'Horloge and the Grand Logis, in the principal apartment of +which the first meeting between Joan of Arc and Charles VII. took place. +Of the Château du Coudray, which is separated by a moat from the Château +du Milieu, the chief remains are the Tour du Moulin (10th century) and +two less ancient towers. A statue of Rabelais, who was born in the +vicinity of the town, stands on the river-quay. Chinon has trade in +wheat, brandy, red wine and plums. Basket and rope manufacture, tanning +and cooperage are among its industries. Chinon (Caïno) existed before +the Roman occupation of Gaul, and was from early times an important +fortress. It was occupied by the Visigoths, and subsequently, after +forming part of the royal domain, came to the counts of Touraine and +from them to the counts of Anjou. Henry II. often resided in the castle, +and died there. The place was taken by Philip Augustus in 1205 after a +year's siege. + + + + +CHINOOK, a tribe of North American Indians, dwelling at the mouth of the +Columbia river, Washington. They were fishermen and traders, and used +huge canoes of hollowed cedar trunks. The tribe is practically extinct, +but the name survives in the trade language known as "Chinook jargon." +This has been analysed as composed of two-fifths Chinook, two-fifths +other Indian tongues, and the rest English and Canadian French; but the +proportion of English has tended to increase. The Chinookan linguistic +family includes a number of separate tribes. + +The name CHINOOK is also applied to a wind which blows from W. or N. +over the slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where it descends as a dry wind +warm in winter and cool in summer (cf. _Föhn_). It is due to a cyclone +passing northward, and continues from a few hours to several days. It +moderates the climate of the eastern Rockies, the snow melting quickly +on account of its warmth and vanishing on account of its dryness, so +that it is said to "lick up" the snow from the slopes. + + See Gill, _Dictionary of Chinook Jargon_ (Portland, Ore., 1891); Boas, + "Chinook Texts," in _Smithsonian Report_, Bureau of Ethnology + (Washington, 1894); J.C. Pilling, "Bibliography of Chinookan + Languages," _Smithsonian Report_, Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, + 1893); Horatio Hale, _Manual of Oregon Trade Language_ (London, 1890); + G.C. Shaw, _The Chinook Jargon_ (Seattle, 1909); _Handbook of American + Indians_ (Washington, 1907). + + + + +CHINSURA, a town of British India, on the Hugli river, 24 m. above +Calcutta, formerly the principal Dutch settlement in Bengal. The Dutch +erected a factory here in 1656, on a healthy spot of ground, much +preferable to that on which Calcutta is situated. In 1759 a British +force under Colonel Forde was attacked by the garrison of Chinsura on +its march to Chandernagore, but in less than half an hour the Dutch were +entirely routed. In 1795, during the Napoleonic wars, the settlement was +occupied by a British garrison. At the peace of 1814 it was restored to +the Dutch. It was among the cessions in India made by the king of the +Netherlands in 1825 in exchange for the British possessions in Sumatra. +Hugli College is maintained by government; and there are a number of +schools, several of which are carried on by Scottish Presbyterian +missionaries. Chinsura is included in the Hugli municipality. + + + + +CHINTZ, a word derived from the Hindu _ch[=i]nt_, spotted or variegated. +This name was given to a kind of stained or painted calico produced in +India. It is now applied to a highly glazed printed calico, commonly +made in several colours on a light ground and used for bed hangings, +covering furniture, &c. + + + + +CHIOGGIA, a town and episcopal see of Venetia, Italy, in the province of +Venice, from which it is 18½ m. S. by sea. Pop. (1901) 21,384 (town), +31,218 (commune). It is inhabited mostly by fishermen, and is situated +upon an island at the S. end of the lagoons. It is traversed by one main +canal, La Vena. The peculiar dialect and customs of the inhabitants +still survive to some extent. It is of earlier origin than Venice, and +indeed is probably identical with the Roman Portus Aedro, or Ebro, +though its name is derived from the Roman Fossa Claudia, a canalized +estuary which with the two mouths of the Meduacus (Brenta) went to form +the harbour. In 672 it entered the league of the cities of the lagoons, +and recognized the authority of the doge. In 809 it was almost destroyed +by Pippin, but in 1110 was made a city, remaining subject to Venice, +whose fortunes it thenceforth followed. It was captured after a +determined resistance by the Genoese in 1379, but recovered in 1380. +Chioggia is connected by rail with Rovigo, 35 m. to the south-west. + (T. AS.) + +_Naval War of Chioggia (1378-80)._--The naval war of 1378-1380, carried +on by Venice against the Genoese and their allies, the lord of Carrara +and the king of Hungary, is of exceptional interest as one in which a +superior naval power, having suffered disaster in its home waters, and +having been invaded, was yet able to win in the end by holding out till +its squadrons in distant seas could be recalled for its defence. + + When the war began in the spring of 1378, Venice was mainly concerned + for the safety of its trading stations in the Levant and the Black + Sea, which were exposed to the attacks of the Genoese. The more + powerful of the two fleets which it sent out was despatched into the + eastern Mediterranean under Carlo Zeno, the bailiff and captain of + Negropont. A smaller force was sent to operate against the Genoese in + the western Mediterranean, and was placed under the command of Vettor + Pisani. The possessions of Venice on the mainland, which were then + small, were assailed by Francesco Carrara and the Hungarians. Her only + ally in the war, Bernabó Visconti of Milan, gave her little help on + this side, but his mercenaries invaded the territory of Genoa. The + danger on land seemed trifling to Venice so long as she could keep the + sea open to her trade and press the war against the Genoese in the + Levant. + + During the first stage of the war the plans of the senate were carried + out with general success. While Carlo Zeno harassed the Genoese + stations in the Levant, Vettor Pisani brought one of their squadrons + to action on the 30th of May 1378 off Punta di Anzio to the south of + the Tiber, and defeated it. The battle was fought in a gale by 10 + Venetian against 11 Genoese galleys. The Genoese admiral, Luigi de' + Fieschi, was taken with 5 of his galleys, and others were wrecked. + Four of the squadron escaped, and steered for Famagusta in Cyprus, + then held by Genoa. If Pisani had directed his course to Genoa itself, + which was thrown into a panic by the defeat at Anzio, it is possible + that he might have dictated peace, but he thought his squadron too + weak, and preferred to follow the Genoese galleys which had fled to + Famagusta. During the summer of 1378 he was employed partly in + attacking the enemy in Cyprus, but mainly in taking possession of the + Istrian and Dalmatian towns which supported the Hungarians from fear + of the aggressive ambition of Venice. He was ordered to winter on the + coast of Istria, where his crews suffered from exposure and disease. + Genoa, having recovered from the panic caused by the disaster at + Anzio, decided to attack Venice at home while the best of her ships + were absent with Carlo Zeno. She sent a strong fleet into the Adriatic + under Luciano Doria. Pisani had been reinforced early in the spring of + 1378, but when he was sighted by the Genoese fleet of 25 sail off Pola + in Istria on the 7th of May, he was slightly outnumbered, and his + crews were still weak. The Venetian admiral would have preferred to + avoid battle, and to check an attack on Venice itself, by threatening + the Genoese fleet from his base on the Istrian coast. He was forced + into battle by the commissioner (_proveditore_) Michael Steno, who as + agent of the senate had authority over the admiral. The Venetians were + defeated with the loss of all their galleys except six. Luciano Doria + fell in the battle, and the Genoese, who had suffered severely, did + not at once follow up their success. On the arrival of his successor, + Pietro Doria, with reinforcements, they appeared off the Lido, the + outer barrier of the lagoon of Venice, in July, and in August they + entered on a combined naval and military attack on the city, in + combination with the Carrarese and the Hungarians. The Venetians had + closed the passages through the outer banks except at the southern + end, at the island of Brondolo, and the town of Chioggia. The barrier + here approaches close to the mainland, and the position facilitated + the co-operation of the Genoese with the Carrarese and Hungarians, but + Chioggia is distant from Venice, which could only be reached along the + canals across the lagoon. The Venetians had taken up the buoys which + marked the fairway, and had placed a light squadron on the lagoon. The + allies, after occupying the island of Brondolo, attacked, and on the + 13th of August took the town of Chioggia with its garrison of 3000 + men. + + There appeared to be nothing to prevent the enemy from advancing to + the city of Venice except the difficult navigation of the lagoon. The + senate applied for peace, but when the Genoese replied that they were + resolved to "bit and bridle the horses of Saint Mark" the Venetians + decided to fight to the end. Vettor Pisani, who had been imprisoned + after the defeat at Pola, but who possessed the confidence of the + people and the affection of the sailors, was released and named + commander-in-chief against the wish of the aristocracy. Under his + guidance the Venetians adopted a singularly bold and ingenious policy + of offensive defence. The heavy Genoese vessels were much hampered by + the shallow water and intricate passages through the lagoon. By taking + advantage of their embarrassment and his own local knowledge, Pisani + carried out a series of movements which entirely turned the tables on + the invaders. Between the 23rd and 25th of August he executed a + succession of night attacks, during which he sank vessels laden with + stores not only in the canals leading through the lagoon to Venice, + but in the fairways leading from Chioggia to the open sea round both + ends of the island of Brondolo. The Genoese were thus shut in at the + very moment when they thought they were about to besiege Venice. + Pisani stationed the galleys under his command in the open sea outside + Brondolo, and during the rest of the year blockaded the enemy closely. + The distress of the Venetians themselves was great, but the Doge + Andrea Contarini and the nobles set an example by sharing the general + hardships, and taking an oath not to return to Venice till they had + recovered Chioggia. Carlo Zeno had long since been ordered to return, + but the slowness and difficulty of communication and movement under + 14th century conditions delayed his reappearance. The besiegers of + Chioggia were at the end of their powers of endurance, and Pisani had + been compelled to give a promise that the siege would be raised, when + Zeno's fleet reached the anchorage off Brondolo on the 1st of January + 1380. The attack on Chioggia was now pressed with vigour. The Genoese + held out resolutely in the hope of relief from home. But the resources + of Genoa had been taxed to fit out the squadrons she had already sent + to sea. It was not until the 12th of May 1380 that her admiral, Matteo + Maruffo, was able to reach the neighbourhood of Brondolo with a + relieving force. By this time the Venetians had recovered the island, + and their fleet occupied a fortified anchorage from which they refused + to be drawn. Maruffo could do nothing, and on the 24th of June 1380 + the defenders of Chioggia surrendered. The crisis of the war was past. + Venice, being now safe at home, recovered the command of the sea, and + before the close of the year was able to make peace as a conqueror. + + AUTHORITIES.--S. Romanin, _Storia documentata di Venezia_ (Venice, + 1855); W.C. Hazlitt, _History of the Venetian Republic_ (London, + 1860); Horatio F. Brown, _Venice_ (London, 1893). (D.H.) + + + + +CHIOS, an island on the west coast of Asia Minor, called by the Greeks +Chios ([Greek: Chios, 's tê Chio]) and by the Turks Saki Adasi; the soft +pronunciation of [CHI] before [iota] in modern Greek, approximating to +_sh_, caused [Greek: Chio] to be Italianized as Scio. It forms, with the +islands of Psara, Nikaria, Leros, Calymnus and Cos, a sanjak of the +Archipelago vilayet. Chios is about 30 m. long from N. to S., and from 8 +to 15 m. broad; pop. 64,000. It well deserves the epithet "craggy" +([Greek: paipaloessa]) of the Homeric hymn. Its figs were noted in +ancient times, but wine and gum mastic have always been the most +important products. The climate is healthy; oranges, olives and even +palms grow freely. The wine grown on the N.W. coast, in the district +called by Strabo Ariusia, was known as _vinum Arvisium_. Early in the +7th century B.C. Glaucus of Chios discovered the process of welding iron +([Greek: kollêsis]: see J.G. Frazer's _Pausanias_, note on x. 16. 1, +vol. v. pp. 313-314), and the iron stand of a large crater whose parts +were all connected by this process was constructed by him, and preserved +as one of the most interesting relics of antiquity at Delphi. The long +line of Chian sculptors (see GREEK ART) in marble bears witness to the +fame of Chian art. In literature the chief glory of Chios was the school +of epic poets called Homeridae, who helped to create a received text of +Homer and gave the island the reputation of being the poet's birthplace. +The chief town, Chios (pop. 16,000), is on the E. coast. A theatre and a +temple of Athena Poliuchus existed in the ancient city. About 6 m. N. of +the city there is a curious monument of antiquity, commonly called "the +school of Homer"; it is a very ancient sanctuary of Cybele, with an +altar and a figure of the goddess with her two lions, cut out of the +native rock on the summit of a hill. On the west coast there is a +monastery of great wealth with a church founded by Constantine IX. +Monomachus (1042-1054). Starting from the city and encompassing the +island, one passes in succession the promontory Posidium; Cape Phanae, +the southern extremity of Chios, with a harbour and a temple of Apollo; +Notium, probably the south-western point of the island; Laii, opposite +the city of Chios, where the island is narrowest; the town Bolissus (now +Volisso), the home of the Homerid poets; Melaena, the north-western +point; the wine-growing district Ariusia; Cardamyle (now Cardhamili); +the north-eastern promontory was probably named Phlium, and the +mountains that cross the northern part of the island Pelinaeus or +Pellenaeus. + + The history of Chios is very obscure. According to Pherecydes, the + original inhabitants were Leleges, while according to other accounts + Thessalian Pelasgi possessed the island before it became an Ionian + state. The name Aethalia, common to Chios and Lemnos in very early + times, suggests the original existence of a homogeneous population in + these and other neighbouring islands. Oenopion, a mythical hero, son + of Dionysus or of Rhadamanthus, was an early king of Chios. His + successor in the fourth generation, Hector, united the island to the + Ionian confederacy (Pausan. vii. 4), though Strabo (xiv. p. 633) + implies an actual conquest by Ionian settlers. The regal government + was at a later time exchanged for an oligarchy or a democracy. The + names of two tyrants, Amphiclus and Polytecnus, are mentioned. The + products of the island were largely exported on the ships of Miletus, + with which city Chios formed a close mercantile alliance in opposition + to the rival league of Phocaea and Samos. Similar commercial + considerations determined the Chians in their attitude towards the + Persian conquerors: in 546 they submitted to Cyrus as eagerly as + Phocaea resisted him; during the Ionian revolt their fleet of 100 sail + joined the Milesians in offering a desperate opposition at Lade (494). + The island was subsequently punished with great rigour by the + Persians. The Chian ships, under the tyrant Strattis, served in the + Persian fleet at Salamis. After its liberation in 479 Chios joined the + Delian League and long remained a firm ally of the Athenians, who + allowed it to retain full autonomy. But in 413 the island revolted, + and was not recaptured. After the Peloponnesian War it took the first + opportunity to renew the Athenian alliance, but in 357 again seceded. + As a member of the Delian League it had regained its prosperity, being + able to equip a fleet of 50 or 60 sail. Moreover, it was reputed one + of the best-governed states in Greece, for although it was governed + alternately by oligarchs and democrats neither party persecuted the + other severely. It was not till late in the 4th century that civil + dissension became a danger to the state, leaving it a prey to Idrieus, + the dynast of Caria (346), and to the Persian admiral Memnon (333). + During the Hellenistic age Chios maintained itself in a virtually + independent position. It supported the Romans in their Eastern wars, + and was made a "free and allied state." Under Roman and Byzantine rule + industry and commerce were undisturbed, its chief export at this time + being the Arvisian wine, which had become very popular. After + temporary occupations by the Seljuk Turks (1089-1092) and by the + Venetians (1124-1125, 1172, 1204-1225), it was given in fief to the + Genoese family of Zaccaria, and in 1346 passed definitely into the + hands of a Genoese _maona_, or trading company, which was organized in + 1362 under the name of "the Giustiniani." This mercantile brotherhood, + formerly a privileged class, alone exploited the mastic trade; at the + same time the Greeks were allowed to retain their rights of + self-government and continued to exercise their industries. In 1415 + the Genoese became tributary to the Ottomans. In spite of occasional + secessions which brought severe punishment upon the island (1453, + 1479), the rule of the Giustiniani was not abolished till 1566. Under + the Ottoman government the prosperity of Chios was hardly affected. + But the island underwent severe periods of suffering after its capture + and reconquest from the Florentines (1595) and the Venetians + (1694-1695), which greatly reduced the number of the Latins. Worst of + all were the massacres of 1822, which followed upon an attack by some + Greek insurgents executed against the will of the natives. In 1881 + Chios was visited by a very severe earthquake in which over 5600 + persons lost their lives and more than half the villages were + seriously damaged. The island has now recovered its prosperity. There + is a harbour at Castro, and steam flour-mills, foundries and tanneries + have been established. Rich antimony and calamine mines are worked by + a French undertaking, and good marble is quarried by an Italian + company. + + AUTHORITIES.--Strabo xiv. pp. 632 f.; Athenaeus vi. 265-266; Herodotus + i. 160-165, vi. 15-31; Thucydides viii. 14-61; _Corpus Inscr. + Atticarum_, iv. (2), pp. 9, 10; H. Houssaye in _Revue des deux + mondes_, xlvi. (1876), pp. 1 ff.; T. Bent in _Historical Review_ + (1889), pp. 467-480; Fustel de Coulanges, _L'Île de Chio_ (ed. + Jullian, Paris, 1893); for coinage, B.V. Head, _Historia numorum_ + (Oxford, 1887), pp. 513-515, and NUMISMATICS: _Greek_. (E. GR.; + M. O. B. C.) + + + + +CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS (d. 1779), the most famous of English cabinetmakers. +The materials for the biography of Chippendale are exceedingly scanty, +but he is known to have been the son of Thomas Chippendale I., and is +believed to have been the father of Thomas Chippendale III. His father +was a cabinet-maker and wood-carver of considerable repute in Worcester +towards the beginning of the 18th century, and possibly he originated +some of the forms which became characteristic of his son's work. Thus a +set of chairs and settees was made, apparently at Worcester, for the +family of Bury of Knateshill, at a period when the great cabinetmaker +could have been no more than a boy, which are practically identical with +much of the work that was being turned out of the family factory as late +as the 'sixties of the 18th century. Side by side with the Queen Anne or +early Georgian feeling of the first quarter of the 18th century we find +the interlaced splats and various other details which marked the +Chippendale style. By 1727 the elder Chippendale and his son had removed +to London, and at the end of 1749 the younger man--his father was +probably then dead--established himself in Conduit Street, Long Acre, +whence in 1753 he removed to No. 60 St Martin's Lane, which with the +addition of the adjoining three houses remained his factory for the rest +of his life. In 1755 his workshops were burned down; in 1760 he was +elected a member of the Society of Arts; in 1766 his partnership with +James Ranni was dissolved by the latter's death. + +It has always been exceedingly difficult to distinguish the work +executed in Chippendale's factory and under his own eye from that of the +many copyists and adapters who throughout the second half of the 18th +century--the golden age of English furniture--plundered remorselessly. +Apart from his published designs, many of which were probably never made +up, we have to depend upon the very few instances in which his original +accounts enable us to earmark work which was unquestionably his. For +Claydon House, the seat of the Verneys in Buckinghamshire, he executed +much decorative work, and the best judges are satisfied that the Chinese +bedroom there was designed by him. At Harewood House, the seat of the +earl of Harewood in Yorkshire, we are on firmer ground. The house was +furnished between 1765 and 1771, and both Robert Adam and Chippendale +were employed upon it. Indeed, there is unmistakable evidence to show +that certain work, so closely characteristic of the Adams that it might +have been assigned to them without hesitation, was actually produced by +Chippendale. This may be another of the many indications that +Chippendale was himself an imitator, or it may be that Adam, as +architect, prescribed designs which Chippendale's cabinetmakers and +carvers executed. Chippendale's bills for this Adam work are still +preserved. Stourhead, the famous house of the Hoares in Wiltshire, +contains much undoubted Chippendale furniture, which may, however, be +the work of Thomas Chippendale III.; at Rowton Castle, Shropshire, +Chippendale's bills as well as his works still exist. + +Our other main source of information is _The Gentleman and Cabinet +Maker's Director_, which was published by Thomas Chippendale in 1754. +This book, the most important collection of furniture designs issued up +to that time in England, contains one hundred and sixty engraved plates, +and the list of subscribers indicates that the author had acquired a +large and distinguished body of customers. The book is of folio size; +there was a second edition in 1759, and a third in 1762. + +In the rather bombastic introduction Chippendale says that he has been +encouraged to produce the book "by persons of distinction and taste, who +have regretted that an art capable of so much perfection and refinement +should be executed with so little propriety and elegance." He has some +severe remarks upon critics, from which we may assume that he had +already suffered at their hands. Perhaps, indeed, Chippendale may have +been hinted at in the caustic remarks of Isaac Ware, surveyor to the +king, who bewailed that it was the misfortune of the world in his day +"to see an unmeaning scrawl of C's inverted and looped together, taking +the place of Greek and Roman elegance even in our most expensive +decorations. It is called French, and let them have the praise of it! +The Gothic shaft and Chinese bell are not beyond nor below it in +poorness of imitation." It is the more likely that these barbs were +intended for Chippendale, since he was guilty not only of many essays in +Gothic, but of a vast amount of work in the Chinese fashion, as well as +in the flamboyant style of Louis XV. The _Director_ contains examples of +each of the manners which aroused the scorn of the king's surveyor. +Chippendale has even shared with Sir William Chambers the obloquy of +introducing the Chinese style, but he appears to have done nothing worse +than "conquer," as Alexandre Dumas used to call it, the ideas of other +people. Nor would it be fair to the man who, whatever his occasional +extravagances and absurdities, was yet a great designer and a great +transmuter, to pretend that all his Chinese designs were contemptible. +Many of them, with their geometrical lattice-work and carved tracery, +are distinctly elegant and effective. Occasionally we find in one piece +of furniture a combination of the three styles which Chippendale most +affected at different periods--Louis XV., Chinese and Gothic--and it +cannot honestly be said that the result is as incongruous as might have +been expected. Some of his most elegant and attractive work is derived +directly from the French, and we cannot doubt that the inspiration of +his famous ribbon-backed chair came directly from some of the more +artistic performances in rococo. + +The primary characteristic of his work is solidity, but it is a solidity +which rarely becomes heaviness. Even in his most lightsome efforts, such +as the ribbon-backed chair, construction is always the first +consideration. It is here perhaps that he differs most materially from +his great successor Sheraton, whose ideas of construction were eccentric +in the extreme. It is indeed in the chair that Chippendale is seen at +his best and most characteristic. From his hand, or his pencil, we have +a great variety of chairs, which, although differing extensively in +detail, may be roughly arranged in three or four groups, which it would +sometimes be rash to attempt to date. He introduced the cabriole leg, +which, despite its antiquity, came immediately from Holland; the claw +and ball foot of ancient Oriental use; the straight, square, +uncompromising early Georgian leg; the carved lattice-work Chinese leg; +the pseudo-Chinese leg; the fretwork leg, which was supposed to be in +the best Gothic taste; the inelegant rococo leg with the curled or +hoofed foot; and even occasionally the spade foot, which is supposed to +be characteristic of the somewhat later style of Hepplewhite. His +chair-backs were very various. His efforts in Gothic were sometimes +highly successful; often they took the form of the tracery of a church +window, or even of an ovalled rose window. His Chinese backs were +distinctly geometrical, and from them he would seem to have derived some +of the inspiration for the frets of the glazed book-cases and cabinets +which were among his most agreeable work. The most attractive feature of +Chippendale's most artistic chairs--those which, originally derived from +Louis Quinze models, were deprived of their rococo extravagances--is the +back, which, speaking generally, is the most elegant and pleasing thing +that has ever been done in furniture. He took the old solid or slightly +pierced back, and cut it up into a light openwork design exquisitely +carved--for Chippendale was a carver before everything--in a vast +variety of designs ranging from the elaborate and extremely elegant, if +much criticized, ribbon back, to a comparatively plain but highly +effective splat. His armchairs, however, often had solid or stuffed +backs. Next to his chairs Chippendale was most successful with settees, +which almost invariably took the shape of two or three conjoined chairs, +the arms, backs and legs identical with those which he used for single +seats. He was likewise a prolific designer and maker of book-cases, +cabinets and escritoires with doors glazed with fretwork divisions. Some +of those which he executed in the style which in his day passed for +Gothic are exceedingly handsome and effective. We have, too, from his +hand many cases for long clocks, and a great number of tables, some of +them with a remarkable degree of Gallic grace. He was especially +successful in designing small tables with fretwork galleries for the +display of china. His mirrors, which were often in the Chinese taste or +extravagantly rococo, are remarkable and characteristic. In his day the +cabinetmaker still had opportunities for designing and constructing the +four-post bedstead, and some of Chippendale's most graceful work was +lavished upon the woodwork of the lighter, more refined and less +monumental four-poster, which, thanks in some degree to his initiative, +took the place of the massive Tudor and the funereally hung Jacobean +bed. From an organ case to a washhand-stand, indeed, no piece of +domestic furniture came amiss to this astonishing man, and if sometimes +he was extravagant, grotesque or even puerile, his level of achievement +is on the whole exceedingly high. + +Since the revival of interest in his work he has often been criticized +with considerable asperity, but not always justly. Chippendale's work +has stood the supreme test of posterity more completely than that of any +of his rivals or successors; and, unlike many men of genius, we know him +to have been warmly appreciated in his lifetime. He was at once an +artist and a prosperous man of business. His claims to distinction are +summed up in the fact that his name has by general consent been attached +to the most splendid period of English furniture. + +Chippendale was buried on the 13th of November 1779, apparently at the +church of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and administration of his intestate +estate was granted to his widow Elizabeth. He left four children, Thomas +Chippendale III., John, Charles and Mary. He was one of the assignees in +bankruptcy of the notorious Theresa Cornelys of Soho Square, of whom we +read in Casanova and other scandalous chronicles of the time. Thomas +Chippendale III. succeeded to the business of his father and +grandfather, and for some years the firm traded under the style of +Chippendale & Haig. The factory remained in St Martin's Lane, but in +1814 an additional shop was opened at No. 57 Haymarket, whence it was in +1821 removed to 42 Jermyn Street. Like his father, Thomas Chippendale +III. was a member of the Society of Arts; and he is known to have +exhibited five pictures at the Royal Academy between 1784 and 1801. He +died at the end of 1822 or the beginning of 1823. (J. P. -B.) + + + + +CHIPPENHAM, a market town and municipal borough in the Chippenham +parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 94 m. W. of London by the +Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 5074. Chippenham is governed by a +mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 361 acres. It lies in a +hollow on the south side of the Upper Avon, here crossed by a +picturesque stone bridge of 21 arches. St Andrew's church, originally +Norman of the 12th century, has been enlarged in different styles. A +paved causeway running for about 4 m. between Chippenham Cliff and Wick +Hill is named after Maud Heath, said to have been a market-woman, who +built it in the 15th century, and bequeathed an estate for its +maintenance. After the decline of its woollen and silk trades, +Chippenham became celebrated for grain and cheese markets. There are +also manufactures of broadcloth, churns, condensed milk, +railway-signals, guns and carriages; besides bacon-curing works, flour +mills, tanneries and large stone quarries. Bowood, the seat of the +marquess of Lansdowne, is 3-1/2 m. S.E. of Chippenham. Lanhill barrow, +or Hubba's Low, 2-1/2 m. N.W., is an ancient tomb containing a +_kistvaen_ or sepulchral chamber of stone; it is probably British, +though tradition makes it the grave of Hubba, a Danish leader. + +Chippenham (_Chepeham, Chippeham_) was the site of a royal residence +where in 853 Æthelwulf celebrated the marriage of his daughter +Æthelswitha with Burhred, king of Mercia. The town also figured +prominently in the Danish invasion of the 9th century, and in 933 was +the meeting-place of the witan. In the Domesday Survey Chippenham +appears as a crown manor and is not assessed in hides. The town was +governed by a bailiff in the reign of Edward I., and returned two +members to parliament from 1295, but it was not incorporated until 1553, +when a charter from Mary established a bailiff and twelve burgesses and +endowed the corporation with certain lands for the maintenance of two +parliamentary burgesses and for the repair of the bridge over the Avon. +In 1684 this charter was surrendered to Charles II., and in 1685 a new +charter was received from James II., which was shortly abandoned in +favour of the original grant. The Representation Act of 1868 reduced the +number of parliamentary representatives to one, and the borough was +disfranchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The derivation of +Chippenham from _cyppan_, to buy, implies that the town possessed a +market in Saxon times. When Henry VII. introduced the clothing +manufacture into Wiltshire, Chippenham became an important centre of the +industry, which has lapsed. A prize, however, was awarded to the town +for this commodity at the Great Exhibition of 1851. + + + + +CHIPPEWA[1] FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Chippewa county, +Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Chippewa river, about 100 m. E. of St Paul, +Minnesota, and 12 m. N.E. of Eau Claire, Wisconsin. Pop. (1890) 8670; +(1900) 8094; (1910, census) 8893. It is served by the Minneapolis, St +Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, +Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by the electric line to Eau Claire. +The first settlement on the site was made in 1837; and the city was +chartered in 1870. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For the Chippewa Indians see OJIBWAY, of which the word is a + popular adaptation. + + + + +CHIPPING CAMPDEN, a market town in the northern parliamentary division +of Gloucestershire, England, on the Oxford and Worcester line of the +Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1542. It is picturesquely situated +towards the north of the Cotteswold hill-district. The many interesting +ancient houses afford evidence of the former greater importance of the +town. The church of St James is mainly Perpendicular, and contains a +number of brasses of the 15th and 16th centuries and several notable +monumental tombs. A ruined manor house of the 16th century and some +almshouses complete, with the church, a picturesque group of buildings; +and Campden House, also of the 16th century, deserves notice. + +Apart from a medieval tradition preserved by Robert de Brunne that it +was the meeting-place of a conference of Saxon kings, the earliest +record of Campden (_Campedene_) is in Domesday Book, when Earl Hugh is +said to hold it, and to have there fifty villeins. The number shows that +a large village was attached to the manor, which in 1173 passed to Hugh +de Gondeville, and about 1204 to Ralph, earl of Chester. The borough +must have grown up during the 12th century, for both these lords granted +the burgesses charters which are known from a confirmation of 1247, +granting that they and all who should come to the market of Campedene +should be quit of toll, and that if any free burgess of Campedene should +come into the lord's amerciament he should be quit for 12d. unless he +should shed blood or do felony. Probably Earl Ralph also granted the +town a portman-mote, for the account of a skirmish in 1273 between the +men of the town and the county mentions a bailiff and implies the +existence of some sort of municipal government. In 1605 Campedene was +incorporated, but it never returned representatives to parliament. +Camden speaks of the town as a market famous for stockings, a relic of +that medieval importance as a mart for wool that had given the town the +name of Chipping. + + + + +CHIPPING NORTON, a market town and municipal borough in the Banbury +parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, 26 m. N.W. of Oxford by +a branch of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3780. It lies on the +steep flank of a hill, and consists mainly of one very wide street. The +church of St Mary the Virgin, standing on the lower part of the slope, +is a fine building of the Decorated and Perpendicular periods, the +hexagonal porch and the clerestory being good examples of the later +style. The town has woollen and glove factories, breweries and an +agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 2456 acres. Chipping Norton (_Chepyngnorton_) was +probably of some importance in Saxon times. At the Domesday Survey it +was held in chief by Ernulf de Hesding; it was assessed at fifteen +hides, and comprised three mills. It returned two members to parliament +as a borough in 1302 and 1304-1305, but was not represented after this +date, and was not considered to be a borough in 1316. The first and only +charter of incorporation was granted by James I., in 1608; it +established a common council consisting of 2 bailiffs and 12 burgesses; +a common clerk, 2 justices of the peace, and 2 serjeants-at-mace; and a +court of record every Monday. In 1205 William Fitz-Alan was granted a +four days' fair at the feast of the Invention of the Cross; and in 1276 +Roger, earl of March, was granted a four days' fair at the feast of St +Barnabas. In the reign of Henry VI. the market was held on Wednesday, +and a fair was held at the Translation of St Thomas Becket. These +continued to be held in the reign of James I., who annulled the former +two fairs, and granted fairs at the feasts of St Mark, St Matthew, St +Bartholomew, and SS. Simon and Jude. + + + + +CHIQUITOS (Span, "very small"), a group of tribes in the province of +Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, and between the head waters of the +rivers Mamoré and Itenez. When their country was first invaded they fled +into the forests, and the Spaniards, coming upon their huts, the +doorways of which are built excessively low, supposed them to be dwarfs: +hence the name. They are in fact well formed and powerful, of middle +height and of an olive complexion. They are an agricultural people, but +made a gallant resistance to the Spaniards for nearly two centuries. In +1691, however, they made the Jesuit missionaries welcome, and rapidly +became civilized. The Chiquito language was adopted as the means of +communication among the converts, who soon numbered 50,000, representing +nearly fifty tribes. Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 the +Chiquitos became decadent, and now number short of 20,000. Their houses, +regularly ranged in streets, are built of adobes thatched with coarse +grass. They manufacture copper boilers for making sugar and understand +several trades, weave ponchos and hammocks and make straw hats. They are +fond of singing and dancing, and are a gentle-mannered and hospitable +folk. The group is now divided into forty tribes. + + + + +CHIROMANCY (from Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, and [Greek: manteia], +divination), the art of telling the character or fortune of persons by +studying the lines of the palms of the hands (see PALMISTRY). + + + + +CHIRON, or CHEIRON, in Greek mythology, one of the Centaurs, the son of +Cronus and Philyra, a sea nymph. He dwelt at the foot of Mount Pelion, +and was famous for his wisdom and knowledge of the healing art. He +offers a remarkable contrast to the other Centaurs in manners and +character. Many of the most celebrated heroes of Greece were brought up +and instructed by him (Apollodorus iii. 10. 13). Accidentally pierced by +a poisoned arrow shot by Heracles, he renounced his immortality in +favour of Prometheus, and was placed by Zeus among the stars as the +constellation _Sagittarius_ (Apollodorus ii. 5; Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 414). +In a Pompeian wall-painting he is shown teaching Achilles to play the +lyre. + + See articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_ and W.H. Roscher's + _Lexikon der Mythologie_; W. Mannhardt, _Wald- und Feldkulte_ (1904). + + + + +CHIROPODIST (an invented word from Gr. [Greek: cheir], hand, and [Greek: +pous], foot), properly one who treats the ailments of the hands and +feet, or is consulted as to keeping them in good condition; the use of +the word is now restricted, however, to the care of the toes, +"manicurist" having been invented for the corresponding attentions to +the fingers. The word was first introduced in 1785, by a "corncutter" in +Davies Street, London. + + + + +CHIROPTERA (Greek for "hand-wings"), an order of mammals containing the +bats, all of which are unique in the class in possessing the power of +true flight, and have their fore-limbs specially modified for this +purpose. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Skeleton and Wing-Membranes of the Noctule Bat +(_Pipistrellus noctula_). + + c, Clavicle. + h, Humerus. + r, Radius. + u, Ulna. + d1, First digit. + d2, d3, d4, d5, Other digits of the fore-limb + supporting wm, the wing-membrane. + m, m, Metacarpal bones. + ph1, First phalanx. + ph2, Second phalanx. + ph3, Third phalanx. + am, Antebrachial membrane. + f, Femur. + t, Tibia. + fb, Fibula. + c, Calcar supporting im, the interfemoral membrane. + pcb, Post-calcaneal lobe.] + +The mammals comprised in this order are at once distinguished by the +possession of true wings; this peculiarity being accompanied by other +modifications of bodily structure having relation to aerial locomotion. +Thus, in direct contrast to all other mammals, in which locomotion is +chiefly effected by action from behind, and the hind-limbs consequently +greatly preponderate in size over the fore, in the Chiroptera the +fore-limbs, being the agents in propelling the body forward during +flight, immensely exceed the short and weak hinder extremities. The +thorax, giving origin to the great muscles which sustain flight, and +containing the proportionately large lungs and heart, is remarkably +capacious; and the ribs are flattened and close together; while the +shoulder-girdle is greatly developed in comparison with the weak pelvis. +The fore-arm (fig. 1) consists of a rudimentary ulna, a long curved +radius, and a carpus of six bones supporting a thumb and four elongated +fingers, between which, the sides of the body, and the hinder +extremities a thin expansion of skin, the wing-membrane, is spread. The +knee is directed backwards, owing to the rotation of the hind-limb, +outwards by the wing-membrane; an elongated cartilaginous process (the +calcar), rarely rudimentary or absent, arising from the inner side of +the ankle-joint, is directed inwards, and supports part of the posterior +margin of an accessory membrane of flight, extending from the tail or +posterior extremity of the body to the hind-limbs, and known as the +interfemoral membrane. The penis is pendent; the testes are abdominal +or inguinal; the teats, usually two in number, thoracic; the uterus is +simple or with more or less long cornua; the placenta discoidal and +deciduate; and the smooth cerebral hemispheres do not extend backwards +over the cerebellum. The teeth comprise incisors, canines, premolars and +molars; and the dental formula never exceeds i. 2/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/8, m. +3/3; total 38. Despite the forward position of the teats, which is +merely an adaptive feature, bats are evidently mammals of low +organization, and are most nearly related to the Insectivora. + +In consequence of the backward direction of the knee, a bat, when placed +on the ground, rests on all fours, having the knees directed upwards, +while the foot is rotated forwards and inwards on the ankle. Walking is +thus a kind of shuffle; but, notwithstanding a general belief, bats can +take wing from the walking posture. + +The bones of the skeleton are characterized by their slenderness and the +great size of the medullary canals in those of the extremities. The +vertebral column is short, and the vertebrae differ but slightly in +number and form throughout the group. The general number of dorso-lumbar +vertebrae is 17, whereof 12 are dorsal; the cervical vertebrae are +broad, but short. Except in fruit-bats (_Pteropodidae_), the vertebrae, +from the third cervical backwards, are devoid of spinous processes. From +the first dorsal to the last lumbar the vertebral column forms a single +curve, most pronounced in the lumbar region. The bodies of the vertebrae +are but slightly movable on each other, and in old individuals become +partially welded. The caudal vertebrae are cylindrical bones without +processes; their number and length varying in allied species. The +development of these vertebrae is correlated with habits, the long tail +in the insectivorous species supporting and controlling the position of +the interfemoral membrane which aids bats in their doubling motions when +in pursuit of insects by acting as a rudder, and assists them in the +capture of the larger insects. In the fruit-bats this is not required, +and the tail is rudimentary or absent. In all bats the presternum has a +prominent keel for the attachment of the great pectoral muscles. + +The shape of the skull varies greatly; but post-orbital processes are +developed only in some _Pteropodidae_ and a few _Nycteridae_ and +_Emballonuridae_; in _Pteropus leucopterus_ alone does a process from +the zygomatic arch meet the post-orbital so as to complete the orbital +ring. Zygomatic arches, though slender, are present in all except in +some of the species of _Phyllostomatidae_. + +The milk-teeth differ from those of all other mammals in that they are +unlike those of the permanent series. They are slender, with pointed +recurved cusps, and are soon shed, but exist for a short time with the +permanent teeth. In the _Rhinolophidae_ the milk-teeth are absorbed +before birth. The permanent teeth exhibit great variety, sometimes even +in the same family, as in _Phyllostomatidae_, whilst in other families, +as _Rhinolophidae_, the resemblance between the dentition of species +differing in many respects is remarkable. In all they are provided with +well-developed roots, and their crowns are acutely tuberculate, with +more or less well-defined W-shaped cusps, in the insectivorous species, +or variously hollowed out or longitudinally grooved in the frugivorous +kinds. + +The shoulder-girdle varies but slightly, the clavicle being long, strong +and curved; and the scapula large, oval and triangular, with a long +curved coracoid process. The humerus, though long, is scarcely +two-thirds the length of the radius; and the rudimentary ulna is welded +with the radius. A sesamoid bone exists in the tendon of the triceps +muscle. The upper row of the carpus consists of the united scaphoid, +lunar and cuneiform bones. + +The "hand" has five digits, the first, fourth and fifth of which consist +each of a metacarpal and two phalanges; but in the second and third the +number of phalanges is different in certain families. The first digit +terminates in a claw, most developed in the frugivorous species, in most +of which the second digit is also clawed, although in other bats this +and the remaining digits are unarmed. + +In the weak pelvis the ilia are long and narrow, while in most species +the pubes of opposite sides are loosely united in front in males, and +widely separated in females; in the _Rhinolophidae_ alone they form a +symphysis. Only in the _Molossinae_ is there a well-developed fibula; in +the rest this bone is either very slender or cartilaginous and +ligamentous in its upper third, or reduced to a small bony process +above the heel, or absent. The foot consists of a short tarsus, and of +slender, laterally compressed toes, with much-curved claws. + +Although the brain is of a low type, probably no animals possess so +delicate a sense of touch as Chiroptera. In ordinary bats tactile organs +exist, not only in the bristles on the sides of the muzzle, but in the +sensitive structures forming the wing-membranes and ears, while in many +species leaf-like expansions surrounding the nasal apertures or +extending backwards behind them are added. These nose-leaves are made up +partly of the extended and thickened integument of the nostrils, and +partly of the glandular eminences occupying the sides of the muzzle, in +which in other bats the sensitive bristles are implanted. + +In no mammals are the ears so developed or so variable in form; in most +insectivorous species they are longer than the head, while in the +long-eared bat their length nearly equals that of the head and body. The +form is characteristic in each of the families; in most the "earlet," or +tragus, is large, in some cases extending nearly to the outer margin of +the conch; its office appears to be to intensify and prolong the waves +of sound by producing undulations in them. In the _Rhinolophidae_, the +only family of insectivorous bats wanting the tragus, the auditory +bullae reach their greatest size, and the nasal appendages their highest +development. In frugivorous bats the ear is simple and but slightly +variable. In all bats the ears are extremely mobile, each independently +at will. + +The oesophagus is narrow, especially in blood-sucking vampires. The +stomach presents two types of structure, corresponding respectively to +the two divisions of the order, Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera; in +the former the pyloric extremity is, with one exception, elongated and +folded upon itself, in the latter simple; an exceptional type is met +with in the blood-suckers, where the cardiac extremity is elongated, +forming a long appendage. The intestine is comparatively short, varying +from one and a half to four times the length of the head and body; +longest in the frugivorous, shortest in the insectivorous species. In +_Rhinopoma_ and _Megaderma_ a small caecum has been found. The liver is +characterized by the great size of the left lateral lobe, which +occasionally equals half that of the whole organ; the right and left +lateral fissures are usually very deep; in Megachiroptera the spigelian +lobe is, with one exception, ill defined or absent, and the caudate is +generally large; but in Microchiroptera the former lobe is large, while +the caudate is small. The gall-bladder is generally well developed. + +In most species the hyoids are simple, consisting of a chain of slender, +long, cylindrical bones connecting the basi-hyoid with the skull, while +the pharynx is short, and the larynx shallow with feebly developed vocal +cords, and guarded by a short pointed epiglottis. In the African +epauletted bats, _Epomophorus_, the pharynx is long and capacious, the +aperture of the larynx far removed from the fauces, and, opposite to it, +opens a canal, leading from the nasal chambers, and extending along the +back of the pharynx; the laryngeal cavity is spacious and its walls are +ossified; the hyoids are unconnected, except by muscle with the skull; +while the cerato-hyals and epi-hyals are cartilaginous and expanded, +entering into the formation of the walls of the pharynx, and (in males +of some species) supporting the orifices of a pair of air-sacs +communicating with the pharynx (fig. 2). + +The extent and shape of the wings generally depend on the form of the +bones of the fore-limbs, and on the presence or absence of the tail. The +wings consist of an "antebrachial membrane," which extends from the +point of the shoulder along the humerus and more or less of the fore-arm +to the base of the thumb, the metacarpal bone of which is partially or +wholly included in it; the "wing-membrane" spread out between the +elongated fingers, and extending along the sides of the body to the +posterior extremities, generally reaching to the feet; and the +"interfemoral membrane," the most variable of all, which is supported +between the extremity of the body, the legs and the calcar (fig. 1). The +antebrachial and wing membranes are most developed in species fitted +only for aerial locomotion which when at rest hang with the body +enveloped in the wings; but in the _Emballonuridae_, and also in the +_Molossinae_, which are the best fitted for terrestrial progression, the +antebrachial membrane is reduced to a small size, and not developed +along the fore-arm, leaving the thumb quite free, while the +wing-membrane is narrow and folded in repose under the forearm. The +relative development of the interfemoral membrane has been referred to +in connexion with the caudal vertebrae. Its small size in the +frugivorous and blood-sucking species, which do not require it, is +easily understood. Scent-glands and pouches opening on the surface of +the skin are developed in many species, but in most cases more so in +males than in females (fig. 3). As rule, bats produce only a single +offspring at a birth, which for some time is carried about by the female +parent clinging to the fur of her breast; but certain North American +bats commonly give birth to three or four young ones at a time, which +are carried about in the same manner. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Head and Neck of _Epomophorus franqueti_ (adult +male). From Dobson. The anterior (_a.ph.s_) and posterior (_p.ph.s_) +pharyngeal sacs are opened from without, the dotted lines indicating the +points where they communicate with the pharynx; _s_, thin membranous +partition in middle line between the anterior pharyngeal sacs of +opposite sides; _s.m_, sterno-mastoid muscle separating the anterior +from the posterior sac.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Frontal Sac and Nose-Leaf in Male and Female +Masked Bat (_Phyllorhina larvata_). From Dobson.] + +Bats are divisible into two suborders, Megachiroptera and +Microchiroptera. + + + _Megachiroptera_. + + Fruit-eating bats. + + The first of these comprises the fruit-eating species, which are + generally of large size, with the crowns of the cheek-teeth smooth and + marked with a longitudinal groove. The bony palate is continued behind + the last molar, narrowing slowly backwards; there are three phalanges + in the index finger, the third phalange being terminated generally by + a claw; the sides of the ear form a ring at the base; the tail, when + present, is inferior to (not contained in) the interfemoral membrane; + the pyloric extremity of the stomach is generally much elongated; and + the spigelian lobe of the liver is ill-defined or absent, while the + caudate is well developed. This group is limited to the tropical and + sub-tropical parts of the Eastern Hemisphere. + + All the members of this suborder are included in the single family + _Pteropodidae_, the first representatives of which are the African + epauletted bats, forming the genus _Epomophorus_. In this the dental + formula is _i._ 2/2 (or ½), _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ ½. Tail short or + absent, when present free from the interfemoral membrane; second + finger with a claw; premaxillae united in front. The species are + strictly limited to Africa south of the Sahara, and are distinguished + by the large and long head, expansible and often folded lips, and the + white tufts of hair on the margins of the ears. The males are provided + with glandular pouches, situated in the skin of the side of the neck + near the point of the shoulder, which are rudimentary or absent in + females. In the males they are lined with glandular membrane, from + which long coarse yellowish hairs project to form conspicuous + epaulet-like tufts on the shoulders. The males often have a pair of + air-sacs extending outwards on each side from the pharynx beneath the + integument of the neck, in the position shown in fig. 2. These bats + appear to live principally on figs, the juicy contents of which their + voluminous lips and capacious mouths enable them to swallow without + loss. The huge and ugly West African hammer-headed bat, _Hypsignathus + monstrosus_, represents an allied genus distinguished by the absence + of shoulder-pouches, and the presence of leaf-like expansions of skin + on the front of the muzzle, and of distinct cusps on the outer sides + of the cheek-teeth. The great majority of the bats of this group, + commonly known as "flying-foxes," are included in the typical genus + _Pteropus_, of which the dental formula is _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ + 3/3, _m._ 2/3. All are of large size, and the absence of a tail, the + long pointed muzzle, and the woolly fur covering the neck render their + recognition easy. One of the species, _P. edulis_, inhabiting Java, + measures 5 ft. across the fully extended wings, and is the largest + member of the order. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Head of a Flying-Fox or Fruit-Bat (_Pteropus + personatus_). From Gray.] + + The range of the genus extends from Madagascar through the Seychelles + to India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Archipelago, Japan, New Guinea, + Australia and Polynesia. Although two species inhabit the Comoro + Islands, scarcely 200 m. from the mainland, not one is found in + Africa; while the common Indian species is closely allied to the + Madagascar flying-fox. The Malay Archipelago and Australia form the + headquarters of these bats, which in some places occur in countless + multitudes. The colonies exhale a strong musky odour, and when awake + the occupants utter a loud incessant chatter. Wallace's fruit-bat of + Celebes and Macassar has been made the type of a separate genus, as + _Styloctenium wallacei_. In _Roussettus_ (or _Cynonycteris_) the + dentition is as in _Pteropus_, but the tail is short, and the fur of + the nape of the neck not different from that of the back: its + distribution accords with that of _Pteropus_, except that it includes + Africa and does not reach farther east than New Ireland. _R. + aegyptiacus_ inhabits the chambers of the Great Pyramid and other + deserted buildings in Egypt, and is probably the species figured in + Egyptian frescoes. _Boneia_, with two species, from Celebes, differs + in having only two upper incisors. _Harpyionycteris_ and + _Scotonycteris_, respectively from the Philippines and West Africa, + are represented by a single species each; but of _Cynopterus_, which + is mainly confined to the Indo-Malay countries, there are some + half-score different kinds. The dentition is _i._ 2/[2 or 1], _c._ + 1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3, the muzzle is shorter than in _Roussettus_, + with the upper lip grooved in front as in _Pteropus_, while the tail + and fur resemble those of the former genus. These bats are extremely + voracious, a specimen of the Indian _C. marginatus_ having eaten a + banana twice its own weight in three hours. Among several Austro-Malay + genera, such as _Ptenochirus_ and _Balionycteris_, the tube-nosed bats + of the genus _Gelasinus_ (or _Harpyia_) are remarkable for the + conformation of the nostrils (fig. 5). _Cephalotes_, with one species, + ranging from Celebes to the Solomon group, has the dentition _i._ 1/1, + _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ 2/3, premaxillae not united in front, + nostrils simple, muzzle short, index finger without a claw, tail + short. As in _Gelasinus_, the wing-membrane arises from the middle + line of the back, to which it is attached by a longitudinal thin + process of skin; the wings are naked, but the back covered with hair. + _Leipenyx_ is an allied West African genus with one species. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Head of Papuan Tube-Nosed Bat (_Gelasinus + major_). From G.E. Dobson.] + + The foregoing belong to the typical subfamily _Pteropodinae_, while + the remainder represent a second group, _Carponycterinae_ (or + _Macroglossinae_), characterized by having the facial part of the + skull produced, the molar teeth narrow, and scarcely raised above the + gum, and the tongue exceedingly long, attenuated in the anterior + third, and armed with long recurved papillae near the tip. The single + representative of the first genus, _Notopteris macdonaldi_, inhabiting + Fiji, New Guinea and the New Hebrides, is distinguished from other + bats of this family by the length of its tail, which is nearly as long + as the forearm. The dentition is _i._ 2/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ + 2/2, while the index finger has no claw, and the wings arise from the + spine. _Eonycteris_, with the dentition _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3, + _m._ 2/3, is also represented by a single species, _E. spelaea_, from + Tenasserim, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, which has + somewhat the appearance of a _Roussettus_, but the absence of a claw + in the index finger and the presence of the characteristic tongue and + teeth at once distinguish it. _Carponycteris_ (_Macroglossus_) and + _Melonycteris_, the former with several and the latter with a single + species, are closely allied Indo-Malay and Papuan genera, the index + finger in both having a claw, but the number of the teeth being the + same as in _Eonycteris_. _C. minimus_ is the smallest known species of + the suborder, much smaller than the serotine bat of Europe, with the + fore-arm scarcely longer than that of the long-eared bat. It is nearly + as common in certain parts of Burma as _Cynopterus marginatus_, and + extends eastwards through the Malay Archipelago as far as New Ireland, + where it is associated with _Melonycteris melanops_, distinguished by + its larger size and the total absence of the tail. An allied small + _Carpopycteris_ inhabits India. _Trygenycteris_ (_Megaloglossus_) + _woermanni_, of West Africa, is the only member of the group occurring + west of the Himalaya. _Callinycteris_ of Celebes, with the dentition + _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 2/2, _m._ 3/3, has a short tail and no + index-claws, while _Nesonycteris_ of the Solomons, with the dentition + _i._ 2/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3, _m._ 3/3, differs by the absence of the + tail. + + + _Microchiroptera._ + + Insect-eating bats. + + The second and larger suborder, the Microchiroptera, includes all the + insectivorous species, the majority of which are of relatively small + size as compared with the Megachiroptera. In these bats, with a few + specialized exceptions, the crowns of the cheek-teeth are surmounted + by sharp cusps, divided by transverse grooves. In the skull the bony + palate narrows abruptly and is not continued backwards laterally + behind the last molar; there is one rudimentary phalange (rarely two + or none) in the index finger, which is never terminated by a claw; the + outer and inner sides of the ear commence interiorly from separate + points of origin; the tail, when present, is contained in the + interfemoral membrane, or appears on its upper surface; the stomach, + except in the blood-sucking group, is simple; and the spigelian lobe + of the liver large, and the caudate generally small. + + The bats included in this suborder are so numerous in genera (to say + nothing of species) that only some of the more important types can be + mentioned. + + Brief references have already been made to the manner in which in many + or most of these bats the tail aids in the capture of prey. From the + observations of C. Oldham, it appears that these bats, when walking, + carry the tail downwards and forwards, so that the membrane connecting + this organ with the hind-legs forms a kind of pouch or bag. If a large + insect be encountered the bat seizes it with a snatch, and slightly + spreading its folded wings and pressing them on the ground in order to + steady itself, brings its feet forwards so as to increase the capacity + of the tail-pouch, into which, by bending its neck and thrusting its + head beneath the body, it pushes the insect. Although the latter, + especially if large, will often struggle violently, when once in the + pouch it but rarely escapes, from which it is subsequently extracted + and devoured. It is assumed that the same method of capture is + employed when on the wing; and a naturalist who has observed the + long-eared bat picking moths off willows states that the bat always + hovers when taking off the moth, and bends up the tail so as to form a + receptacle for the insect as it drops. + + In the _Rhinolophidae_, Horse-shoe and Leaf-nosed bats of the Old + World, the nose-leaf is developed and surrounds the nasal apertures, + which are situated in a depression on the upper surface of the muzzle + so as to look upwards; the ears are large and generally separate, + without trace of a tragus or earlet; the premaxillae are rudimentary, + suspended from the nasal cartilages, and support a single pair of + small incisors; the molars have acute W-shaped cusps; the skull is + large, and the nasal bones which support the nose-leaf much expanded + vertically and laterally. In females a pair of teat-like appendages + are found in front of the pubis; and the long tail extends to the + margin of the interfemoral membrane. The middle finger has two + phalanges, but the index is rudimentary. The fibula is rudimentary. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Head of Mitred Horseshoe Bat (_Rhinolophus + mitratus_). From Dobson.] + + The _Rhinolophidae_ are the most highly organized of insectivorous + bats, in which the osseous and cutaneous systems reach the fullest + development. Compared with theirs, the bones of the extremities and + the wings of other bats appear coarsely formed, and their teeth seem + less perfectly fitted to crush the hard bodies of insects. The + complicated nasal appendages reach their highest development, and the + differences in their form afford characters in the discrimination of + the species, which resemble one another closely in dentition and the + colour of the fur. + + In the first subfamily, _Rhinolophinae_, the first toe has two, and + the other toes three phalanges each; and the ilio-pectineal spine is + not connected by bone with the antero-inferior surface of the ilium. + In the horseshoe bats, _Rhinolophus_, the dentition is i. 1/2, c. 1/1, + p. 2/3, m. 3/8, the nose-leaf has a central process behind and between + the nasal orifices, with the posterior extremity lanceolate, and the + antitragus large. Among the numerous forms _R. luctus_ is the largest, + and inhabits elevated hill-tracts in India and Malaysia; _R. + hipposiderus_ of Europe, extending into south England and Ireland, is + one of the smallest; and _R. ferrum-equinum_ represents the average + size of the species, which are mainly distinguished from one another + by the form of the nose-leaf. The last-named species extends from + England to Japan, and southward to the Cape of Good Hope, but is + represented by a number of local races. When sleeping, the horseshoe + bats, at least in some instances, suspend themselves head downwards, + with the wings wrapped round the body after the manner of fruit bats. + The posture of ordinary bats is quite different, and while the lesser + horseshoe (_R. hipposiderus_) alights from the air in an inverted + position, other bats, on first coming to rest, do so with the head + upwards, and then reverse their position. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Head of Squirrel Leaf-Bat (_Phyllorhina + calcarata_). From Dobson.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Head of Persian Leaf-Bat. (_Triaenops + persicus_). From Dobson.] + + In the second subfamily, _Hippo-siderinae_ (formerly called + _Phyllorhinae_), the toes are equal and include two phalanges each, + while the ilio-pectineal spine is united by a bony isthmus with a + process derived from the antero-inferior surface of the ilium. + _Hipposiderus, Clöeotis, Rhinonycteris, Triaenops, Anthops_ and + _Coelops_ represent this subfamily. _Hipposiderus_ (_Phyllorhina_), + with many species, ranging over Asia, Africa and Australasia, and the + dental formula i. 1/2, c. 1/1, p. 2/2, or 1/2, m. 3/3, differs from + _Rhinolophus_ in the form of the nose-leaf, which is not lanceolate + behind (fig. 6), and is unprovided with a central process covering the + nostrils; the largest species, _H. armiger_, appears to be the most + northerly, having been taken at Amoy in China, and in the Himalaya at + an elevation of 5500 ft. Many are provided with a frontal sac behind + the nose-leaf, rudimentary in females (see fig. 7), which can be + everted at pleasure; the sides of this sac secrete a waxy substance, + and its extremity supports a tuft of straight hairs. _Rhinonycteris_, + represented by _R. aurantia_ from Australia, and _Triaenops_. by _T. + persicus_ from Persia and other species from Africa and Madagascar, + are closely allied genera. _Triaenops_ (fig. 8) is characterized by + the remarkable form of its nasal appendages and ears, and the presence + of a bony projection from the upper extremity of the second phalange + of the fourth finger. _Coelops_ (_C. Frithi_), from the Bengal + Sanderbans, Java and Siam is distinguished by the peculiar form of its + nose-leaf and the length of the metacarpal bone of the index finger, + as well as by the shortness of the calcar and interfemoral membrane. + _Clöeotis_ is represented by a single East African species, and + _Anthops_ by one from the Solomon Islands characterized by the + nose-leaf covering the whole front of the face. + + + False vampires. + + The next family, _Nycteridae_, which is also Old World, is a small + one, nearly allied to the last, in which it is included by Prof. Max + Weber as a subfamily under the name of _Myadermatinae_. It differs by + the presence of a small tragus in the ears, which are united at their + bases; and by the nasal chamber not being inflated. The premaxillae + are either small and separated in front, or rudimentary; and the first + phalange of the middle finger when in repose is laid back on the + metacarpus. There are only pectoral teats. + + Of the two genera, _Megaderma_, as represented by the five species of + false vampires, is distinguished by the absence of ossified + premaxillae and upper incisors (i. 0/2, p. (2 or 1)/2), the + cylindrical narrow muzzle surmounted by an erect nose-leaf the base of + which conceals the nasal orifices, the immense joined ears with large + bifid tragus, and the great extent of the interfemoral membrane, in + the base of which the short tail is concealed. _M. gigas_ (fig. 9), + from central Queensland, is the largest species of the genus, and of + the suborder. _M. lyra_, common in India (fore-arm 2.7 in.), has been + caught in the act of sucking the blood, while flying, from a small bat + which it afterwards devoured. The range of the genus includes Africa, + the Indo-Malay countries and Australasia. _Nycteris_, which is common + to Africa and the Malay Peninsula and Islands, has ossified + premaxillae and upper incisors (_i._ 2/3, _p._ 1/2), and a long tail; + but lacks a nose-leaf. As in _Megaderma_, the frontal bones are deeply + hollowed and expanded laterally, the muzzle presents a similar + cylindrical form, and the lower jaw also projects; but, instead of a + nose-leaf, the face is marked by a deep longitudinal sharp-edged + groove extending from the nostrils to the band connecting the base of + the large ears; the sides of this depression being margined as far + back as the eyes by small horizontal cutaneous appendages. With the + exception of _N. javanica_, the species are limited to Africa. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--The False Vampire (_Megaderma gigas_). From + Dobson.] + + + Vampires. + + According to the classification followed by Dr G.E. Dobson, the + extensive family of New World bats known as _Phyllostomatidae_ was + widely sundered from the two preceding groups; but in Prof. Max + Weber's system they are placed next one another--an arrangement which + has the great advantage of bringing together all the bats furnished + with nose-leaves. It is indeed probable that the vampires, as the + members of the present family may be collectively termed, are the New + World representatives of the Old World _Rhinolophidae_ and + _Nycteridae_. + + The _Phyllostomatidae_ are characterized by the presence of a + nose-leaf, or of lappets on the chin, but the nostrils are not + directed upwards. The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal cavity form + simple plates (much as in the two preceding families). The premaxillae + are always well developed, with their palatal portions forming a + suture and denning the boundaries of distinct palatine foramina (in + place of being rudimentary, as in _Nycteridae_ and _Rhinolophidae_). + The large ears have a tragus. The middle finger has three phalanges, + and the index one. There is an incomplete fibula. The tail may be + either long or short. Generally the dentition is _i._ 2/2, _c._ 1/1, + _p._ 2/3, _m._ 3/3. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Head of Blainville's Vampire (_Mormops + blainvillei_). From Dobson.] + + All the bats of this family may be readily recognized by the presence + of a well-developed third phalange in the middle finger, associated + either with a distinct nose-leaf, or with central upper incisors, or + with both. Unlike the _Rhinolophidae_, their eyes are generally large + and the tragus is well developed, maintaining almost the same form + throughout the species, however much the other parts of the body may + vary. Their fur is of a dull colour, and the face and back are often + marked with white streaks. A few species, probably all those with the + tail and interfemoral membrane well developed, feed principally on + insects, while the greater number of the species of the groups + _Vampyreae_ and _Glossophageae_ appear to live on a mixed diet of + insects and fruits, and the _Desmodonteae_, of which two species are + known, are true blood-suckers, and have their teeth and intestinal + tract specially modified in accordance with their habits. The group is + practically limited to the tropical and subtropical parts of Central + and South America, although one species of _Otopterus_ reaches + California. In the first subfamily, _Mormopsinae_ (_Lobostominae_), + the nostrils open by simple apertures at the extremity of the muzzle + in front, not margined by a distinct nose-leaf; while, in + compensation, the chin is furnished with expanded leaf-like + appendages. The tail is short. It includes two genera. In + _Chilonycteris_ the crown of the head is moderately elevated above the + face-line, and the basi-cranial axis is almost in the same plane as + the facial, while in _Mormops_ (fig. 10) the crown of the head is + greatly elevated above the face-line, and the basi-cranial axis is + nearly at right angles to the facial; _i._ 2/2, _p._ 2/3, in both + genera. As regards the species of _Chilonycteris_, the most striking + feature is the occurrence of a rufous and a dark brown phase in each. + In some the two phases are very marked, but in others they are + connected by intermediate shades. Here may be mentioned the two + species of tropical American hare-lipped bats, forming the genus + _Noctilio_, which presents characters common to this and the following + family, to which latter it is often referred. The typical _N. + leporinus_ is a bat of curious aspect, with strangely folded lips, + erect skin-processes on the chin, and enormous feet and claws. The two + middle incisors are close together, and so large as to conceal the + small outer ones, while in the lower jaw there are but two small + incisors; the premolars numbering 1/2. These bats live near the coast, + and feed on small crabs and fishes. + + Most of the remaining members of the family are included in the + subfamily _Phyllostomatinae_, characterized by the presence of a + distinct nose-leaf and the warty chin. The clitoris is imperforate, + whereas it is perforated in the _Mormopsinae_. The incisors are + generally 2/2 (occasionally 2/1), and the molars well developed. The + subfamily is divided into a number of groups or sections. The first of + them, the _Vampyreae_, is characterized as follows: Muzzle long and + narrow in front, the distance between the eyes generally less than + (rarely equal to) that from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; + nose-leaf horseshoe-shaped in front, lanceolate behind; interfemoral + membrane well developed; tail generally distinct, rarely absent; inner + margin of the lips not fringed; _i._ 2/2 or 2/1, _p._ 2/2 or 2/3; + molars with W-shaped cusps, usually well developed. + + Nearly all the _Vampyreae_ appear to be insectivorous, so that the + term cannot be considered indicative of habits; but a few, if not all, + probably supplement their insect diet with fruit. _Vampyrus spectrum_ + (the largest bat in the New World) is said to be wholly frugivorous, + and _Otopterus waterhousei_ appears to prey occasionally on smaller + bats. The genera may be arranged in two subgroups according as the + tail is produced to the margin of the interfemoral membrane or + perforates it to appear on its upper surface. In the first division + are included three genera, _Lonchorhina_, _Otopterus_ (or _Macrotus_) + and _Dolichophyllum_ (or _Macrophyllum_), the first represented by _L. + aurita_, characterized by an extraordinary long nose-leaf, and + peculiarly large ears and tragus. In the second subsection are + included _Vampyrus_, _Chrotopterus_, _Tonatia_ (_Lophostoma_) + _Micronycteris_, _Glyphonycteris_, _Trachyops_, _Phylloderma_, + _Phyllostoma_, _Anthorhina_ (_Tylostoma_), _Mimon_, _Hemiderma_ + (_Carollia_) and _Rhinophylla_; all, with the exception of the last, + distinguished chiefly by the form of the skull and the presence or + absence of the second lower premolar. _Phyllostoma hastatum_, next in + point of size to _Vampyrus spectrum_, is a well-known species in South + America; _P. elongatum_ (fig. 11) differs in its smaller size and + larger nose-leaf. _Hemiderma brevicauda_, a small species, closely + resembles _Glossophaga soricina_, and forms a connecting link between + this and the next group. _Rhinophylla pumilio_ is the smallest species + of the family; further distinguished by the absence of a tail, the + narrowness of its molars, which do not form W-shaped cusps, and the + small size of the last upper molar, characters connecting it and the + group with the _Stenodermateae_. Both in _Hemiderma_ and _Rhinophylla_ + the zygomatic arch is incomplete. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Head of Lesser Javelin Vampire (_Phyllostoma + elongatura_).] + + The next subsection, _Glossophageae_, presents the following + distinctive features: Muzzle long and narrow; tongue long and + extensible, attenuated towards the tip, and beset with long filiform + recurved papillae; lower lip with a wide groove above, and in front + margined by small warts; nose-leaf small; tail short or none; _i._ + 2/2, _p._ 2/3 or 3/3 or 2/2, _m._ 3/3 or 2/3 or 2/2; teeth narrow; + molars with narrow W-shaped cusps, sometimes indistinct or absent; + lower incisors small or deciduous. The species included in this group + represent some ten genera, distinguished principally by differences in + the form and number of the teeth, and the presence or absence of the + zygomatic, arch of the skull. In _Glossophaga_ and _Phyllonycteris_ + the upper incisors form a continuous row between the canines. In + _Monophyllus_ and _Leptonycteris_ (_Ischnoglossa_) they are separated + into pairs by a narrow interval in front; while in _Lonchoglossa_, + _Glossonycteris_ and _Choeronycteris_ they are widely separated and + placed in pairs near the canines. In the first four of these genera + the lower incisors are present (at least to a certain age), in the + last three they are deciduous even in youth. The zygomatic arch is + wanting in _Phyllonycteris_, _Glossonycteris_ and _Choeronycteris_. + The typical species is _Glossophaga soricina_, which, as already + mentioned, closely resembles _Hemiderma brevicauda_, both in form + and dentition. Its long brush-tipped tongue (which it possesses in + common with other species of the group) is used to lick out the pulpy + contents of fruits having hard rinds. The food of the species of this + group appears to consist of both fruit and insects, and the long + tongue may be used for extracting the latter from the deep corollas of + flowers. Other genera are _Lonchophylla_, _Rhithronycteris_, + _Hylonycteris_ and _Lychonycteris_, each with a single species (in + 1904). + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Head of Long-tongued Vampire (_Choeronycteris + mexicana_), showing brush-tipped tongue. From Dobson.] + + The third group, _Stenodermateae_, presents the following + characteristics:--Muzzle very short and generally broad in front, the + distance between the eyes nearly always exceeding (rarely equalling) + the distance from the eye to the extremity of the muzzle; nose-leaf + short, horseshoe-shaped in front, lanceolate behind (except in + _Brachyphylla_ and _Centurio_); interfemoral membrane concave behind; + tail none; inner margin of the lips fringed with conical papillae; + _i._ 2/2 or 2/1, _p._ 2/2, _m._ 3/3 or 2/3 or 2/2; cheek-teeth broad + (except in _Sturnira_), molars with concave or flat crowns margined + externally by raised cutting-edges. Although the _Stenodermateae_ are + generally easily distinguished from the _Vampyreae_ by the shortness + and breadth of the muzzle and the form of the cheek-teeth, certain + species of the latter resemble the former in external appearance, + agreeing almost absolutely in the form of the nose-leaf, the ears and + the tragus, and the warts on the chin. These resemblances show that, + while the form of the teeth and jaws has become modified to suit the + food, the external characters have remained much the same, and + indicate the common origin of the two sections. The food of these bats + appears to be wholly or in great part fruit. The species are divided + into some eleven genera, mostly distinguished by the form of the skull + and teeth. _Artibeus_ includes the frugivorous _A. perspicillatus_. + _Stenoderma achradophilum_, found in Jamaica and Cuba, with the last, + from which it is scarcely distinguishable externally except by its + much smaller size, differs in the absence of the horizontal plate of + the premaxillae on the palate. _Sturnira lilium_, while agreeing with + these in the form of the nose-leaf and ears, differs from all the + species of the family in its longitudinally-grooved molars, which + resemble those of the _Pteropodidae_ more closely than those of any + other bats; and the presence of tufts of long differently-coloured + hairs over glands in the sides of the neck is another character in + common with that group. _Centurio senex_ (fig. 13) is the type of a + small genus distinguished from _Stenoderma_ and other genera of this + group by the absence of a distinct nose-leaf. Some naturalists make + this genus the type of a distinct subgroup, _Centurioneae_. Up to 1904 + the genera, exclusive of _Centurio_, included in the _Stenodermateae_ + were _Artibeus_ (with several sub-genera), _Vampyrops_ (also with + subgenera), _Mesophylla_, _Chiroderma_, _Stenoderma_ (with 3 + subgenera), _Ectophylla_, _Ametrida_ (with 2 sub-genera), _Pygoderma_, + _Sturnira_ and _Brachyphylla_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Head of Masked Vampire (_Centurio senex_). + From Dobson.] + + The third subfamily, _Desmodontieae_, is represented only by the + blood-sucking bats, and distinguished by having _i._ ½, of which the + upper pair are cutting, the rudimentary molars, the very short + interfemoral membrane, and the blood-sucking habit. They are further + characterized as follows: Muzzle short and conical; nose-leaf + distinct; _p._ 2/3, _m._ 1/1 or 0/0; upper incisors occupying the + whole space between the canines; premolars narrow, with sharp-edged + longitudinal crowns; molars rudimentary or absent; stomach elongated, + and intestiniform. There are two genera, _Desmodus_, without calcar or + molars, and _Diphylla_, with a short calcar and a single rudimentary + molar on each side--restricted to Central and South America. _Desmodus + rufus_, the commoner species, is a little larger than the noctule bat, + and abundant in certain parts of South America, where it is + troublesome owing to its attacks upon domestic animals, sucking their + blood and leaving them weakened from repeated bleedings. (See + VAMPIRE.) + + + Free-tailed bats. + + The fourth family of bats, unlike any of the three previous ones, has + a cosmopolitan distribution. These free-tailed bats, as they are + conveniently called, constituting the family _Emballonuridae_, present + the following distinctive features. The nostrils are of normal form + and without a nose-leaf. The premaxillae have their palatal portion + imperfectly developed, and united by a slender process with the + maxillae. The ears are large, with a small tragus. The middle finger + has two phalanges, and the index generally a single one. The fibula is + incomplete. The tail is generally short, and always partly free from + the interfemoral membrane. There is generally only a single pair of + upper incisors, separated by gaps from the canines, and from one + another in the middle line. + + The distinctive feature of these bats is the free tail-tip, which + pierces the interfemoral membrane to appear on its upper surface, and + may project beyond its margin. As a rule, these bats may also be + recognized by the peculiar form of the muzzle, which is obliquely + truncated, the nostrils projecting more or less in front beyond the + lower lip, by the first phalange of the middle finger being folded in + repose forwards on the upper surface of the metacarpal bone, and by + the upper incisors. Although cosmopolitan, these bats rarely extend + north or south of the thirtieth parallels of latitude. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Ear of _Emballonura raffrayana_. From + Dobson.] + + The family may be divided into two subfamilies, of which the + _Emballonurinae_ is characterized by the incomplete premaxillae, the + presence of only one phalange in the index finger, and the short tail. + The dental formula is generally _i._ 1/3 (sometimes 2/3 or 1/2), _c._ + 1/1, _p._ 2/3, _m._ 3/3. This subfamily may be further subdivided into + subgroups or sections of which the first, _Embalionurae_, is + characterized by the slender tail perforating the interfemoral + membrane, so as to appear on its upper surface; the legs long, with a + slender fibula; the incisors weak; and the premolars 2/2. The typical + genus _Emballonura_ presents the following features: _i._ 2/3, + extremity of the muzzle more or less produced beyond the lower lip, + forehead flat. The genus contains several species, inhabiting islands + from Madagascar through the Malay Archipelago and Siam to the + Navigator Islands. _Coleura_, with _i._ 1/3, the extremity of the + muzzle broad, and the forehead concave, has two species from East + Africa and the Seychelles. _Rhynchonycteris_ is distinguished from + _Coleura_ by the produced extremity of the muzzle. The single species, + _R. naso_, from Central and South America, is common in the vicinity + of streams, where it is usually found during the day resting on the + vertical faces of rocks, or on trunks of trees growing over water; it + escapes notice owing to the greyish colour of the fur of the body and + of small tufts on the antebrachial membrane counterfeiting the + weathered surfaces of rocks and bark. As evening approaches it appears + on the wing, flying close to the water. _Saccopteryx_ has _i._ 1/3 and + the antibrachial membrane with a pouch opening on its upper surface; + it contains several species from Central and South America. This sac + is developed only in the male and in the female is rudimentary. In + adult males a valvular longitudinal opening occupies the upper surface + of the membrane leading into a small pouch, the interior of which is + lined with a glandular membrane secreting an unctuous reddish + substance with a strong ammoniacal odour. Allied genera are the + tropical American _Peropteryx_ and the Brazilian _Cormura_. The + various species of tomb-bats (_Taphozous_) inhabit the tropical and + subtropical parts of all the eastern hemisphere except Polynesia, and + are distinguished by the cartilaginous premaxillaries, the deciduous + pair of upper incisors, and the presence of only two pairs of lower + incisors. Most of the species have a glandular sac (fig. 15) between + the angles of the lower jaw, more developed in males than in females, + in some species absent in the latter. An open throat-sac is wanting in + _T. melanopogon_, but about its position are the openings of small + pores, the secretion from which probably causes the hairs to grow + long, forming the black beard found in many males. The three tropical + American white bats, _Diclidurus_, with _i._ 1/3, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/2, + _m._ 3/3, resemble _Taphozous_ in the form of the head and ears, but, + besides other characters, differ from all other bats in possessing a + pouch, opening off the centre of the interior surface of the + interfemoral membrane; the extremity of the tail enters this, and + perforates its base. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Heads of Tomb-Bat (_Taphozous longimanus_), + showing relative development of throat-sacs in male and female. From + Dobson.] + + The second subfamily of the _Emballonuridae_, _Rhinopomatinae_, is + represented only by the genus _Rhinopoma_, with several species + ranging from Egypt through Arabia to India, Burma and Sumatra. The + premaxillae (fig. 16) are complete; the index finger has two + phalanges; the tail is very long and mouselike; and the dental formula + _i._ 1/2, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 1/2, _m._ 2/3. Dr G.E. Dobson has remarked + that these mouse-tailed bats might be elevated to the rank of a + family, for it is difficult to determine their affinities, a kind of + cross relationship attaching them to the _Nycteridae_ on the one hand + and to the _Emballonuridae_ on the other. These bats, distinguished + from all other Microchiroptera by the presence of two phalanges in the + index finger and the long and slender tail projecting far beyond the + narrow interfemoral membrane, inhabit the subterranean tombs in Egypt + and deserted buildings generally from north-east Africa to Burma and + Sumatra. + + + Typical bats. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Skull of Mouse-tailed Bat (_Rhinopoma + microphyllum_). X2. (From Dobson.)] + + The last group, according to the system adopted by Prof. Max Weber, is + that of the _Vespertilionidae_, which includes such typical bats as + the pipistrelle, the noctule, and the long-eared species. By Mr G.S. + Miller[1] the first section of the family--_Natalinae_--is regarded as + of family rank, while the last section, or _Molossinae_, is included + by Dr G.E. Dobson in the _Emballonuridae_, from the typical forms of + which its members differ widely in tail-structure. In this extended + sense the family, which has a cosmopolitan distribution, may be + defined as follows:--The nostrils are normal and without a nose-leaf. + The ethmoturbinal bones of the nasal chamber are involuted. The + palatine processes of the premaxillae do not form a suture. The ear is + mostly large, with a tragus. The middle finger (except in + _Thyroptera_) has two phalanges. The fibula is usually rudimentary. + The tail is long and does not perforate the interfemoral membrane. The + incisors are generally 2/3 or 1/2, but may be reduced to 1/1 in the + _Molossinae_. + + In the first subfamily, _Natalinae_, which is exclusively tropical + American, the other upper incisors are separated from one another and + from the canines; palatine processes of the premaxillae are at least + partially developed; and the dental formula is _i._ 2/3, _c._ 1/1, + _p._ {2 or 3}/3, _m._ 3/3. In general appearance these bats recall the + more typical _Vespertilionidae_, although the form of the muzzle is + suggestive of the _Mormopsinae_ among the _Phyllostomatidae_. Again, + while the form of the skull is vespertilione, the relation of the + vomer to the front end of the premaxillae is of the phyllostomine + type. The molars and incisors are likewise vespertilione, whereas the + premolars are as distinctly phyllostomine. Finally, while the third, + or middle, finger normally has two phalanges, as in typical + _Vespertilionidae_, the second of these is elongated and in + _Thyroptera_ divided into two, as in _Phyllostomatidae_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Head of _Chilonatalus micropus_. x2. (From + Dobson.)] + + The first two genera, _Furipterus_ and _Amorphochilus_, each have a + single species, the latter being distinguished from the former by the + wide separation of the nostrils and the backward prolongation of the + palate. In both the crown of the head is elevated, the thumb and first + phalange of the middle finger are very short, and the premolars are + 2/3. The same elevation of the crown characterizes the genera + _Natalus_ and _Chilonatalus_ (fig. 17), in which the premolars are + 3/3: in general appearance these bats are very like the Old World + vespertilionine genus _Cerivoula_, except for the short triangular + tragus. Lastly, _Thyroptera_ includes two species distinguished by an + additional phalange in the middle finger and by accessory + clinging-organs attached to the extremities. In _Thyroptera tricolor_, + _i._ 2/3, _p._ 3/3, from Brazil, these have the appearance of small, + circular, stalked, hollow disks (fig. 18), resembling miniature + sucking-cups of cuttle-fishes, and are attached to the inferior + surfaces of the thumbs and the soles of the feet. By their aid the bat + is able to maintain its hold when creeping over smooth vertical + surfaces. + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Suctorial Disks in _Thyroptera tricolor_, + _a_, side, and _b_, concave surface, of thumb disk; _c_, foot with + disk, and calcar with projections (all much enlarged). (From Dobson.)] + + The second or typical subfamily, _Vespertilioninae_, includes all the + remaining members of the family with the exception of the aberrant + _Molossinae_. The upper incisors are in proximity to the canines; the + premaxillae widely separated; the ears medium or large; the dental + formula is _i._ 2/3 (or 1/3), _c._ 1/1, _p._ 3/3 (2/3, 2/2, or 1/2), + _m._ 3/3; and the fibula very small and imperfect. All the members of + this large cosmopolitan group are closely allied, and differ chiefly + by external characters. They may be divided into subgroups. In the + first of these, the _Plecoteae_, of which the long-eared bat + (_Plecotus auritus_) is the type, the crown of the head is but + slightly raised above the face-line, the upper incisors are close to + the canines, and the nostrils are margined behind by grooves an the + upper surface of the muzzle, or by rudimentary nose-leaves; the ears + being generally very large and united. Of the six genera, _Plecotus_, + with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/3, has three species:--one the long-eared + European bat referred to above; _P. macrotis_, restricted to North + America, is distinguished by the great size of the glandular + prominences of the sides of the muzzle, which meet in the centre above + and behind the nostrils; the third species being also American. The + second, _Barbastella_, with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/2, distinguished by its + dentition and by the outer margin of the ear being carried forwards + above the mouth and in front of the eye, includes the European + barbastelle bat, _B. barbastellus_, and _B. darjelingensis_ from the + Himalaya. _Otonycteris_, _i._ 1/3, _pm._, 1/2, connecting this group + with the _Vespertilioneae_, is represented by _O. hemprichii_, from + North Africa and the Himalaya, and an Arabian species. The next two + genera are distinguished by the presence of a rudimentary nose-leaf: + _Nyctophilus_, _i._ 1/3, _p._ 1/2, with three species from + Australasia; and _Antrozous_, _i._ 1/2, _p._ 1/2, distinguished from + all the other members of the subfamily by having but two lower + incisors, and from other _Plecoteae_ by the separate ears; the two + species inhabit California. The sixth genus, _Euderma_, is also + represented by a Californian species. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Head of _Scotophilus emarginatus_. (From + Dobson.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Head of _Cerivoula hardwickei_. (From + Dobson.)] + + The second group _Vespertilioneae_, with about thirteen genera, + includes the great majority of the species; and a large number of + these may be classed under _Vespertilio_, which is divisible into + subgenera, differing from one another in the number of premolars, and + often ranked as separate genera. One group is represented by _V._ + (_Histiolus_) _magellanicus_, a species remarkable for its extreme + southern range, its relatives being also South American. A second + group, with _p._ 1/2, includes the British serotine, _V._ + (_Eptesicus_) _serotinus_, of Europe and northern Asia, and + represented in North America by the closely allied _V._ (_E._) + _fuscus_. In the typical group, which includes the Old World _V. + murinus_, one species, _V. borealis_, ranges to the Arctic circle. The + European noctule, _V._ (_Pierygistes_) _noctula_, and Leisler's bat, + _V._ (_P._) _leisleri_, represent another group; and the common + pipistrelle, _V._ (_Pipistrellus_) _pipistrellus_, yet another, with + _p._ 2/2. The only other group that need be mentioned is one + represented by the North American _V._ (_Lasionycteris_) + _noctivagans_, with _p._ 2/3. The African _Läephotes_, the Chinese + _Ia_, and the Papuan _Philetor_ are allied genera, each with a single + species. _Chalinolobus_ and _Glauconycteris_ have the same general + dental character as _Vespertilio_, but are distinguished by the + presence of a lobe projecting from the lower lip near the gape; the + former, with _p._ 2/2, is represented by five Australasian species, + one of which extends into New Zealand; while the latter, with _p._ + 1/2, is African. The species of _Glauconycteris_ are noticeable for + their peculiarly thin membranes traversed by distinct reticulations + and parallel lines. _Scotophilus_, with _i._ 1/3, _p._ 1/2, includes + several species, restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions of + the eastern hemisphere, though widely distributed within these limits. + These bats, though approaching certain species of _Vespertilio_ in + many points, are distinguished by the single (in place of two) pair of + unicuspidate upper incisors separated by a wide space and placed close + to the canines, by the small transverse first lower premolar crushed + in between the canine and second premolar, and, generally, by their + conical, nearly naked, muzzles and thick leathery membranes. _S. + temmincki_ is the commonest bat in India, and appears often before the + sun has touched the horizon. _S. gigas_, from equatorial Africa, is + the largest species. _Nycticejus_, with the same dental formula as + _Scotophilus_, is distinguished, by the first lower premolar not being + crushed in between the adjoining teeth, and the comparatively greater + size of the last upper molar. It includes only the North American _N. + humeralis_ (_crepuscularis_), a bat scarcely larger than the + pipistrelle. The hairy-membraned bats of the genus _Lasiurus_ + (_Atalapha_), with _i._ 1/3, _p._ 2/2 or 1/2, are also limited to the + New World, and generally characterized by the interfemoral membrane + being more or less covered with hair and by the peculiar form of the + tragus, which is expanded above and abruptly curved inwards. In those + species which have two upper premolars the first is extremely small + and internal to the tooth-row. The genus, which is divided into + _Lasiurus_ proper and _Dasypterus_, is further characterized by the + presence of four teats in the female, and by the general production + of three or four offspring at a birth. _Rhogëessa_ and _Tomopeas_ are + allied tropical American types. _Murina_, with the subgenus + _Harpiocephalus_, has _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/2, and includes several small + bats distinguished by the prominent tube-like nostrils and hairy + interfemoral membrane. _M. suilla_, from Java, the Malay and + neighbouring islands, is a well-known species, and the closely allied + _M. hilgendorfi_ is from Japan. The remaining species are from the + Himalaya, Tibet and Ceylon; and apparently restricted to the + hill-tracts of the countries in which they are found. Next to + _Vespertilio_ the genus _Myotis_ (divisible into several subgenera), + with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 3/3, includes the largest number of species, and + has rather a wider geographical distribution in both hemispheres, one + species being recorded from the Navigator Islands. The species may be + recognized by the peculiar character of the pairs of upper incisors on + each side, the cusps of which diverge from each other, by the large + number of premolars, of which the second upper is always small, and by + the oval elongated ear and narrow tragus. The British _M. bechsteini_ + and _M. nattereri_ are examples of this group. _Cerivoula_ + (_Kerivoula_), which also has _p._ 3/3, is distinguished by the + parallel upper incisors and the large second upper premolar. There are + numerous African and Indo-Malayan species, of which _C. picta_, from + India and Indo-Malay, is characterized by its brilliant orange fur, + and membranes variegated with orange and black. The genus includes + delicately formed insectivorous, tropical, forest-haunting bats, whose + colouring approximates them to the ripe bananas among which they often + pass the daytime. + + Another subgroup, _Minioptereae_, is represented solely by the genus + _Miniopterus_, with _i._ 2/3, _p._ 2/3. The incisors are separated + from one another in front and from the canines; the first phalange of + the middle finger is very short, the crown of the head elevated, and + the tail long. The genus is represented by some half-dozen Old World + species, among which the typical _M. schreibersi_ ranges from Europe, + southern Asia, and Africa to Japan and Australasia. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Head of Mastiff-bat (_Molossus glaucinus_). + (From Dobson.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Head of _Nyctinomops macrotis_. (From + Dobson.)] + + The last subfamily is that of the _Molossinae_, included by Dobson in + the family _Emballonuridae_. In this group the premaxillae are in + contact or but very slightly separated; the ears are large, with the + tragus small; the dental formula is _i._ 1/1 (1/2 or 1/3), _c._ 1/1, + _p._ 1/2 (2/2), _m._ 3/3; and the fibula is strongly developed. In + their blunt muzzles and many other features these bats undoubtedly + resemble the _Emballonuridae_, from the typical members of which they + differ by the production of the thick tail far beyond the margin of + the interfemoral membrane. They are further characterized by their + broad and stout feet, in which the first, and in most cases also the + fifth, toe is thicker than the rest, and furnished with long bent + hairs; and by the presence of callosities at the base of the thumbs, + and a single pair of large upper incisors occupying the centre of the + space between the canines. The feet are free from the wing-membrane, + which folds up under the fore-arm and legs; the interfemoral membrane + is retractile, being movable backwards and forwards along the tail; + this power of varying its superficial extent confers on these bats + great dexterity in changing the direction of flight. All are able to + walk or crawl well, and spend much of their time on trees. The genus + _Chiromeles_, with _i._ 1/1, _c._ 1/1, _p._ 1/2, _m._ 3/3, the first + hind-toe much larger than and separate from the others, and the widely + sundered ears, is represented by _C. torquata_, a large bat of + peculiar aspect, inhabiting the Indo-Malay countries. This species is + nearly naked, a collar only of thinly spread hairs half surrounding + the neck, and is remarkable for its enormous throat-sac and + nursing-pouches. The former consists of a semicircular fold of skin + forming a pouch round the neck beneath, concealing the orifices of + subcutaneous pectoral glands which discharge an oily fluid of + offensive smell. The nursing-pouch is formed on each side by an + extension of a fold of skin from the side of the body to the inferior + surfaces of the humerus and femur. In the anterior part of this pouch + the teat is placed. The typical genus _Molossus_ (fig. 21) includes + the mastiff-bats, characterized by the dental formula _i._ 1/1 or 1/2, + _p._ 1/2 or 2/2; and by the upper incisors being close together in + front. The genus is restricted to the tropical and subtropical regions + of the New World. _M. obscurus_, a small species common in tropical + America, inhabits the hollow trunks of palms and other trees and the + roofs of houses. The males and females live apart (as is the case in + most if not all bats). In West Africa the mastiff-bats are represented + by _Eomops_, with one species; while _Nyctinomops_ includes a number + of tropical American species more nearly related to the next genus, in + which some of them (fig. 22) were formerly included. The widely spread + _Nyctinomus_, with _i._ 1/3 or 1/2, _p._ 2/2 or 1/2, and the upper + incisors separate in front, includes numerous species inhabiting the + tropical and subtropical parts of both hemispheres. The lips of the + bats of this genus are even more expansible than in _Molossus_, in + many of the species (fig. 22) showing vertical wrinkles. _N. + toeniotis_ (or _cestonii_), one of the largest species, alone extends + into Europe, as far north as Switzerland. _N. johorensis_, from the + Malay Peninsula, is remarkable for the extraordinary form of its ears. + _N. brasiliensis_ is common in tropical America, and extends as far + north as California. + + + Myzopoda and Mystacops. + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Thumb and leg and foot of New Zealand bat + (_Mystacops tuberculatus_), enlarged. (From Dobson.)] + + Here may be conveniently noticed two very rare and aberrant bats, + _Myzopoda_ (or _Myxopoda_) _aurita_ of Madagascar, and _Mystacops_ (or + _Mystacina_) _tuberculatas_ of New Zealand, the latter of which is + believed to be well-nigh, if not entirely, exterminated. Their + systematic position and affinities are somewhat uncertain; but in the + opinion of O. Thomas[2] the former should typify a separate family, + _Myzopodidae_, in which the latter may also find a place. From all + other bats _Myzopoda_ is distinguished by the presence of a peculiar + mushroom-shaped organ at the base of the large ear, and by the union + of the tragus with the latter, on the inner base of which it forms a + small projection. There are three phalanges in the middle finger; and + the whole inferior surface of the thumb supports a large sessile + horseshoe-shaped adhesive pad, with the circular margin directed + forwards and notched along its edge, while a smaller pad occupies part + of the sole of the hind-foot. Mr Thomas regards this bat as related on + the one hand to the subfamily _Mormopsinae_ of the _Phyllostomatidae_, + and on the other to the _Natalinae_ among the _Vespertilionidae_; both + these groups being regarded by him as of family rank. + + _Mystacops_ resembles _Myzopoda_ in having three phalanges to the + middle finger, but differs in that the tail perforates the + interfemoral membrane to appear on its upper surface in the manner + characteristic of the _Emballonuridae_. The greater part of the + wing-membrane is exceedingly thin, but a narrow portion along the + fore-arm, the sides of the body, and the legs, is thick and leathery, + and beneath this thickened portion the wings are folded. Other + peculiarities of structure are found in the form of the claws of the + thumbs and toes, each of which has a small heel projecting from its + concave surface near the base, also in the sole of the foot and + inferior surface of the leg, as shown in fig. 23. The plantar surface, + including the toes, is covered with soft and very lax, deeply wrinkled + skin, and each toe is marked by a central longitudinal groove with + short grooves at right angles to it. The lax wrinkled integument is + continued along the inferior flattened surface of the ankle and leg. + These peculiarities appear to be related to climbing habits in the + species. + + +_Extinct Bats_. + +Palaeontology tells us nothing with regard to the origin of the +Chiroptera, all the known fossil species, some of which date back to the +Oligocene, being more or less closely allied to existing types, and +therefore of comparatively little interest. The origin of the order from +primitive insectivorous mammals must have taken place at least as early +as the Lower Eocene. It is, however, noteworthy that several of the +earlier extinct species appear to be related to the _Rhinolophidae_, +which is the most generalized family of the order. Remains of +_Pteropodidae_ belonging to existing genera occur in the caves of +tropical countries in the eastern hemisphere; and the skeleton of an +extinct generic type, _Archaeopteropus_, has been obtained from the +Miocene lignite of Italy, which indicates a form to a certain extent +transitional in character between typical fruit-bats and the +insectivorous bats. The tail, for instance, which in most modern +fruit-bats is rudimentary, with only three or four vertebrae, in the +fossil has eight complete vertebrae; while the teeth of the extinct +form are distinctly cusped. Whether, however, the tail is longer than in +the existing _Notopteris_ of Fiji and New Guinea, or whether the molars +are more distinctly cusped than is the case with the Solomon Island +_Pteropus_ (_Pteralopex_), is not stated. Still, the fact that the +Miocene fruit-bat does show certain signs of approximation to the +insectivorous (and more generalized) section of the order is of +interest. Of the Oligocene forms, _Pseudorhinolophus_ of Europe is +apparently a member of the _Rhinolophidae_; but the affinities of +_Alastor_ and _Vespertiliavus_, which are likewise European, are more +doubtful, although the latter may be related to _Taphozous_. The North +American _Vespertilio_ (_Vesperugo_) _anemophilus_ and the European _V. +aquensis_ and _V. parisiensis_ are, on the other hand, members of the +_Vespertilionidae_, the last being apparently allied to the serotine +(_V. serotinus_). + + AUTHORITIES.--The above article is based to some extent on the article + in the 9th edition of this work by G.E. Dobson, whose British Museum + "Catalogue" is, however, now obsolete. Professor H. Winge's + "Jordfundae og nulevende Flagermus (Chiroptera)," published in _E. + Mus. Lundi_ (Copenhagen, 1892), contains much valuable information; + and for _Pteropodidae_ Dr P. Matschie's _Megachiroptera_ (Berlin, + 1899), should be consulted. For the rest the student must refer to + namerous papers by G.M. Allen, K. Andersen, F.A. Jentink, G.S. Miller, + T.S. Palmer, A.G. Rehn, O. Thomas and others, in various English and + American zoological serials, all of which are quoted in the volumes of + the _Zoological Record_. (R. L.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist._ vol. xii. (1899). + + [2] _Proc. Zool. Soc._ (London, 1904), vol. ii. + + +CHIRU, a graceful Tibetan antelope (_Pantholops Hodgsoni_), of which the +bucks are armed with long, slender and heavily-ridged horns of an +altogether peculiar type, while the does are hornless. Possibly this +handsome antelope may be the original of the mythical unicorn, a single +buck when seen in profile looking exactly as if it had but one long +straight horn. Although far from uncommon, chiru are very wary, and +consequently difficult to approach. They are generally found in small +parties, although occasionally in herds. They inhabit the desolate +plateau of Tibet, at elevations of between 13,000 and 18,000 ft., and, +like all Tibetan animals, have a firm thick coat, formed in this +instance of close woolly hair of a grey fawn-colour. The most peculiar +feature about the chiru is, however, its swollen, puffy nose, which is +probably connected with breathing a highly rarefied atmosphere. A second +antelope inhabiting the same country as the chiru is the goa (_Gazella +picticaudata_), a member of the gazelle group characterized by the +peculiar form of the horns of the bucks and certain features of +coloration, whereby it is markedly distinguished from all its kindred +save one or two other central Asian species. The chiru, which belongs to +the typical or antilopine section of antelopes, is probably allied to +the saiga. (R. L.*) + + + + +CHIRURGEON, one whose profession it is to cure disease by operating with +the hand. The word in its original form is now obsolete. It derives from +the Mid. Eng. _cirurgien_ or _sirurgien_, through the Fr. from the Gr. +[Greek: cheirourgos], one who operates with the hand (from [Greek: +cheir], hand, [Greek: ergon], work); from the early form is derived the +modern word "surgeon." "Chirurgeon" is a 16th century reversion to the +Greek origin. (See SURGERY.) + + + + +CHISEL (from the O. Fr. _cisel_, modern _ciseau_, Late Lat. _cisellum_, +a cutting tool, from _caedere_, to cut), a sharp-edged tool for cutting +metal, wood or stone. There are numerous varieties of chisels used in +different trades; the carpenter's chisel is wooden-handled with a +straight edge, transverse to the axis and bevelled on one side; stone +masons' chisels are bevelled on both sides, and others have oblique, +concave or convex edges. A chisel with a semicircular blade is called a +"gouge." The tool is worked either by hand-pressure or by blows from a +hammer or mallet. The "cold chisel" has a steel edge, highly tempered to +cut unheated metal. (See TOOL.) + + + + +CHISLEHURST, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parliamentary division +of Kent, England, 11-1/4 m. S.E. of London, by the South-Eastern & +Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 7429. It is situated 300 ft. above +sea-level, on a common of furze and heather in the midst of picturesque +country. The church of St Nicholas (Perpendicular with Early English +portions, but much restored) has a tomb of the Walsingham family, who +had a lease of the manor from Elizabeth; Sir Francis Walsingham, the +statesman, being born here in 1536. Another statesman of the same age, +Sir Nicholas Bacon, was born here in 1510. Near the church is an ancient +cockpit. The mortuary chapel attached to the Roman Catholic church of St +Mary was built to receive the body of Napoleon III., who died at Camden +Place in 1873; and that of his son was brought hither in 1879. Both were +afterwards removed to the memorial chapel at Farnborough in Hampshire. +Camden Place was built by William Camden, the antiquary, in 1609, and in +1765 gave the title of Baron Camden to Lord Chancellor Pratt. The house +was the residence not only of Napoleon III., but of the empress Eugénie +and of the prince imperial, who is commemorated by a memorial cross on +Chislehurst Common. The house and grounds are now occupied by a golf +club. There are many villa residences in the neighbourhood of +Chislehurst. + + + + +CHISWICK, an urban district in the Ealing parliamentary division of +Middlesex, England, suburban to London, on the Thames, 7½ m. W. by S. of +St Paul's cathedral. Pop. (1901) 29,809. The locality is largely +residential, but there are breweries, and the marine engineering works +of Messrs Thornycroft on the river. Chiswick House, a seat of the duke +of Devonshire, is surrounded by beautiful grounds; here died Fox (1806) +and Canning (1827). The gardens near belonged till 1903 to the Royal +Horticultural Society. The church of St Nicholas has ancient portions, +and in the churchyard is the tomb of William Hogarth the painter, with +commemorative lines by David Garrick. Hogarth's house is close at hand. +Chiswick Hall, no longer extant, was formerly a country seat for the +masters and sanatorium for the scholars of Westminster school. Here in +1811 the Chiswick Press was founded by Charles Whittingham the elder, an +eminent printer (d. 1840). + + + + +CHITA, a town of east Siberia, capital of Transbaikalia, on the Siberian +railway, 500 m. E. of Irkutsk, on the Chita river, half a mile above its +confluence with the Ingoda. Pop. (1883) 12,600; (1897) 11,480. The +Imperial Russian Geographical Society has a museum here. Several of the +palace revolutionaries, known as Decembrists, were banished to this +place from St Petersburg in consequence of the conspiracy of December +1825. The inhabitants support themselves by agriculture and by trade in +furs, cattle, hides and tallow bought from the Buriats, and in +manufactured wares imported from Russia and west Siberia. + + + + +CHITALDRUG, a district and town in the native state of Mysore, India. +The district has an area of 4022 sq. m. and a population (1901) of +498,795. It is distinguished by its low rainfall and arid soil. It lies +within the valley of the Vedavati or Hagari river, mostly dry in the hot +season. Several parallel chains of hills, reaching an extreme height of +3800 ft., cross the district; otherwise it is a plain. The chief crops +are cotton and flax; the chief manufactures are blankets and cotton +cloth. The west of the district is served by the Southern Mahratta +railway. The largest town in the district is Davangere (pop. 10,402). +The town of CHITALDRUG, which is the district headquarters (pop. 1901, +5792), was formerly a military cantonment, but this was abandoned on +account of its unhealthiness. It has massive fortifications erected +under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sahib towards the close of the 18th century; +and near it on the west are remains of a city of the 2nd century A.D. + + + + +CHITON, the name[1] given to fairly common littoral animals of rather +small size which belong to the phylum Mollusca, and, in the possession +of a radula in the buccal cavity, resemble more especially the +Gastropoda. Their most important characteristic in comparison with the +latter is that they are, both in external and internal structure, +bilaterally symmetrical. The dorsal integument or mantle bears, not a +simple shell, but eight calcareous plates in longitudinal series +articulating with each other. The ventral surface forms a flat creeping +"foot," and between mantle and foot is a pallial groove in which there +is on each side a series of gills. Originally the Chitons were placed +with the limpets, _Patella_, in Cuvier's _Cyclobranchia_, an order of +the Gastropoda. In 1876 H. von Jhering demonstrated the affinities of +_Neomenia_ and _Chaetoderma_, vermiform animals destitute of shell, with +the Chitons, and placed them all in a division of worms which he named +Amphineura. The discovery by A.A.W. Hubrecht in 1881 of a typical +molluscan radula and odontophore in a new genus _Proneomenia_, allied to +_Neomenia_, showed that the whole group belonged to the Mollusca. E. Ray +Lankester (_Ency. Brit._, 9th ed., 1883) placed them under the name +Isopleura as a subclass of Gastropoda. Paul Pelseneer (1906) raised the +group to the rank of a class of Mollusca, under von Jhering's name +Amphineura. + +The Amphineura are divided into two orders: (1) the Polyplacophora, or +Chitons; (2) the Aplacophora, or forms without shells, _Neomenia_, +_Chaetoderma_ and their allies. + +Order I.--POLYPLACOPHORA + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Three views of Chiton. + + A. Dorsal view of _Chiton Wosnessenksii_, Midd., showing the eight + shells. (After Middendorf.) + + B. View from the pedal surface of a species of Chiton from the Indian + Ocean, _p_, foot; _o_, mouth (at the other end of the foot is seen the + anus raised on a papilla); _kr_, oral fringe; _br_, the numerous + ctenidia (branchial plumes); spreading beyond these, and all round the + animal, is the mantle-skirt. (After Cuvier.) + + C. The same species of Chiton, with the shells removed and the dorsal + integument reflected, _b_, buccal mass; _m_, retractor muscles of the + buccal mass; _ov_, ovary; _od_, oviduct; _i_, coils of intestines; + _ao_, aorta; _c'_, left auricle; _c_, ventricle.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Pallial eye and aesthetes of _Acanthopleura +spiniger_ (Moseley).] + +Each of the eight valves of the shell is made up of two distinct +calcareous layers: (a) an outer or upper called the tegmentum, which is +visible externally; (b) a deeper layer called articulamentum which is +porcellaneous, quite compact, and entirely covered by the tegmentum. In +the lower forms the two layers are coextensive and have smooth edges, +but in the higher forms the articulamentum projects laterally beyond and +beneath the tegmentum into the substance of the mantle. These +projections are termed insertion plates; they are usually slit or +notched to form teeth, the edges of which may be smooth and sharp, or +may be crenulated. The anterior margin of each valve except the first is +provided with two projections called sutural laminae which underlie the +posterior margin of the preceding valve. + +[Illustration: From Lankester, _Treatise on Zoology_. + +FIG. 3.--Ventral aspect of three species of Polyplacophora showing +position of gills. + + A. _Lepidopleurus benthus_. + + B. _Boreochiton cinereus_. + + C. _Schizochiton incisus_. _a_, anus; _f_, foot; _g_, gills; _m_, + mouth; _pa_, mantle; _pa'_, anal lobe of mantle; _ps_, pallial slit; + _te_, pallial tentacles.] + +The tegmentum is formed by the fold of mantle covering the edge of the +articulamentum, and extends over the latter from the sides. It is the +first part of the shell formed in development. The tegmentum is much +reduced in _Acanthochiton_, and absent in the adult _Cryptochiton_. The +tegmentum is pierced by numerous vertical ramified canals which contain +epithelial papillae of the epidermis. These papillae form pallial +sense-organs, containing nerve-end bulbs, covered by a dome of cuticle, +and innervated from the pallial nerve-cords. They are termed according +to their size, micraesthetes and megalaesthetes. In the common species +of _Chiton_ and many others of the family _Chitonidae_ the +megalaesthetes are developed into definite eyes, the most complicated of +which have retina, pigment within the eye, cornea and crystalline lens +(intra-pigmental eyes) (fig. 2). The eyes are arranged in rows running +diagonally from the median anterior beak of each valve to its lateral +borders There may be only one such row on either side, or many rows. In +some species the total number present amounts to thousands. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagrams of the alimentary canal of Amphineura +(from Hubrecht).] + + A. Neomenia and Proneomenia. + B. Chaetoderma. + C. Chiton. + _o_, Mouth. + _a_, Anus. + _d_, Alimentary canal. + _l_, Liver (digestive gland).] + + _Branchiae._--The series of gills may extend the whole length of the + body in the pallial groove, or may be confined to the posterior end. + Each gill has the structure of a typical molluscan ctenidium, + consisting of an axis bearing an anterior and posterior row of + filaments or lamellae. The gills are thus metamerically repeated; + there may be from four to eighty pairs, but there is often a numerical + asymmetry on the two sides. The largest pair of branchiae is placed + immediately behind the renal openings and corresponds to the single + pair of other molluscs, the organs being repeated anteriorly only + (Metamacrobranchs) or anteriorly and posteriorly (Mesomacrobranchs). + + _Intestine._--The digestive tube in the Polyplacophora, which are + herbivorous, is longer than the body, and thrown into a few coils, the + anus being median and posterior. The mouth leads into the buccal + cavity, on the ventral side of which opens the radular caecum. Each + transverse row of teeth of the radula contains 17 teeth, one of which + is median, while the second and the fifth on each side are enlarged. + Two pairs of glands open into the buccal cavity, and at the junction + of pharynx and oesophagus is another pair called the sugar glands. The + stomach is surrounded by the liver or digestive gland, consisting of + two lobes which are symmetrical in the young animals, but in the adult + the right lobe is anterior and smaller. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Diagrams of the excretory and reproductive + organs of Amphineura (after Hubrecht). + + A, Chaetoderma. + B, Neomenia. + C, Proneomenia. + D, Chiton. + O, Ovary. + P, Pericardium. + N, Nephridium. + u, External aperture of nephridium. + g, External aperture of the genital duct of Chiton. + r, Rectum. + Cl, Cloacal or pallial chamber of Neomeniae and Chaetoderma. + Br, Ctenidia (branchial plumes).] + + _Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs._--As in other molluscs the + coelom is represented by a large pericardial cavity, situated above + the intestine posteriorly, and a generative sac which is single and + median and situated in front of the pericardium, except in the + _Nuttalochiton hyadesi_, where the gonads are in a similar position, + but are paired. The excretory organs are coelomoducts with an internal + ciliated opening into the pericardium and an opening to the exterior. + Both the openings are close together, the external opening being just + in front of the principal gill near the posterior end of the body. The + renal tube is doubled on itself, its middle part where the bend occurs + being situated more or less anteriorly. The excretory surface is + increased by numerous ramified caeca which extend beneath the body + wall laterally and ventrally, and open into the tube (fig. 6). The + sexes are distinct, and the ovary is frequently greenish in colour, + the testis red. The gonad is transversely wrinkled and lies between + the aorta and the intestine, extending from the pericardium to the + anterior end of the body. A simple gonaduct on each side arises from + the gonad near its posterior end and passes first forwards, then + backwards, and lastly outwards to the external opening in the pallial + groove, anterior to the renal aperture. There may be from one to nine + gills between the genital and renal pores. + + _Heart and Vascular System._--The heart is enclosed in the + pericardium, and consists of a median elongated ventricle and a pair of + lateral auricles, so that the structure somewhat resembles that in + the Lamellibranchiata. The openings of the auricles into the + ventricle vary in different forms. In many of the lower forms + (_Lepidopleuridae, Mopalidae, Ischnochitonidae_) the opening on each + side is single and anterior. In the true _Chitonidae_ there are generally + two apertures on each side, and in two species three or four, another + instance of the tendency to metameric repetition in the group. + The auricles are connected with one another posteriorly behind the + ventricle. The ventricle leads into a single anterior median aorta. + As in other molluscs, the arteries do not extend far, but lead into + inter-visceral blood-spaces. The venous blood is conducted from + the tissues to a large sinus on either side above the pallial groove, + and from this sinus passes to the gills by an afferent vessel in each + gill on the internal or pedal margin of the axis. The oxygenated + blood is carried from each gill by an efferent vessel on the external + or pallial side of the axis to another longitudinal vessel which leads + to the auricle on each side. + + [Illustration: After Haller (_Arbeiten zool. Instit._), Vienna, 1882. + + FIG. 6.--Dissection of the renal organs (nephridia) of _Chiton siculus._ + + F, Foot. + L, Edge of the mantle not removed in the front part of the specimen. + s.o., Oesophagus. + af, Anus. + gg, Genital duct. + go, External opening of the same. + eg, Stem of the nephridium leading to no, its external aperture. + nk, Reflected portion of the nephridial stem. + ng, Fine caeca of the nephridium, which are seen ramifying + transversely over the whole inner surface of the pedal muscular + mass.] + + _Nervous System._--There are no well-marked specialized ganglia in the + central nervous system, nerve-cells being distributed uniformly along + the cords. There are two pairs of longitudinal cords, a pedal pair + situated ventrally and united beneath the intestine by numerous + commissures, and a pallial pair situated laterally and continuous with + one another above the rectum (fig. 7). The four cords are all + connected anteriorly with the cerebral commissure which lies above the + buccal mass anteriorly. From the points where the cords meet the + cerebral commissure, arise on each an anterior labial commissure and a + stomatogastric commissure. The letter bears two ganglion swellings, + the buccal ganglia. The labial commissure gives off a subradular + commissure which also bears two ganglia, these being in close relation + to a special sense-organ called the subradular organ, an epithelial + projection with nerve-endings, lying in front of the radula and + probably gustatory in function. One osphradium or branchial olfactory + organ is usually present on each side, on either side of the anus on + the inner wall of the mantle, near the base of the last gill. In + _Lepidopleuridae_ an osphradium occurs at the base of each gill. The + sense organs of the shell-valves have already been described. + + _Development._--The eggs may be laid separately invested by a + chitinous envelope, or as in _Ischnochiton magdalenensis_ they may + form strings containing nearly 200,000 eggs, or the ova may be + retained in the pallial groove and undergo development there, as in + _Chiton polii_ and _Hemiarthrum setulosum_. One species + _Callistochiton viviparus_ is viviparous and its ova develop without a + larval stage in the maternal oviduct. Segmentation is total and at + first regular, and is followed by invagination, the blastopore passing + to the position of the future mouth. By the development of a ciliated + ring just in front of the mouth the embryo becomes a trochosphere. In + the centre of the praeoral lobe is a tuft of cilia. Just behind the + ciliated ring is a pair of larval eyes which disappear in the adult; + these correspond to the cephalic eyes of Lamellibranchs. An ectodemic + invagination forms a large mucous gland on the foot, which is more or + less atrophied in adult life. The gonads originate by proliferation of + the anterior wall of the pericardium. The shell-valves arise as + transverse thickenings of the dorsal cuticle behind the ciliated ring, + the tegmentum being the first part formed. + + + _Classification_. + + [Illustration: After Hubrecht, loc. cit. + + FIG. 7.--Diagrams of the nervous system of Amphineura. + + A, Proneomenia. + B, Neomenia. + C, Chaetoderma. + D, Chiton. + c, Cerebral ganglia. + s, Sublingual ganglia. + v, Pedal (ventral) nerve-cord. + l, Visceral (lateral) nerve-cord. + pc. Post-anal junction of the visceral nerve-cords.] + + [Illustration: From Gegenbaur, _Elements of Comp. Anatomy._ + + FIG. 8.--Anterior part of the nervous system of _Chiton cinereus_, + in more detail. + + B, Buccal ganglia (concerned with the odontophore). + C, Cerebral nerve-mass. + P, Pedal ganglion and commencement of pedal nerve-cord. + pl, Visceral nerve-cord. The sublingual ganglia are not lettered.] + + Suborder I. EOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry.--Tegmentum coextensive with + articulamentum, or the latter projecting in smooth unslit plates. + + Fam. 1. _Lepidopleuridae._--Terminal margins of end valves never + elevated; form oval or oblong. _Lepidopleurus cancellatus_, Sow. + North Atlantic and Mediterranean; various abyssal species. _Hanleya + hanleyi_, Bean, north Atlantic. _Hemiarthrum Microplax_. The extinct + _Gryptochitonidae_, Pilsbry, with other Palaeozoic genera, narrow + and elongated in form with terminal margins of end valves elevated, + belong to this group. + + Suborder II. MESOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry.--Insertion plates well developed + and slit. + + Fam. 2. _Ischnochitonidae._--All the valves with slits, and the + inner layer well covered by the outer. + + Subfam. 1. _Ischnochitoninae._--No shell-eyes: sutural laminae + separated; slits in the valves 1-7 do not correspond with the ribs + of the tegmentum. _Ischnochiton, Trachydermon, Chaetopleura, + Stenoplax, Stenoradsia_. + + Subfam. 2. _Callochitoninae._ With shell-eyes and united sutural + laminae. _Callochiton laevis_, North Atlantic and Mediterranean. + + Subfam. 3. _Callistoplacinae._ No shell-eyes, slits in the valves + 1-7 corresponding with the ribs of the tegmentum. _Callistochiton_ + (viviparous). _Nuttalochiton._ + + Fam. 3. _Mopaliidae._ Each intermediate valve with a single slit; + girdle hairy. _Mopalia, Placiphorella, Plaxiphora, Placophoropsis._ + + Fam. 4. _Acanthochitonidae._ Valves immersed in the girdle, with + small tegmentum. _Acanthochiton_ (A_. fascicularis_, North Atlantic + and Mediterranean). _Spongiochiton, Katharina, Amicula, Cryptochiton_ + (_C. stelleri_, arctic). + + Fam. 5. _Cryptoplacidae._ Vermiform, with thick girdle and small + valves; insertion and sutural plates strongly drawn forward, sharp + and smooth. _Cryptoplax, Choneplax._ + + Suborder III. TELEOPLACOPHORA, Pilsbry.--All the valves, or at least + the seven anterior, with insertion plates cut into teeth by slits. + + Fam. 6. _Chitonidae._ Characters of the suborder. + + Subfam. 1. _Chitoninae._ No extra-pigmental eyes; insertion plates + with pectinations between the fissures. _Chiton, Eudoxochiton, + Trachyodon, Radsia._ + + Subfam. 2. _Toniciinae._ Extra-pigmental shell-eyes. _Tonicia, + Acanthopleura, Enoplochiton, Onithochiton, Schizochiton, Lorica, + Loricella, Liolophura._ + + + Order 2.--APLACOPHORA, von Jhering. + +_Chaetoderma_ was first described by S. Lovén, in 1841, and was for a +long time believed to be a Gephyrean worm. _Neomenia_, mentioned first +by Michael Sars in 1868 under the name _Solenopus_, was afterwards +included among the Opisthobranchs by J. Koren and D.C. Danielssen. C. +Gegenbaur placed the two genera in a division of Vermes which he called +Solenogastres. + +The chief points in which the Aplacophora differ from the Polyplacophora +are: (1) they are worm-like in shape; (2) there is no distinct foot, and +the mantle bears no shell-valves, but only numerous calcareous spicules; +(3) the digestive tube is straight. + +_Neomenia_ and its allies are marine animals living at depths of 15 to +800 fathoms on soft muddy ground; they are found crawling on corals and +hydrozoa, on which they feed. The British genera are: _Neomenia, +Rhopalomenia_ and _Myzomenia_. They have been taken in nearly all seas +except the South Atlantic and S.E. and N.W. Pacific. About forty species +are known. _Chaetoderma_, of which nine species have been described, has +similar habits and distribution, but feeds chiefly on Protozoa. The +order Aplacophora is divided into two suborders. + + Suborder I. NEOMENIOMORPHA.--Aplacophora with a distinct longitudinal + ventral groove; bisexual with paired genital glands and no distinct + liver. The whole of the skin except the ventral groove corresponds to + the mantle of _Chiton_. The cuticle, in some species very thick, + contains numerous spicules which are long, hollow and calcified; they + are secreted by epithelial papillae. In some species there are also + sensory papillae comparable to the aesthetes of Chitons. A small + longitudinal projection in the ventral groove represents the foot. + Into the groove open mucous glands, a large one anteriorly and another + opening into a posteriorly cloacal, branchial cavity. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--_Neomenia carinata_, Tullberg (after Tullberg). + + A, Lateral view. + B, Ventral view. + C, Dorsal view. + D, Ventral view of a more extended specimen. + a, Anterior. + b, Posterior extremity. + c, Furrow, in which the narrow foot is concealed.] + + _Branchiae._--In _Neomeniidae_ and most of the _Parameniidae_ there is + a circlet of gills on the inner walls of the cloacal chamber. These + gills are simple folds or laminae of the body wall. In other species + they are absent. + + _Intestine._---The mouth opens into a muscular pharynx lined by a + thick cuticle. Into the pharyngeal cavity open salivary glands and + radular sac. The former are paired and ventral, and open on a + subradular prominence. In some species there is a second dorsal pair. + _Neomenia_ and other genera have no salivary glands. + + The radula when present comprises several transverse rows of teeth, + and each transverse row may have several teeth (polystichous), two + teeth (distichous), or one tooth (monostichous). It is a curious fact + that in the original type _Neomenia_ the radula is entirely absent, as + it likewise is in several genera of _Proneomeniidae_. The oesophagus + is short and leads into a long, straight stomach, provided with + numerous symmetrical lateral caeca. The stomach opens into a short + straight rectum which opens into the branchial chamber. + + _Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs._--The coelom differs from that + of the Chitons in the fact that the cavities of the genital organs are + continuous with it, and in the fact that there is only one pair of + coelomoducts resembling the renal organs of Chitons, but serving also + as genital ducts. The gonads are paired and hermaphrodite, they form a + pair of anterior prolongations of the pericardium, extending nearly to + the anterior end of the body. Ova are developed on the median, + spermatozoa on the outer wall of each genital tube. The pericardium is + ciliated internally on its dorsal and lateral walls. The urino-genital + tubes arise from the posterior angles of the pericardium, pass first + forwards, then backwards, and unite to open by a common opening into + the cloaca below the anus except in _Strophomenia_, where the openings + are separate. Usually each tube is provided with caecal appendages on + its proximal portion, and these serve as vesiculae seminales, while + the distal portion is enlarged and glandular and secretes the + egg-shell. + + _Heart and Vascular System._--There is a heart in the pericardium + consisting of a median ventricle attached, except in _Neomenia_, to + the dorsal wall of the pericardium, and in _Neomenia_ a pair of + auricular ducts returning blood from the gills to the ventricle. The + aorta is not independent as in Chitons, but is a sinus like the other + channels of the circulation. A single median ventral sinus passes + backwards to the gills or cloaca. The blood is coloured red by + haemoglobin in blood corpuscles. + + _Nervous System._--Ganglionic enlargements are more conspicuous than + in the Chitons. In front of the buccal mass is a median cerebral + ganglion. From this pass off two pairs of cords, the pleural and + pedal, in _Proneomenia_ separate from their origin, in _Neomenia_ + united at first and diverging at a pleural ganglion. The pedal cords + anteriorly form a pair of pedal ganglia united by a thick commissure. + The supra-rectal commissure may be present and bear an ovoid ganglion; + or may be wanting. With regard to sense organs the epithelial papillae + of the mantle have been mentioned. There is also in some genera a + median retractile sensory papilla on the dorsal posterior surface + above the rectum, not covered by the cuticle. + + _Development_ has only been described in _Myzomenia banyulensis_, by + G. Pruvot. It closely resembles in the early stages that of Chitons. + The external surface of the trochosphere is formed of a number of + ciliated test-cells. The ectoderm behind the ciliated ring develops + spicules, and the post-oral region of the larva elongates. Later the + ciliated ring or velum disappears and seven imbricated calcareous + plates, made up of flattened spicules, are formed on the dorsal + surface. This appears to indicate that the Neomeniomorpha are + descended from _Chiton_-like ancestors, and that they have lost their + shell valves. + + _Classification of the_ NEOMENIOMORPHA.--Fam. 1. _Lepidomeniidae._ + Slender, tapering behind, with subventral cloacal orifice; thin + cuticle without papillae; flattened spicules; no gills. + _Lepidomenia, Ismenia, Ichthyodes, Stylomenia, Dondersia, + Nematomenia, Myzomenia, M. banyulensis_, Mediterranean and Plymouth. + + Fam. 2. _Neomeniidae._ Short, truncate in front and behind; cloacal + orifice transverse; gills present; rather thin cuticle; no radula. + _Neomenia_ (_N. carinata_, N. Atlantic and N. and N.W. Scotland), + _Hemimenia_. + + Fam. 3. _Proneomeniidae._ Elongated, cylindrical, rounded at both + ends; thick cuticle with acicular spicules; radula polystichous or + wanting. _Proneomenia, Amphimenia, Echinomenia, Rhopalomenia_ (_R. + aglaopheniae_, Mediterranean and Plymouth), _Notomenia, Pruvotia, + Strophomenia_. + + Fam. 4. _Parameniidae._ Short and truncated in front; thick cuticle, + often without papillae; gills and radula present. _Paramenia, + Macellomenia, Pararhopalia, Dinomenia, Cyclomenia, Proparamenia, + Uncimenia, Kruppomenia._ + + Suborder II. CHAETODERMOMORPHA.--Aplacophora without distinct ventral + groove, with single median unisexual gonad, with differentiated + hepatic sac, and with cloacal chamber furnished with two bipectinate + gills. There are only two genera in this suborder: _Chaetoderma_, and + _Limifossor_ from Alaska. The characters therefore are very uniform. + The body is worm-like and cylindrical, the posterior half a little + thicker than the anterior; the posterior extremity forms the enlarged + funnel-like branchial or cloacal chamber. The anterior extremity is + also somewhat enlarged. The whole surface is uniformly covered with + short compressed calcareous spicula embedded in the cuticle. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Chaetoderma nitidulum_, Lovén (after Graff). + The cephalic enlargement is to the left, the anal chamber (reduced + pallial chamber, containing the concealed pair of ctenidia) to the + right.] + + _Branchiae._--The single pair of branchiae are placed symmetrically + right and left of the anus, and each has the structure of a ctenidium + bearing a row of lamellae on each side as in the Polyplacophora. + + _Intestine._--The mouth is anterior, terminal and crescentic, and + beneath it is a rounded ventral shield. On the floor of the pharynx or + buccal mass is a rudimentary radula, which in many species consists of + a single large tooth, bearing two small teeth or a row of teeth. In + other species the radula is more of the usual type consisting of + several transverse rows of two or three teeth each. Two pairs of + salivary glands open into the buccal cavity. The digestive tube is + straight and simple, wider in its anterior part, into which opens the + duct of the hepatic caecum (fig. 4, B). The latter extends backwards + on the ventral side of the intestine. + + _Coelom, Gonads and Excretory Organs._--These are closely similar in + their relations to those of the Neomeniomorpha. The chief difference + is that the gonad or generative portion of the coelom is single and + median, opening into the pericardium by a single posterior aperture. + The excretory organs or coelomoducts arise from the posterior corners + of the pericardium, run forwards and then backwards to open by + separate apertures lateral to the gills (fig. 5, A). There are no + accessory generative organs. + + _The heart and vascular system_ are similar to those of the + Neomeniomorpha, the only important differences being that the + ventricle is nearly free in the pericardial cavity, and that the + latter is traversed by the retractor muscles of the gills. + + _Nervous System._--There are two closely connected cerebral ganglia, + from which arise the usual two pairs of nerve cords. Pallial and pedal + on each side are closer together than in the other groups, and + posteriorly they unite into a supra-rectal cord provided with a median + ganglionic enlargement (fig. 7, C). A small stomatogastric commissure + bearing two small ganglia arises from the cerebral ganglia and + surrounds the oesophagus. + + The development is at present entirely unknown. + + +_General Remarks on the Amphineura._ + +The most important theoretical question concerning the Amphineura is how +far do they represent the original condition of the ancestral mollusc? +That is to say, we have to inquire which of their structural features is +primitive and which modified. Their bilateral symmetry is obviously to +be regarded as primitive, and the nervous system shows an original +condition from which that of the asymmetrical twisted Gastropods can be +derived. But in many other features both external and internal the three +principal divisions differ so much from one another that we have to +consider in the case of each organ-system which condition is the more +primitive. According to Paul Pelseneer the Polyplacophora are the most +archaic, the Aplacophora being specialized in (1) the great reduction of +the foot, (2) the disappearance of the shell (_Cryploplax_ among the +Polyplacophora showing both reductions in progress), (3) the +disappearance of the radula. But it is a widely recognized principle of +morphology that a much modified animal is by no means modified to the +same degree in all its organs. A form which is primitive on the whole +may show a more advanced stage of evolution in some particular system of +organs than another animal which is on the whole more highly developed +and specialized. Thus the independent metamerism of certain organs in +the Chitons is not primitive but acquired within the group: e.g. the +shell valves and the ctenidia. And although embryology seems to prove +that the Neomeniomorphs are derived from forms with a series of +shell-valves, nevertheless it seems probable that the calcareous +spicules which alone are present in adult Aplacophora preceded the solid +shell in evolution. + +It is held by some morphologists that the mollusc body is unsegmented, +and therefore is to be compared to a single segment of a Chaetopod or +Arthropod. In this case there should be only one pair of coelomoducts in +the adult, the pair of true nephridia which should also occur being +represented by the larval nephridia. There should also be only a single +coelom, or a pair of lateral coelomic cavities. On this view then the +Aplacophora are more primitive than the Polyplacophora in the relations +of coelom, gonad and coelomoducts; and the genital ducts of the Chitons +have arisen either by metameric repetition within the group, or by the +gradual loss of an original connexion between the generative sac and the +renal tube, as in Lamellibranchs and Gastropods, the generative sac +acquiring a separate duct and opening to the exterior on each side. + + LITERATURE.--A. Sedgwick, "On certain Points in the Anatomy of + Chiton," _Proc. R. Soc. Lond._ xxxiii., 1881; J. Blumrich, "Das + Integument der Chitonen," _Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool._ lii., 1891; A.C. + Haddon, "Report on the Polyplacophora," _Challenger Reports. Zool._ + pt. xliii., 1886; H.N. Moseley, "On the presence of Eyes in the Shells + of certain Chitonidae, and on the structure of these Organs," _Quart. + Journ. Mic. Sci._ new ser. xxv., 1885; A.A.W. Hubrecht, "Proneomenia + Sluiteri," _Nied. Arch. f. Zool._ Suppl. 1., 1881; A. Kowalewsky and + A.F. Marion, "Contr. à l'histoire des Solenogastres ou Aplacophores," + _Ann. Mus. Marseille, Zool._ iii., 1887; A. Kowalewsky, "Sur le genre + Chaetoderma," _Arch. de zool. expér_. (3) ix., 1901; P. Pelseneer, + "Mollusca," _Treatise on Zoology_, edited by E. Ray Lankester, pt. v., + 1906; E. Ray Lankester, "Mollusca," in the 9th ed. of this + Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much indebted. (J. T. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The Gr. [Greek: chitôn] was a garment in the shape of a loose + tunic, varying at different periods: see COSTUME: _Greek_. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 6, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 2 *** + +***** This file should be named 31329-8.txt or 31329-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/3/2/31329/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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